UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES I

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

OB,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ilrt0. ^timct0> anil literature*

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

By THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XVI.

L ON DON:

Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLAUKB AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAYOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELI, AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWM.\N, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
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;j 0 5 0 7

^ 1819.

.«. •••

CYCLOPEDIA: >^^^

V. !(o

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

GENERATION.

GENERATION is that funftion of the animal econo-
my by which the fpecies is perpetuated. Inanimate
matter and unorganized bodies are fiibjeft to no alterations,
and would never chansre their condition, did not external
forces dtllroy or modify them. On the contrary, organized
bodies, very different from thefe inert mafl'es, are adlivc
media of new combinations and changes ; they undergo al-
terations, and are even deib"oycd by the exercile of their own
powers, the entire ccfFation of wliich delivers up their fpoils
to the grand circle of changes, which organized matter is
conftantly undergoing. Although fome of thefe bodies may
laft for a century, while the greater number live only for a
few years, days, or even hours, this unequal duration, thefe
moments or ages of exiilence, are nothing with refpeft to
nature, and the death which {he allots to man, to the
plant or the infeft, is not the lefs neceflary and certain. But,
if individuals are facnficcd and perifh, the fpecies furvive
and are immortal ; by a conftant and general law, animated
bodies never die altogether, but are renewed and perpetuated
by various modes of re-produftion. Some tenninate their
vital courfe while others are beginning it ; and never, fays
Lucretius, does morning or night vifit the globe, without
having funeral lamentations round a bier, and tlie plaintive
cries cf an infant in the cradle. There is a conftant alter-
nation of deaths and births, of loffes and reparations ; and
the torch of life is rapidly tranfmitted in the feries of fuc-
ceeding generations ; " quail currentes vital lanipada tra-
dunt.'' At a certain point of elevation in the fcale of ani-
mal exiflence, this objeA is accomplidied by a double feries
of organs, executing very different funftions ; and re-pro-
duftion is efivAcd by a true proccfs of gtneration, under the
influence of that phyfical feeling, the Venus, whofe univer-
V&i.. XVI.

fal empire and irrefiftible attraflions are fo beautifully deli-
neated by the Roman poet.

" jEneadum genetrix, hominum divumque voluptas,.
Alma Venus ! cceli lubter labentia iigna
Quae mare navigerum, quae terras frugiferenteis
Concelebras ; per Te quoniam genus omne animantum
Concipitur, vifitque exortimi lumina foHs :
Te, Dea, tc fugiunt venti, te nubila coeli, '

Adventumque tuum : tibi fuaves dsdala tellus
Submittit flores ; tibi rident aequora ponti,
Placatumque nitct diffufo lumine coelum. ^.

Nam, fimul ac fpecies patefaifta eft verna diei,
Et referata viget genitabilis aura Favonii ;
Aeria: primum vohicres, te. Diva, tuumque
Significant initum, perculfa: corda tua vi.
Inde ferae pecudes perfaltant pabula laeta,
Et rapidos trauant amnes ; ita, capta lepore,
lUecebrifque tuis omnis natura animantum
Te fcquitur cupide, quo quamque inducere pcrgis..
Denlque, per maria, ae monies, fluviolque rapaces,
Frondiferafque domos avium, campofque vircntes.
Omnibus incutiens blnndnm per peClora amoiem,,,
Efficis, ut cupide generatim lecla propagent.
Generation is the greateft niyftery prefented to our view
in tlie economy of living bodies ; and its real natme is Hill
involved in tlie moll complete obfcunty. Hitherto no ob-
fervation authurizes us to admit the iimultaneous formation
of a living body in all its parts ; that is to fay, by the union
of particles fuddenly brought together. The compariion
of generation wicli cryftallizalion is fupportcd by no j nil
analogy: cryilals are made up of homogeneous particles,
attracting each other indillinclly, and agglutinated by their

£ faces.

444057

GENERATION.

facts, wliicli determine tlic order of arrangement ; while living The origin of the germs, and the mode of iheJr exiftcncr
bodies are compofed of numerous fibres or plates, heterogene- in the female ; whether tliey are originally formed in all

ous in their conipofilioii, diverfified in their conligvnations
and dellined to particular fituations, fo that they can only
be in one place, and between other dctcrmiiK-d fibres or la-
mellx. Moreover, living bodies, lionevcr Imall they may be,
pofrefs all their parts from the hrft moment of their exillencc;
thev grow, not by the addilioii of new layer:;, but by the
fometimes uniform, and fometimes irregular developemcnt of
parts, all of which exilled previoufly to any fenlible growth.
The onlv eirciimftance belonging to all kinds of generation,
and conleqnently the only edential circumflance in the pro-
cefs is, that every li\ing body, at the firll periods of its fen-
fible exiftenee, is attached to a larger body, of tlie fame fpe-
cies with itfelf, that it makes a part of this larger body, and
is noiu-ifhcd by its juices for a certain length of time. Its
fubfequent feparation conflitutes its I'lrlh ; wliich maybe
produced fmiply from th.e life of the larger body, and the
confequent developcment of the fmaller, N.itlr.uit the aid of
any occafio}ial caufe. Thus, in its efleiice, generation, as fa-
ns we can underiland it, is only the appearance of a fmall
organized bod^' upon or in lome part of another and larger

their parts in each individual by any vital procefs, or are all
pre-eKillent, being inclofed in each other, or whether they
are difi'eminated through the body, and require a coneourfe
of circumllances to bring tin m into a fituation favourable for
their developemcnt, are (itiellions, which it is utterly impof-
fiblc for us to decide in the prolent Hate of our knowledge.
Thcfc points have for along time been agitated by phyholo-
gills ; but the difcufTion leems now to be abandoned by
univirfal confent.

The combination of the fexes, and the mode nf fecun-
dation, are fubji-6l to great variety. In fome inilances, the
two fexes are united in the fame individual, and fecinidation
is aceompliftied without any extraneous aid ; fuch are the
hermaphrodite and mono'icous plants, the acephalous mollul-
ca, and the cchlnodermato\is animals. In others, each indi-
vidual pofTefies botli fexes, but requires the afllftance of an-
other, which it fecundates, and by wliich it is fecundated.
Tliis is the cafe with the gailcropodous molluica, and with
(everal worms. There are diftincl individuals, male and te-
male, in other claffes ; as, for inflance, in the dio'icous plants,

one, from which it will be feparatcd, at the expiration ot a in all animals, v.'hich have a vertebr.il column. In thecephalo-

•certain period, in order to adumean independent and ifolat- podous and fome gafleropodous moUufca, in fome worms, i«

■ed exiftcnee. All the acls or organs, which co-operate in the crullacea, and in inhcis ; ia Ihort, in the far largell por-

.the procefs, in a certain clafHs of organized bodies, are only tion of the animal kingdom.

accelfary to this primary lunclion. When the function is Fccumlclion is accomplilhed in plants by means of a liquor

thus reduced to its moll fmiple ftate, it conftitutes \.\Kgemmi- contained in Imall capfules, which rcfemble a fine powder in

parous, or generation by Ihoots. In this way buds are form- appearance, lodge on the female organs, and, burltlng, depo-

cd on trees, and developed into branches, which will form fit their contents. In animals, the liquor is always applied

future trees, by means of flips or cuttings. The polype immediately upon or about the germs ; and in many cafes

(hydra) and the fea anemone (atlmia) multiply in this man- it is not brought in contaft with the ova, until they have

ner ; fome worms are propagated by a divifion of their body, been laid, as in the bony and oviparous filhes, and the cepha-

and muft therefore be arranged in the fame divifion. This lopodous mollufca : here the males and females have no com.-

mode of generation requires no diftinftion of fex, no copu-
lation, nor any particular organ. Other modes of genera-
tion are accomphfiied m appropriate organs : the germs ap-
pear in a definite fituation of the body, and the alfiftance
of certain operations is required for their further develope

meree. Sometimes, as in the frog and toad, copulation is
neceflary in order to determine the difcharge of the ova and
femen, but fecundation is ftlll performed out of the body.
Laftly, in the great majority of inilances, the femlnal liquor,
introduced by the male into the body of the female, fecun-

ment. Thele operations conflitute_/('fun(/rt/;on, and fuppofe dates the ova before they are laid. This is the cafe in the
the exiflence of fexual parts ; which may either be feparate mammalia, birds, moll reptiles, and fome filhes, in thf' hernia-
or united in the fame individual. The fecundated or fecun- phrodite gafleropodous mollufca, in the cruftaccaand infefts.
dable fex, in which the germ is found, is the female ; and The union of the two rexes,or the adl oy wliicl; this is accom-
the fecundating fex, the affiflance of which is necelFary for plilhed, is called copvlaUon. In all the laft-mentloned orders
the complete developcment of the germ, is tlie male. The ova may be dlfcharged without previous copulation, as in the
officr of the latter is that of furnilhing the fecundating or preceding ones. But they receive no further dcvelopement ;
■femlnal fluid : but the manner in v/hlch that contributes to nor can they be fecundated when thus voided. The effedl
the developcment of the germ, is not yet fettled by phyfiolo- of a fmgle copulation varies in its degree ; it ufually fecun-
gifts. Some, forming their opinions from the human fubjedl dates one generation only, and produces one pregnancy ;
and the niammalia, where the germs are imperceptible before but fometimes, as in poultry, feveral eggs are fecundated,
fecundation, fuppofe that thefe are created by the m.-xturc of and afterwards dlfcharged fuccellively : Tlill, however, they
the male fluid, with that which they fuppofe to exifl in the only form one generation. In a very few inftances, one aft
female ; or that they pre-exifl in the male femen, and that of copulation fecundates feveral generations, which can pro-
the female only furnlflies them with an abode. Others con- pagate their fpecies without the aid of the male. In the
fult the a alogy of the other claffes cf animals, and of plant-lonfe (aphis) the fpecies has been continued through
plants. In feveral inilances, particularly in the frog, the eight generations from one copulation ; and in fome mono-
germ may be clearly recognized in the ovum of the female cuh, through twelve or fifteen.

before fecundation : its pre-exillence may be inferred, in When the germ is detached from the ovary, its means of

other cafes, from the manner in which it is organically con- exiilence may be more or lefs complete. In moil animals it

nefted to the ovum, when it is firfl vifible. For it is agreed is accompanied by an organized mafs, to which it is connecl-

on all fides, that the ovum cxifts in the female before fecun- ed by means of vetfels. The abforption of this fervcs for its

dation, finco virgin hens lay eggs, &c. From this analogy,
thefe phyfiologiils conclude, that the germ pre-exifts in all
females ; and tU'.l the fecundating liquor is a tlimulus v/hlch
bellows on it an independent life, by awakening it, in a man-
ner, from the fpecies of lethargy, in which it would have
A>therwife conilautlv remained.

nutrition and developcment, until the period of its indepen-
dent exiilence. It derives nothing therefore from the body
of the mother, from which it is leparated by coverings, va-
rylng in number and folidity. The germ, together with its
mafs of nourlfhment, andth? furroundlng mi mbranes, confti-
tutes an egg, or fviiin ; and the animals, which produce their

young

GENERATION.

Vfiung in this ftate, are denominated ov'iparouj. In mod of
thefe the gerra contained in the egg is not developed, or
hritchcd, until that part has quitted the body of the mother,
or has been laid ; whether it be neceflary that it flioulJ be
afterwards fecundated, as in many tirties, or that it requirts
only the application of artificial heat for its incubation, as in
Vilrds ; or that the natural heat of the climate is fuliicient,
as in reptiles, infeAs, &c. Thefe are flnclly evijmrous
animali.

The ov'.im, after being fecundated, and detached from the
ovarium, remains in iome animals within the body of the mo-
ther, until the contained germ be developed and hatched.
Thefe are fii!/} viv':parou: animals, or ovo-vlviparous. The
viper and lome fiihes afford inftancee of this procefs.

The mammalia alone are truly viviparous animals. Their
n-erm poffefies no provilion of nourifhment, but- grows by
what it derives from the juices of the mother. For thispur-
pofe it is attached to the internal furface of the uterus, and
fometimes by accident to other parts, by a kind of root, or
infinite ramification of veffels, called a placnta. It is not
therefore completely fepai"ated from the m.other by its cover-
ings : and it does not come into the world until it can en'ioy
an independent organic exiftence. The mammalia cannot
therefore be faid to poffefs an ovum, in the fenfe which we
have affigned to that term.

According to this flcetch of the fubjecf, generation may
be faid to confift of four funftions, differing in their import-
ance, and in the number of animals, to which they belong,
■ufa : ift. The pradud'ton of the germ, which is a conftant
circumilance : zdly. Fecundation, which belongs only to
tbofe inftances where there is a dilhnclion of iexes : 3dly.
Copulation, which is confined to thofe kinds of fexual gene-
ration in v.-hich fecundation is accomplidied within the body :
iaftlv, Utcro-gejlation, which belongs exclulively to viviparous
generation. The generative organs may be moft naturally
arranged according to this diftribution of the partial func-
tions, which thev execute. The finiple production ot a
germ, or gemmiparous generation, may be accomplilhed at
any point of the body, and has, therefore, no peculiar
organ. Sexual generation demands an organ for the produc-
tion of germs, and another for that of the fecundating liquor.
Modes of union are neceffary when copulation takes place :
and gellation requires a rect-ptacle adapted to die abode of
the fu;tus. Thus we have preparatory and preferving or-
fjans ; inftruments of copulation ; and organs of education.
Thofe of the two flrll clafTes are divided into male and fe-
male ; the lall belong to the latter fex only. The prepara-
tory and preferving organs of the males fccrete the femen,
and the other fluids which are to be mingled v.ith it, and re-
tain thefe fecretions. They conlift, in their moft compli-
cated form, I If. Of the tejlicles, which prepare the feminal
fluid, and conduct it, either into a particular refervoir, or
into a canal, from which it is conveyed out of the body, or
into a cloaca, from which it is in like manner ejected : zdly.
Of the vficuU femiralcs, luppofed to be refervoirs for the fe-
men : 3dly. Of xhe projiate glands ; and, 4thly. Of Caliper's
ylnnds, which feparate a peculiar fluid, mixed with the iemcn
at the time of coition. The teflicles are abfent in the lail
clailes only of the animal kingdom, where generation is per-
formed bv a fimple divifion of the animal, or by (hoots.
They exift in all the clalfes of vertebral animal ; and. of the
invcrtebral divifion, in the molhifca, cruftacea, iniedts, and
moft vermics- Their number, ftrufturc, &c. differ very much
in thefe various claffes. The vcficula;, proilatc;-, and Cow-
pcr's glands, being let's effeiitial in their functions, are much
leis generally found, and are chiefly confined to the firfl
claffes of the animal kingdomi. The preparatory female
drgans fervc the purpofc of developing and preferving the

germs. Their exiflence is as general as that of tlie partt
juft mentioned ; but they are much more fimple in th.e firll
clafs of the animal kingdom. They confift of two bodies
fimilar in form, fi/.e, and ftruftuie, and named by modern
phyfiologifls ovaria, in order to cxprefs more accurately, than-
by their old name of teUcs, t!ie function to which they are
deftined. In faft, if their flrurture, confidcred fimply in
man, and moil of the mammalia, leave any doubt concerning
their office, its nature is fo evident in the other chiffes, that
their function cannot fail to be recognized. In all the claffes
which fuccecd the mammalia, the o\':iry or ovaries lerve evi-
dently for the production and prefervation of the germs or
ova, which are formed in thefe bodies prevloufly to the ap-
proaches of the male. Analogy leads us to conclude that
the fame circumftance holds good in the mammalia f and this
concluiion is one of the moft important refultsfrom the ftudy
of comparative anatomy and phyliology.

The organs of copulation, in the male fex, confift of ov,'^
or more projefting bodies, called penes, generally perforated
by a canal, named the urethra, capable of being introduced
into the feir.ale organs, in order to convey to them the fecim-
dating liquor, or for the fimple purpofe of producing an irr:-
tation neceffary for conception ; or they are fupemumcrary
members, enabling the male to grafp and hold the female.
In the latter fex, the copulating organs confift of canal:,
particularly defigned to receive the male penis, or give pai-
fage to the products of conception : or of cavities, wlucli
ferve alfo for other purpofcs, but which, at the time of copu-
lation, receive the penis, and tranfmit tlie fecundating liquor
to the educating organs.

The educating srgans receive the germ or ovum, after its
detachment, from the ovarium, retain it for a greater or lefs length
of time,contribute in a more or lefsdirect manner to itsgrowth,
and convey it out of the body : or they furnifh nourifhment to
the young, when born, or afford it a temporary lodging.
They are, therefore, divided into external and internal parts..
The latter may be again diftinguiibed into two kinds.
The firft of thefe are fimple canals, through which the germ
or ovum is to pafs, either in order to be conveyed out of the
body (as in the egg), or to be tranfmittcd into the parts of
the fecond defcription. The latter are vei-y dilatable bags,
to the pariete.s of which the germ is attached by means of
veffels conveying the materials of its nutrition, and preferv-
ing it in this way until it has acquired a certain degree ot
growth. Organs of the firft kind are formed in the four
claffes of vertebral animals ; and are called Fallopian tubes in
the mammalia, ov'uiuSs in the birds, reptiles, and fifhes.
Parts of the latter defcription belong to the mammalia only,
and arc the uterus. The external educating organs are, in
the mammalia, the mammary glands fecreting the milk by
which the you:-ig are nouriflK-d ; or receptacles, in whic'i
thev are retained for a time, in a few genera. One kind ot
reptiles only poffeffes analogous pouches.

To fill up the outline which we have prefer.ted to cur
readers in the preceding fketch, would require a detailed de-
fcription of organs varying almolt infinitely in form and
ftruclure in the different clafles of organized bodies. Thefe
details vvi:l be found in the proper articlt-s of the Cyclc-
pxdia, relating to vegetable and comparative anatomy : this
gtneral viechas been thought neceffary, as introdiKtory and
explanatory. The remainder of this article will be devoted
to the anatomy and phyfiology of the generative organs in.
the lium.an fubjeft. The growth and developement of the
ovum in the uterus have been confidered under the article
E.Mnityo, and the anatomy of the mammary gland will be
found under Breast.

The preceding account will fnew what various methods
are employed by nature for the perpetuation of the- races of

B. i orga..-

organized beings ; tliis feems to have been a very leading ob-
jett, and one accordingly, in wliich (lie lias developed all the
fertility of her refources. Scarcely can fuch Jiverfified phe-

GENERATION.

other hand, the fecretion of the fluid, by the emifiion of
which man contributes to the reprodutlive procefs, the
myfterious work of conception, the developemcnt of the nevr
being, &c. all belong to the organic life.

Sexuiil D!/Iin{fioni. — Some ancient philofophcrs have held
on this fubject opinions very injurious to the fair fex, and in-
deed fo manifelHy wliimlical and ridiculous, lliat a Ilmple
ilatement of them will (liew their abfurdity. Woman, in
the opinion of Ariilotle, is an imperfccl man, an ill-formed
and imbecile individual ; while man is charafterized by the
attributes of llrength and power. Galen goes even further,
and confounding the fexes in thofe very parts, where theirdii-
tinguifhing charafters arc the molt unequivocally marked, ad-

- ility
nomena be reduced, by artificial clafiilications, to any com.
ition and conftant laws : new fatts fpeedily modify or overturn
the previous generalizations ; and imagination can fcarcely con-
ceive any polllble forms of propagation which obfervalion
does not foon realize. The generative functions (hould be
particularly attended to by thofe who arc employed in de-
lineating the manners of animals. They will probably find
that the propenfities and habits of each are intimately con-
nected with the mode of propagation ; and that the charac-
ter of its wants, pleafures, and labours, its fociability and per- „ -, ,-a: . 1. - 1 J - 1
feclibility and theextcntorimportanceof itsrclationscitherto mits no other differences between the male and female gene-
other fpeci'es or to the various external bodies or agents, parti- rative organs than fuch as may be deduced from developemcnt
cularlv depend on the circumllances or conditions to which its and fituation. He does not regard even the addition of the
rcproduftion is fubjeaed, and on the difpofition of the or- uterus in the female as an objeftion to this opinion, but,
eans employed for this purpofe. This is certainly very bending nature to his h)rpot!i-iis, he reprefcnts this organ as
much the cafe with man, which is the objed of our prefent being turned infide outward) m man toenvclope the glands in
,1- ^- , which the feminal fluid is elaborated. This ItranKe paradox
inveltigation. ,. , , i i , • i ■ i n

Man belongs to one of thofe claffes of the more compL- has been adopted by numerous writers, and is hardly yet

cated and perfeft animals, where propagation is efFefted by completely abandoned. Daubenton calls the clitoris a penis

th- concurrence of two beings, whofe organization, potTeff- in miniature ; Buffon turns the ovaries into telliclcs, and en-

in? moll circumllances in common, is dillinguilhed by certain deavours to prove that the addition of the uterus alone con-

particular traits. He quits the womb of his mother with iUtutes any efiential diftinclion between the male and female

organs capable of refilling the imprefTions of the atmofphere, parts.

and of afiimilatinfr food to his own fubilance : he can already Some refemblance in the unimportant points of form and
live bv his own independent powers. He is not deftincd to arrangement gave rife to thele unfounded analogies : pride
remain, like the oviparous animal, included in a foreign en- and fexual prejudices, joined to the refults of fuperficial ob-
velop, 'and to continue for an indeterminate length of time fervation, fecm to have fo far raided true philofophers,
iiiaftateof inaclion whichhardly differs froranon-exiftence : whofe itrange opinions we have juil alluded to, as to make
he does not v/ait until creative warmth beftows on him mo- thetn difcover, in one of the firit productions of nature, a
tionand life, amid the nutritive fluids prepared beforehand feeble (ketch, and a timid produftion. V/oman has appear-
by nature, like thofe in which the embryo of the ferpent, ed to them as a degradation and imperfeft copy of the con-
the tortoife, or the bird fwims for a long time as an invifible ftitution of man, while, in faft, (he is the mod effential
point. The human foetus hos been fupported in the uterus part of the fpecies, as contributing by far the greatefl (hare
by fluids animalized in the vefTels of the mother : it fubfifts, to the buiinefs of reproduClion. A more accurate examina-
jmmediately after birth, on milk, prepared in organs fet tion will dedroy thefe fuppofed analogies, and prove that
anart for that office. The duration of gcdatlon, that of Bvan and woman do not differ in the relations of more or lefs,
infancy, during which the aid of the parents is indilpeiifible, but that the (Iruclure and funftions of their generative or-

cnd the epoch of puberty, or the moment at which the ge
ncralive faculty is raanifeded by fenfible figiis, didcr greatly
ir, the different fpecies of animals ; thefe circumdances are
not connefted together by uniform or condant relations.
Man, like all the more perfecl animals, is not born with
the power of reproducing the fpecies. The organs, which
arc at a future period to excrcife this fundlion, are now com-
pletely inaclive,and the appetites which folicit their aftion do not
txid. The time of puberty ; — the epo.ha at which the frame
and powers of thebeing receive their full developemcnt, is alfo

gans are different in their kind ; that their whole coultitution
has in each its peculiar type, the didinctive traits of which
offer to our view along chain of phylical and moral effefts
more or lefs immediately dependent on the funftions of the
organs concerned in the bufinefs of generation.

The characters of fex do not therefore (hew tliemfelves in
any finglc point ; it is not merely a particular organic ap-
paratus, nor th«ife external forms which delight us, that
conditute woman : and if (lie is principally charadlerized in
fome parts, where the fexual phyfiognomy is the moil de

the period at which the generative organs, recovered from cidedly expreffed, if the fuperficial traits, and the fweetly

their lethargv, affume an adlive date, and become capable rounded contours, which conditute her chai-ms, form her moll

of exerclfinc their functions. The duration of infancy is agreeable didintlion, (he is woman in the eyes of the natu-

longcr, and tlic age of puberty is later in man than in any raliil and phyficlan, in all her modes of exidencc, in her

animals ; although the term of gedation is ihorter than in moral affeilions as well as in her phyfical fydeni, in her en-

fome other fpecies. Thefe circumdances mud have a very joyments and pains ; in a word, all parts of her exidence

marked influence on the wants, the faculties, and the habits of bear the character of fex, and prefent a feries of contrads

the human race. and oppofitions v.ith the corrrfpor.ding points in man.

The charaflers of the generative funftions partake of thofe It is however only at the epoeha of puberty, at that period

which belong to the animal and organic lives. Thus, on of life called by EufTon " le printenips de la nature, la fai-

one fide, all that precedes the union of the fexes, all the fon des plaifirs," that the aflisniblage of all the fexual traits is

impreffions made on one by the charms which nature has be- exhibited to our nbfervation ; and that man and woman, at-

dowed on the other, belong to the fends ; this very union trafted to each other the more forcibly in proportion as they

is an aft of the external life, to which animals are impelled didcr, become connected by various relations, which enlargje

by inftinft, over which reafon prefides to a certain degree in an exidence hitherto perfonal, fclitary and ifolated. Woman

man. The influence of habit is alfo perceived here ; but may be diflinguilhed from man by general and particular dif-

inftead of blunting the enjoyment, it renders it rather more ferences : the latter are fo decided as to be eafily difcerni-

acute, and often gives rife to faftitious wants. On the ble at all times, while the former, wliich are our prefent ob-
ject

GENERATION.

jeft, are not always equally remarkable, and at one lime
cannot be diftintHy traced. In the firil years of life, the in-
dividuals of the two fexes do not differ from each other at
the firft view ; they have nearly the fame general air, the
fame delicacy of organization, the fame gait, and the fame
voice. Experiencing the fame wants, exercifmg the fame
funftions, and often partaking together of the fame infan-
tile fports, they excite in the mind of the fpeftator who
watches them with pleafure, no ideas of diftinguifhing
characters ; they both appear to him only as awakening that
tender emotion which we always feel at the contemplation of
innocence joined to weaknefs. Indifferent and ifolated, each
as yet hves only for hi.mfelf ; their exiilence, purely indi-
vidual and independent, exhibits hitherto none of the rela-
tions which conftitute in the fequel a fource of mutual de-
pendence. However, this equivocal ftate does not lall loni>' ;
man fpeedily afTumes the features and charatter which mark
his deftination ; his lin-.bs lofe the foftnefs and the gentle
forms which he partook with the female ; the mufcles, the
chief inilruments of animal force, condenfe, by their reite-
rated contractions, which are confequent on more violent
and long continued exercife, the cellular fubftance, which
filled their interitices and gave a roundnefs to their form ;
hence they become more prominent, and give to the limbs
more rough and decided outlines. It is no longer the fame
individual : the deeper tint of the countenance, the increafed
depth and ftrength of the tone of voice announce an accels
of vigour necefiary for the purpofes of his future charafter.
The timidity of infancy has given way to an inftinft which
makes him defpife danger ; he fears nothing, becaufe the
impetuous current of his blood makes him difregard all ob-
flaclcs. His fupenor ftature, his deteiTnined gait, his new
talles and ideas all confpire to mark in him the image of
ftrength, and to give the charafters of that fex which is to
protect the other.

Woman, in advancing towards the age of puberty, de-
parts from her primitive conftitution lefs fenfiblv than man.
Delicate and tender, ilie even rctainsfomething of the tempera-
ment belonging to children. The texture of hrr organs
does not lofe all its original foftnefs. The developement,
produced by age in all the parts of her body, never be-
flows on them the farse degree of confiftence which they ac-
quire in man : yet, in proportion as the traits of the female
are fixed, her figure, form and proportions exhibit differences,
feme of which did not exilt before, while others were fcarce-
ly fenlible. Although (he fets off from the fame point as
man, fhcis developed in a manner peculiar to herfelf, and
arrives foonerat the term of her developement. Every where
puberty arrives earlier in the female than in tlie male fex.
Has nasure a greater talk to perfonn in the latter than in
the former ? Does it cofi; her greater efforts to bring man
to perfeAlon than v-'oman ? Or does the eafe which cha-
rafterizes female motions and aftions exhibit ilfelf already
in the firil developements of Iier phyfical conllitution ?
Perp.aps nature terminates her work the fooner from the fe-
male organ", being of lefs volume tiian the male, as her ope-
rations are conducted within a more limited fphere. How-
ever we may exph^in it, man is ft ill fubjeft to the laws
which govern him in infancy, while woman experiences alrea-
dy a new mode of exiitenc, and finds herfelf, perhaps with
aftonifhment, provided with new attributes and fubjedt to a
clafs of functions not obferved in man, and hitherto un-
known to herfelf. From this inftant tliere is unfolded in
her a nev/ chain of pliyfical and moral relations, on which
depends that new and attraiSive interell with which fhe in-
fpires man, and which has already become a fource of new
wants and aifeftiois.

In running through a more detailed (ketch of the dif-
ferences obfcrvable in the two fexes, we find them differing
in the firft place in ftature, and in the fi/e and proportions
of parts. The height is lefs in the female, by about one-
fixth. The middle of the body in man is at the feparation
of the lower limbs at the pubc,^ : in wom.an it is higher,
and hence the lower hmbs are (horter, v. hile the lumbar re-
gion is longer. This gives to the female fex in general, and
to the Americans and NegrefTes in particular, that elegant
flendernefs which diftinguifhes them. The arm or leg of a
woman could be immediately diftinguifhed from thofe of a
m:in : the form of thefe parts is much more delicate, and
lefs marked by decided prominences. The buft is not fo
broad, but more rounded, and particularly diftinguifhed by
the fize and elegant formation of the breaft, which is com-
m.;nlv but little developed in man, where its greater develope-
ment would be regarded as a deformity. The thighs are
much larger, more rounded, and further apart ; they ap-
proach each otiitr below, fo that the knees are (lightly
turned in. The latter circumftarice is feen in the Venu»,
and the whole formation of theie parts is attended with ad-
vantages in geftation and parturition, although tlie pecu-
liarity in queltion is not feen in thofe females which in com-
mon opinion are the beft formed. The convexities defcribed
by the lower limbs at their upper part, and uniting them by
fuch happily rounded forms with the trunk, have a very ob-
vious peculiarity of character in the fofter fex. They ai"e
more prominent, and approach in their contour more to the
hemifpherical form. All other parts of the lower limbs are
diftiniiuilhed bv their iofl!-,' rounded outlines. The foot is
fmaller, and the bafe of fupport for the body is proportion-
ally narrow. The leg gradually diminifhes from above
downwards, inftead of iwelling out abruptly at the calt.
The outlines of the upper limbs are equally flowing and
foft ; thus the arm of %voman is fatter and more rounded ;
the whole upper extremity coneiponds in its comparative
(liortnefs and fmallnefs to the general difference in ftature ;
and is terminated bv a Imall hand) and (hort, delicate and
flexible fingers.

We may obferve further that the head is fmaller, the face
(horter, and the neck longer in woman. The cheft is not fo
long, but deeper ; the abdomen more prominent and round-
ed ; the fhoulders are carried more backwards, and ftand
out lefs from the trunk. Hence the breadth of this pai't is
much lefs conliderable than in man, where the fhoulders are
more fully developed and more widely fet off, and conftitute,
in their comparatively greater fize, a very iinpreflive feature
of the fuperior ftrength, which is the attribute of the male
fex. In the female trunk, on the contrary, the broadeit part
is below ; the pelvis, holding the organs of generation, be-
ing principally concerned in the functions of utero-geftation
and parturition, being, in Ihort, the feat of thofe attributes
which efpecially diftinguifh the female, is much more capa-
cious than in the male. Hence the luperior breadth of the
female hips : hence the oppofite characters of the trunk in
the two fexes, in refpeCl; to fize. The trunk of the female is
a pyramid, with the broa'jft part below ; that of the male is
juil the reverfe. Camper has fhown, that if the body of a
well-foriTicd man be delineated on an ellipticiJ area, tlie
fhouldejs pafs out ofthe ellipfe, while the pelvis falls within
it ; on the contrary, that the hips exceed, and the fhoulders
fall within the line in woman. ^Memoire furlebeauPhyfique).
In tho.'e fpecimens of ancient art, which may be regarded as
models of the moft charaCterillic formation, the difrerence of
breadth in thefe parts amounts to one-tliird : the ft;oulders
being fo much broader in the m.alc, and the hips in the fe-
male. The greater breadth of the pelvis gives a broader

bafe

GENERATION.

bafe of fupport to the fomale trunk ; and, as it throws the
ihigh-bones f\irthcr apart at their upper ends, produces the
increafod widenefs of tlie hips. Hence in progrclTion the
centre of gravity is more fenfibly clianged at each Hep ; and
there is a pcrccplihle rolhng of tiie pelvis, uhicli charadcr-
izes the female gait. Tiie inconvenience of this arrangement
counterbalances the advantages which the broader bale ot
fupport might othcrwife have bellowed on the female organi-
zation ; and the latter is, in truth, an imaginary fiiperiority,
f)nce the feet, which are always fmall in women, offer ulti-
malelv a narrow fnrfacc for the body to reft on.

The various pices of the flceleton, by their refpeftive
difpofition and junctions, determine the elfcntial form of the
body, its pofition and attitudes, and tlie extent and variety
of its motions. The characters of the general form, which
we have already confidered, are therefore to be retraced in
the bones ; and in this jjoint of view a parallel of the male
and female orgauiiation leads to very important refults.
It is difhcult to meet with a well-formed female Ikeleton,
where the llructurc can exhibit (m- reeal the leading traits of
the female form. After uuich trouble and obfervation,
Soeramerring met with a fpecinien of what he confidered
the bell and moll natural form in a young girl of Mentz,
■whefe form hadn(.t been impaired by abfiird modes of drefl-
ing, and v>'ho had been fuccefsfully delivered a fhort time
before her death. A beautiful plate of this (l<eleton, with
its defcription, is exhibited in his " Tabula feeleti feminini,
junfta dtfcriptione," folio, 1797. The female fl<eleton, on
the whole, is fmaller in all its dimenfions, and more flender
than the male. The individual bones have fewer inequali.
ties, their prominences are lefs ilrongly marked, the grooves
or impreflions more fuperficial, all the cavities lefs deeply
hollowed out : hence the furface feeirs more finely turned,
and is dillinguilhed by its fmoothnefs. They are often ac-
tually fofter, and have on the whole a peculiarly feminine
charafter, which cannot be eafily conveyed in deicription.
The head, with the teeth, bears a greater ratio to the weight
of the fkeieton, on account of the individual bones being
in general more flender : the proportions arc I : 6 in the
female, 1:8 or I : 10 in the male. The cranium is larger
in proportion to the face. The thorax is fliortcr, more con-
vex in front, and more diftant from the pelvis, the fpace be-
tween the laft rib and the crilla ilii being greater. It is lefs
prominent in front ; fo that v.'hile this part projefts the fur-
tliell in the erecl or fupiue pofition of the male, the fymphy-
fis pubis does the fame in the fem.ale. The loins are longer,
and the angle between them and the facrum more acute.
The difpolition of the pelvis is particularly characlerirlic,
as being fo immcdiatelv conn.efted with the fexual functions.
It is larger in all its dimenfions. The facrum is turned more
backwards, is broader, and more concave ; the oifa coccygis,
more moveable and flender, projeft lefs into the cavity of
the pelvis. The hip-bones (ofla innominata) are broader,
fmoother, and expanded further in the lateral direction :
lience their crilla- and tuberofities are more dillant, hence the
fpace between the ofTa pubis is greater. The angle formed
between the ramus and fymphyfis pubis is larger : that be-
tween the two bones of the pubes is acute in man, while it
is of 80 or 90 degrees in woman ; and approaches morenear-
!v to the form of an arch. That the iexual tundtions are
favoured by all thefe circumftances is very evident ; out
the advocates of final caufes point out more particularly
the reafon for the wider fpace under the offa pubis : " Ad
virum admittendum intercapedine ma'|ore crurum inferiorum
ofiium pubis.'' (Albinus de fceleto, p. 475.) The tuberolities
of the ifchia arc more diftant, larger and fmoother. The
clavicles arc lefs curved^ and the fliouldcr joints are lefs dif-

tant. The acctabula are further apart, and tlie tiiigli-bcnss
more obIi(|ue in their pofition: the latter are alio more
curved forwards, and have longer internal condyles.

The mufcles of the female are more flender and delicate,
fliey are, in faft, lefs denfe, fofter and moiller. Thefe
organs aire lefs prominent, and their fwellings, partaking
of th'-- gencr.il foftnefs of the female conftitution, have not
that charafter of vigour which their rough prominences and
llronglv m.irked interftices iinprefs on the frame of a muf-
cular man, in whom the exterior traits of fex have not been
deftrovcd by eueminate manners or fedentary liabits. The
cellular and adipous tift^ue is more abundant in the female ;
and this, joined to the fmaller prominence of the mufcular
bellies, givi-s to the limbs that lok roundnefs and delicate
contour which charac\eri/e female beauty, as exprefled in
the moft celebrated productions of great artifts.

The differences juft deferibed, the comparative weakncfs
of the mufcles, the elegance and beaiity of the external
forms, belong to the very nature of woman. Education and
I\abits may add to thele characlers ; may iucreafe the de-
licacy of organization ; but their influence is not fufiicient-
ly powerful to induce us to overlook the exillence of a ra-
dical innate difference in the phyfleal llructurc of the fexcs,
occurring in all ages and amongft every people. That fuch
differences of organization will produce correfponding va-
rieties of f\mclion may be readily allowed : but our fadts
are not quite fo indifputable on this point. We could un-
doubtedly point out many peculiarities in the fenfibility of
women, taking the term in its moft extenfive fenfe, in
their perceptions, their mental operations, and the reac-
tions of the nervous fyflem on the reft of the frame. We-
could trace many circumftances to the influence of the gene-
rative organs, and particularly of the uterus. But the in-
fluence of education, habits and cuftoms, is fo extenfive, that
it is difficult to cUftinguifli betv/een the refults of thefe
caufes, and of the funpofed original diftinclions in organiza-
zation. The reader may refer on this fubjeft to the Hifloire
naturelie de la Femme, by Moreau, tome i, p. 112, S;c.

We cannot draw any very ftrong line of diftinclion be-
tween the fexes in the vital and natural funrtions. We may
apply, indeed, to this fubjecl, the philofophical remark of
Buffbn concerning animals ; viz. that they differ from each
other more ftrikingly in proportion as we compare them
together in fuperficial points, which- do not affeft the nature
ot their exiltence io much as -its exterior development.
Yet the characlers of fex are fo deeply imprcflfed, that we
find traces of them even in thefe funftions, v^'hen fubnu'tted
to a rigorous examination. The pulfe, ceteris paribus, is
more frequent ; the lungs are fmal'er, and the cheil narrow-
er. The appetite is lefs ; the body grows more rapidly,.
and the periods of dentition, puberty, and adidt ftature are-
more early. See, for more detailed ;)bfer\-ation on this.
head, the work above quoted.

The voice is marked by very charnfteriftic diftinftions in
the two fexes. In man it is ftrong, deep, lefs foft and flexi-
. ble. In the female it is fliarper, and the organs are more flexi-
;tle, fo that articulation can be performed more rapidly. It
has alfo a peculiar quality or tone, which, in many inftanccs,.
conftitutes an inexprelhbly attraftive charm. " Of all acute
voices,'' iays Kouffeau, "it mult be aflowed, in iuite of the
prejudices entertained by the Italians in favour of the caftra-
ti, tliat none are equal to tlwfe'of women, either in th.e ex-
tent or beauty of tlis: tone." The anatomlil, perhaps, will
attempt to explain thefe circumftances- by obferving, that
the glottis is not enlarged at the age of puberty in females,,
as it is in males ; that the larynx is confx'erably fmaller ;
that the tongue, the mufcles, and the organs of fpeech being
J: lefs

GENERATION.

Ufs rigid, like all the other parts of the female, young girls
ought to fpeak fooner than boys, &c. Among the levcral
diftinftions belonging to this head, we mud notice tiie
greater ptominence of the thyroid cartilage in the male.

The texture of the (kin is more denfe and compact in men,
whiter and more expanded in womci. In brunettes, particu-
larly, it has a foftnefa and polifh, which convey the moil vo-
luptuous impreffions to the organs of touch. " Perfons,''
favs ^\"inckeimann, " who prefer fucli f?malcs, are captiva-
ted throu-jh the medium of feelintr, rather than ofvifion."
The (kin in woman pofit-nes alio a traniparency, which al-
lows the colour of the blood to be difcerned in the fuper-
ficial veins, and produces the beautiful azure tint, which
contrails fo charmingly with the clear whiteneis of other
parts. The cutaneous fecretion has been confidered to
diiier in the two fjx^s. " La tranfpiration parait beaucoup
moins abondante chsz les femmes ; elle a furtouf, dans cer-
taines parties, une odeur, qu'il lerait difficile Mexprinier,
mais qu'un odorat exerce parvient aiiement a diilingutr chez
les femmes qui jouiiTent avec j.lcnitude de tous les attributs
de leur fexe, et qui font femmei jufque dans leiu* atmo-
fphere.'' Moreau, t. l. p. 171.

The Ikin of man is always, comparatively, more deeply
tinted ; ix is thicker, rougher, and covered with more nume-
rous hairs. In our account of this organ, too, we have to
mention a very charac^eriftic attribute of the male fex, the
beard.

This produilion, which adorns the iigure of the male, in
the human fpecies, is more or Icfs abundant in different fub-
jecls. It does net begin to appear until the age of puberty,
and is not completely developed until after fome years. Its
great thicknels depends, perhaps, on the hsbit of cutting it.
In old age a iin-ilar production appears in fome women ;
here, however, it is diiperled irregularly, and has not the
thicknefs which it pofTefTes ia mon ; nor does it ever acquire
the fame length. Yet rare examples have been known of
wom.en with long beards. A cafe of this kind is mentioned
in the Anatomic Defcriptive of Bichat, torn. 5. p. 165, as
having been feen at the liofpital of the Eeole de Medecine.
The woman was forty years of age ; her brealls were well-
formed, and (he had had a cliild. Her beard was as ftrong
as tliat of a man, and numerous hairs covered the lobuli of the
ears.

The characters of fex in thofe organs which are immedi-
ately employed in the generative functions, will be exhibited
in the courfe of this article. We have only to obferve fur-
ther, that the circumference of the anus, which is covered
with hair in the male, is fmooth in the female fubjeft.

The reader may refer, on fexual diftinitions, to Rouflel,
Syfterae phvfique et moral de la Femme ; to the works of
Moreau and Cabanis ; to the French Encyclopedie, Yverdun
edition, art. Femme and Firi! ; to Ackermann, De difcrimine
fexuum prster genitalia, Mogunto 1788, 8vo. ; to A. F.
Nolte, DiiT. nftens momenta qucedam circa fexus difFeren-
tiam. Gotting. 8vo. The differences in the general habit
and appearaixe ofthebody, the fuftnefs, delicacy, and infe-
rior ftacure cf the female, ?s cor.tralled with the ftrong fi-
r.ev/y frame of the male, may be feen in the two figures, lup-
pofed to have been drav.-n ny Titian, contained in Vefalius,
De Corp. hvim. Anat. Ban!. 1542 : alfo in the ift, zd, and
3d platts of Bidloo's work ; and in the Cours complete
d'Anatomie gravi par M. A. E. Gautier, et expliqiie par
M. Jadelot ; Mane. 1773, folio. The unrivalled artifts of
Greece could not fail to percei-e the fam.e dillinttions, which
they have e;:prefied mofc atlmi'ably in fome of he fineft mo-
numents of tfieir ^rt, as in the Venus, tht ApcUo, and Her-
cules.

The differences which we hare enumerated are not refy
diftinclly perceivable, until the two fexes have reached the
epocha of their refpeclive perfect development. They are
concealed, in the eariy periods of infancy, under external
forms which are nearly the fame in both fexes. It is true,
indeed, that we can diilinguifli a male from a female embryo
(feeEMBUYo); but the leading fexual dillinctions are by-
no means fully developed until the age we have mentioned.
The mufcles h.ave not yet produced any remarkable change
in tlx! direction of the bones ; the glandular and fiefhy parts
hardly differ either in form or volume ; and the flie'etonj
can fcarcely be diftinguilhed by the breadth of the hips and
pelvis. The like cf-nfufion prevails in the moral difpofitions
of the two fexes : boys are not diftinguifliable in tl.is refpecl
from girls. The appetites, ideas, and pafTions of both are
the fame. We cannot at preient, nor perhaps fliall we ever
be able to determine, by what particular aclion the organs of
generation influence the other parts of the body, direft their
operations, and modify th.e character and order of the pheno-
mena relating to them. The fact, however, is evident ; and
the influence is inconteftable. For, when the natural deve-
lopement or actions of the generative organs is impeded,
the fecondar-\- characters, by which the fexes are dilliiiguifh-
ed, do not take place.

To illullrate this fubieft, let us obferve, that the feveral
differences of animals may be divided into prim.ary and
fecondary ; the former include the difterenccs in the parts of
generation thciiifelves, which are originally formeddifferences,
and belong equally to both fexes ; the latter are all the
other variations depending on thefe, not taking place until
the parts of the firil clafs are coming into ufe, and being
principally, though not entirely, in the male. Oi;e of the
moil remiarkuble fecondary characters in animals, generally
fpeakinn-, is the fuperior ilrenglh cf make in the male ; and
this ilrengtli is generally directed particularly to the organs
employed in lighting. Hence it is efpecially noticeable in
the animals v^hofe females are of a peaceable nature ; e.g.
the legs of the cock and neck of the bull. But in carnivo-
rous animals, where ilrength is required by both fexes to
kill the prey, the differences in the form of the male and
female are not fo ftriking, yet the fexes are flill dillinguifned
by fome differences in their external covering, as the male
lion by his mane, and the cock and hen of many birds by
the plumage. The general ftrength of make, the hairy
covering, and the voice diilinguifli th.e male from the female
of the human fpecies. Now in all animals, which are not
of any diilinct fex, no fuch alteration takes place in the
form at the time of puberty. Thur, the free martin, which
pofleffes a mixture of the generative organs of both fexe ,
does not exhibit in form a refemblance of either the cow or
bull. It is very much like the ox or fpayed heifer, being
confiderably larger than either the bull or the cow, and
having horns very fimilar to thofe of the ox. The voice is
fimilar to that of the ox, and more like that of the cow than
of the bull. The flefli, hke that of the ox or fpayed heifer,
is generally m.uch fmer in the tibre, than that ot either the
bull or cow ; it is fnppofed to exceed that ot the ox and
heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at
market. (See " Account ot the Free Martin" in Mr. Hun-
ter's cbfervations on the animal economy, p. 55.) A
fimilar effect is produced, when the fexual parti are removed
after birth ; the cailrated male and the fpayed female have
both the f.tme common properties, and arc very much like
the free martin ; the artificial removal of the generative
organs preventing the occurrence of thole changes, which
would naturally have occurred at the time of puberty.
Thus, by depriving either fex of the true parts of generations

the,

GENERATION.

they ffcm to approach each other in appearances, and acquire
a icfcmblance to the hcimaphroditc. Rcfpedinj; the changes,
which occur at puberty, Mr. Hunter fays, " It is evidently
the male, which at this time in fuch rcfpefls recedes from
the female ; every female being at the ap;e of maturity more
lilie the young of the fame fpecies than the male is obfervcd
to be : and if the male is deprived of his cclles when young,
he retains more of the original youthful form, and therefore
more refembles the female. From hence it might be fup-
pofed, that the female charafter contains more truly the
fpecific properties of the animal than the male ; but the cha-
ra(£ler of every animal is that whieli is marked by the pro-
perties common to both fexes, which are found in a natural
hermaphrodite, as in a fnail, or in animals of neither fex, as
the callrated male or fpayed female. But, where the fexes
are feparatr, and ihe animals have two charafters ; the one
cannot more than the other be called the true ; as the real
diftinguifliing marks of each particular fpecies, as has been
mentioned above, arc ihofe common to both fexes ; and
which are likewife in the unnatural hermaphrodite. That
thefe properties give the diftintt charadtcr of fuch animals is
evident, for the cailrated male and fpayed female have both
the f;>jne common properties; and when I treated of the free
martin, which is a monilrous hermaphrodite, I obferved that
it was more like the ox than the cow or bull ; lo that the
marks charafteriftic of the fpecies, which are found in the
animal of a double fex, are Imitated by depriving the in-
dividual of certain fexual parts, in confequencc of wliich it
retains only the true properties of the fpecies." (See " Ac-
count of an extraordinary Pheafant,'' in Mr. Hunter's ob-
fervations on the animal economy, p. 75.)

The influence of the generative organs in the developement
of the body at puberty, and in the modifications which cou-
ftitut.- the fexual character, is clearly evinced in the ftag,
whufe amours are condufted in fo fplendid a ftyle, and evince
fo remarkable an exuberance of vit;dity. When he is de-
prived, at an early age, of the fexual attributes, none of the
vigour of the rutting feafon is difplayed ; the mufcular flefli
is fofter, and the horns are either arrefted in their growth
entirely, or are imperfeftly formed. Ruflel caftrated a very
voung ftag, and no horns appeared ; he operated on an
older one, and the horn was partially developed. AVhen
he removed one tellis at a more advanced age, the oppofite
horn was the moll completely formed ; the removal of both
glands fi'om two adult ftags did not prevent the appearance
of the horns ; but they were fliortcr, and neither the invert-
ing membr?.ne, nor the horn itlcll^, were afterwards leparated.
(On the Economy of Nature in glandular Difeafes. )

Facts very analogous to thefe may be obferved in the
human fubjeft. An imperfeft original formation of the
fexual organs, or the removal of fome of them modifies the
whole clr.iradter of the individual, changes the phyfical con-
ftitution in a very remarkable manner, and influences in a no
lefs ftriking degree the moral habits and difpoiitions. Ob-
fervers in all ages have remarked, that mutilated or imperfeft
animals poffefs an affemblagc of peculiar charafttrs, all of
which have not a very direft relation to the funftioustif the
generative organs. Not only are the fexual defires entirely
loft in thefe degraded individuals, but the whole of their
organization is affedled in a very fmgular way. The Cel-
lular texture becomes more abundant and lax, and is more
loaded with f^t ; the mufcles are weaker ; the voice more
acute ; and tho developement of the beard is impeded. The
change in the moral difpofitions is not leis worthy of atten-
tion. It was the opinion of the ancients, that mutilation
degrades man, and tirings animals to perfection ; the truth
je, that it equally degrades both, fmte it alters their nature.

But, by weakening an animal, it renders him more docile,
and better fuited to the purpofes of man ; by deftroying thp
tie, which connefts him the moft powerfully to his fpecies,
it aftifts in developing thofe habits of obedience and atten-
tion, and thofe feelings of gratitude and attachment which
make him fo ferviccable to us. A fimilar efl'ett is produced
in man ; mutilation feparates him in a manner from his
fpecies ; and the fatal event, which deprives him of the moft
agreeable relations cftablilhed by nature, between beings of
the fame kind, almoft extinguifhes in his breaft the peculiar
feelings of humanity.

In thofe young perfons, to whom nature has denied either
wholly or in part, the dittinguiflmig powers of the male fex,
puberty does not produce its ordinary cfFedts. And more-
over, at this time the bony and mufcular organs are conftantly
afturaing more and more of the external forms, and general
character belonging to the female. Thefe equivocal indi-
viduals have an acute voice, weak mufcles, a foftnefs and
laxity in the general organization. The pelvis, too, has that
greater proportional breadth which charafterizcs this part
in women. This circumftance, as v.'cll as the conlequent
breadth, and great roundnefs of the hips, may be particu-
larly noticed in the caftrati. The phyfical condition is
genenjly accompanied in thefe individuals with a perfectly
correfponding mciral ftate. All thefe points are fidly fub-
ftantiated in the following account of a marine foldier, aged
23, by Mr. Home, (Obfervations on Herm.aphrodites, Philof.
TranfaCt. 1799.) "He had no beard; his breafts were
fully as large as thofe of a woman at that age ; he was in-
clined to be corpulent j his ftin uncommonly foft for a man ;
his hands fat and fliort ; his thighs and legs very much like
thofe of a woman ; the quantity of fat on the os pubis re-
fembled the mons veneris ; the penis was unufually fmall,
as well as fliort, and not liable to ereftions ; the tetlicles not
larger in lize than we commonly find them in the foetal ftate ;
and he had never felt any paflion for women. He was weak
in his intelledts, and his bodily ftrength." Mr. Home
mentions, in the fame place, two other ftill more ftriking
examples. A woman had three children, of which the firit
and third were fuppofed to be hermaphrodites ; the fecond
was a perfedt female. The eldeft, when Mr. H. faw him,
was' thirteen years of age, " of a moft uncommon bulk,
which appeared to be almoft wholly compofed of fat ; his
body, round the waift, was equal to that of a fat man, and
his thighs and legs in proportion ; he was four feet high ;
his breafts as large as thofe of a fat woman ; the mons ve-
neris loaded with fat ; no penis ; a prcputium -tli of an inch
long ; and under it the meatus urinarius, but no vagina.
There was an imperfett fcrotum, with a fmootli furface,
without a raphe in the middle, but in its place an indented
line ; it contaiived two tefticles of the iizc they are met with
in the foetus. He was very dull and heavy, almoft an idiot,
but could walk and talk. The younger oi^e was fix years
old, uncommonly fat, and large for his age ; more an idiot
than the other, not having fenfe enough to learn to walk,
though his limbs were not defe6tive. The external parts of
generation differed in notling from thofe juft deicribed,
except in the prepuce being an inch long."

An interefting cafe is mentioned in the Mcmoires de la
Societe medicale d'Emulation, t. 3, p. 293, which tends to
confirm the preceding obfervations. A young man, aged
23, has no tettes in the fcrotum, which is only indicated by
a flight corrugation of the integuments ; a very fmall penis,
which never changes its fize, and two folds of (kin, extend-
ing from the latter organ to th.e anus, and very much
refembling the female labia. His ftature is below the middle
fize. Tlie flcin ii foft, fmootli, and entirely free from hair ;
2 the

GENERATION.

the place of llie beard fupplied b)- a flight down. The
voice habitually hoarfe. The mufcles not well marked, and
the pelvis and chell refembling thofe of the female. 'I he
uitel!e<ftual faculties are very dull, and the fexual appetite
entirely wanting.

Th,-period, ;uid the manner of mutilation, have confidrrable
influence on the efFecb of the procefs. The complete re-
moval of all the external organs is a much more dccilive
method of annihilating the propenfities connefted with them,
than any partial amputation, or compreffion, or hgature of
the fpermatic cords. The operation is alio more effectual,
when pel formed in early infancy, than after the period of
puberty. Venereal dcfires have been known to fubfilt in
confiderable force, and with the ufual external iigns, after
the removal of the teltes in the adult. The moral effefts of
this mutilation have been (Irongly depicted by Cabanis.
*• E'Jimch". ar" the vilell clafs of the human fpecies: cowardly
and knavidi becaufe they are weak; envious and malignant,
becaufe they are unfortunate. Their unJerllanding Ihews
the abfence of tliofe impreffions, which give to the brain fo
much a<Aivity, which infufe into it an extraordinary pro-
portion of vital energy, which cherifli all the expanfive and
generoi's feelings of the foul, elevate and direct all the
thoughts. Narfes is almoll the only very impoling excep-
tion to this rule ; he is ahnoll the only eunuch whole name
appears with glury in the page of hifiory. Solomon, one of
the lieutenants of Belifarius, is another rare example ; he
exhibited great courage and talents in the war with the
Vandals in Africa. How immoral then, how cruel and
fatal to fcciety, is the practice of thus degrading and corrupt-
ing at plealure the human fi>ecies !''

A curious cafe in the Philolophical Tranfaftions for 1805,
pt. 2, in which the ovaria were deficient, fliews that fucii a
ilehcieney occai'ioiis the female to approach in fome points to
the male formation. The lubjeA of this narrative died at
the age of twenty-nine. *' Having ceafcd to grow at ten
years of age, (lie was in ftatiu'e not more than four feet fix
inches high. Her breadth aciofs the (lioulders was as much
as fourteen inches, but her pelvis (contrary to what is ufually
obferved in the proportions of the female Skeleton) mea-
fured only nine inches from the ofla ilia acrofs the facrum.
Her brealls and nipples never enlarged more than in the male
fubj £1 ; fhe never menilruated : there was no appearance
of hair on the pubes, nor were there any indications of pu-
berty, either in mind or body, even at twenty-nine years of
age." The remov.il of the ovaries has been moit rarely
pratllfed in the human fubjeti : probably the only cafe in
which it has ever been done is that recorded by Mr. Pott,
where thefe bodies were contained in inguinal hernia. A
healthy young v.oman, aged tweiity.three, large breafted,
ilout, and menftruatli>g regularly, had a painful tumour in
each groin, near the abdominal mufcles. The ovaria were
removed from thele tumours by a furgical operation. " She
lias enjoyed good lieallh ever fince, but is become thinner
and more apparently mufcular ; her breaiU, which were
large, are gone ; nor has fhe ever inenflrviated luice the ope-
ration, which is now fome ye.irs." (Pott's Works, vol. iii.
p. 329.) The chAHges which took place in the latter cafe
feem analogous to what has been obferved in fome birds.
After th-'y have done laying, hen phcafants have been ob-
ferved to <icquire the plumage of the cock in fome inftances.
This hag been noticed in wild individuals ;but Mr.Hunterhad
three opportunities of afcertaining the facl by his own exami-
nation. He further mentions a pea-hen, which had produced
chickens eight times, and which, after moulting at eleven
years old, difplayed the feathers peculi.ir to the other fcx.
The tail of the cytk appeared at the fame time. This was

Vol. XVI.

repeated for three years, and the fpurs of the cock appeired
alio in the third year. The animal never bred after this
change of plumage. The fame faft has been noticed in tlie
duck, fee Home on Hermaphrodites, in the Philof. Tr> rfafl.
1 795. " We may conclude," fays Mr. Hunter, " that this
change is merely the efTeft of age, and obtains to a certain
degree in every clafs of animals. We find fometh::ig fiir.ilar
taking place ever, in the human fpecies ; for that incn-afe of
hair obfervable on the faces of many women in advanced life,
is an approach towards the beard, which is one of the moft
dillinguilhing fecondary properties of man. Thus we fee
the fexes, which, at an early i>eriod, had little to dillii;gui(h
them from each other, acquiring, about tlie time of puberty,
fiCondary pro' erties, which clearly charafterize tiie male and
female ; the male at this time receding from the female, and
affuming the fecondary properties of his fe\. The female,
at a much later time of life, when the powers of propagation
ccafe, lofes many of her peculiar properties ; and may b?
faid, except from the mere llrudtuie of parts, to be of no
fex ; even recediivg from the original charafter of the animal,
and approaching in appearance towards the male, or perhaps
more properly towards the hermaphrodite.'' Obfervations
on the Animal Economy, p 80.

Nothing can be more abfurd than to ftek for any mer.hu-
nical explanation of tliefe accidental phenomena, or even of
the mors regular phenomena, of which they hiterrupt the
courfe, at the fame tiire that they elucidate the laws. They
cannot furelybe derived from the ftructure of the organs to
which they belong, nor from the known nature of the li-
quors fecreted in thofe organs. But the confideration of
fome phyllological circuiullances, which are very fimple in
themfelves, may enable us to eicapc from this dark abode of
occult cauics, to which the theories of the ancients were
conliued, and which have been little changed, except in
name, by the modern.'!. The latter indeed, by fubflituting,
for the opinions of the ancients, other more dogmajtcal ex-
planations, have given rife to more important and dangerous
errors; they have inured men's minds to the pernicidui
habit of attempting to determine the nature of caufes, where
we can only obferve effecls ; and in determining thefe caufes
they have often perfoniSed mere abftraclions. In the firft
place, it is a certain fad, however it may be explained, that
the mufcular fibres are weaker, and the cellular lilTue more
abundant, in women tha;i in men. Secondly, we cannot
doubt that this difference is produced bv the prefence and
influence of the uterus and ovaria ; it takes place infallibly
when thefe organs are originally well formed, and are de-
veloped in the natural order. This weakncfs of the mufcles
imparts an inltiridive diitalle for violent exercifes ; it inclines
the individual to amufements, and, when the age admits of it,
to fedentarj- occupations, llie greater feparation of the
hips renders progrefhon lefs cafy in tlie female, on account of
the more extenfive change cf the centre of gravity. The
mode of life in the female ii thus indicated ii priori by a cir-
cumftance in their organi/.at.or , which might be regarded
as trifling, and which can hard.y be diflinclly obferved at an
early age. Again, the habitual fenfe of weaknefs infpii-es
lets confidence. Not polfeffing the means of acting on fur.
rounding objefts by direct force, woman feeks fi r more in-
diredt methods ; in i)roportion as fhe finds herfelf lefs cab
culated to exifl alone, docs flie attempt to attract tlie atten-
tion of others, and to fortify her own cxillence bv that of
thofe furrounding beings, whom fhe judges mofl able to
protedt her. Thefe obfervations would be almolt fufEcient
to explain the difpofitions, tailes, and general habits of
women. They will naturally prefer thofe employments
which require delicate adtlrcfs rather thaa mufcular force :

C they

GENERATION.

they will employ thcmfelves on little objeAs : and their minds
will confequently acquire acutenefs and penetration rather
than extent and depth. Thus, as tliey lead a fcdcntary life,
to which tlie nature of their employments confines tliem as
ftron<j-ly as the imir.cdiate propcnfities depending on tlieir
organization, we foe ia a manner a new phyfical and moral
fyft..-n\ developed in them. Tliey perceive their own weak-
iiefs ; hence ihc n-:ceiVity of pleafmg : from the latter cir-
cumllance arifes tlio continual obfervation of all that is pair-
ing around tliem, alfo their dilfimulation, their artifice.', their
manners, their grace?, in a word tlieir coquetry, which, in
t!ie prefent fyllem of focicty, mud be regarded as the af-
femblagc or refult of their good and bad qualities.

For reafons cxaftly contrary to thofe which liave been
jufl: explained, boys acquire the oppofite original and cha-
raderiiiic propcnfities : hence they naturally contra(^t oppo-
fite manners and habits. Full of the feelin;^ of their jjro win.j
ilr.ngfh, aad of the wiih to excrcifc it, repofe is difagree-
able and irkfoiiie to them : they want lively motion, and they
indulge in it witii ir.-.pctuofity. Thus, without entering into
further details, we L^e that the bent of tlieir ideas ai.d the
charafter of their pallions are formed direcHy by their ori-
•nnal difpohtions, and the kind of amufements or occupations
which thefc determine them to pr>4".r. Now, the paflions
and ideas of t!i-' grown man are only tiiofe ot the child de-
veloped and completed by the maturity of the organs, and
the perfonal experience of the individual. See Cabanis,
Rapports du phylique et moral de I'Homnie, memoire
cinquieme.

But nothing hitherto explains to us how modifications of
to general a nature can depend on t!ie conditions of certain
pecuUar organs. We inaft then afcend a little higher, and
inquire whether the remarkable influence exerted by the
organs of generation can be at all elucidated by their
ilruilure, tlieir functions, or tiieir phyfiological relations to
the other branches of the fyilcm. We fee, in t)ie hrll place,
that parts fupplied by nerves wh'ch come from i!i!lerent
trunks, or are formed by different nerves united together,
are either more fenfible or more iiTitable, and almotl always
both at once. Nature feems to have placed the ganglia and
plexufes in the neighbourhood of the vifcera, where the
nervous influence muit be the moll confiderable. The epi-
gallric and hypochondriac regions abound with them ; confe-
quently their fenfibility is very acute, their fympathies very
extenfive, and the correfponding portions of tlie intellinal
canal enjoy a degree of irritability hardly equalled by that
of the heart. Nov.- the nerves of the generative organs in
both fexes, without being apparently very important by
their fize or number, come from various fources, are con-
nefted with thofe of all the abdominal vifcera, and by them, or
rather by the great fympathetic, which ferves as a general
medium of ccnneclion, with the moil effential divifions of the
nervous fyflem.

Secondly, obfervation (hews us that the nervous fyftem
(of which the original organization and mode of afting de-
termine the general fenfibility of all the organs taken toge-
ther, and the particular fenfibility of each coiilldered fepa-
ratelv) may in its turn be powerfully modified by the charac-
ter of thofe functions, which perform the moll important
part in the animal economy ; that is to fay, in other word.*,
by the habitual impreffions conveyed to it from fome of its
moll fenfible extremities. The lofs of one fenfe does not
produce merely an increafe of energy or attention in thofe
which remain, and which feem to redouble their efforts in
order to fupply its place ; but it changes the manner in
which the nervous fyllem feels and re-adls, and hence
arife new habits eviiiently connected with the unufual im-

prcfTions which thefe fenfes then begin to receive. The prac-
tice of medicine proves to us, by daily examples, that the at-
fedlions of various organs have the moit marketl influence on
the talles, ideas, and palfions. The moral difpofitions are by
no means tiie fame in difeafes of the chell, as in thofe of tlie
fpleen or liver. A greater or lei's propenllty towards a par-
ticular train of ideas or feelings (as for inflance towards
thofe connefted with religious belief) is experienced in par-
ticular llatT, of languor than in others ; and the grcatelt apti-
tude to thofe avocations, which demand either confiderable
ilrcngth and activity in the imagination, or long continued
and profound meditation, is often experienced in a itate oi
difeale caufed bv the deranged functions of iome of the ab-
dominal vifcera. Thus, then, nothing is more conformable to
the laws of the animal economy, tlian that organs, endowed
with a fmgular degree of ienlibility, lliould cxercife Q very
cxtenfive int'ueTiee on the machine in general ; and we per-
ceive immediately that the prefent is one of the moft remark-
able phenomena referrible to thefe laws.

In the work lall quoted, Cabanis endeavours to explain
this fubjetl further, by obferving that thoie organs, which
feem to be the principal feats (foyers') of the peciihar fenfibi-
lite of the generalive apparatus, viz. the ovaries and teflicles,
are of a glandular llruclure, that the various parts of the
glandular fyftem affeel each oiher very powerfully ; aod that
the condition of tiiU fvllem altogether has a moil important
influence on the ilate of the brain, augmenting or diminifhing
its energy. The latter circuniftance will apply with fo much
the greater force to a cafe, wiiere the glands are uillinguifhed
by their great feniibility.

Again, it has been alleged that the feminal fluid formed
in the tellicles, when abforbed and conveyed into the circu-
lation, affedts the general mafs of blood. At all events the
crimmencement of this fecretiun is marked by important
ciianges in the voice, the mufcular motions, and the phyfiog-
nom]-, by the appearance of the beard, &c. And we have
feen, that in animals, the development of particular parts
is materially modified by the prefence and aftion of the
teiles. I'hat an analogous fluid forms in the ovaries, and
either furnilhes the m.aterials of the embryo, or contributes
to their formation, and that its abforption produces analogous
effecls in the female, to thofe which we obfervein the male,
is in truth a mere hypothecs. But the influence of the ova-
ries in the changes at the time of puberty, whether produced
in this way or not, is inconteitible. Laitly, in explaining the
different influence of thele parts in the two fexes, we muit
affume peculiar difpofitions in the original formations of the
nervous fyllem, as well as in the cellular organ, the mufcles,
and bones. Thefe mull depend on thofe iinkr.own circum-
ftances which influence the formation, life, and develop-
ment of the embryo ; their explanation mull be referred to
that of the differences of fex, they muil be regarded as
fimpie fafts, and be admitted asfuch, without attempting to
trace them any higher.

Hermaphrodifm. — Having compared together the two
fexes, and mentioned the moll remarkable circumftances
which dilUnguilh the organization of each, we have to exa-
mine further whether nature has in any inlhinces united the
attributes of the male and female in the fame individuals, fo
as to form a true hermaphrodite. The refolution of this
queflion, which is not to be conlidered as fatisfying idle cu-
riofity, is equally interefting to the naturalill and the philo-
fopher, and may influence the decifions of judicial tribunal*
on the important queftions of impotence and llerillty. The
Grecian artif*s have endeavoured to combine the beauties and
properties of the tv.'o fexes in the fame fubjefl, and have
exerted the magic powers of their chiffel on figures of her-
maphrodites.

GENERATION.

maphrodites. Among thefe ideal produ£lions, we may men-
tion two beautiful ftatiies in a recumbent pofition in the Flo-
rentine gallery. A fmall hermaphrodite llalue is fcen in the
villa Albani, a verr fine one in the villa Borghefe, and there
is another in an obfcene attitude, pointing out that it partakes
of the two fexes. All thefe are males in the external ap-
pearance of their generative organ<;, females in the form of
'thebreail, in the features, in the elegance of the figure, and
the foftnefs of the contours. ( Winckelmann, Hiiloire de
I'Art, 4to. tome i. p. 364.) Thefe monuments furnifli no
proof on the fubjecl ; they are to be regarded as creations
of art, derived from the imagination of the fculptor, and
rot as the reprefentatives of any real exiftence. Winckel-
nr.ann himfelf, who, in other refpefts, believes in hermaphro-
dilm, claffes the chef-d'oeuvTes we have jull alUidcd to among
the ideal produftions. They exhibit an attempt to form a
'more perfeft being, by uniting together the peculiar excel-
lencies of the male and female, with.out attending very par-
ticularly to the genital organs. The word hermaphrodite
then, as applied to thefe works of art, includes the notion
of a very high degree of beauty and elegance, in which all
that is moll admirable i;i either fex is combined in one indi-
▼idual ; and the works, in which fuch are reprefented, may
ha regarded as the inventions of the greateft mailers. (See
Caylus's Recueil d'Antiquites, tome 3.) Tlie fabulous ac-
count of the transformation of Hermaphroditus and the
nymph Salmaci; into a moft lovely being, combining the
attraftion and the powers of both Jexes, may be regarded
as an exprefTion of the conimon opinions on the fubjecl.

The vaft multitude of obfervations and hiftories of her-
tnephrodites, recorded in various medical works, renders it
neceflary for us to clafs them under certain heads, ift. The
true hermaphrodite ? There is muc!; reaion to believe, that
no inftance of an h.ermaphrodite, in the ilricl fenfe of the word,
has ever occurred in the more perfect quadrupeds, or in the
human fpecies. For, when we con'id t the bones of the
pelvis, to which the organs of generation are connected, it
is difficult to conceive in what way the complete parts of the
male and female could be placed, diftinft from each other ;
and no inftance of its having happened is to be found, in
any record, which can be depended on. To conilitute an
hermaphrodite, in the fenfe we are now confideriog, it would
be neceflary that the male organs of copulation and impreg-
nation, fuch as the teftes and their duc^s, the vef;>;uli fen»i-
nales, proftate, urethra, and penis, fliould exiil in u'e fame
indi\-idual with the organs employed for the purpofes of con-
ception, of receiving, nouriftiing, and expelling the fcctus,
fuch as a well-formed vagina, uterus, ovaries, and Fallopian
tubes. The difficulty, and even impoflibility of fuch an
union, has been already recognized by Hallcr and Pietfch.
Medical authors have indeed related cafes of women, who,
after having many children, had impregnated other f.'males ;
(fee Mollerus, TraClat. de Hermaphrodit. cap. 2. : Blan-
card, CoUedl. Medico-Phyf. cent. 3, obf. 80.) but fuch
narratives are too obvioully fabulous to require ferious re-
futation.

The ncareft approach to fuch an occurrence, as we have
juil alluded to, confiils in a partial mixture of the female
ar.J male organs. This has been oblervcd, not very rarely,
in fome animals. Mr. Hunter has given feveral inilances of
it in neat cattle ; aid it has alfa been feen iu the dog, the
afs, and the goat. The individuals, in whom fuch appearances
have been noticed, are fo far from having had tlie properties
of both fexei, that they were obvioully incapable of exe-
cuting any fexual function at all. Even in this reftrifted
fenfe, we believe that no cafe has occuiTed in the human fpe-
cies, and that all the fuppofed hermaphrodite^ among mt n

have been individuals with imperfeA or monftrojs formationj
of fome parts. The cafe mentioned by Petit, in the Mr. -
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for i 720, as exhibiting a
mixture of organs, was clearly a male : and that related by
Maret in the Memoires de Dijon, t. 2, p. J57, belongs In
the fame clafs. The following cafe, diffcct-jd i y Giraud of
the Hotel Dieu, {hews us howcareful v.e lT:Oiild he in drav^ing
conclufions from external appearances, and will convince u«
that no accounts of hermaphrodites can be received, except
on the faitli of dlffeftion performed by experienced anato-
miils. The individual was elTentiaily a rnal?, and offered
fome appearances of the other fex, not from the addition of
any organs, but from an unufual diftribution of fome parts
of the male apparatus. He was received in fociety as a v%o-
man, and was connedled by a voluntary aiTociation with a
man, who had for a long time performed the duties of a huf-
band towards him. This fmgular charafter died in the Hotel
Dieu. He exhibited, externally, an aflemblage of the male
and female properties. The bull has a completely mafculinc
appearance ; the chin was covered with firm hairs, very ar.a-
logous to a beard ; the neck was thick, the chcll broad, the
bofom flightly fwoln, and the nipples exaftly like thofe of
a man. The lower half of the body prefented a contrail to
thefe cliarafters. The foft and deficate contours of the
lower limbs, the rounded hips, the broad pelvis, and th.:
greater feparation of the thighs, approximated decidedly to
the female form. An imperforate penis, two telliclti , and
an appearance of vulva, were thA external generative organs.
The tefles were well formed, the veficulie feminales imperteft,_
and the urethra opened at the cul-de-fac, which reprtfentcd
the vagina. Thus, inftead of a double fex, the individual
was an ill-formed male, entirely incapable of any fexual
fun<ftion. See Journal de Medecine par SeQ;liot, tome 2,
p. 319.

The laft inftance of mixed organs, which we (hall quote,
is mentioned by Dr. Baillie, to whom it was communicated
by Dr. Storer of Nottingham. " The perf jn bears a woman's
name, and wears the apparel of a woman. She has a re-
markably mafcuhne look, \nth plain features, but no beard.
She had never menftruated ; and on this account file was de-
fircd by the lady, with whom (he lived as fervant, to becoir.e
an out-patient at the Nottingham hofpital. At this time fne
was twenty-four years of age, and had not been fenfible of
any bad health, but only came to the hofpital, in order to
comply with the wilhes of h t m.illrefs. Various medicines
were tried without effedl, which led to the fufpicion of the
hymen being imperforated, and the menftrual blood having
accumulated behind it. She was the-efore exam.ined by Mr.
Wright, one of the furgeons to the hofpital, and by Dr.
Storer. The vagina was found to terminate in a cul-de-fac,
two inches from the external furface of the labia. The
head of the clitoris, and the extenial orifice of the meatus
urinae, appeared as in the natural ftruAure of a female, but
there were no nymphse. The labia were more pendulous
than ufual, and contained each of them a body refembling a
tefticle of a moderate fi7e, with its cord. The mair.m:?
refembled thofe of a woman. The perfon had no defire or
partiality whatever for either fex.'' (Morbid Anatomy of
fomeof the moft important Parts of the human Bodv, zd ed.
p. 410.) This narrative leaves very little doubt that the in-
dividual was a male, witk the generative organs fu impcrfett
as not to have exerted their ufual influence on the franie in
general : there is, no evidence of any feaiale orgau beir.g
prefent here.

We repeat then, that there is not o;!y r.o inftance re-
corded, of perfeft male and female organs fo united in the
human fpecies, as to conftitute a;j iadiridual ca^-able of ex-
C 2 erciiing

GENERATION.

ercHing the generative fun(Sions of both fexcs — of impreg-
nating or being impregnated — but alfo, that there is no
clearly dofcribcd inftanct- of the fmalleft mixture of organs
in any human perfon, afcertained by aftual (liffcftion, and
tcftified by perfons of competent anatomical (kill. All the
fuppofed inilances of hermaphrodites mutl then ho referred
to one of the following claffes ; in which unufual fituations
of certain organs, vicious conformations, various monftro-
iities, impcrfealy developed male organs, or a greater pro-
minence thr.n ufual of fomo female parts, occafion a devia-
tion from the acciiftomed type, fuppofed to conftilute her-
maphroJifm, very capable, when affilted by lies and fraud,
of impofmg on t'liole who know notliing of natural appear-
ances, and often miflaken by thofe who ought to have
known better. Hence have arifen the numerous ilatements,
contained even in the writings of anatomifts and phyficians,
and lending to prove the exiitence of the prodigy, of which
no well authenticated faft has hitherto determined the reality.
A fomd fpuit of criticifm, founded on a more accurate
knowledge of natural appearances, reduces to their juft
ftandard thofe fingular deviations from the ordinary type,
fiom which ignorance, credulity, and a love of the maivcl-
lous, have drawn fuch extravagant and ridiculous confe-
quences.

2d Clafs — Male individuals, with unufur.l formations of
the urinary and generative organs ; (androgynus.) Where
the ordinary tvpe is confiderably changed, an appearance is
fomctimes produced, very capable of deceiving fupcrlicial
obfervers : there is a kind of ikctch, or imperfeft attempt,
at a double apparatus of organs. But the male fex gene-
rally predominates very clearly in thefe cafes, and the arn-
biguity depends commonly on the tcRes being contained in
feparate parallel folds of the (kin ; the penis being imperfo-
rate ; and the urethra opening in the perineum, on the fur-
face of a blind pouch, having a red and tender appearance,
and eafily miftaken for the vagina. In fuch an individual
the penis, being imperforate, and probably fmaller than ufual,
is coniidered as a large chtoris ; the folds of (kin holding the
teftes very much refembW the female labia, and the red flit,
behind which the urethra ends, is tolerably analogous to the
vagina. The imperforation of the penis, and the opening
of the ejaculatory dufts near the perineum, at which their
contents cfcapc, deprives thofe individuals of the power of
procreation ; and the fterility of their marriages, if they
ent.T iiitu that ftate, in fpite of their imperfeft forr.iation,
arifes e jtircly from this caufc. The teilcs and veficula; femi-
nales appear to be perfect in thefe cafes. The individuals
experience the ordmary fexual defires, and the feminal fluids
are expelled at the unnatural opening in the perineum. A
funilar deformity occurs not unfrcquently in the goat and
/heep ; Ariftotle having obfcrved it in the former. The
ycader will find examples in Haller's Conrim._-ntarius de Her-
ir.aphrodllis, whore a vaft number of inftances is quoted ;
jn Wrifberg's Commentatio de Singulari genitaHura Defor-
niitate in puero Hermaphroditium Mentiente ; § 7, note i :
in Morcau Hifloire Naturelle de la Femme, torn. i. p. 224:
in Mertrud, DiiTertation fur la fap eafe Hcr:naphrjdite,
qui paroit aux yeux du publique, Paris i 749, foLo : Agoty,
Obf.-rvations fur I'Hiftoire Naturelle, la phyliqiw, &c. avec
des planehes imprimces en couleiu", Paris 4to. 1752

An inll.iace, limil.ir to the kind jud d' fer.b d, is related
and drawn by Wrifberg in the memoir above quoted : but
there was this difference, that the reftum, as well ?s the
urethra, op.-ned m the unnatural lituation in the perineum ;
this male child had been chrilened by a female name.

Other lefseffential deviatijns from the accullomed organi-
sation have given rife to the opinion that the judividuals were

hermaphrodites. A fiiTure, of various depths, has exiftcd
in the perineum ; covered with a fecrction from numerous
febaceous glands ; when all the other organs were perfeft in
every refpeft. Wrilberg knew an inftance of this kind at
Gottingen : the individual was always deemed an herma-
phrodite, but he had the natural defires and powers of a
male. The .ibfence of the teiles from the fcrotum has
given rife to the fame opinions. A confinement of the penis
to the fcrotum, by a particular formation of the integu-
ments, has occafioncd perfons to be reputed hermaphrodites.
In thefe the urine is in the direftion downwards, and the
confinement of the organ will not allow of its performing
the fexual funftions. The parts may be fet free by a fur-
gical operation.

The lad defcription of males, fuppofed to be hermaphro-
dites, are thofe in whom the urinary bladder is deficient^
together with the lower and anterior portion of the abdo-
minal mufcles and integuments, and the iympliyfis pubis, a
red and fenfible mafs of an irregular and fungous-like fur-
face, with the ureters opening on it, is placed at the low*r
part of the abdomen. Conliderable alterations take place in
the generative organs, in confequence of this defonijity. The
urethra is deficient, and the penis confcquently imperforate*
The feminal dutls open near the fungous mafs above-men-
tioned, or on the open furface of the urethra, or even ter-
minate in blind extremities. As the tuberofities of the if-
chia are at an unufual dillance from each other, the crura
penis are concealed within the body for a greater length,
and the pendulous part of the organ is extremely (hort, fel-
dom rxceeding two inches in length, even in the adult.
The urethra appears as if it had been flit open, forming a
band or groove, inftead of a perfedl canal, and rendering
the glans penis bifid. The fituation of the urethra is alfo
very remarkable ; for, inftead of running, as it naturally
docs, in the lower angle formed by the junftion of the cor-
pora cavernofa, it has commonly paffed along the upper
angle, giving the penis and glands the appearance of being in-
verted. That the part now defcribed is really the urethra,
is evident from its vafcular furface, with lacuna; opening
upon it, from the prefencc of the caput gallinaginis, and of
the openings of the feminal ducts. In conlequence of the
glands being bifid at its upper furface, the prepuce is at-
tached only to the lower half, and is conncfted by a frKnum,
as ufual. The teiticles, in fome inilances, are contained in
the fcrotum, in others in folds of integument rtfembling
the labia of the female ; and in fome do not delccnd. The
fcrotum is rarely pendulous, being increafed in br adth in
confequence of the feparation of the oifa pubis- The fexual
appetite, in fome of thefe individuals, has been, weak, in
others flrong, in others altogether wanting. It is evident
that they are not capable of procreaiing the fpecies , in con-
fequence of the (hortnefs and imperforation of the penis,
and the feminal dufts opening externally. See Dr. Duncan,
jun. on this fubjeft, in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
Journal, vol. i. pp. 4^ and 132 : where he has collected to-
gether a vail number of cafes.

3d Cl'.'.fs. — Female individuals ; (androgyne). An un-
•jfiially large fize of the clitoris, is one of thofe c.iufes which
have led to miflakes concerning the fex. This is not a corn-
men occurrence in thefe countries, but is faid to be much
more frec[Uent in warm climates ; .' fomuch that a furgical
o; e atio'i for removing the part ir defcribed by the Arabi-
aas. Thefe individuals are perhtt females in all other cir--
cumftances of their organization, and the menftrual diftharge
fufficiently charaftorizes them. In many of the recorded in-
ftances of this defcription, there is probably exaggeration,
as any enlargement of the clitoris Cviu hardly make it fuffi-

cientl)

GENERATION.

cTently like a penis to give rife to miftakes. A gipfey applied
to Columbus for the removal of a clitoris which incommo-
ded her. The famous hermaphrodite negrefs of Angola,
exhibited in London, was in the fame cafe with the gipfey
mentioned by Columbus. Parfons has colleftcd many fafts
of this kind. Mr Home relates an inftance in a negrefs.
" She was of the Mandingo nation, 24 years of age ; her
breails were very flat ; (lie had a rough voice, and mafculine
countenance. The clitoris was two inches long, and in thick-
ncfs refembleda common-fized thumb ; when viewed at fome
diftance, the end appeared round, andof a red colour ; but, on
a clofer examination, was found to be more pointed than
that of a penis, not flat below, and having neither prepuce
nor perforation ; when handled it became half erefted, and
was then fully three inches long, and much larger than be-
fore : when (lie voided her urine, (he was obliged to lift it
up, as it con;ipletcIy covered the orifice of the urethra. The
other parts of the female organs were found to be in a na-
tural llatc." A gentleman, who had pratlifed midwifery
among the negro women, ftated that an enlarged condition
of the clitoris was common amongft them. Parfons and
fome others, in confequcnce of the ttrufture juft defcribed,
have afcribed all hormaphrodites to the female fex. Whe-
ther this unufual fize of the organ can be produced, " per
£celeratum abufum clltoriuis'' is very doubtful. In order
to avoid all miftake concerning fex in newly born children,
it mud be remembered that the clitoris is proportionally very
large at that age.

A prolapfus of the uterus is another circumftance which
has occafioned females to be deemed hermaphrodites, and
even to be publicly exhibited as fuch. A perfon of this
kind came to Paris in 1693, drefTed as a man, and wearing
a fword. She pretended to have the organs of both fexes,
and to be able to employ both, and exhibited her perfon to
the curious for a fmall gratification. Befides the numbers
who took up the common opinicn of her being an herma-
phrodite, and who could not be fuppofed fufiiciently well-in-
formed to judge of fuch a fubjeft, feveral phyficians and
furgeons fell in with the vulgar fentiment, and gave certifi-
cates which prove incontcftibly, that a great reputation may
be acquired in the profeffion, without any real talents, or
any large ftock of folid information. Saviard, after in-
fpefting the parts clofely, found that the cafe was a pro-
lapfus uteri, which he reduced. When the female had re-
covered, (he prefented a requeft to the king for p( rmiffion
to take again the female drefs, in fpite of the magiftrates of
Touloufe,. who had ordered her to clothe lierfelf as a man.
See Saviard,, Recueil d'Obftrvations, obf. 15.

An inftance of the fame kind is related by Mr. Home.
" A French woman had a prolapfus uteri at an early age,
which increafed as (he grew up ; the cervix uteri was un-
commonly narrow, and at the time I faw her, when (he was
ibout 25 years old, projefted feveral inches beyond the ex-
ternal opening of the vagina ; the furface of the internal
parts, frjm conftant expofure, had loft its natural appear-
ance, and refembled the (kin of the penis : the orifice of the
OS tinc^ was miftaken for the orifice of the urethra. This-
woman was (hewn as a curiofity, and in the courfe of a few
weeks made 4C0/. I was induced by curiofity to vifit her,
and on the firll infpeftion difcovcrcd the deception ; which, .
though very complete to a common obfervcr, muft have
been readily detected by any perfon intimatelv acquainted
with anatomy. To render herfclf ftill more an objeft of
curiofity, flie pretended to have the powers of a male."
Pliilof. Tranfadt 1 799.

We have already mentioned fome inftances where the ge-
nerative organs, although belonging clearly to one fex, had

been impcrfeftly developed, and co.ifequently had not pro-
duced their ufual efFeft in modifying the form ef the body,
and impre(fing it with the fexual charafter. There are other
cafc,% in which men or women, having their organs appa-
rently of the accuftomed magnitude, partake refpeclively of
the charaders of the other fex, probably from the caufp
juft alluded to, of the fexual parts not exerting their full
influence on the frame. Such individual! may be accounted
neuters ; and feem, in the human fi:bje6t, to refemble the
free martin in neat cattle, where there is a true mixture of
organs, but they are fo imperfeft that organization is not
influenced by them, and the form of the individual differs
both from that of the bull and cow. The perfons thus cir-
cumftanced are often deemed by the vulgar hermaphro.
dites.

All the cafes of fuppofed hermaphrodites may be referred
to one or the other of the heads now defcribed : they will
be found to be eitlier males, with fome unufual oro-anization
or pofitlon of the urinary or generative apparatus ; or fe-
males, witli a long clitoris, or prolapfed uterus ; or indivi-
duals, in whom the generative organs have not produced
their ufual effeftin influencing the development of the body.
Thus, it is evident, that inllead of conibinino- the powers
of the two fexes, they are, for the moft part, incapable of
exerting any fexual funftion. Yet ignorance and fuperfti-
tion have marked out tliefe individuals, already fufficiently
unfortunate from their defeftive organization, as the objefts
ot perfecution, and have fubjefted them to the operation of
the moft abfurd and cruel laws. The anc'ents, regarding
them as an impure and ominous kind of monfters, difpatched
them by the moft barbarous deaths. It appears from Dio-
dorus that they had been burned by the Athenians and Ro-
mans. 3y the edicts of Conftan'tine and other princes,
they were beheaded, drowned, or banilhed to dcfert illands.
Livy informs us that a newly born child, of which the fex
could not be afcertained, was tlmr.vn into the fea. (L. 31.)
Further inforu.ation on this fuljcft may be derived from
Gafp:ir B uihin, De Hi rmiaphrcditorum moni^roforum.que
partuuin iiatura, ex Theologorum, Jureconfultorum, Phi-
lofophorum, ct Rabbinc.rum fententia, libri duo, Francof.
1629, 8vo. Thefe abfurd notions and praftices have at pre-
fcnt difappearcd ; but the fubjeft is important on many ac-
counts, as thefe unufual dcvia'ticns render the fex of an in-
dividual often doubtful, and impofe even on profcfrional per-
fons. The decifion may be impi rtant in deciding the em-
ployment in life of an individual, the defcent of property,
the titnefs for religious fan.%)ns, particularly for the male
or female religion in tlie Romifli church, aiid the judicial
decifioiis concerning impotence or fterilily. We therefore
add a few obfervations on the grounds of difti'nftion in fuch
circumftances. The greateft difficulty is experienced with
refpeft tc newly born children ; for many things affift our
determiiiations in the adult. The beard, the hair furround-
ing the anus, the defires excited by the prefence of wom.en,
the tei'lcs and their cords, and the comparatively o-reater
breadtii of the fiioulders than cf tlie pelvis and hips, (hew
us ::Mt the individual is a man. The finoothnefs and foftnefs
of 'he body in general, the iucreafe of the beard, and of the
1. '.r from the anus, the menftrual difchargc, tile want of
t^ftes, and the fuperior. breadth of the hips, prove the indi- -
vidual to be a woman.

A male, with a filTure in the perineum and an imperforate
penis, may be afcertained by the fize of the penis, by the ■
dilfercnt organization of the preputium from that which •
covers the chtoris ; the abftnce of nympha; and hymen, and
probably the prefence of tcftes. The diff"erent relation of
the filFure in the perineum to the penis, from tliat of the ■

meatus

GENERATION.

uill aiTill ihc in general. It is rough and harder on the furface, and
fliorter in cold wpathcr, in young fubjetls, at the time of
rreclion, and in a ftrong, vigorous ftate of the body : con-
fequcntly, at fuch times, it is aj)plied more exactly to the
teiles, and, drawing thefe organs gently upwards, ihortcns

meatus (irinarius to tlie clitoris i:i the female,

dccilion, as alfo the want of power to pais an mili-umcnt

towards the lituation of the utcrur.

The fnialhv fi/e of the clitoris and its dtiTereHt niape ;

the conncC\io;i of its preputium to the nymp!.,e, and the pre- ■ , • .r.i r j . xv " f" n' "j „f f

fence of the latter parts the feparate opening of the vagina the cords The fudden ad.on of cold, and ev_en of fear,

an 1 meatus urinariis. and the prefenoe of tl,e hymen ; the w;ll produce the latter ftate of the organ. The wnnkles

abfence of tefticlcs, all prove the individual to he a wo- which it exhibits at fuch times are effaced by extending

""An adhefu.n of the labia to each other at their convexities The coverings of the teftes fuccecd each other in the fol-

mav caufe a difficulty in deciding : but here the abfence of louing order : lit. The cutaneous mvellment or fcrotum ;

the penis and tefticles, the -liicharge of the urine at the upper 2dly. 1 !,. cellular layer ; jdly. Membrane of a fibrous ap-

cnd of tlie labia, and the line of union between thule folds, pearnnce, common to the tellis and cord ; 4thly. 1 he leroej

ihew us the nature of the cafe. membra,.e The reafon why the dartos is not enumerated

Much information on the fubjett of hermaphrodites may among ti.efe coverings will appear prelently.

be irained from th- follov.ing works. Parfons' Mechanical The icrotum is continuous with the integuments of the

and Critical Enquiry into tiie nature of Hermaphrcdites : infide of the thighs, the perineum, and penis. It is difliii-

I ondon 8vo 1741. Ambrofe Fare's Works, book 24. guiflied by a brownifh hue from the reft of the integuments,

Pietfcli ' Gedankcnvon den Zwittern, in the Old Hamburg but follows in general the tints of the latter, being always

Man-azi'ne, vol iv. p. 53S, et feq. Arnaud, in Mcmoires darker in colour. A few fhoit hairs are fcattered over its

de" Chirnr'irie. if all'er, iium demur Hermaphroditi, com- furface, and their bulbs, obliquely imjilanted, form feniiblc

• ' • "'ommentarii foe. reg. fcient. Gottingen, prominences from the thinnefs of the fkin, which are not

nicntarius, in the Cc

the

torn. I.; or in his Opera Minora, vol. ii. Hunter on
Free Martin, in his Obf. on the Animal Economy. Home,
Difl'eclion of an Hermaphrodite D<.>g, with Obfervations on
Hermaphrodites in .reneral, Philof. Traniaa. 1799. Mo-
reau Hilloire Naturelle de la Eemme, tom. 1. p. 211, ct
feq. Wrilberg, Commcntatio de fingulari genitalium do-

effaced by extenlion of the organ. In its general organiza-
tion the fcrotum refembles the fl<in ; but it is very' thin, fo
that the veins of the fubjacent cellular tifTue are vifible
through it. The vital properties of the fcrotum are the
fame with thofe of tlie fkin in general ; but the contraftiou
produced by cold is more maniieft in the former than in the
latter. The phenomenon feems to be the fame in both in-
ftances. It conilitutes the cutis anferina of the furface in

formitite in puero, hcrmaphroditium mcnticnte, m his Com-

mentat. vol i. p. 504, ct feq. ■ r t ■ -r

M/ik Organs of Gcr.cratinn. — In the human fubjeft thefe general. This corrugation of the part has given rife to the
confift of the tefticles, vciicula; feminalcs, proftate. Cow- opinion that a mufcular expanilon is found under tlie fkin in
per' s elands, urethra, and penis ; making up a fecrctory ap- this i'ltuation ; and hence have arifcn the defcriptions of the
paratus, which is double, confifting of a right and left or- dartos. We can, however, clearly diftinguifh that the
gan, in'the two former parts, and fingle in the latter. The contraftion is in the integuments, and not in any more
peculiarities of the apparatus confill in the fmall quantity of decply-feated part ; they feel denfe and firm at this time,
flu d which it fiirniflics, in the long periods for which this inft:ead of being foft and loofe, as in their ordinary ftate.
fluid is retained in its refervoirs ; in the particular condition The teflis and cordare furrounded in their fituation by a
of the organ deftincd for its cmiffion, eflentially necefl'ary to copious and loofe layer of cellular fubftanre, placed immc-
that aft • and in the nhyfical feeling which accompanies the diately under the fl<in, and conflituting, where it divides the
2£^ two teftes from each other, the feptum fcroti Tiiis is rather

The Tefticles. Thefe organs, placed externally to the ca- more denfe immediiitely under the cutaneous integumciit, and

vity of the abdomen, and lefs proteftcd againfl external in- loofer at the furface of the tcftis. Several blood-veffels
jury than moft other important vifcera, are fufpriidcd, each ramify through it, particularly veins ; and hence arifes an
of them by a confidcrable vafcular bundle, called \\\e fpenr.a- appearance Avliich may have authorized the opinion concern-
/if ror(/, and contained in a kind of bag or cavity formed of feve- ing a mufcular covering on a fuperficial examination: but
ral membranous layers. Amiddle feptumdividcs thcinteriorof accurate infpeftion can difcover no mufcular fibres. Many
the ba"-, and feparates from each other the right and left tcftis, nervous filaments are alfo feen in this fiibftance, and enable
with their coverings, which are double with the exception us to explain the acute fenfibility obferved on the removal of
of the outer one. The latter, formed by the iatcguments, the teftis in furgical operations, a little fat is feen near the
and called the fcrotum or purfe (in French les bouries) con- ring and the urethra ; but it is completely abfent from all
ftitutes a fingle bag, v.'hich envelopes all the others. The other lltuations. Here, as in the penis, the eye-lids and
fcrotum is attached to the upper and front part of the pelvis, fome other parts, the abundant depofition of fat would in-
unconnccled in everv other fituation, contiguous laterally to terfere witli the funffions of the organ; and it.s abfence in
the infide of the thighs, in front to the penis, and teparated thefe fituations feems to indicate the dciign and forefight em-
behind from the anus by an interval of two or three inches, ployed in the conftruction of the body as fully as the parti,
called the di-nn/uHi. A fmallfold of the fkin under the penis, cularcoiillruAion of any parts can do. However the fize of
a flicfht groove below, and a prominent line behind, coiiti- the body in general may be increafed in corpulent perfons,
nued into the raphe of the perineum, mark out fuccefTive'y, the fcrotum, penis, £;c. always retain the fame dimenfions.
on the external furface, the fymmetrical divifion of the The abfence of fat renders thefe parts more efpecially fub-
nrgan. Yet the right fide of the fcrotum is almoft conftant- jeft to the watery depofitions of anafarca : fuch efl'ufions
ly more elevated than the left, in confequen..- of the cor- often manifeft themfelves firft in the fcrotum, and that organ
refponding fpermatic cord being fhorter, and the teftis nearer is generally very much increafed in bulk when the anafarca is
to the ring. The fcrotuna is foft to the feel, and elongated, confiderable. The impijfion of air through an opening in
fly that t'ne teftes appear loofe and hang low, in warm wea- the fcrotum dcmonflrates very well the nature and extent of
ther, in old perfons, after coition, and under the acfion of this celhUar layer ; by diftenljon of this kind it refembles
any caufes which have a debilitating influence on the frame cotton in appearance. Maceration in water may be employed

for

GENERATION.

for the fame purpofe ; as the fluid penetrates very minutely
into the cellular interftices. It is continuous with the fiini-
lar covering of the penis, and with the cellular fubftance of
the perineum and groins ; fo that air pafles from it into thefe
fituations.

The cord and teftis are clofely enveloped by a condenfed
cellular covering, which defcends from tlie neighbourhood
of the abdominal ring, and includes the organs juft men-
tioned, together with the membranous coverings of the
latter ; it conftitutes the elytliroid or erythroid coat of fome
writers. The cremaftcr mufcle is ftrongly connedted with
this, and contributes to the formation of the cellular (heath.
This part has been defcribed as the tunica vaginalis of the
fpermatic cord, but it is entirely overlooked by many writers.
Its thicknefs differs confiderably in different fubjefts. It is
connetled to the cellular fubilance of the Icrotum externally ;
and adheres, by cellular connections, to the fpermatic vefltls,
and to the tunica vaginalis teftis, on the infide. If air be
impelled through a fmall opeinng, it is feparated from thefe
parts, and may be divided fo ■ ^ to ihew that it is a diftinft
membrane. It then appears Itnni-tranfparent and thin, and
feems to confift of fibres varioullv interwoven. Its thick-
nefs is much increafed in fcrotal ruptures, to which it gives a
complete external covering. Camper has delineated it very
veil in his pollhumous plates edited by Soenimerring, and
he defcribcs it in the following paragraph ; " Crcmafteres
igitur mulculi funt, ab obliquo interno et tranfverfo abdomi-
nis orti, per involucrum membranaceum fub cute fcroti dif-
perfi, quocum velamentum efibrmant, funiculum fpermati-
cum et tellem undequaque cingens, qiiodque in herniofis
craflius tenaxque fit, et ex multis fibi invicem impofitis la-
mellis conilare \-idetur, cum chirurgia hernias attingimus.
Velamentum illud facile a facco hcrnis digiti feparatur ; for-
mius autoni adheret vafis fpermatices." Icones herniarum,

P- '3-

The ferous membrane of the teftie is called the tunica
vaginalis, and the name fhould be confi led entirely to it,
as moil of the anatomical defcriptions apply to this part
cftly. Like all other ferous membranes, this forms an
entire and unperforated bag. Its arrangement is fimple.
It forms a pouch-covering, and appearing to include the
teftis and epididymis, as the lieart is included in the pericar-
dium. Wiien an opening is made into it, and air impelled,
it is elevated into a bag on the front and fides of the teil«is.
At the pollerior edge of the organ it is reflefted over its
furface, covering the epididymis, a fmall portion of the
. fpermatic velTets, and the whole teftis ; and giving to thefe
parts a fraooth external coat. The tunica vaginalis there-
fore may be faid to confift of two parts; viz. an exterior
portion, forming the bag, which includes the teftis ; and an
internal, reflefted over the furface of the organ. The two
are continuous at the back edge, and at the upper and lower
ends of the teftis. The b?,g-hke portion of the memj^rane
is covered by the fibrous invcftment already defcribed :
the refleftcd part adheres very clofily to the epididymis and
tefticle. The tunica vaginalis is very thin, and every where
cellular on its external furface; internally it is fmooth, po-
liftied, and moiftened by a ferous fecretion, which, in an in-
creafed quantity, conftitutes hydrocele. There is hardly
any fenfible fluid in the ordinary ftate of the parts. Some-
times there are partial adhefions between the oppofed fur-
faces of the two portions of the membrane ; and fometimes
a general adhefion, by which the cavity is entirely deftroyed,
is produced by theoperationfortlie radical cure of hydrocele.

In man and quadrupeds the tefticle confifts of Ivvo parts ;
•viz. the proper teftis, and the epididymis, which adheres to
it behind. Ordinarily the fcrotum contains two of thefe

glands, ^ a right and a left one : but this number is ti<M
invariable. We fliall explain hereafter how it may happen
that the fcrotum ftiould contain no teftis, or only one ;
and, if authors could be credited, we might cite examples,
in which there have been three, four, or even five. We
believe that the number never exceeds two, that the ftate-
ments now alluded to have arifen from the fweUings inci-
dental to thefe parts, being niiftaken for teftes, and that
there is no obfervation deferving of credit by which this
an"ertion can be contradicted. Tiie ordinary fize of the
gland in the adult is an anatomical faft known to each indi-
vidual ; but there are fome varieties in this refpeft. Long
continued chartity probably caufes a Shrinking of the organ ;
and a ftmilar diminution, to a much greater degree, may
be occafioually obferved in old fubjefts, when the function
of the part has ceafed, without any difeafe. On the con-
trary, when venereal enjoyment has been habitually indulged,
temporary abftinence will caufe a fwclling of the organ,
with fome pain ; and this may be relieved by a fponta-
neous difcharge of the fecretion. Again, tiiere are diflPerences
of volume from original formation. The right and left
glands are not always of the fame C/e, nor is the right par-
ticularly obferved to exceed the left, as fome have alferted.
The figure of the part is pretty exactly oval, u ith the two
ends placed perpendicularly, and the furface flattened in the
direction of the fmall diameter. The extremities, which
are diftinguiftied by the epithets fuperior and inferior, are
not in the fame perpendicular line ; the former is inclined
forwards and outwards ; the latter backwards and inwards.
The two ends are fometimes ahnoft auti-rior and pofterior.
The fiat fides, which are external and internal, are turned,
the foi-mer towards the thigh of the fame fide, and the
latter towards the correlponding furface of the oppofite
gland. The edges of tlie teftes, v.hich arc anterior and
pofterior, are placed obliquely, fo as to fiant from above
backwards and downwards. The anterior edo-e is fome-
times defcribed as the interior, and the pofterior as
fuperior. The epididymis is a thin ar.d elongated organ,
placed along the back edge of the teftis, to wluch it ad-
heres by means of the tunica vaginalis and blood-veflels,
imaller in the middle and enlarged at its upper and lower
ends, and refle<fted at the latter, to form the vas deferens.
Its upper extremity is called the caput epididymidis or
globus major (tete de I'epididyme) ; and this adheres very
firmly to tirf? upper end of tlie tellis, being placed rather
above, as well as behind it. Fiom this point the organ
defcends in a thin and flattened form, diftimtly feen as a
feparate part in the fide of the teftis, which is turned towards
the thigh, but not on the oppofite furface. It fwelis again
at the lower end into the globus minor (queue de i'epi-
didyme) and then turns up to form the vas deferens. The
fpermatic cord is attaclied a'ong the pofterior edge of
the gland., and the greater or lels obliquity of the teftis
depends on the mode of its connexion. A cord, coinpofed
of the fame parts, fuipends each teftis iu its place, but it is
rather longer on the left fide ; a circumllance which has
been not'ced by painters and ilatuaries. The pathologiil
afcribes to this circumftance the more frequent occur-
rence of varico-cele on the left fide of the budv. The
diilance of both organs fiom the ring is variable, 'and de-
pends on the fta'.e of the fcrotum, and the cre;r.after mufcle.
Thefe two part.s generally contrad together. The confiftence
of the gland is fcft to the feel. As it is covered almoil
entirely by the ferous membrane already defcribed, it ac-
quires from this circumfta.nce a fmooth and pohftied furface •
its whitenefs arifes from the tunica albuginca.

Straclure c/thcTtJic.lc The glandular part of the organ,

i.s

GENERATION.

in which thf ffmmal ffcrrtion is immediately cffeaed, is a
liglit brown pulpy mafs, confidcrably fottcr than th^-
parenchyma of the other glandular organs, contained in a
llrt)ng librous membrane, which detcrmii'.cs the exterior
conliguxation of the part, and the confiilence which it prc-
fents on examination. This membrane is named the tunic a
albuginea. It is ft-en through the refleaion of the tunica
vaginalis which envelopes the telllclc, and adlicresto it
very clofely. Yet, notwithllanding tiic ftrcngth of this
adhefion, the ferous lav.r may be partially fepaiated by
difleaing from the epididymis forwards. But, over the
general furface the union is too intimate to admit of fepa-
ration; and confequently the ferous layer and the true
albuginea are defcnbed ordinurily as compoiing one mem-
brane under the l.itter name. It is from analogy, rather
than th- direa teftlmcny of anatomical obfervation, tliat
we defcribe them as dillina parti. Along tlie pofte-
rior edge of the teftis, the albuginea is perforated by
numerous openings for the pafTage cf the feminal and
blood-velTels. From the inner fuiface cf this membrane
are detached numerous delicate procefles penetrating the
fubllance of the tellis, snd forming partial fepta, by which
the glandular mafs is (lightly fubdivided into fmallcr por-
tions. Some of thefe produaions feem to confift ot blood-
♦eflels. The ilruaure of tliis part clafTes it amongil the
fibrous membranes.: it is denfe, very firm, of a peculiar
white colour, and potreiTmg fome blood-vefTels. Its ex-
ternal furfice is every where covered by the refleftcd
tunica vaginalis, except at tlie back of the tellis, and its
inner furface is in cf.ntaa with the glandular fiibftance of
the org:.n. The great clofencfs and firmnefs of its texture
explain to us the peculiarly hard feel of the inflamed tellis,
as the membrane yields with dlffic'ilty to the diftention
produced b^- the fwelling of the contained vafcular parts.
It is manifellly thicker where the feminal tubes penetrate
it ; and in this fituation we cbferve the corpus Highmori,
concerning which we have further obfervations to make
below. The albuginea poffelTes extenlibility, and the
corrcfponding contractility : the fwellings of the tellicle,
from various caufes, (hew the former, and its lubfequent
return to the natural fize, as well as the fhnnking of the
part from age demunftrate the latter. It is very fubjca to
• convcriion into cartilage. Little excrefcences are fome-
timts obferved on the furfaces of the gland, about the fize
of a pin's head.

The tunica albuginea is filled with a foft pulpy matter,
cf a light hrownilli-yellow hue, and divided into fmall
portions or lobuli. Imperfeft cellular fepta, along which
the fmall arteries and veins run, divide thefe portions ;
but the partitions are not merely vafcular. They are at-
tached, as we have already obferved, to the internal furface
of the albuginea. Behind, they unite together in a white
cellular hue, running along the back edge of the tellicle,
from above downwards. Such are the appearances exhi-
bited in the recent organ, without any dilTeaion or pre-
paration. Its fubftance is very foft, fo that when dried it
loles more than eight-tenths of its weight. A more
accurate examination, particularly with the affiilance of
maceration and putrefaaion, difcover that all this pulpy
mafs is made up of convoluted ferpentine threads poffedlng
fome firmnefs and conneaed together by a very foft cellular
fubllance. Thefe, which are called the tubuli or ductus
feminiferi tellis, f-rm about the fi/.e of an ordinary fewing
thread, and can eifily be drawn out with a needle, after
maceration, to the length of an inch and even more. Thefe
threads are tubular, cylindrical thick in their coats with
fmall calibre, plentifully fupplied with minute vafcular rami-

fications, from which however iijjcc\ed liquors do not pafs
into the duas. They do not ramify, but pafs in a tolera-
bly ftraight direaion to the cellular line at the back of the
tcflis. That tliey are tubular is proved by the poflibility ij

of injeaing them with q'.ickfilver from the vas deferens : U

this indeed often fails, but in fome cafes the tubuli are
tilled in this .v.ay through the whole teftis. The diameter of
one of thefe duas, according to Monro, is i-zoodth of an
inch; or i-l20th when injeaed witli quicklilver. By the
calculations of the fame anatomift, the teftis ihould appear
to conlill of 62,500 tubes, fuppofing each to be one inch in
length : and confequently, if they were joined into one
tube, it would be 5208 feet and 4 inches in length. The
convolutions and turns of the duas are fo numerous, that
they do not continue their courfe, in the fame ftraight line,
for nior* than i-^otli of an inch.

The white and firm cellular line at the back of the
teftis, jull at the adhefion of the epididymif, is called the
corpus Higlimori. Many anatomiils have defcribed it as
tubular, and have alhgned.ttt»it the office of conveying the
femen to the epididymis. Silch a part obviouily exllls m the
teftis, and is ftill more manifeft in animals, as in the boar, than
in the human fubjea. Haller, who has given the moll accu-
rate account of this fubjea, fays, " After I had accur::tely
filled the vas deferens with quickfilver, I obferved in the
corpus Highmori numerous vcfTels, larger than the tube of
tlie epididymis, running according tp .he length of the
gland, ferpentine, eafily torn, and communicating with
each other." Jilem. Phyfiol. v. 7. p. 445. In thefe the
tubuli feminiferi teftis terminate ; and thcv conftitutc the
rete vafculofum of the organ. The duas contained in
each part of the tubuli feminiferi end in one ftraight tube,
which termmates in the rete teftis. A certain number of
tubes, called tlie vaia effercntia, convey the femen from
the rote vafculofum to the commencement of the epididymis.
Obfcure notices of thefe veftels inay be found in various
writers, and De Graaf in particular has defcribed them.
But the labours of Haller have thro^vn the grcateft light
on the fubjea. " When, after various unlucccf&ful at-
tempts, the continued labour of an hour or more had
enabled mc to fill completely the vas deferens, I obferved
the head of the epididymis to be made up of vafcular cones,
amounting in number to twenty or thirty, and conneaed
together by cellular fubftance before any dilftaion had
been ufcd. Each of thefe cones is made up of a fingle
fmall velfel, larger however than the tube of the epididy-
mis, convoluted into innumerable folds. The bafis of the
cone is turned towards tlie epididymis ; its apex is a
veffel proceeding downv.ards to the tefti.s, perforating
the albuginea, and communicating with the rete teftis.'
Ibid. p. 447.

Tie epididymis, of which we have already defcribed the
pofition and figure, is diftinguifhcd by its greyilh colour
from the fhining whitenefs of the teftis. Being placed at
the point where the cord is attached to the tellicle, it is
furroimded by blood-velTels, of \vhich feveral are diftri-
buted to itfelf : its furface is partially covered by tlie
rctlection of the tunica vaginalis, which adheres to it clol'eh-,
except at the angle of refleaion, wl.ere the conneaion it
loofer. Its ftrucliurc is much more cafily unravelled than
that of the teilis, for, when til'-'d with q'.;ickfil.er from the
vas deferens, it is proved to cor,:i!l of a tingle tube, almoil
infinitely convoluted upon itfeit, excepting o:ily a fmall part
of the caput, which is made up of the vafcular cones, Tiie
latter uniting together form one very fmall tube, which bv
its ferpentine courfe and turns, connecled to each other by
cellular fubftance, containing the ramifications of blood-

Teffele,

GENERATION.

vclTels, forms the body of the epididymis. As it defcends
along the back of the teflis, it increafes in diameter, and
at the fame time is proportionally lefs convoluted. In a
confiderably enlarged Hale, it is reficcled from the lower
end of the tellis, ilill a little convoluted at firft, but foon
forming a ftraight tube, called the vas deferens. By care-
fully dcllroying the cellular fubllance, which connedls to-
gether the conwcl'itions of this tube, we can demonllrate
the fcicls now mciitiontd concerning the llrufture of this
organ. In f Jch a proccfs the tube can be drawn out to a
furprifmg length, to iive ells, according to De Graaf, to
400 times the length of the epididymis in its natural llate,
according to Heuermann. Monro has taken great pains
in meafuring and calculating the dimenfions of this part :
he fmds the diameter of the tube, on an average, to be i-8oth
of an inch, its length 31 feet, and the number of its turns,
as it does not go in a ftraight direction at any part, for
more than i-3oth of an inch, 1 1,100. (De femine et tcftibus
in variis aninialibus, p. 31 and 32). As a further proof, that
the organ is made up of a fingle tube, we may obferve,
t'lut if we cut it acrofs while we continue to injetl quick-
fi'ver from the vas deferens, the fluid efcapes from one
oritice only, and when that is tied, no more runs out.

Thus, the femeni, firft formed in the fraall ferpentine vef-
fels ftuLu/i tejl'is) which make up the pulpy mals of the tef-
ti.-, is depofited from ihcfe in the ftraight feminiferous tubes,
which convey it into the r^te vafculofum, placed at th? back
of the teltis, and connected to the albuginea, where it forms
the corpus Highmori. Hence it paScs through the vafa effe-
rentia, or excretoria teftis, about twelve in numb:r, wliich
perforate the albuglnea, at the upper end of the teilis, and
then form, in a convoluted ftate, the ferpentine vafcular
^ones, which make up tiie caput epididymidis. Thefe urite
into a fingle fniaU tube, which, by its numerous turns, firll
forms the epididymis, and then ends in the vas deferens. Hal-
ler, Programma de vafis feminalibus, Gotting. 1 745 ; and in
Oper. minor t. 2. p. 5.

From the origin of the convoluted tnbuli femin'feri, to
-the termination of the epididymis in the vas deferens, the
femen goes tiirough a feries of veiTels, wiiich are folded
16,860 times, and, if extended in a ftraight line, would ex-
ceed 42 feet in length. Monro, lib. cit.

The fmaUncfs of thefe tubes prevents as fron-. afcertaiaing
their texture, or the nature of their fides. The tubuli teftis
poftefs confiderable firmnefs, as we may afcertain by extend-
ing them until they break, and by oblerving the column of
quickfilver which they fupport, when we injeft them; The
tube of the epididymis pofleflcs firm and firong fides, in
coraparifon to its cavity.

A fmall tube, cither ftra'ght, or flightij^ convoluted, is
fometimes obferved to arife trom the epididymis, and afier
pafling to various diftances on the cord, to terminate in a
c'.il-de-fac. Its fize is equal to that of tiic tube of the epi-
didymis itfelf. This circjmftance was firft noticed by Hal-
ler, who ce.U-ed the veflcl vaJ:<Jum alcrrans. (Progr. de
.Tas. femindl ) He did not undertake to determine its termi-
nation or nature, ohferving that it proceeded along the
cord, *' incc-to fine; an lymphaticum :"'' The exiftence
of the vafculum aberrans has been confirmed by Monro, who
inicfted it m four out of fixtecn tefticles ; and he adopts the
opinion fuggeftetl by Haller, of its being a lymphatic. Mr.
Cruik^nank. ta!:esa different view of the matter. " It is,"
fays he, " a lutus naturs, and either forms a cul-de-fac, or,
after many convolutions, returns back again upon itfelf, and
terminates v.here it began. It fometimes mounts four inches
upon the cord, and then terminates in a coccum, or blind
end Sometimes it is not a quarter of an inch in length. I

Vot. XV I.

have feen it convolute, like the epididymis itfelf ; from which
it could not be diftinguiflied, till, by maceration and dilTec-
tion, the cellular membrane had been removed. It may be
compared with the diverticulum ihi, fo frequently met with
in the human inteftines." Anatomy of the abforbing Vef-
fels, p. i4>.

Vejfeh of the Tejl'icle : Spemmlk cord. — Under the inferior
extremity of the kidney, and about the middle of the pfoas
magnns mufcle, we obferve a fafciculus of blood-veflels,
lymphatics, and nerves, placed behind the peritoneum, and
connected to that membrane by a cellular fubftance : this is
the commencement of th* fpermatic cord. It defcends over
the pfoas mufcle, pafiing at the fame time rather outwards,
croffes the ureter, continues its courfe over the iliacus inter-
nus, and arrives at the upper opening of the abdominal ring.
Here it isincreafed by the accelTion of the vas deferens, from
the hde of the bladder. It now penetrates the upper aper-
ture of the ring, going under the inferior edge of the ob-
liquus internus, and tranfverfus abdominis : then it turn s
downwards and forwards in the canal placed between the tv.o
openings of the ring, covered in front by the aponeurofis of
the obliquus externus, and lying behind on the fafcia tranf-
verfalis. In this part of its courfe, it is further increafed
by the accefiloli of the creniaft-er mufcle. The cord finally
emerges through the opening in the tendon of tl;e obliquus
externus, and then turns fuddenly downwards ; lying not fo
much on the bone between the two columns of the ring, as on
the outer column itfelf, fo as to cover its infertion into the
pubes. Juft at the point, where the cord enters the abdo-
minal canal, it lies on tlie root of the epigaftric arterv. As
it is placed behind the peritoneum, in the whole of its defceat
from the loins to the abdominal ring, that membrane is not
perforated at the point where the cord leaves the abdomen.
Nor is there any fneath continued from the peritoneum,
along the cord, to the tunica vaguialis ; although fuch a
ftruclure has been afcribed to the human fubjeCt from tl:e
obfervation of animals, in which it is really found. In bu-
bonocele, mdeed, a membranous cavity, produced by a conti-
nuation of the peritoneum, lies over the cord ; but this is
difeafe : and in a particular period cf foetal cxifter.ce, there is
a canal leading from the abdomen to the tunica vaginalis, but
this is ordinarily clofed before birth. Neither is there any
foundation for the defcription of two layers of the perito-
neum, of which the ureter is faid tt. accompany tlie cord.
Efcaping through the opening in the tendon of theobliquui
externus abdominis, the cord defcends in a ftraight courfe
to the teftis, covered externally by the fibrous fti.eaths alrea-
dy defcribed, and growing rather larger as it approaches the
organ. Copious foft cellular fubftance, with very little fat,
connects together the component parts of the cord.

Tiie fpermatic are the ckief arteries for fupplying the tef.
tes and their covering-. Thefe vefTels are the longeft in tht ir
courfe, compared to their diameter, of any in the bodv ;
they V\-ere known to the ancient phyficians, and called by
them the^Cm/W veffel;. They would probably have efcaped
the dihgence of the difteftor, had not the importance of the
part, which they fupply, been more sttendcd to, than the
fize of the tube. They arife, moft commohly, from the
front of the aorta, between the origiiis of the renal and in-
ferior mefenteric veflels ; either near together, or at 2 fmall
di ft ance from each otlier. Tliis is the cJe in iv.-enty-two
out of thirty-five inftances. They may arife from the aorta
higher or lower than the point which has bee;, mor.tionid.
Tlie arte.-y of the right fide fonietnnes comes from the right
renal ; but the left arifesmucii more commonly from the re-
nal artery, infomucli, t;;:>.t diis has been defcrii3ed as the ac-
cuftomed origin. Often a fmaller branch from the renal 'oinj

D ' th.e

GENERATION.

tlie trunk of the fpermatit. It defcench at an acute or half-
right angle, and goes in front of the vena cava, on the right
fide of the body $ but has been feen behind that vein. Its
courfe is ratlicr tortuous : joining the vein on the pfoas niuf-
cle, it defccnJs along the cord, and arrives at the tcftis in
t .vo branches. It gives off fmaU twigs to the renal capfule,
fit of the kidney, ureter, lumbar glands, and the cord itfelf.
_The_ area of the veilel, inftead of being diniinifhed by all
thefe branches, is rather increafed. Several ramifications
arc difpatchcd, below the ring, to the cremafter, tunica va-
ginalis; and cellular fubftance of the fcrotum. Ultimately
it is difcributed in numerous branches to the epididymis and
tcfticle ; thefe partly perforate the back of the albuginea,
and are employed in fupplying the pulpy fubllance of the
organ. Some of the ramifications communicate with branches
of the epigaftric artery. Smaller arteries come to the fper-
matic cord, or tcfticle, from the epigailric, or from the
circumflexa abdominis. The fcrotum, and its cellular fub-
ftance, receive twigs from the arteries of the tliigh. " Hence,''
fays Haller, " tying the fpermatic arteries does not dellroy
the tcftis, on account of the fupply derived from the exter-
nal veffels ; but as thefe are very fmall, the venereal powers
of the organ are loft.'' Element. Phyfiolo:r. v. 7. p. 430.

It has been afferted by many anatomifts, and fome of con-
fiderable celebrity, that the fpermatic arteries and veins com-
municated together : and Euftachiuehas drawn large commu-
nicating channels. That injection will fometimes pafs from
one order of thefe velfels into the other, when dexteroufly
impelled, is very true, and it holds equally good of other
parts ; but there is no more than the ordinary kind of com-
munication here.

The fpermatic veins, like the arteries, are two in number :
the right ufually terminating in the front of the vena cava,
the left in the renal vein, either alone, or in conjunction with
the capfular, or a lumbar, or the hemiazyga. The left fperma-
tic may end in the vena cava ; or the right in the renal vein.
Sometimes the vein ends by two, three, or four branches in the
cava and renal vein. The fize of the veflel is very coniide/able
%vhen compared to that of the artery : its diameter being nearly
aline and a half. When the veffel lias reached the pioas mufcle,
it di\-ides into branches, which unite again, and give origin
to other ramifications, which alfo anaftomofe together, and
fo on : thus a large plexus of veins is formed, conftitul ing
the corpus pamplniforme, forming the chief bulk of the cord,
and incixaiing in fize as it approaches tl\e teftis. Branches
correfponding to thefe arteries, which arife from the fperma-
tic, join the vein- Valves are found in the fpermatic veins,
bat none at their terminations : the tendency to the forma-
tion of varices in thofe veiTels, fhews the necclfity for the ex-
iilence of valves. The veins of the fcrotum, derived from
the epigaftric, communicate with the fpermatic, and with
thofe of the penis.

The abforbents of the tefticles are numerous and large,
but have not been long known. Nuck had demonftrated
them by inflating the Ipermatic veins ; and Monro rejefted
them when he had thrown quickfilver into the vas deferens.
Ho obferved four or five valvular veffels arifing from tTie
rete tclHs, and afcending the cord. Haller candidly admits
that he did not know much of them ; " In homine aliquo-
ties vidi majufcula, non tarnen valde numerofa, in funiculo
feminali cum venis afcendentia, valvulofa, ut tamen neque
origincm, neque finem fatis accurate viderem." (Elem.
Phyfiol. V. 7. p. 436.) Mr. Cniikfhank has given us the
moll: perfeft account of thefe veffels. " The abforbents of
the tunica vaginalis," fays he, " are eafily difcovered, lying
between the reftccliMii of that coat and the tunica albuginea.
Though they are thus fituated, I know that they belong

equally to the boiiy of the teftlcle ; they are in great num-
bers, and I have fometimes covered the albuginea with ab-
forbents injefted with quickfilver ; perhaps there is not
any part of the body where the abforbents are larger or
more numerous, in proportion to the part, than tliey are
here. They foon leave the albuginea, and get upon the
cord, where they are joined by others, to be defcribed pre-
fently ; but the tunica vaginalis has alfo other abforbents,
upon the anterior and lateral pai-ts, which have not the leafb
connection with the body of the tefticle, nor witli the albugi-
nea, and which alfo foon blend with the former, on the begin-
ning of the cord. The abforbents, which arife out of the
rete teftis, are exceedingly large, and appear to have no con-
ncttion with its coats. A very beautiful preparation of thefe
veftcls I made at Windmill-ftreet, at leaft ten years ago : I
injefted tlie vas deferens with quickfilver, and had in view not
only the filling of the epididymis, but the tubuli teftis them-
felves. I had forced the mercury along the epididymis, and was
delighted to fee it get into the body of the tefticle ; the mer-
cury continued to defcend very quickly through tiie glafs m-
jefting tube, but I foon found that it was not running into the
tubuli teftis, but into fome vefiels, which mounted along the
cord : thefe I foon perceived v.-ere abforbents. I have alfo
injected them from every part of the epididymis, from its
fuperior extremity, from the middle, and from the lower
end. The abforbents, having reached the cord, form from fix
to twelve trunks or more ; fome of thefe arc fometimes
larger than a crow-quill : they do not appear to^ anaftoiViOfc
with one another as they pafs along the cord ; at firft tliey
run ftraight upwards, in the direftion of the ring of the ex-
ternal oblique mufcle ; after which they are bent upon them-
felves, and pafs a little way in the direction of the fpire of
the ilium ; after which they are bent as it were a fecond time
upon themfelves, and run over the anterior furface cf the
pfcas mufcle, and terminate at laft in the lumbar glandj.
The reafon of their termination, fo diftant from their origin,
will eafily occur to thofe who reflect that the original fitua-
tion cf the tefticle was at this place, and that it was natural
for it, like the other vifcera, to receive its blood-vcfi'els and
nerves from the neareft trunjis, and to return its abforbents to
theneareft glands." Anatomy of the abforbingVcffelsjp. 14c.
The nerves, like the blood-veffcls of this organ, arife from
the trunks contained in the abdomen, and have confequently
a long paffage to their ultimate deftination. They are rather
numerous th.an large. They are produced from the renal
plexus chiefly, with additions from the mefenteric and hy-
pogaftric plexufes, and from the trunk of the great fympa-
tlietic. They are clofely connedled to the veffels in the cord,
but can hardly be traced to the teftis. The fcrotum and cre-
mafter are fuj)plied by the lumbar nerves. Although the
teftis does not appear to poftefs acute fcnfibility, comprefTion
of the organ caules a pecuhar, dull, and intolerable fenfa-
tion, of the moft diftrefiing kind.

Befides the parts juft enumerated, the cord contains the
vas deferens, wliich will be prefently noticed ; and the cremaf-
ter mufcle, which is defcribed under the article Cremasted,
A foft and loofe cellular fubftance unites together the parts
which have been juft mentioned ; it refenibles that of the
fcrotum in not containing fat generally ; but in corpulent
perfons fmall depofitions of adipous matter may be obferved
in it. It does not communicate witli that of tlic fcrotum,
as the fibrous covering of the cord is interpofed between
them ; and it is much lefs fubjedl than the latter to anafar-
cous affedlions. Indeed its qugintity is proportionally lefs
abundant. Yet in rare cafes it has been the feat of aqueous
infiltration, conftituting a very uncommon kind of hydrocele
of the cord : the latter complaint fiiews itfelf more frequent-
ly

GENERATION.

ly in the torm of a (ingle cyll with fmooth fides, contained
in the cellular fubflance of the part.

The vas, or JuSus deferens, is the tube which conveys the
femen from the epididymis to the urethra. Its fijrure is for
the mod part cylindrical, and it conhfts of a very Imall tube,
which v.'ill only admit a large bridle, with very thick fides.
Although its calibre is fo fmall, the diameter of the part on
a feftioii equals a line. Tlie fubflance of its fides is very
firm, and cuts like cartilage ; hence we Can dilHnguilh it by
the feel from the other component parts of the" cord, by
Aiding them between the finger and thumb in the living fub-
jeCl. The internal furface of the tube is fmooth. Nothing
of a mufcular ftruclure can be difcerned in its compofition.

It arifes from the pofterior and inferior part of the epidi-
dymis, afcends behind and a little on the inhde of that organ,
and then continues its courfe along th: fpermatic cord be-
hind the velfels to the ring. Compreffion of this part occa-
fions the fame kind of pain as is experienced when the tefces
are injured ; and the very acute fuSering obferved on tying
the cord in caftration, has been explained by the circum-
flance of this tube being included in the ligature. Pef^iaps
tliis explanation may be doubted, as the nerves of the telles
are alfo amo-.ig the comprefTed parts ; hov/ever, the vas de-
ferens is eafily omitted, as its hard feel enables us to feparate
the veiTels which lie in front, and are connedled to it by a
loofe cellular fubftance. It pafies through the abdominal
cannl, holding the fame relative fituaticn to the fpermatic
veflels. It feparates from them behind the opening, and
then bends downwards and backwards along the furfacc of
the pfoas mufcle, and of the iliac veflels, to enter the pel-
vis. Here it becomes attached to the pofterior and lateral
part of the bladder, and defcends obliquely from without in-
wards, juil in the iituation where the peritoneum is refleft-
ed to the bladder from the fide of the pelvis, connected by
cellular fubltance on one fide to the bladder, and on the
other to the peritoneum, and fituatedin front of the reflum.
In this courfe it decuffates the umbilical artery, behind which
it pafles : it alfo crofles the ureter, being placed between
the lower extremity of that canal and the bladder. At
the lower and back part of the latter organ it turns for-
wards and invi-ards, fo as to approach tovv-ards the canal of
the oppofite fide, ftill connected to the furface of the blad-
der : in this direftion it continues along the under furface of
the organ, v\-ithin the veficula feminalis, and connefted below
by cellular fubltance to the rectum. In the neighbourhood
of the prollate, the two vafa deferentia are placed clofe to-
gether, and each unites juil at the furface of the gland,
with the anterior extremity of the veficula feminalis. The
canal, refalting from this junction, fometimes called the eja-
culatory duCt, penetrates the fubltance cf the proftate, from
below and behind, upwards and forwards, and opens in the
urethra at the fide of the veru montanum.

The commencement of the vas deferens is a little convolu-
ted, and rather larger in its calibre : at the upper pai-t of the
teitisit becomeo ilraight iiT its courfe, and its area is dimi-
nilhed. Under the bladder it is con fiderably enlarged again,
where it lies along the inner edge of the veficula feminalis.
It has here fometimes a flightly ferpentine courfe, and pof-
feffes a flattened- form. Its cavity is proportionably aug-
mented, and, inftead of a cylindrical tube, prefents a reticula-
ted texture, like that of the veficulx feminales. Its furface
is irregular and tuberculated in confequence of this cellular
ftrufture. After receiving the tube of the veficula femina-
lis, it is again diminifhed remarkably in fize, and forms a
finall cylindrical canal.

The vas deferens receires aiterial and T*nous ramifications
from the trunks, in the neighbourhood of which it paffeii
Nothing is known of its nerves.

It is by no means common in animals for the vas defereni
to join the veficula feminalis in the manner already defcribed.
In all cafes where there are teiticles, that duct conveys th*
fecreted fluid into the urethra, there being no veficulae in
fome, while in others they terminate by feparate openings.
The communication between the two parts in man is a very
free one ; and, although the canal formed by their junftioii
proceeds in a itraight direction to its termination in the ure-
thra, yet quickfilver, or any other inje fted fluid, or air thrown
into the vas deferens, pafles into, and diitends the correfpond-
ing veficula before it gets into the urethra. The comprefliop.
of the common canal by the firm fubftance of the proftate,
the fmall fize of the tube and of its opening, and a particular
turn made by it, liave been afTigned to explain this fact. If
the injection is pufr.ed further, it will go i;ito the urethra.
Fluids thrown into the veficula alfo diftend the vas deferens,
but are more readily admitted into the urethra, as the ca-
pacity of that vefl'el is not confiderable.

The -vefuule fminaks are tvvo foft bodies, refembling,
when undifl;urbed by diffedtion, membranous tubes with
blind extremities, convoluted, and therefore marked with
rifings and grooves on their furface. They are' fituated un-
der the inferior flattened furface of the bladder, and upon
the upper furface of the redtum, being connected to both
thefe organs by loofe cellular adliefions. They are pyri-
form, with the apex placed forwards, and the bafis back-
wards, and convergent from behind forwards. Their ante-
rior extremities, joined, as we have already mentioned, to
the vafa deferentia, lie on the upper and back part of tlie
proftate, and would be in contact with each other, were
they not feparated, by the tabes juft alluded to. From
this point they grow gradually broader, and are divergent,
terminating behind in rounded ends, which are the moft dii-
tant from each other. The fuperior furface, in contadt witli
the bladder, is rather flattened : the inferior, lying upon the
redtum, is flightly convex. The vas deferens runs in con-
tadt with the inner margin, and the outward edge is turned
towards the fide of the bladder. Tlie pofterior broad and
rounded ends are partly in contadt with tiie peritoneum,
and he at the fides of the pouch, formed where that mem-
brane is refledted from the bladder to the rectum. Nume-
rous arterial and venous ramifications, particularly the latter,
and a confiderable quantity of cellular fubltance, furround
thefe organs in all diredtions, and connedt them to the
neighboi'j-ing parts. In fome individuals the pyriiorm
fhape is not well marked ; but the anterior and lower end
is always fmall. Tlie flattened appearance of its furfaces
is altered by injection : the whole organ then appears thick-
er, and the tubercular rifings of the fiu-face are more dif-
tmdt.

A. very different appearance is produced when th.efe bo-
dies are unravelled by the anatomift. Each veficula is then
found to confift of a fiiigle tortuous tube, about the fize of a
writing quill, with a blind esiremity, and fevera! lateral ap-
pendices, which alfo end in cul-de-facs. Sometimes the lat-
ter are very few ; perhaps one or even none. In other in-
flances they may amount in num.ber to ten, or more.
Haller has feen fevcnteen larger, befides fmalkr ones. Some
of thefe are fimple blind appendices ; others, particularly
near the anterior end of the organ, again branch oat.
Sometimes the whole veficula is bifid almoft from its very
origin ; the varieties, indeed, are fo ntiir.erous, that
D 2 tvo

C E N E R A T I O N.

two vcficuli will hardly be found c^:;iaiy refcmlning each
other ; but thefe variations are not iniporlaiit. ( ^cf Monro
de Tcftlbus, tab. 3. ) This tube, with its appt-nU'ces, is .0
cvnvolutcd upon itfelf, the turnings bt-.ng clofe.y connce.cd
together by cellular fubllance, containing numerous valcular
ramifications, that the organ, when undiiFeacd, is four or
five times (horter than the unravelled tube ; and a fetiion ot
it in this ftatc makes it appear to be compoled of numerous
ceUs, communicating together. This Ih-uc1ure accounts to
us alfo for the knotted appearance of the organ on it; lur-
fac

an oval figure. Towards the front it is continued info 3
lont p.roininence, which is fimply a fold of the urethral lin-
ingj and difappcars in the bulb, ending in one of the long
itrile, of vvl'.ich leveral are feen in the urethra, and fonie-
times bifid, or even radiated at its extremity. It is called
caput galiinaginis, or veru montanum. The elevations of
the lining of the bladder, continued from the ureters, termi-
nate in this emiTionce. Its oval portion is hollow, and pre-
fents a long Hit leading.into a cul-de-fac, which can be in-
flated, but which 1-as no communication with the feminal
pafTages. On each fide of the emiucnce there is a fmall ob-

The (Irufture of the vef.cula is analogous to that of the long opening, the termination of the ejacubtory duct, but

vas deferens : its fid-s are not fo thick, but they are il.ll
denfe and ftrong. The external coat is of a dole texture,
and whiti(h colour, covered with cellular fubftance external-
ly. Nothing of a mufcular nature can be difcerned here,
although the funaions of the organ oblige us to admit tliat
it poifefTes a contraaile power. We cannot otherwile ac-
count for the expulfion of t!ie contents of the veiicula.
The aaion of the levatores ani, which has been affigned as
the efficient caufe of this expulfion, is certainly inade-
quate to account for it ; as their ordinary daily exertion is at-
tended with no fuch effect, when the venereal orgafm is not

prefent, and thefe parts are not exerted in their fpecific man- the expreliion /ro>/.. has
iier. AVe may obferve, moreover, that the perineal mufcles the human fubjeci. The h

much narrower than the calibre of that tube, v.hicli is
fuddenly reflected from within outwards, at nearly a right
angle, and pours its contents, by this fin;dl opening, into the
urethra. There is no valvular fl.ruaure at thefe orifices.
Tlie Hit and cul-de-fac already mentioned have jnven rife to
an opinion, that the two ejaculatory duas terminated by a
common orifice, wliich is altogether erroneous.

The proftate is a fu-m glandular body, placed behind the
fymiihyli.i pubis, in front of the neck of the bladder, and
iurrounding the commencement of the urethra. In moft
animals there are two feparate glands in this fituation, and
the expreffion projlatss has been erroneoufly transferred to
'ze and figure of this part have

contraa at the moment of ejaculation ; now the contents of been not unaptly cornpared to thofe of a large chefnut Its
the veficulx mull be conveyed into the urethra in the pre- broader end is turned towards the bladder, and is divided by
rious moments. The internal furface of the veficuls is a flight Mure into two laterallobes, the narrower part is
formed by a mucous lining, conneaed clofely to the preced
ino- tunic. Its colour is whitifti, and its thicknefs not con

fiderable. It is continuous with the linir.g of the urethra.
Its furface is very minutely reticulated, and marked with
extremely fmull divifions, not to mention the larger fepla
formed by the turnings and folds of the tube and its appen-
dices. It has, moreover, a downy or villous appearance : a
fimilar ilrufture charaaerizes that enlarged portion of ^he
vas deferens which lies along the edge of the veficula. Tlie
llruaure of thefe parts, as well as the junaion of the vas
deferens and veficula at an acute angle, has very confiderable
analogy to the gall-bladder and ductus hepaticus. Both
have the fame reticulated internal furface ; the union of the
two tubes, and the fuppofed coui-fe of the contained fluids,
are confidered to be fimilar.

Some anatomifts have defcribcd glands as being con-
tained in the fubtlance of the coats of the veficulx, and
fecreting the mucous fluid poured into thefe organs ;iutthe
moil careful inveftigation does not lead us to deleft any
thing glandular, and the fecretion is probably performed by
the furface of the parts.

We proceed to defcribe more exactly the canal by which
• the veficula and vas deferens communicate with the urethra.
The tube of the former aiTuming a fmooth appearance on
its internal furface, and ratlier diminiihed in fize, converging
towards its fellow, joins the coriefponding vas deferens at a
very acute angle : it is flill confiderably larger than the latter
When the parts are diflcaed, and the conneding

fituated forwards. It is confiderably thicker from fide to
fide, than in the vertical direaion. The fuperior furface
correfponds to the arch of the pubis, but is rather behind
that part : it is covered by a ftrong fibrous expanfion, de-
fcending from the arch, and named the inferior hgamcnt cf
tlie bladder. Below, the gland is conneaed by clofe cellu-
lar adhefions to the upper furface of the rcaum, and th?
contaa of thefe two parts is more extenfive in proportion to
the fize of the gut, which, when much diftended, riles
flightly on each fide of the proilate, fo as to be endangered
in the lateral operation of lithotomy. The convex promi-
nent fides are covered by the anterior fibres of the levator
ani. The bafis, or broad pofterior part, which is gently con-
cave, embraces the neck of the bladder, and the Imall ante-
rior ends of the veiiculae ieminales and vafa deferentia. The
cellular fubtlance, which conneas it here to the bladder, is
very denfe and firm, and the mulcular fibres of the organ
are partly interwoven with it. This part prefcnts the
groove already mentioned as dividing the organ into two
lateral lobes. In front, the nan-ower portion of the proilate
is loft indefinitely on the m.embranous part of the urethra,
to which it adlicrcs moft firmly. The bulk of the urethra,
the fat and mufcles of the perineum, cover the part fo deeply
on its anterior afpeft, that it can by no means be felt frora
the furface : on the upper part of the reaum, however, the-
gland may be diftinaiy recognized by the finger introduced
into the gut, as nothing but the inteftine covers it in this
fituation : and it projeas fenfibly into the tube when en-

cellular membrane removed, as in the hepatic and cyftic larged. _ , , , , ,
duas, the jundion appears to be effetted at a half right 1 he urethra, immediately at its origin from the bladder,
ano-Ie! The canal formed by this union, and belonging pafles through the proftate from behind forwards, and the
cuualiv to the veficula and vas deferens, proceeds more dircd- m.embrane is almoft confolidated with the fides of the open-
ly in the courfe of the latter, lies in clofe contaa with its ing in the gland. This paflage does not take place at the
f-Uow, paffes between the proftate and neck of the bladder, centre, but nearer to the fuperior furface, fo that a fmall
and thus arrives at the under furface of that part of the ure- portion only of the gland is above the urethra, and the chief
thr? which runs thrcu'rh the gland. A fmai! elongated bulk of it below and at the fides. At the inferior part of
eminence is found in this°portion of the urinary canal, com- the opening, by which the urethra commences, a fmall por-
pofed of its internal coat, broader behind, where it alTumes tion of the gland projeds flightly towards the bladder; and
^ 5 thi*

GENERATION.

thh part is perforated by tlio fc-ininal diicrs. It has been
p.'.rticularly defcribed by Mr. Home ?.s forming a third lobe
of the prollate. See the deftriplion of a fmall lobe of the
human prollate gland in the Pliilof. Tranfad. 1806, pt. I.

The cxt'jrnal furface of the prollate is covered by a more
or lefs dillinifl; cellular invcftmcnt, which is the n;oft com-
plete below, and furrouiided by numerous v^fcular ramitica-
tioiis, particularly of the ve;!Ous kind. For an account of
fome mufcular fibres connefted to it, fee Co.MPnESsoR.

Its flrufture is rather cbfcure ; for it does net con-
ftitute a fimple gland with cue excretory cavity, nor is it
feparable into fmaller conftituent portions. It is dcnfe and
very finn to the feci, apparently iiomogeneoas when cut into,
of a light brown colour, and on the whole conijderably re-
fembling a fcirrhous mafs. Small cavities are fcattered
through it, and excretory dufts, from 7 or 8, to 12 or 15
in number, continued from thefe, open into the commcncc-
ir.eriL of the urethra, on each fide of the caput gallinaginis.
From thef' opea!n:;3, a white and thickiih fluid may be
espreffed in coniidemble abundance: it differs eflentially
in its colour from th.U contained in the vcficulx feminale?.

Cozvpr's glands, ai-e two fniall glandular mafles, fo named
from the anatomill who particularly defcribed them, and
publilhed figures of them ; fee his Defcriptio glandularum,
quarundam nuper deteftarum, &c. 17C2, They have alio
been called the inferior, or fmaller proflates, or glandulx
acceffori^ ; they are of aroundifh or oval figure, rather flat-
tened, about the fize of a pea, placed on each fide of the
lower end of the bulb of the urethra, and covered by the
accelerator mufcle. They may be eafily demonftrated by
cutting through the middle of that mulcle, and reflediing it
towards each fide : they are of a reddidi-grey colour, and
compofed of many little portions, united together by cellu-
lar fubftance. £ach of them has a feparate excretory duft,
about half an inch in length, running obliquely forwards,
and opening into the urethra by an aperture, which will ad-
mit a hog's briftle. They fecrete a mucous fluid, of a rcd-
diili colour, w!iich affifts in lubricating the lining of the
urethra. According to Morgagni, they are fometimes want-
ing. Haller has aUvays found them, when he fought for
theiTi carefully. Ccwpcr dcfcribes a third gland as being
placed vnder the pubcs in the curve of the urethra ; but
this has not in general been adciitted.

The Penis. — After this defcription of the organs, which
fecrete and preferve the feminal fluid, or form other liquors
which are added to the produce of the telticles, we proceed
to ihew how this ic conveyed to the place of its deftination
in the fomale. The urethra is a common pafiage for the
femen and urine, commencing at the bladder, continued along
the penis to its extremity, at which it opens, and facilitating,
by its coimeftion with this organ, the tranfmifiion of the
fecundating liquor to the germs prepared in the generative
parts CI the female. The penis is a very leading charafteriii
the ftrafture of the male, and is the feat of enjoyment in the
aft of copulation. Its form is elongated, and nearly cylin-
drical -f it is placed at the middle and lower part of the ab-
domen, in front of the fymphyfis pubis, and at the bifurcation
of the lower limbs. When not ercfted it is foft and pendent,
hanging in front of the fcrotum. Its length and fize are not
conftant, even in this condition, in the f?.me individual : for
there are numerous degrees between the conliderable dimi-
nution of bulk produced by the operation of cold, und the
fweUmg, which precedes erectiou, in any of which the org:in
may be found according to circumftances ; yet there is a
middle ilate, in which it is commonly found, which is not
the fame in all individuals. In the eredtcd ft..,te it is
lengthened, enhrged, changed in its diredlion, and rendered.

by the fweliing of the urethrs, fomcv.hal triangular: a flight
curvature may be obferved in it at this time, adapted to t!ie
dircdlion of the vagina. The increafe in the length and fize
of the penis is always the fame in the fame individual : and
it is more confiderable in proportion as the dimenfions cf tjie
organ in its ilate of repofe are greater ; but tJiis is not con-
flant. We may notice a fuperior and i'lferiur furface, two
fides, an anterior and a poilericr extremity.

The upper furface, named the dori"um, or back of the
penis, is inchncd forwards ; it is turned tov.-ards the abdomen,
and becomes pollerior in the erefted itatc. A large vein
runs along its middle, and fometimes there are two trunks.
The inferior furface, turned backwards, is placed ngainftlhc
front of the fcrotum; it forms a prominent line from the
courfe of the urethra, and tiie integuments in this fituation
have a longitudinal rough mark, called the raphe, continuoun
with a fimilar part in the fcrotum. On each fide of this mid-
dle prominence there is a fuperficial depreflion, where the
urethra ii in contaft with the corpora cavernofa. The two
fides of th'.- penis are rounded. The poilerior extremity,
ca'led alio the root of the penis, is divided into three psrtions,
which will be prefently defcribed, wa. tlie urethra in the
middle, and the two corpora cavernofa, one en each fide.
The anterior extremity prefents the glans and prepuce.

The penis is made up of various parts, each of which
ferves fome particular purpofe in the funftions of the organ,
confidered as an inflrument of reproduction, ift. The cor-
pora cavernofa, making up its chief bulk, foft and loofe in
the fl:ate of repole, are fo organized as to become very fud-
denly incrcafed in fize and hardnefs, in confequence of the
operation of certain ilimuli. By thefe the penis is rendered
capable of introduftion into the female vagina. 2dly. The
urethra, by which the fecundating liquor is conveyed, is a
membranous canal, furrouiidedbya vafcular fubftance, called
corpus fpongiofum, which is fulccptiblr of the fame change
in erection as the corpora cavernofa. 3<llv. The glans is a
fm^all organ, coniifting of a continuation of the corpus fpongi-
ofum, covered by a highly organized and aculeiy fenfibls
fkin, the excitation of which, in the aft of coition, deter-
mines the difcharge of the feminal fluid through the urethra.
The penis pofTelTes an extir.ial cutaneous covering, which is
fimply contiguous to the glans, but united to the corpora
cavernofa and uret!,ra by cellular fubftance.

The corpora cavernofa, ct crura feiiis, are two nearly cv-
lindric;J bodies, of a very firm texture, united laterally in
the greatell part of their length, but feparatcd frcm each
other behind, hke the branches of the letter Y, and termi-
nating by fiender, conical, and pointed extremities. Thefe,
fixed behind to the rami of the ifcixia a-rd pubes, advance for-
wards and inwards, approximating to each other. In front
of the fymphyfis pubis they come in contact, or rather, are
confounded together in one tingle body, the uze of which is
unifi^rm tlu-oughout, except in front, where it terminates bv
a blunt extremity. The feparate origin of the two lateral
portions has led anatoir.ifts in gcivral to fpcak of the corpora
ea-ixrnofa in the plural number; but their confolldation into
one body has induced S.ibatier, and fome other modem
authors, to admit only a fingle carpus caverr.ofum, bifiu'catcd
behind for a double infertion into the pelvis. The fingle
body, foniied by the union of the two crura, to which the
buik and firmnefs ot the penis are almoft entirely owing, is
flattened above and below, and prefents two furfaces, a fu-
perior and an inferior, on each of which there is a longitu-
dinal groove, correfpondmg to the feptum, which is within
the corpus cavernofuro. That of the upper furface is the
fmaheft, and lodges the great veins of the penis; the infe-
rior, broader and deeper, receives the urethra, to which it i»

i;^;itcd

G E N E R A T I O N.

united by a clofe cellular fubllance. Tlie fides cf tlie body
rrc rounded and covered by the fl;in, its anterior extremity
forms a blunt point, received into a concavity, at the bafe of
the glans. The two parts arc united by a very denfe cellu-
lar liibftance, r.nd fomc blood-vefTcls pafs between them,
but there is no other kind cf communication ; and air or in-
jc^'^ion, thrown into the ci-lliilar fubftr.ncc of the coi-pus cp-
vcrnofuin, do not f:nd their way into the glans. The latter,
therefore, is not an e>;panfion or continuation of the former,
as fome old anatomitls fuppofed. The pofterior extremity
is bifurcated, and its two prolongations form the two crura
penis already mentioned. Thefe begin in a pointed form a
little above the tuberofities ef tlie ifchia, from the inner
fiirface of the bone, to which they are attached as far as the
fymphyfis. Below and within' they are covered by the
creifiores and accelerator mufcles, above and without they
adhere ilrongly to the bone. They leave between them a
triangular fpace, iilled by fat, and by the urethra, which oc-
cupies its middle. Three parts arc to be confidered in the
corpus cavernofum, viz. an external membrane, a pecuHar
fpongy fubftance, and a longitudinal feptum, occupying its
middle. The outer membrane is of a fibrous nature, very
thick and firm, whitifli in its colour, and bedowing on the
body its peculiar figure. Its external lurface is covered
with a denfe cellular tilTue: on the infide it adheres clofely
to tlie fpongy fubftance. Thinner on the crura, in the
groove lodging the urethra, and at the anterior extremity, it
prefents in thefe fituations a livid tint, produced by the con-
tained blood, while it is thicker every whe:-e elfe, whitiili,
and opake. In the former fituations there are fome per-
forations for the admifiion of blood-vefiels. It is continuous
and Ilrongly interv.-oven with the perioftcum of the os in-
jiominatum, at the origin of the crura. It partakes entirely
of the charafters belonging to fibrous oi-gans ; and is made
up of fibres varioufly interlaced, and forming feveral ftrata.
It is found to be very hard and refilling, when expofed to
the aftion of a cutting inftrument. It experiences a paiTive
dilatation from the influx of blood in erection, and returns to
its former ftate, \\hcn this extenfion goes off. It does not
fecm to podefs any vital properties.

The f])ongy matter of the corpus cavernofum is a cel-
lular fubftance, com])ofed of very fine and numerous plates
and fibres detached from the internal furface of the fibrous
membrane, and decuflating each other in every direftion.
Its cells are ail communicated together, and are mofe or lefs
filled with blood, whichcan be removed by forcible fqueezing,
or repeated wafhings. Various fibrous threads crofs the cel-
lular fubftance in diiferent fituations, and are attached to the
furfsce of the fibrous- membrane. They are faid to prevent
rxceiiive diftention of the corpora cavernofa. An artery
and a vein pafs through the centre of the cellular fubftance
on each lide, from behind forwards. Their minute ramifi-
cations muft, undoubtedly, communicate with the cells of
the organ, fince injeftion will pafs from the arteries into
thefe cells ; and injefted flviids or air, after filling the corpus
cavernofum, gain admifiion into tlie veins. The blood
contained in the corpus cavernofum has always a dark
livid appearance in the dead body ; but it is red during life,
as may be feen in amputation of the penis, or in living ani-
mals. Its quantity vaiies very confidcrably, according to the
condition of the penis ; when it is ir.creafed, the whole cor-
pus cavernofum is diilended; from the beny origin to the
glans, it is elongated and hardened, and eredlicn is produced.

The feptum of the penis divides it]ongitudin;;liy into two

portions, v.hich moft anatomifts confider as diftindl tubes,

under the name of corpora cavernofa. In order to fee it

well, the fibrous membrane fhould be cut through on each

-J

fide of '.he penis, and all the fpongy fubftance removed ; thd
feptum will then be found continuous, by its two edges, with
the fibrous membrane, and compofcd of ilrong whitifti
fibres, not forming an entire plane, but leaving intervals be-
tween them, at which the two fides of the corpus cavernofam
communicate freely. From this ttrufture the name of feptum
peftiniformo" has been derived. The intervals between the
fibres are larger towards the inferior than the fuperior edge
of the feptum. At the part vvhere the two crura meet to-
gether, the feptum is complete, it degenerates into feparate
fafciculi towards the oppofite enl of the organ, and tlie in-
tervals between tl;efe are more confiderable, as we approach
nearer to the front extremity.

The dimenficnsof the penis are determined in great mea-
fure by the corpus cavernofum ; and to this body the organ
owes that finnnefs in the eredled ftate, which enables it to
fulfil its ofiice in the bufinefs of generation.

Each of the crura penis gives attachment at its origin to
a tolerably ftrong niufcle, nan-.ed the ei-e^or penis, probably,
becaufe when a power, capable of producing the efFeft in-
dicated by that nam.e, was fought for by anatomifts, this
niufcle feemed to be their only refource. At prefent the
name appears very ill adapted, fince the mufcles in quef-
tion obvioudy draw the penis downwards asd backwards, in-
ftead of upwards and againft the pubes. Tisofe who ex-
plain the ere£lion of the penif, by the compreffion of its vein,
fliould find out a power capable of elevating . the organ
againft the bone, and of c?a-rying it forwards. It has a ten-
dinous origin, below the attachment of the cms penis, from
the inner furface of the tuberofity, and ramus of the ifchium.
It pa'fes forwards, upv/ards, anda little inwards, and is firmly
implanted in the fibrous membrane of the crus penis. It
will draw the corpus cavernofum downwards, fo as to bring
it more nearly into a direilion, fuitable to the cavity of the
vagina : it has a flight power of fliortening the crus penis,
and thereby exprefiing the blood into the anterior part of
the organ, fo as to increafe its turgefcence. Its origin and
courfe render it completely incapable of compreffing the
large vein of the penis.

The t:r£thra, which, in the female, belongs only to the uri-
nary paifages, conftitutes moreover in man an efiential part
of the generative apparatus. Its length is very confiderable,
and its organization very complicated, in confequence of the
latter office. It has conneftions with almoft all the parts
belonging to this apparatus ; the ejaculatory and proftatic
dufts ojien into it ; it is clofe'y connedled to the corpus ca-
ver-iofum, and terminated by the glans. In the male fub-
jeiil it forms a canal extended from the neck of the bladder
to the end of the penis, and giving paffage to the urine and
feinen. Its length, which varies in different individuals, and
in fubjecls of different ages, is about nine or ten inches in the
adult. At its origin it penetrates the proilate, paffing for-
wards and downwards : it goes under the fyrnphyfis pubis,
and then afcends in front of that p?.rt, between- the two
crura penis, in order to reach tlie inferior furface of the
ccrpiis cavernofum, and becom.e attached to the channel
which we have already dcfcribed. Being thus united to the
corpus cavernofum, it runs along the whole length of that
body, and follows its direction. Lattly, it traverfes the
gkras penis, and opens at its extremity, by a vertical flit
with fiightly rounded edges of a bright red colour. Hence
the canal forms in its courfe curvatures rcfembling thofe of
the letter S ; but this is only when the penis is relaxed ; for,
in the erefted itate, the curvature in front of the pubes, of
which the concavity is turned dov/nwards, is entirely effaced,
and that only remains, which is below the pubes, and of
which the concavity faces upwards.

The

GENERATION.

The canal is divided into thtse portions, diftinguinied
from each othei by their orjjanization. The firtt, of about
an inch in length, which pafTes thro ugli the j)rofLate, has re-
ceived no name ; the fecoiid, of about equal extent, conti-
nued from the prollate to the buib, is called the membranous
portion ; the latter correfponds above to the inferior fur-
face of the fymphyfis pubis, but is about half or three
quarters of an inch below the bone. Below it is connefied
by cellular fu'oflance to the furface of the reftum, and at the
fides, th'.? front edges of the levatorcs ani are in contaA with
it. This part of the canal has been called the membranous
portion, from a notion that the membrane of the uretlira was
covered here by no external inveflment, but in faft it is
clofely furrounded by a thick ftratum of mufcular fibres.
The moH interior of thefe are circular, and lie clofe upon
the membrane of the urethra. Mr. Wilfou h.as lately
defcribed fome fibres, arifing by a double tendon from tlie
arch of the pubes, defcending on each fide of the urethra

the bull), 7-2Cths; in the middl;; of the proftate ii-2otns;
at the neck of the bladder g-zoths. Home on Strictures.,
vol. i. p. ■,;4, and 2j.

The fitualion of the eminence, on which the cjaculatorr
du3s open, called the vera montanum, in the proftatic part of
the urethra, and its figure, have been already noticed ; as well
as the opcninj^o of the prolhitic dufts in the fame part of the
canal. In the icli of its extent, the internal furface of the
canal pofieffes a reddifli colour In the membranous and
fpongy portions, longitudinal folds are obfervsble, diiap-
pearing on extenilon. Thefe are not feen in the proftate^ nor
at the gl^ins, becaufe the firm texture of the parts which ad-
here fo very clofely to the mucous membrane, keeps it con-
ftantly fmooth. Hence the diameter of thefe parts is nearly
uniform at all times. The fides of the canal exhibit-openings
of numerous fmall oblique duels, frequently named after
Morgagni. Thefe are only feen in that part of the urethra
' ich is in front of the bulb, and are fometimes cnlled

wliicli is m

.nnd united under the canal. (Seethe Medico-chirurgical lacunx ; their number and fize vary indifferent fubjecls.

'.'ranfaftions, vol. i.) Thefe fibres are conneftcd in front with They run from behind forwards, and terminate by l^mple

■.'.-.i accelerator urinre, and behind with the levatores ani. oblique orifices. Th.ey are ahvays very numerous about the

They will comprefs the canal when they contract, and, by foffa navicnlaris, from wliich fome have explained the cir-

clofing it at the time of emifiion, will prevent the feir.inal fluid cumilance of this part being particularly afi'eftcd in gonor-

from. being driven backwards by the aftion of the accelerator, rhoea. They confiit of (hort canals, formed in the membra-

The third portion of the urethra, including all the reft ot
the canal, is called the fpongy part. It begins by an ob-
long rounded portion, named the bulb of the urethra. This
is fituated below the union of tlie crura penis, between
which it makes a remarkable prominence. Below, and on
the fides, it is covered by the accelerator urinas (fee AcCE-
xerator), and by Cowper's glands. Together with the
two precedirtg parts of the canal, the bulb forms the firlt
curvature of the uretlu'a, and its fides are ftrongly connefted
to the arch of the pubis by means of a fibrous expanfion,
termed the triangular ligament, of- the urethra. The latter
part poffefles the figure, which its name indicates ; the bafe
of the triangle is turned downwards, the apex upwards,
ccrrelponding to the junftion of the ofia pubis, and the fides
are attached to the rami of tl^t^ pubes. It is perforated by
the paffage of the urethra, which it holds firmlv in its re-
' ive fituation to the bone. In the reft of its extent, the
vngy portion of tlie urethra correfponds above to the
channel in the under furface cf the corpus cavernofum. Be-
lo.v, it is covered near the bulb by the accelerator, then by
th.e cellular fubilance of the fcrotum, and afterwards by the
integuments of the penis.

Tiie diameter of the canal is by no means uniform in.its
vvhole length. It is large in the middle of the proftate, and
fmallcr where it enters and leaves the gland. The canal is
liere rather flattened laterally. In the membranous portion
it is jierfedliy cylindrical, but fmall in its fize ; and the nar-
roweft portion of the whole canal is juft where the bulb and
membranous part join. In the bulb it is again confiderably
enlarged, and after contrafting flightiy, preferves a cylin-
drical figure and uniform fize to the bafe of the glans.
There it again dilates, and forms what fome anatoraifls
have called the fofl'a navicularis ; its anterior opening is fome-
vvhat narrower, Mr. Home took the trouble of afcertain-
ing the dinienfions of the canal by filling it with wax, and
meafuring the call thus formed. The length was nine inches ;
from the external orifice to the bulb, fcven. The membra-
nous portion \.'as i\ inch, and the proftatic part of the canal
half an incli. The diameter of the raft, at ;- of an inch from

nous fides of the urethra, lined by a continuation of the in-
ternal membrane of this canal, and about large enough to
admit a large hog's briftle. They are of various lengths,
but commoily about a quarter of an inch. Sometimes
fjveral fmaller join into one larger duCl. If carefully exa-
mined, their whole Jiumber will not be found Icfs than 60 or
70. No glandukr apparatus can be difcerned connedlcd
with them. In thefe tubes the mucous fluid is fecreted, by
v.-hich the furface of tlie urethra is fmeared, and defended
from the aftion cf the urine. Where thefe lacKux do not exift,
as in the bulb, membranous portion and proftate, a proteClin'j-
fluid is furnifhed from other lources, as Cowper's glands and
the proftate. The fluid of the lacunx feems to be a clear
vifcid fecretion, fimilar in appearance and tenacity to the
white of egg. In this form it can be exprelTed from the
openings on the furface of the urethra. Under various cir-
cumftances cf difeafe it is ir.creafed in quantity, and va-
riouHy altered from its natm'al properties, as in gonorrhoea
and gleet, and in ftrifturc. In fome of thefe inftances, it is
a clear, tranfparent, vifcid fluid, being the natural fecretion
in a more abundant form.

The fides of the urethra are differently organized in dif-
ferent parts ; it is lined indeed throughout by a mucous
membrane, but this is covered externally by very different
ftruclurcs. Where the canal is pafTipg through the proftate,
the fides are formed merely by the mucous membrane, clofely
united to the gland by a dcnfe cellular texture. The finn
fubftance of the proftate, fo intimately connciSled with thff
canal, gives to it a ftrength and thickaefs in this part. The
membranous portion is differently circumftanced ; this is the
thinneft, and leaft firmly fuppoited divifion of tlie canal,
and, as it is placed in the bend of the urethra, is particularly
liable to injury in the employir-enl of the catheter. Even
liCre the membrane is covered by a denfe cellular texture,
continued from the proftate, and by tlie mufcular fibres
already dcfcribed. In the fpongy portion of the uretlira,
the fides of the canal are covered by a fubftance of peculiar
organization, analogous in its effects to that v.hii-'a fills the
corpora cavernofa penis. This is called corpus ipongiofum

_the external orifice, was 9-20ths of an inch in a fubjeft of urethrx, or corpus cavernofum. It begins in- front of the
80 year.Sj and 7-2Cths in one of 30 years ; at 4 1 inches from membranous part of the canal, by a large protuberance
t'le external orifice 7-20ths ; at the bulb of the urethra already mentioned, as the bulb of the urethra. It form.s an
i2-20thj; in the membianous part, immediately adjoi.mng oblong rather elongated produclion, hanging between the

crura

GENERATION.

.nuia penis rmd btlaw tlic canal of tlio urctlira, fomctiincs
hoariiig a (light appcaranco of diviiiou into two laloral pails
liy a middle linr, and terminating behind by a rounded end.
I'he bulb coriefponds only to the inferior furface of tlie
uivlhra ; but a thinner layer of the corpui fpongiofuin, con-
tinued from the bulb, com tg the urethra on all iides in Iront
of that body to the end of the canal. Here it is. a^fain in-
ereafed in quantity, and reflected over the anterior extremity
of the corpus cavcrnofuni penis, to form the glan".. The
fpoiigv fubilance furrouiids the urellira uniformly on all iides.
It ii clofely connected to the corpus cavernofum above by
cellular fubftance, and by vefltls which are fccn when the
uretiira is detached from its channel ; below and on the fidt s
it is covered by a cellular (heath, common to it with Die
corpus cavernofum penis. Tlic external lurface of liie
corpus fpongiofum confifts of a thin but compact: fibrous
layer; and the interval between this and the mucous mem-
brane fecnis to be filled by a very lino cellular net-work, the
cells of which contain r'cnous blood. The tenuity of tin-
external layer occalioiis tiie part to polfefs a livid colour, us
the tint of the blood is difcernib!?. Thi. net-work is
covered in the glans by a higlvly organized fpecies ot .(km,
through whicli the colour of the venous blood is not d'.f-
cernible. The corpus fpongiofum does not coniill, ac-
cording to the common opinion, of a cellular texture ; but
it is made up of very fmall and repeatedly convoluted veins,
as may be afcertained dilHnftly enough by infpefting atten-
tively the furface of it, when fucccfsfuUy injected : this
■Tiruftare is inore evident in foir.e animals, as particularly in
the dog. The bulk of the corpus fpongiofum depend* on
the quantity of blood which it contains ; and this part admits
of the fame diilinclion, as the fpongy fubilance of the cor-
pora cavernofa penis, and for the fame purpofes. Air, im-
pelled into any part, fmds its way readily over the wkole ex-
tent of the fubftance, and the fame circumilance may be ob-
ferved of injection. It may be readily injefted from the
large vein at the back of the penis ; but the valves fometimcs
prevent the fuccefs of this attempt.

The canal of the urethra is lined by a mucous membrane,
continuous with the lining a£ the bladder at one extremity,
and with the cutaneous covering of the glans at the other,
and fending prolongations into the mucous finufes of IVIor-
gagni, the dacls of Cowper'e glands, the ejaculatory dufts,
and thofe of the proltate. Its furface is perfectly fmooth,
excepting the longitudinal wrinkles, which are effaced by
extcniion. The colour is a bright red at the external orifice,
n-i.d in the foUa navicularis : in other parts it appears pale,
v hen the blood lias been expreffed from the corpus fpongio-
fum. But the injection of coloured fluids proves that it re-
ceives every where an abundant fupply of blood-veffels. Its
fiibltar.ce is very thin, and the opinion of its being covered
1)V a continuation of the epidermis does not feem to be at all
well-founded, as there is a well marked line of feparation at
the g'ans, and no cuticle can be thewn in the canal. The
external furface is rough and cellular for its connection to
furrounding parts. No appearance of mufcular ftrufture
can be difcerncd in any part of the membrane. The intro.
duction of an inftrument iliews this membrane to pofTefs
acute feniibilitv", and the repetition of tiie practice evinces
the force of habit in blunting fuch feelings. The firft time
of palhng a bougie or found is fometimes attended v.ith
fainting, ar.d almoit alwavs with (harp p-.'.in, but after a [c\v
times, no unpleafant fenfation is excited. Thepaffage of the
urine is attended ordinarily with no fenfation ; but this be-
comes moll at utely painful when the membrane is inflamed. It
, has been much difputcd whether or no this canal pofTefs a
f ontraftile power in its own lining. The phenomena are

ftrongly in farour of the afEi-mative, although no mufcular
fibres have been demonftrated. The temporary obltruttion
to the flow of urine, under circumftanCLS of difeafc, and
the fudden celfation of this inconvenience, can hardly be
expl.<ined without allowing a contractile force to the mem-
brane. The expulfion of inilruments from the canal is
anotlier plicnoinenonof the lame kind. That the urethra is
extenlible,andthat it returns again to itsoriginal fi/e, isproved
b^' tl'.e pailage of inftruments. Haller dates that chemical
il;mulaiits v.-llcai:fc it to contraft.

'i'heg/fifis is the body furinouiiting the anterior and upper
part of the corpus cavernoium penis, and forming the front
extremity of the organ, of which it augments tlie length
in a trivial degree. It has t!ie form of a cone, (lightly
flattened from before backwards, with its bafe very oblicjue-
Iv truncated. Its apex prrfents the aperture of the urethra
already defcribed. Below this, is placed the frenum coimeCl-
ing it to the prepuce ; and on each !ide of this fold it fwcUs
into a fmall convex protuberance (ccUiculi glandis). This
partis called by Haller " fenins acerrimi fedes.'' The
glans cannot be laid to extend below the urethra, as that
part belongs to the corpus ipongiofum. Since the bafis is
fo obliijueiy truncated, the depth ot the organ is very incon-
fiderable nt the two convexities already named ; but it is
much mure confiderable above, where it is produced overtke
corpus cavernofum, and terminated by a thxk rifing edge
of a femi-lunar outli.ne, with the convexity turned back-
wards, called tlie corona glandis. This margin, fulEcicntly
thick and prominent to elevate tiie integuments, and caule a
perceptible rifing externally, forms the front boundary of a
cul-de-iac, or gutter, caufed by the reflection of the inner
membrane of the prepuce over the glans. Below, the corona
glandis is interrupted by a fmall groove, which extends to
the orifice of the urethra, and gives aLtnchment to the fold
which forms the frenum. In iome lubjeiSts tl:is groove is
hardly perceptible. The colliculi glandis are continuous
below with the corpus ipongiofum ; the bails of the glans is
hollowed out, and the anterior extremity of the corpus ca-
ve.'nofum penis is received iiixo the concavity. In confe-
quence of this ftruClure, although the glans appears to be
an inch or more in length, it makes very little addition to the
length of the penis.

The fubftance of the organ confifts of a fpongy matter
fimilar to and continuous from that of the urethra. Air
or iniedted fluids pafs readily from one into the other. This
matter is made up, as in the urethr.', of convoluted veins,
and it admits of the fame changes of laxity and ereftion
from the fame caufes. Sometimes there is an appearance as
if the corpus fpongiofum urethrje and the glans were fepj.
rated from each otlier by a feptum. The fubilance of the
glans is always more dcnfe, and contains lefs blood than that
of the urethra. The furface of the organ is covered by a
very valcular and dehcate production of the integuments,
continuous towards the apex of the glans with the raucous
lining of the urethra, and at its balls with the inner layer of
the prepuce. This covering is very thin, and imooth and
(oft to the touch. Its external furface is compofed of a de-
licate epidermis; this is fucceeded by a layer of the true
ik'm, of a very ibft and delicate ilrudture, covered with nu-
PAerous fniall villous procefTes, which are mofl diilinCtly feen
about the coivr.a glandis. The moil favourable method of
obterving thele villi is to plunge tlje part in boiling water,
which feparates the cuticular coi-ering; they are then vili-
ble in valt numbers over the whole furface, giving it an iirc.
gularity in its appearance. This circumftance in the ilruc-
tureof the glans was firll demonftrated by Albinus (Annol.
Acadcm. lib. iii.), and is admitted by Ruyfch and Winilow,

jilthough

GENERATION.

although fome anatomifts liavc queflioncd it, probably be-
caufe the demonllration is rather difficult. That the nerves
of the organ are continued into thefe p?pil!a!, as they are in
the tongue, and that the exquifite fenfibility of the glans
arifes from this organization, is ratlier matter of probable
conjeAure, than the refult of direft proof. The blood-vcf-
fels of this cutaneous production are numerous, fo that a

with the prepuce. It is thin, furnifiied with numerous fc-
baceous glands, particularly at the under furface, and marked
m that iituation by a ro gh line, called the raphe, running
along the middle of the organ, and continued with a fimilar
one on the fcrotum. It is darker coloured than the integu-
ments in general, and has a few hairs towards the root of
the organ. The cellular texture connefting the Hi in to the

general rednefs is produced by minute injeftions. The op- penis is very loofe, and contains no fat except clofe to the
pofed furfaces of the glaus and prepuce ai-e fmeared over pubes ; hence the (kin adapts itfelf with the greateft facility
with a white, friable, and untluous lubftance, of a very pe- to the varying bulk of the organ, falling into wrinkles in the

cuhar odour, moiftening the parts and preventing the efFefts
which might otherwife foUov/ their mutual attrition. In
animals there are manifeft glands to fecrete this fubftance, and
an appai"atus of glandular ftrudlure deftined to the fame
office has been defcribed i.n man. This kind of febaccous
matter is formed in other fituations of-the body by peculiar

collapfed ft^te, and extended more fmoothly in the erected
condition. It is continuous with the cellular fubibnce of
the fcrotum, groins, and pubes, and air palTes readily between
them. Towards the furface of the corpus cavemofum it
becomes more dcnfe, and affumes the form of a regular mem-
branous covering ; it is more and more loofe towards the

he

properties of that fluid, would be immediately overturned denfe, cellular, elongated, and flattened band, proceed-
by the faft, that a fimilar depofition occurs under the pre- ing from the front of the fymphyfis pubis, running along
putium chtoridis of the female, where the urine could not the cellular tifTue of the oro-an, and expanded under the fldn.

form it. Although in many fubjefts no glands can be feen. Its limits and figure are not very determined, and the knife

they are occafionally obvious enough, and are now univer- "f •'-- j^t. r\_ r. ■ n ...

fally admitted, under the name of glandule odoriferae.

Morgagni, in his Adverfaria, has given a very particular de-

fcription of them, and HaUer confirms his ftatements. They

are hardifh, white, and very fmall bodies, particularly ob

fervable about the corona glandis, and in the channel behind

of the diffeftor cften influences its fize and appearance.

The prepuce or forc-fldn is a loofe fold of the cutaneous
covenngof the penis, continued over the glans, without ad-
hering to it, and affording a more or lefs complete covering
to^the^ extremity of the penis, [ts length varies in different

ind mdividuals ; fometimes it is produced confiderably in front
Ifo of the glans, and its opening is then generally fmall. Its ex-

that part, where the prepuce is reflefted. Morgagni alio ui uue gians, anc us opening

mentions them near the frenum in the prepuce. " I have ternal furface offers the fame ftrufture and appearance as th;>
feen," fays Haller, " five rows of them in the corona, but integuments covering the body of the penis, and is fmcoth
their number diminilhed towards the frenum,' fo that no more or wrinkled, according to the (late of the organ. The inner
than two rows could be feen."' They can be obferveJ moft furface, much fofter to the touch, is in contaA with the
advantageoufly when the cuticle has been removed. That glans, to which it has a membranous attachment below,
the orifices of thefe bodies can be feen, and their febaceous termed the frenum. The latter is continuous, on one fide,
contents fqueezed out, is not fo clearly afcertained ; but with the internal membrane of the prepuce, and fixed, on
both thefe fads are affi.-rted by competent witnefles. They the other, to the fmall longitudinal groove whicli we have
may be rendered more evident when enlarged in difeafe ; and defcribed in the under part of the rrlans ; and it ends in this
might be miftaken for venereal pimples, if their fym.metri- fituationby a prominent hne fixed to the very opening of the
cal arrangement did not throw light on the appearance, urethra. The frenum limits the extent to which the rctrac-
That the matter fecreted by thefe glands accumulates under tion of theprcpuce can be carried ; but allows the organ either
the fore-fliin, in the form of a white, foft, and greafy fub- to be brought'fufficientlv forwards to cover the whole glans,
Itance, where the necefiar)' attentions to perfonal cleanlinefs or to be carried backwards fai- enough to expofe ils whole
are neglected, and that in hot weatlier, it may become acrid furface. In the latter fliate the frenum is on the itretch, and,
and irritatmg, fo as to produce excoriation and even ulcera- if the prepuce be moved forcibly in this direction, it ma\-
tion, are well known fadts. The inhabitants of warm cli- even be corn, as in coition : this accident is partieularly
mates are chicly expofed to thefe inconveniences, and the likely to occur, if the (hortnefs of the fold allows only a
mofl; important advantage of circumcifion confifts in its ob- partial expofure of the glans. Such a difpofition of parts
viating fuch accumulations. Hence we knovv that Chriftians, rendering the aCt of copulation painful, might require a fee-
living under the burning fun of Senegambia, fubmit to this tion of the frenum. Thebafisofthc prepuce is attached, on
operation, and that uncircumcifed Europeans, living in the the infide, to the bafe of the glans, behind which it is reflected

the fourteenth century, obferved that circunicifion was ufe- tirely back behind the glans ; and, even where it is more

fultomany others befides Jews and Saracens :" propterea contrafted, much larger than the orifice of the urethra. In

quod non congregantur fordities in radio balani et caleface- fome cafee its opening is fo fmall as not to allow the retrac-

rent ipfum.'' Chirurgix, tr. vi. do6tr. ii. p. m. iii. tion of the organ, and even to obllruct the flow of urine ;

The glans penis pofl'efies a very exquifite fenfibility, par- this conftitutes phymofis : in others, it can be withdrawn'

ticularly m perfons where it is habitually covered by the pre- but the tightnef? is fo great that it may not be roffible to

puce; this feehng is only obferved on certain occafions, reltore it ; that is termed paraphjT.iofis.' It has been affcrted

and is the fource of that phyfical fenfation experienced at of fome races in tlie Eall that the prepuce is iinnfually lon»-

the expidfion of the feminal fluid. It fwclls and becomes and that this ilrufture particularly favours the accumulation

firm in the adt of eredtion, as well as the reft of the penis. of the matter fecreted bv the glandulx odoriferje ; fo that

The cutaneous covering of thepenis is continuous, atone circumcifion has been more efpecially neceffarv on that
■r,d, with that of the fcrotum and pubes, and at the other count.

Vol. XVI.

TUe

GENERATION.

Tlie integuments of the penis, having arrived at the bafe
of the glans, are continued forwards to its apex, as far as
the opening of the prepuce. There they acquire a different
organization, are folded back in a contrary diredlion, and
terminate by a firm attachment round the bafis of the glans.
The two layers, of which the exterior does not differ from
tlie /l<in of the penis, except in being thinner, are connected
by a ftratum of very loofe cellular uibflance, perfedly free
from fat. The laxity of this cellular matter is fo confidcr-
able, that, when the prepuce is-witlidrawn as far as poffiblc,
the two component layers are uo longer in contai't, but
feparated completely. The furfaccs, by which they before
adhered, arc now apphed to the corpora caveriiofa, ainl the
integuments of the penis are withdrawn towards ti;-. .rabes.
The I'repuce feems defigned to prolcfl the glans, and defend
it from the effefts of contact, and rubbing againll external
objects. Yet it is not effential to the functions of the organ,
that it (hould poffefs fncii a covering, as the dellruC\ion of it
by circumcifion or difeafe proves. The covering of the
glans becomes afterwards thicker and harder, but the pecu-
Ear fenfibility, excited in the performance of the generative
fnnftions, does not feem to be di'.iiiniihed.

The arteries of the male ger.-rative organs are chiefly
furnifhed by the trunk of the pi:dendal; but ihe proftate
and vcficulae feminalcs receive branches alfo from the vefical
arteries. The integuments of the external parts have
branches from the perineal artery, and from the veffels of the
thigh. The veins of the penis unite, for the moft part, into
a large trunk at the middle of the upper furface of the
organ, which paffes under the fymphyfis pubis, and opens
into a large plexus furrounding the proftate and neck of the
bladder. Tliefe end partly in the hypogaflric veins, and
pa.-tly in the inferior mefenteric. Belides thefe there are
fuperticial veins in the prepuce and penis, terminating in the
faphena and femoral vein. The lymphatics of tlie penis are
divided into fuperficial and deepfeated. The former arife
from the prepuce and integuments, and go to th.e fuperficial
inguinal gland?. Tlie latter, arifing from the urethra and
corpus cavernofum, enter the pelvis in company with the
branches of the pudendal artery, and join the liypogaftric
plexus. The nerves of the penis are of confiderable fize,
and are derived principally from the 2d, 3d, and 4th facral
pairs.

De-udopemer.l of the Male generative Organs . — As the function
of generation docs not commence until a confiderable period
after birth, the developeinent of its organs in the human
fvibjecl follows a law derived from this circuniftane.?. They
undergo no remarkable change from birth till the age of
puberty, at which time the procefs of nutrition is carried
on in them with great activity. But thsy may be obferved
at an early period in the foetus, where, without liaving any
remarkable predominance over other parts, they are con-
fiderably advanced, as if nature, in iketching out the organi-
zation, had widied to mark dcx:idedly the diftinguiming
fexaal traits.

In the foetal ftate, we fhall dcfcribe merely the condition
«f the tcllis and fpermatic cord, as thefe are the only parts
differing effentially at that time from the fta'e in which they
are found in the newly born child. The rcil of the genera-
tive' apparatus undergoes no remarkable changes, iintii the
time of birlh, and we (hall therefore not notice them until
that time.

T here is no part in the body wliich ur.d^rgoes fo re-
markable a c'lange in its fituation as the tciticle ; and,
if it be inter.-.'.pted m this procefs, a particular difeafe is very
commonly c.co ificn.'d. This organ, wliich, at its firft for-
mation, lies in the abdominal cavity at the inferior margin

of the kidney, furrounded by the inteftines, pafTes in the
advanced periods of utero-geftation into the fcrotum, and,
as the canal through which it defcended is flint up, never
regains its original fituation. At the time of birth, or very
foon after, man and moft other mammalia have both tefticles
in the fcrotum. This remarkable change was firlt noticed
and defcribed al>out the ijiiddle of the laft century, when
many celebrated anatomills turned their attention to it, in-
fomuch that it is difficult to determine with whom the credit
of being the lirft drfcriber refts. The peculiar kind of
rupture, called hernia congenita, whicii takes place when
the defcent of the teftis is not accompliHied in the regular
manner, was the circumftance which principally led to the
difcoverv, and more minute invefiigation of the fafts.
When furgeons began to reafon on the caufes and feats of
ruptures, and the llrufture of the hernial fac, they naturally
turned their attention towards thefe parts, and foon difco-
vered that kind of the complaint in which the parts eccupy
the canal formed by the defcent of the tellis, and to which
the name of congenital was given, becaufe the ftate of parts
favouring its occurrence commonly exiils at the time of
birth. The examination of the origin and peculiarities of
this affeftion, led to a complete elucidation of the whole
affair, in a feries of excellent publications.

Reneaulme de la Garaune, a French furgeon, who wrote
a treatise on ruptures in 1726, has the firft hint on the fub-
jeft ; he fpeal:s of the inteftines and omentum efcaping
through the fame canal at which the teftis has paffcd out.
Among the numerous claims, which the great Swifs pliyfio-
login poffeffes, to the gratitude and refpeft of all medical
men, is that of having given thi firft clear account of this
matter. Indeed, there is hardly any part of the fubjeft
which has not been difcuffed and explained in the writings of
this great man ; and, as the obfervation of La Garaune is a
fingle and indirect hint, we mufl: affign the honour of the
difeovery entirely to Haller. (See Commere. litterar. No-
rimberg. 1735, p. 197; I737> P- 3- Programma, hernia-
rum obfervationes ahquot. Goetting, 1739. Opufcula
pathologica, Laufanne, 1755.) S;:on after thefe publica-
tions, the fubject was taken up in England by the Huriters.
Dr. ^V. H. according to his brother's ftatement, had found
both teftes lying in the abdomen in a ftill-born child of feven
or eight months, fome years before the publication of
Haller's " Opufcula Pathologica," and could not explain the
matter to his fatisfaftion. Mr. J. Hunter pubhTlied a very
full and accurate account of the original fituation, and of its
change in the teftis. (See Medical Commentaries, p. i Lond..
1762, cap.ix. ) About the faiTie time the obfer->'ations of
Mr. Pott were made public. The vaft practical opportuni-
ties enjoyed by this gentleman enabled him to explain all the
pathological circumltances connected with the defcent of the
teftis ; his knowledge of the anatomy was probably derived
from the fources already pointed out. (See accannt of a
peculiar kind of rupture frequently attendant upon new
born children, and fometimes met with in adults, London,
1765. Treatife on the Hydroccl.-, feet. 3. p. I2-. Chirurgi-
cnl obfervations and cafes relative to ruptures, fcft. 2.)
Camper, who united 10 fuccefsfully anatomical and furgical
purfuits, iiiveftigated this matter with confiderable atten-
tion, and gave the refults of his labours to the public in the
Hiarlerii Tranfaetions, v. 6. and 7 The works of Neubaur
and Lcbftein muft not be omitted in this enumeration ; that
of the former is entitled, " De tunicis vag-inalibus teftis et
funiculi fpermatici." Gieffx, 1767. The differtation of the
latter, " Dl- hernia congenita, i iqua inteftinum in contaCtu
teftis eft," Argentorat 1771, contains a v?ry excellent and
complete account of the vihole matter, both in an anatomi-
cal

GENERATION.

cal and furgical point of view. In addition to thefe we have
to notice, as containing^ good defcriplions and ufeful informa-
tion, the following more modern works. Girard's Appendix
adjefta tabulis pollhumis Santorini. Palletta nova guberna-
culi teftis Hunteriani et tunicse vaginalis anatomica defcnp-
tio. Mediolani, 1777. Brugnone de teftium in fcetu pofitu,
&c. Wrifberg obfcrvationes anatomies; de tefticuloriim ex
abdomine in fcrotum defcenfii, &c. in the Gottingcn com-
mentaries for 1778. Vicq d'Azyr recherclies fur la ilrr.iSiire
et la poiition des teiiicules, &c. in the Memoires de I'Acad.
dcs Sciences, annce 1780. Martin commentarius de hernioe
congenitx ortu, &c. in the Nova Ada Rig. Soc. Scient.
Upfal. V. 3. Sandifort icones hermce congenitx, Lugd.
Bat 1781, 4to.

Until the approach of birth, tlie teftes of the foetus are
lodged within the cavity of t!-> abdomen, and may therefore
be i-eckoned among the abdominal vifcera. They ai-e fitu-
ated immediately below the kidneys, on the fore-part of the
pfox mufcks, and bv the fide of the rettiim, where this
jnteiline is pafiing down into the cavity of the pelvis ; for in
the fictus, the reft urn, which is much larger in proportion
to the capacity of the pelvis, than in the fuil-grown lubjeft,
lies before the lumbar vertcbrx, as well as before the facrum.
Indeed the cife is nearlv the fame with regard to all the
contents of the pelvis ; that is, their fituation is much .ligher
in the fcetus than in the adult ; the iigmoid flexure of the
colon, part of the redlum, the greatetl part of the bladder,
the fundus uteri, the Fallopian tubes, &c. being placed in
the foetus above the liollow of the pelvis, in the comnion or
great abdominal cavity. At this tin'.e the figure of the
gland is much the fame as in the adult, and its pofition is
the fame as when it is in the fcrotum, that is, one end is
placed upwards, the other downwards ; one flat f^de is to
the right, the other to the left ; and one edge is turned
backwards, the other forwards. But as the teitis is lefs
firmly connefted to the furrounding parts, while it is in the
loins, its pofition may vary a little. The moft natural feems
to be when the anterior edge is turned direftly forwards ;
but the lead touch will throw that either to the right Jide,
or to the left, and then the flat fide will be turned forwards.
It is attaclied to the pfoas mufcle all along its pollerior
edge, except juft at its upper extremity. This attachment
is formed by the peritoneum, which covers the telHs and
gives it a fmooth furface, in the fame manner as it envelopes
the other loofe abdominal vifcera. Tlie epididymis lies
along the outer and pofterior edge of the organ, in the fame
relative pofition, which it occupies at a more advanced age.
This part is larger in proportioo, and adheres behind to the
pfoas. When the foetus is very young, the adhefion of the
teftis and epididymis to the pfoas is very narrow, the part is
confequently more loofe and prominent. As its age ad-
vancees, the adhefion becomes broader and tighter. The
blood-veflcis, like thofe of moft parts of the body, com-
monly arife from the neareft large trunks ; inz. from the
aorta and cava, or from the emulgeats. The nerves too
come from the neareft fource ; that is, from the abdominal
plexufes of the intercoftal. In refpect, therefore, to its
fupply of nerves and of veffels, this organ may be reckoned
an abdominal vifcus ; and this circumilance of its ])eculiar
fituation before birth accounts for its being fupplied after-
wards from fo remote a fource.

The vas deferens, inftead of running upwards from the
lower end of the teitis, as it does at a more advanced period
of life, goes downwards and inwards in it;; whole courfe ; it
continues, indeed, in the direftion of the epididymis. It
turns invaids from the lower end of that organ, behind the
upper extremity ef the gubernaculiim, wluch we fhall de-

fcribe prefently ; then it goes over the iliac vefT Is, and the
iiifide of the pfoas mufcle, fomewhat higher than in the
adult, and pafTes afterwards, in the diredion already defcribed,
along the bladder. The cremafter mufcle turns upwards,
inftead of defcending over the pubcs, and feems to be loft
on the peritoneum near to the teftis.

No fpermatic cord exifts at the time of life we are now
confidering. The arteries and veins of the teftis go behind
the peritoneum, connefted to it by loofe cellular fubftances.
and enter the fubftance of the organ at its pofterior edge,
where the peritoneum is reflected over it, juft as the veile!s
of the int^ftines pafs between the laminx of the inefenterv
or mefi)colon. The vas deferens alfo goes behind the perite-
neum from the teftis to the bladder.

While it remains in the abdomen, the teftis is conncdted
in a very particular manner with the parietes of the cavity,
and with the fcrotum, at the place where the fpermatic vefTc'ls
pafs out. This coniieftion is by means of a fubftance, which
runs down from the lower end of the teftis to the fcrotum,
and which Mr. Hunter named the ligament, or gubernaculum
teftis, becaufe it connefts the organ willi the fcrotum, and,
as he conceived, direfts its courfe in its d-efcent. It has
been defcribed alfo under the names of ligamentum fufpen-
forium, bafis, and cylindrus. It is of a pyramidal form. ; its
largeft part is placed upwards, and tixed to the lower end of
the teftis and epididymis, while the lower and (lender extre-
mity is loft in the cellular membrane of the fcrotum. The
upper part of the gubernaculum is wiihin the abdome:;,
before the pfoas, and reaches from the teftis to the abdo-
minal mufcles. It runs into the fcrotum through the fame
opening that is afterwards occupied by the fpermatic veffeb,
and is there loft. That portion of it which is within the ab-
domen is covered by the peritoneum, except at its pofterior
part, which is contiguous to the pfoas, and connected with it
by the reflected membrane and cellular fubftance. Its co-
lour is white, and it may be diftinguilhed by this circum-
ilance from the tell is, which is of a reddi(h-grey. The
texture is foft, and has a fibrons vafcular appearance. " It
is covered," fays Mr. Hunter, " by the fibres of the cre-
mafter mufcle, which is placed immediattly behind the peri-
toneum : this is not eafily afcertained in the human fubjecl,
but is very evident in other animals, more efpecially in thofe
whofe tefticlcs remain in the cavity of the abdomen after the
animal is full grown.'' He obferves again, " that in the
human foetus, while the teftis is retained in the cavity of the
abdomen, the cremafter is fo fler.Jer, that I cannot trace it
to my own fatisfaftion, either turning up towards the teilis, cr
turning dov,n towards the fcroLuni." Th^ peritoneum,
whicli covers the teftis and its gubernaculum, is firmly united
to the furfaces of thofe two bodies ; but all around, that is,
on the kidney, tlie jifoas, the ihacus internus, and the lower
part of the abdominal mufcles, that membrane adheres very
Liofely. Where it is continued, or refledled from the abdo-
minal mufcles to the ligament of tiie teftis, it paflcs firft
downwards a little way, as if pafiiiig out of the abdomen, and
tlien upwards, fo as to cover mure of the ligament than what
is v.-ithiii the cavity of tlie abdomen. At this place the peri-
toneum is very loofe, thin in its fubftance, and of a tender
gel-'.iiious texture ; but all around the paftage of th^ liga-
ment it is conliderably tighter, thicker, and more firm.
When the abdominal mufcles are pulled up, fo as to tighten
or ilretch the peritoneum, tiiis membrane remains loofe at the
paftage of the ligament, while it is braced or tight all around ;
and in that cafe, the tight part forms a kind of border, or
edge, aroiTiid the loofe -doubled portion, where the teftis is
afterwards to pafs. If the pans are drawn towards the
abdomen, there is no appearance of .in aperture, or paftage,
li. 2 down

GENERATION.

down towards the fcrotum : but when the latter and the
ligament are drawn downwards, then there is an aperture
from the cavity of the abdomen all round the fore-part of the
ligament, apparently ready to receive the tcftis. This
aperture becomes hirger when the tciUs defceods lower, as
if the pyramidal ligament was firft drawn down, in order not
only to direft, but to make room for the tcllis, which mull
follow it. The aperture is fometimes fo large tiiat theteftis
c;m be pufhed into it, as far as the tendon of the external
oblique mufclc.

From this original fituation in the abdomen, the tedis
moves downwards, at a certain period, to its deftined ftatioii
in the fcrotum. Its lower extremity comes into contadl with
the lower part of llie abdominal parietes. At this time,
the upper part of the ligament, which hitherto was Ln the
abdomen, lias funk downwards, and lies in the paffage from
the abdomen to the fcrotum, which is afterwards to receive
the teilis. As the latter pafTes out, it inverts the guber-
naculum, going down behind it : what was the anterior
furfacc of that organ now becomes poRerior, and compofes
the lower and anterior portion of the tunica vaginalis. Mr.
Hunter Hates, tiiat the place where the ligament is moft con-
fined, and where the teilis meets with moil obftruAion in its
defcent, is the ring in the tendon of the external oblique muf-
cle ; and, confequciilly, that where the tefles are not in the
fcrotum, they are more frequently lodged immediately with-
in the tendon of that mufcle, than included in the cavity of
the abdomen. The teilis commonly remains for fome time
by the fide of the penis, and defccnds only by degrees to the
bottom of the fcrotum. AVhen it has entirely defcended,
the ligament is no longer vifible.

While the teilis is deleending, and even when it has palTed
into the fcrotum, it is dill covered by the peritoneum, and is
connefted by its pollerior edge exactly in th.e fanie manner
as when it was within the abdomen. The fpermatic vefTels
run in the fame way behind the membrane, the teflis is fixed
backwards to the parts againll which it rells, and is uncoii-
nefted and loofe forwards, as it was when in the abdomen.
In its defcent the teilis brings the peritoneum with it ; but
the elongation of that membrane, though itrefembles, in fome
circumftances, a common hernial fac, in others is very dif-
ferent. If a perfon can reprelent to himfelf a hernial fac
reaching to the bottom of the fcrotum, and covered by the
cremafter ; if he can imagine, further, that the pollerior
half of the bag covers, and is united with the teilis, epi-
didymis, fpermatic veflels, and vas deferens, while its anterior
half lies loofe before all thofe parts, he will have a perfeft
idea of the ftate of the peritoneum and of the teilis when it
firft. defcends into the fcrotum. This gland, therefore, does
not fall loofe, like the parts protruded in a rupture, into the
elongation of the peritoneum ; but it Aides down from the
loins, carrying the peritoneum with it, and both continue to
adhere, by cellular membrane, to the parts behind them, as
they did in the loins. The dudlility of the peritoneum, and
the loofeuefs of its conneclion to the parts furrouuding the
teflis, are clrcum. unices which favour its elongation and de-
fcent into the fcrotum with the tedis.

It is plain, from this defcription, that the cavity of the
bag, or elongation of the peritoneum, which contains the
tetlis in the I'crolum, mull at tirll communicate with the
general cavity of the abdomen, by an aperture at the abdo-
minal ring. That aperture has exactly the appearance of a
common hernial fac : the fpermatic veflels and vas deferens
lie inimediately behind it, and a probe patfes readily through
it from the general cavity of the abdomen down to the
bottom of the fcrotum. And if this procefs of the perito-
neum he laid open through its whole length on the fore-part,

it will be plainly feen to be a continuation of the peritoneum r
the teilis and epididymis will be feen at the lower part of it ;
and the fpermatic veffels and vas deferens may be obferved,
covered by the pollerior part of the bag, in their whole
courfe from the groin to the tcRis.

Before the teilis has quitted the abdomen, the fcrotum is
fmall and corrugated, and contains nothing but cellular
fubilance. This i.s loofe, and yielding near the ring, but
more denie and clofe below. Some have defei'ibcd a pouch
of peritoneum pafTing through the ring, and therefore con-
tained in the fcrotum, previoufly to the defcent of tlie teflis :
but this is noi generally corrccl. There is no fuch poucli
while the gland remains near the kidney. The parts about
the ring are furrounded by fuch a loofe and cellular texture,
that, by drav.ing the gubernaculum downwards, the perito-
neum is carried with it fo as to reprcfent a fmall cul-de-fac.
The teilis, too, after it has pafled the ring, may be drawn up
again into the abdominal cavity, in confequence of this laxity
of the furrounding fubilance.

In the human body then, when the teflis has recently
come down, it is contained in a membranous bag, formed of
an elongation of the peritoneum, and communicating with,
the abdomen by means of a narrow procefs, afcending in
fs-ont of the fpermatic cord. The parts remain in this
condition throughout life in the quadruped, but in man the
communication betv.'een the membranous covering of the
teilis and the abdomen is foon cut off. The upper end of
the canal is doled lirft, and the aperture is obliterated fo
fpeedily, that there is leldom any communication in a child
born at its fall time. 1'he procefs of contradlion is conti-
nued downwards, along the cord, to the upper end of the
teilis, at which it flops. Thus the tunica vaginalis teflis,
which was in the iirfl inflance a produfticn of peritoneum,
becomes entirely feparated from that mem.brane ; the peri-
toneal covering of the gland is the re.<lecled tuniea vagi-
nalis.

" This contraftion and obliteration of the pafTage feems,"
fays Mr. Hunter, " to be a peculiar operation of nature,
depending upon fleady and uniform principles, and not tlie
confequence of inflammation, or of any thing that is acci-
dental : and, therefore, if it is not accompliilied at the proper
time, the difficulty of bringing about an union of the pirt
is much greater : as in children who b.ave had the fac kept
open by a turn of the intettine falling down into the fcrotum
immediatelyaftertlie teflis.'' "The clofing of themouth, and
of the neck of the fac, is peculiar to the human fpccies ;
and we mull fuppofe the final caufe to be the prevention of
ruptures, to v>'hich men are fo much more liable than beatls,
from their ereft flate of body.'' We feel fome hcfitation in
admitting this reafoning as to the caufe of obliteration : at
all events, if we fhould acknowledge it, the frequent occur-
rence of ruptures mull prove that nature accoinplifhes her
end very imperfeclly. " What !" fays the fame priyflolo-
gilt; " is the immediate caufe of the defcent of the teflis
from the loins to the fcrotum ? It is evident t'nat it cannot
be the comprefTed force of refpiration, becaufe commonly
the teilis is in the fcrotum before the child has breathed ;
that is, the efFeft has been produced before the fuppofed
caufe has exifled. Is the teflis pulled dov.-n by the cre-
maller mufcle ? I can hardly fuppofe that it is. Becaufe,
it that was the cafe, I fee no reafon why it fhould not take
place in the hedge-hog, as well as in other quadrupeds ; and
if the mufculus teilis had this power, it could not bring it
lower than the ring of the mufcle.''

The procefs, which we have now defcribed, is liable to
fome variations. In fome individuals, the neck of the peri-
toneal elongation is not obliterated, fo that the tunica vagi-

GENERATION.

iiali-; communicates permanently with the abdomen, as in
quadrupeds. Hence, xve fometimcs fee hydroceles partic\i-
iarly in children, where the fluid can be made to pafs into
the belly by prefTure. If a rupture occurs in fuch indivi-
duals, it is contained, together with the teftis, in the tunica
vaginalis. Sometimes the telles do not defcend before
birth ; when they pafs down after this time, a part of the
inteftine or omentum is liable to defcend with them, and is
of courle contained in the tunica vaginalis. One or both
ma)' be retained in the abdomen beyond the ufual period.
When the natural procefs has not begun, or has been inter-
rupted before birth, it becomes afterv/ards very uncertain
when the defcent will be completed. It takes place moll
frequently between the years of two and ten, while the per-
fon is young and growing, being feldom delayed beyond the
age of puberty. However, one or both of theie glands
mav be retained in the abdomen through life. In this cafe,
Mr. Hunter conceives thst th;-re is fome imperfection in
their formation. " I am inclined," fays he, " to fufpeft that
the fault originates in the tefticles themfelves." And again,
" when both teilicles remain through life in the belly, I believe
that they are exceedingly imperfeft, and ir.capable of perform-
ing the natural funftions of thofe organs ; and this imperfec-
tion prevents the difpofition for their defcent taking place."
The writer of this article has feen two cafes, where one
teftis had remained in the abdomen, and where the circum-
ftances afcertaiiied by anatomical examination corroborated
the opinion of Mr. Hunter. In one, the body of the gland
was liot more than half its ufual fize : the epididymis, which
was very imperfecT:, ran for about an incli behind the fac of
a hernia, which had occurred in this individual, and did
not ioin the body of the teftis. The other cafe prefented
exactly the fame appearances. A third inftance !i?.3 come to
his knowledge, in which both of the teftes remained in the
abdomen, but were formed apparently perTeft in their ftruc-
turc. In this cafe, it was underftood, that the ordinary
functions of the glands had been executed in a healthy man-
ner during the pcrfon's life.

The times, at which the changes in poution already de-
ftribcd take place, are raoft accurately noted by Wrilberg
in the memoir above quoted. He gives a tabular arrange-
ment of his obfervations on this fubjctt, deduced from very
numerous examinations, of V\'hich the following account
contains the chief particulars. " At the age of one month
and three weeks, the teftes were clofe to the kidnevs, with
tlie f;nalleft poiTible interva) ; the fcrotuni loofe and osdema-
tous. At two months, the teftes, exceedingly fmall, touch-
ed the kidneys ; the gubernaculum very long, and the fcro-
tum wrinkled and rather hard. Two months and one week,
tefticles very near the kidneys ; fpermatic veffels difcernible
through the peritoneum, like very fine threads ; guberna-
culum diftinft. Three months, teftes about the fize of
hemp-feeds, placed rather further from the kidneys, and at
the edge of the pelvis. Three months one week and a half,
the fcrotum extremely fmall, and indeed fcarcely difcernible,
fo that the penis Imngfrom a flight prominence of the ikin.
The fmall inteftines coiled together in the upper part of the
abdomen, far from the teftes. The latter had defcended fur-
ther on the fide of the pelvis ; the gubernaculum very fliort.
Three months and three weeks, the Icrotum fmall and eon-
trafted : the teftes more than three lines below the kidneys.
Four months, the fcrotum very fmall i the teftes deeply
placed, with their inferior ends toucliing the rinifs. A dif-
tindt canal of peritoneum on the left fide, leading from the
cavity of the abdomen into the fcrotum, although the guber-
naculum was not yet inverted. Four months and one week,
the teftes very high, nearly touching the kidneys : the ga-
4.

bernacula long ; no canal paffing through the ring, which
was perfeftly clofed. Four months and two weeks, the
teftes near the ring, with a canal of peritoneum on each fide,
paffmg to the bottom of the fcrotum. Five months and two
weeks, both teftes in the rings ; fo that they could not be
feen until prefTed towards the abdomen, when they appear-
ed readily. Eight months, fcrotum well formed, with its
furface wrinkled, but empty. T'le teftes had pafTed the
ring, but remained in the neighbourhood of the groin : the
right could be eafily puftied back into tiie abdomen through
the procefs of peritoneum, which was ftill open ; but the left
could not, as the communication was already clofed.. Nine
months, teftes in the bottom of the fcrotum ; the canal of
communication perfeftly clofed on tlie left fide ; it was ftiut
on the right by a foft cellular fubftance eafily yielding to the
probe. Nine months, both canals perfeftly clofed."

From the foregoing facts, the following conclufions may
be drawn: ift. Before the beginning of tli- fixtli month
the teftis has not paffud the ring on either fide ; but gene-
rally i-emains near the kidney : fo that this fituatiun may be
depended on as a proof of the immaturity of a foetus.
2dly. Between the beginning of the fixth, and end of the fe-
venth month, they are generally found about the ring ; be-
ing in fome inilances above it, in fome witliin the canal, and
in others juft below, jdly. The fcrotum in the firft months,
up to the fixth, is fmall in proportion to the body, fome-
times loofe, fometimes harder, but always empty, and con-
taining cellular fubftance iuftead of the cavity, in which the
teftis is to be afterwards lodged. A broad and llrong faf-
ciculus of fibres (the gubernacolam) is contained in the-
midft of its cellular fubftance. 4thly. 'When the teftes have
firft defcended into the fcrotum, the canal of peritoneum
Hill opens to tlie abdomen, fo that they can be eafily drawn
back into the belly, and fink dov/n again. This is generally
practicable, in fostufes, between the 7th and 9ih months.

The ordinary law of nature on this fubjeCt is, that the hu-
man fubjecl, born at the expiration of the full term of utero-
geftation, has both tefticles in the fcrotum. Hallcr's con-
trary ftatement, " ut rariflime fetus in lucem edatur, cum
tefticulis fcroto inciufis,'' (Element. Phyfiol. vol. 7. p. 413.)
has been completely difproved by the teftimony of fubfe-
quent obfervers. Whether the canal of communication be
generally clofed before birth, is a point on which authors are
not unanimous. According to Wrilherg, with whom Vicq
d' Azyr agrees, this is commonly the cafe. But the reprefen-
tation of Caliper is fome.vhat different : this anatomift and
Lobftein obferve, that the obliteration takes place earlier on
the left than on the right fide. Of 53 newly bora children
examined by Camper, 23 had the canal open on both fides,
1 1 on the right fide only, and iix on the left only. In fix it
was clofed on both fides. In four both teftes were contained
in the abdomen ; and in three only the right.

In the excellent memoir of Wriftserg, idready referred to,
there is a table of 103 births obfervcd by himfelf, in which
the pofition of tlie teftes was carefully afcertained. The
proporijpn of premature to mature and perfeA births was as
9 to 94,, or in lound numbers i to 10. All the children,
whofe weight did not exceed 5lbs. came into the world at
the beginning of the ninth mouth, or in the eighth, or even
in the feventii month. Three of thcfe had both teftes in the
fcrotuni, three in the groins, and three in the abdomen ot the
children born towards the end of the ninth month, 69 had
both teftes in the icrotum, 17 one or both in the groin, eight
one in the abdomen, and three, whofe weights were 5I, 6J,.
and 71b;. both in the abdomen. In the 12 out of thefe 103
cafes, , where one or both teftes remained in the abdomen,
they were obfervcd tp defcend on the days mentioned below.

GENERATION.

t'iz. : in one inl\a;ico it pafTcJ down on tlic day of birth ;
the J.Lent took place in three fuhjofts on th.e iocond day,
in an eqnal number on the third, in two on the fifth, and in
o.ie on the twenty-fii'SK In the remaining indiviJiials, they
had no* appeared on the fourth and fifth weeks from the
lime of birtli ; and as the children then lefL the hofpital, the
time of defcent was not known. In three inllanees, the de-
feent was obferved to be ;iccompanied with crying and con-
vu'five motions of the limbs. Both teftes liad pafled into
•tiie fcrotum of one child, born at the end of feven months,
and weighing- only 3^1bs. ; which mull be deemed a rare oc-
currence. They ha\t betn feen in the ring; in a foetus of four
monilis. Bicliat, Anat. Defer, t. 5. p. 23.1.

The colour of the org-an, while in the abdomen, isgreyidi,
and its form elongated. The epididymis is confiderably
l.irner in proportion than in the adult, and i'.o head lies confi-
derably above the telHs : it is more loof-ly connefted to the
body of the gland. The coniiftence of liie telles at this
time is fofl and pulpy.

The penis, at the time of birth, although fmall, is well
formed, and pofl'efies an elongated prepuce, which completely
covers the glans. The integimients of the penis, as well as
'thole of the fcrotnm, are not diftinguilhed in colour from
thofe of the body in general. The rng.c of the fcrotum
are not yet well marked. There is a fmall quantity of fat
in the fcrotum, and the fibrous covering, common to the
cord and tellis, cannot yet be diilinguilhed. The veficulx
feminales, in confequence of the pofition of the bladder,
peculiar to this age, are nearly vertical in their direftion,
■very fmall and collapfed, and not exhibiting the tubercles on
their furface feen in the adult. Internally they contain a
mucous fluid.

The corpus cavernofum penis is very fliort and fmall, and
remarkable for the fmall proportion of its fpongy fubftance,
and the trifling quantity of blood which it contains. The
latter circumttance is ftiil more tlriking after a few years, in
confequence of the increafcd tl.ickneis of the fibrous mem-
brane : hence, as ereftion depends principally on the fwell-
ing of the fpongy part of th.e corpus cavernofurn, the penis
of children, when eredled in confequence of fome fympathe-
tic excitation, is hardly increafed in fizc, and very little in
length. The urethra, in the firll years of Hfe, is long ; and
Its direftion from the bladder to below the fymphyfis pubis
is more oblique than in the adult. Thefe two circumftances,
in the conformation of the urinary canal, arife from the blad-
der being fituatcd higher in the abdomen, and from the fu-
perior aperture of the pelvis being more llanting. The pre-
puce is elongated, fo as to give the penis a pointed termina-
tion. Its opening, always very narrow, may be fo fmall as
to prevent the difcharge of the urine, or to render it im-
praciicable to denude the glans. The latter circumftance
conllitutLS congenital phimofis. The frenum is narrow and
reaches to the opening of the urethra.

Mo great changes are obferved in the organs of generation
from the time of birth until puberty. Bufied with the gene-
ral organization of man, and particularly attentive to the
bringing to perfection the agents by which lie communicates
with furi-ounding objefts, to the putting in aclion the fprings
of his intelletlual powers, nature feems, if we may ufe the
exprelfion, to forget the inflrunients of reproduflion, which
continue for a time ftationary. If, during this long period,
tiiele organs undergo no important revolution, they partake
(lightly in the general growth. Each of them, confidered
fingly, without increafing in any very marked degree, be-
comes more perfeft in its organization, of which tlie princi-
jinl traits may be more ealily obferved fome years after birth.
fiat ihefc changes, wliich take place very gradually, are

trifling when compared with thofe which happen at pu.
berty.

Changes in th: male Organs at the Time of Puberty. — In the
two or three years immediately preceding this period, the
pubes is covered by a flight down, which appears generally
before the beard. We may remark alio, that its appearance
is more eonllant, and its growth more rapid. In faft, the
hair on the generative organs, although it is not completely
developed for fome years, has gained nearly its lull lengtli
and thicknefs, while the beard is ftill thin and fliurt. At the
fame time that the hairs appear, the flvin of the fcrotum and
penis lofes its whitenefs, and becomes more or lels brown in
conformity with the tint which it polfefics in other parts of
the body. The fcrotum, hitherto contrafted, becomes
longer ; the tefticle is removed to a trreater diflance from the
ring, and the fpermatic cord proportionally elongated.
The penis becomes larger and longer ; the frequent ereftions
occafion the prepuce to appear fiiorter, and the glans to be a
little uncovered. The various layers compofing the fcrotum
are complete at this time. The teilis is proportionally
larger than the veficulx feminales and pjnis, as the cxercife of
the generative funftions commences here. The veficulae fe-
minales are ftill very fmall, even iji a fubjeft of 14 or 15
years. The canal of the urethra, as well as the other parts
of the penis, is confiderably increafed, as may be feen by
obferving the ftream of urine.

In old men the fcrotum is generally foft and pendent,
and external imprefiions are no longer able to bring it into
the ftate of corrugation. The cellular fubftance which it
contains is frequently the feat of watery effufion. The fi-
brous covering of the teftes and cord is denfe, thick, and eafi-
ly demon Arable. The tefticle is fmall, foft, and wafted ;
but without any remarkable change in its organization :
the volume of the epididymis, on the contrary, is equal to
what it poflefled in the adult. The fpermatic cord is ra-
ther fmaller, unlefs the veins fliould be in a dilated ftate.
The veficulx feminales are collapfed, and the proftate be-
comes hard : the penis is conftantly placid.

Phvjiology of the male Organs of Generation. — We ftiall de-
fcribe, in the firft place, the fecundating fluid, as it appears
when expelled from the body in the adt of copulation ; and
(hall then diftinguifti the various parts of this compound li-
quor. We fhall exhibit the fafts which have been afcertain-
ed concerning this interefting fubjetl, jull as we treat any
other part of phyfiology : we mult either ufe fuch language
as fliall be intelligible, or pafs over in entire filence every
thing which relates to the production and development of
the new beings, and the continuation of the fpecies.

The fluid expelled from the urethra of a healthy man, un-
der the influence of the venereal acl, is white, inclining per-
haps flightly to a blueifh caft. But it is not homogeneous,
as it contains thicker and more opaque mixed with a more
thin and femipellucid matter. The latter is more abimdant
in proportion as tlie fubjcct is weaker, and the aft more fre-
quently repeated. From this difference in tlie appearance of
its component parts it h.as been fometimes compared to coa-
gulated mills.- It is of a vifcous or glutinous nature, and
therefore readily entangles air : hence it becomes frothy if rub-
bed in a mortar. When firft diicharged, its confiltcnce is about
equal to that of a thick cream ; but ao it cools, the opaque
mucilaginous part becimes tranfparent, and acquires greater
confiilency. In about twenty minutes after its emilhon the
whole becomes liquid : at this time, too, it is tranfparent,
having depofited a fediment of a whitifli matter, refembling
a ma's of fljndcr rags. The liquefaftion is not owing to
the abiorption of moifture from the air, for it lofes inftead
of acquiring weight during its expofure to the atmofphere ;

no.r

GENERATION.

nor is it owing to the r.<ftion of the air, for it takes place
equally in clofe vefTels. It h'ls been obferved that the thick
fjakv portion is thrown out firft ; while the thinner part
comes after. It is heavier than any animal fluid, and finks
immediately in water : but a part fwims, confilling of white
(hining filaments, forming a cobweb-like texture, and com-
pofing fmall floating manes. That which finks in the mu-
cous or pulpy portion, which is the greater part of the
^vhole ; but of this little membranous-like flakes are fome-
times fufpended by air bubbles. Thefe fink to the bottom
and difappear on the fecond day, but the water remains tur-
bid, and contains flocculi and white (hining threads. Its
odorous properties are veiy fenfible ; not irritating but
mawkiih and unpleafant, likp the farina of the Spanifli chef-
nut. In animals it is faid to be of a more penetrating na-
ture ; fo that when abforbed it infefis the whole body,
and renders the flelh unfit for eating, unlefs the teftes are
cut out immediately after the animal's death. (See BufTon,
t. 5. p. 121. of the buar.) The tafte is at firft infipid ;
yet there is fomewhat of pungency in it, which after fome
little time ftimulates and excites a degree of warmth in the
mouth.

It converts paper ftained with the bloflbms of mallows
or violets to a green colour, and confequently contains an
alkaU. It diffblves readily in water, after its fpontaneous
liquefaftion : alcohol or oxymuriatic acid precipitates white
flakes from this folution. Acids readily diflblve the femen,
and alkalies do not decompofe this iolution. Lime difen-
gages no ammonia from frefli femen ; but after that fluid
has remained for fome time in a moift and warm atmofphere,
lime feparales a great quantity from it. Confequently am-
monia is formed during the cxpofure of femen to the air.
V/hen oxymuriatic acid is poured into femen, a number of
white flakes precipitate, and the acid lofes its peculiar odour.
Thefe flakes are infoluble in water, and even in acids. If
the quantity of acid be fufficient, the femen acquires a yel-
low colour. Thus it appears that femen contains a mucila-
ginous fubitance analogous to that of the tears, which co-
atruktes bv abforbing oxygen. A'auquelin obtained fix
parts of this mucilage from 100 parts of oxygen When
expofed to the air at the temperature of 60", a pellicle forms
gradually, and in three or four days fmall tranfparent cryf-
tals of phofphate of lime are formed. Afterwards fmall round
mafies of the fame lubftance are obferved in the pellicle.
If the air is moift, cryftals of carbonate of foda may be
formed. The evaporation does not go on to complete ex-
ficcation, unlefs in a temperature of 77' with dry air.
'When all the moiilure is evaporated, the femen has loft 0.9
of its weight ; the refiduum is fcmi-tranfparent like horn,
and brittle. When kept in moift air, at the temperature of
77 , it acquires a yellow colour, acid tafte, and putrid
odour. Expofed to heat, it becomes brown, and exhales a
vellow fume, having the odour of burnt horn, ^^^hen the
neat is raifed the matter {wells, becomes black, and gives
out a ftrong odour of ammonia. When the odour of am-
monia difappears, if the matter be lixiviated with water, an
alkaline folution maybe obtained, which, by evaporation,
yields crvftals of carbonate of foc'a. If the refiduum be
incinerated, there v.ill rem.ain only a quantity of white
afnes, confifting of phofphate of linie. Thus it appears
that femeiLis compoftd of the following ingredients :
90 water,
6 mucilage,,
3 phofphate>-of lime,
I foda.

lOQ

The feminal fluid, in its recent ftate, contains an immenfe
number of animalcula, called fometimes vermiculi fperma-
tici. They have a rounded head, with a gradually tapering
tail, not ftraight, but alternately bent to either fide. I'hey
are iccotim.es fmaller than a hair, and 10,000 times more
flender than one of the tubuli teftis : fo that, according to
Leeuwenhoeck, 2i6,oco cf them would go in a fphere,
equal in diameter to the bread.h of a hair. Their length has
been cftimated at r •j,J7--dth of an inch. They are found
in all quadrupeds, in reptiles, birds, fifties, infects, and cs'cn
in teftaceous animals. Some variations in figure are ob-
ferved in different animals : but their fize is nearly uniform
ir: all. They are no larger in a whale than in a fmall fifli.
They are faid not to exift in children, nor to be obfervable
after frequent coiiion, nor in old iubjects ; but orily in
healthy and prolific femen, fo that their prcfence may per-
haps be deemed a criterion of the maturity and perfeftnefs
of that fluid. The feminal vermiculi were fin! obferved by
a German youth, Lewis Hai.me. He ftiewed living ani-
mals in the human femen to Leeuwenhoeck in the year
1677. This indefatigable obferver immediately employed
himfelf on the fubjeft, and in the fame year fent an account
of the phenomenon, with drawings cf the vermiculi in the
dog and rabbit, to the P\.oyal Society at London. (See
Phil. Tranf. n. 143.) The communication was received
with great applauie, the fr.fts were ftiewn to king
Charles II. and adm.itted by all. At the fame time the}"-
were examined and defcribed in France, and, as far as the
mere demonftrat^on goes, they were univerfally admitted in
the literary world Nicolas Hartfoeker claimed the dif-
covery, but not till the year 1678. (En"ais de Dioptrique,
p. 227. .

It has been alleged tliat thefe animalcula are not pecu-
liar to the femen, but that they are found in various other
animal fluids. Accurate invelligation has not fubftantiated
this ohjeftion ; but, on the contrary, fhews that they are
peculiar to the feminal fluid. Others have denied that they
pon"efled tails ; and Bufibn, in particular, reprefents the
fafts very diff'erently from Leeuwenhoeck. (Hillolre Nat.-
Gener. & Partic. t. 2. p. 176 & feq.) ; his reprefintations
bein^ fupported by thofe of Turberville NecdI.am. (Nouvel-
Ics Obfervations Microfcopiques, p. 213.) M. De Duffon.
obferved tl;e fluid from the feminal veCels of a dt:>d numan
body yet warm. It was full of filaments moving about, and'
branching into many parts. The filaments I welling biirft,.
and majiy ovular corpufcula efcaped, which ftil! remained at-
tached to the filament, as by a thread : then they ofcillr.ted"
like a penduL;m, and during thofe ofcillations ll.. i .ladi
extended. The corpufcula, at length detached from the
filaments, traverfed tiiemoft fluid part of the lemen, along
with their filaments, the extreme length of which impeded'
their motions, and t!ey feemed to him to endeavour to free
them.felves from it. Having diluted the femen with rain v/atei,
the microfcopic view was better defined. It clearly ap-
pL'ared that each ovular corpufcle had a double motion of
cfcillation, and of progreflion. In two or tliree ho-rs the
feminal matter acquired greater fluidity, the filaments difap-
peared ; the number of corpufcula intreafed ; the throa h
contrafted ; the ofcillations relaxed; and ll. ■ ; r':grfll!vi-
motion increafcd. In five or fix hours the ovi.I- corpuf-
cula, having loft the threads, refenrbled anirils more than
ever ; nut only becaufc their q"icka- fs in fv. iiur.ii'g was
greater, but becaufe they direcled their courle to every
quarter. In twelve hours the aftivity cf the coipufcula
was great ; and fome revo'vd upon their axis ; others
changed the ovular to the globular figure undr the ob-
ferver's eye J fome divided afunder, fo that one formed two. .

At.

GENERATION.

At the end of one day the number diniininicd ; and, upon
the third, none wt-re to be fccn. In other fomen, vhich
fccmed to be cntin-ly filamentous, the ovular corpufcula
did not proceed from the filaments ; but thcfo, dividing in
two, were mctamorphofed into corp^lfcula. They were em-
barrafl'ed by a thread. The longer it was, the more it im-
peded their motion; but it gradually contrafted, and was
at hi\ completely dcftroyed. The figure of thefe ovular'
corpufcula refenibled tli'nt of thofe of infufions. They
fwam with a progrefTive motion, though, at firft, the thread
occafioned a fimple ofcillation. He obl'erved fimilar pheno-
mena in the femiiial fluid of other animals. Sometimes
the corpufcula altered tin ir ligure ; fonictimes they divided
into two. Buffon conceives that they cannot properly be
deemed animals, and he forms of them a particular clafs,
imder the term of orgiimc moleciilfs, which are particles dif-
feminated through all matter, original, incorruptible, ani-
mated, and always aftive. Nor does he hefitate to confide
the formation of the animated univerfe to thofe molecules.
Subfequent refcarches have not confirmed thefe opinions of
the French imturalift. That the funinal vermiculi have
tails is proved by numerous accurate obfervers, and -.s parti-
cularly fupported by the tellimony of Haller. (Elem.
Phyfiol. t. 7. p. 521.) It feems queftionable whether
Buffon ever faw the real fpermatic vermiculi j for the
latter live at mod only for a few iiours after the dif-
charge of the fluid, while thofe obferved by him remain-
ed for fome days. And his remarks; on the whole fecm
much more applicable to the microfcopic animalcula ob-
ferved in vegetable infufions, as well as in all liquors ex-
pofed to the air. This point feems clearly proved by the
labours of Spallan/.ani, who made a vaft number of obter-
vationson the fubj-ft, and fot the whole hillorj- of the fper-
matic animalcula in fo clear a light, that no doubt can re-
main on the fubjeft. Tlie general refult of his refearches
tends completely to confirm tlie original remarks of Leeu-
venhoeck. (Sfe his Trails on the Nature of Animals and
Vegetables, Edinb. 8vo. 1799.) He obferves that his ex-
r>. riments on frefli human femen prefented him with totally
different refults from thofe defcribed by Buffon, but as he
could not regard Bnffon's flatemeuts as purely chimerical,
he thought the contradiftion might be reconciled by fhew-
in<T that the French naturahll had defcribed animals of a dif-
ferent kind. " I had remarked,'' fays he, " that there is no
part of an animal which, when infufed, does not give exiftence
to a particular kind of animalcula. They are produced indif-
ferently, by the mufcles, brain, nerves, membranes, tendons,
veins, and arteries. The fame holds good of the blood,
ferum, milk, chyle, faliva, &c. mixed with water, or even
by themfelves. I had not yet made experiments upon the
human fcmen for this purpofe ; but it was mofl probable,
that the putrefaction of this liquid would give exiilence to
particular beings. May not M. de Buffon have confounded
thefe with the feminal vermiculi, and afcribed to the latter the
properties and phenomena exhibited by the former ? I de-
termined to afcertain this faft by obferving what happened
fucceffively to the femen, when long preferved in a watch-
glafs. I made my firft experiments on the human feminal
fluid. The vermiculi died in three hours and a half, and
■were precipitated to the bottom cf the glafs. Upon the
fixth day, the feminal fluid began to exhale a foetid and dif-
afreeable odour ; but I could perceive no animated being :
only, upon taking fome drops from the bottom of the glafs,
I obferved the dead bodies of the vermicuh apparently very
entire. The feventli and eighth days I faw no change, but
the fa-tor increafed. On the ninth I difcovered very minute
animalcula, tlxeir fizc nearly equalling that of fpermatic ver-

miculi ; but they had no tail, and greatly refembled moft
minute fpherules. Like aninialcula of infufions, they fome-
times flopped at little fragments of corrupted femen : fome-
times their courfe was very rapid, retrograde, riling and
finking in the fluid : in a word, they pofieffed every pro-
perty of infufion animalcula. They were feen in every llra-
tum of the femen ; and thofe at the bottom put in motion
the dead bodies of the feminal vermiculi, which were ftill
entire, and remained fo fome days longer.'' Two or three
fucceffive generations of thefe animals were obferved, as in
the cafe of other animalcula. 'When the femen was expofed
to a greater degree of heat, they appeared at a more early
period, even as foon as twenty-three hours from the removal
of the fluid from the dead body. In one inflance they wex'e
obferved to propagate by a fpontaneous tranfverfe divifion
of tlie body. " Thele fa£ls fufTiciently fatisfied me that
Buffon liad erroneoufiy afcribed to the fpermatic vermiculi
properties b 'longing only to the animalcula of infufions.
Let us, in a few words, colleft the circumilanccs. Accord-
ing to tliis author, after a certain time, the venniculi were
de])rived of their tails. He fliould have faid that the ani-
malcula of infufion came in the place of the vermiculi, which
were already dead, and precipitated to the bottom of the
liquid. He was arrefted by their firfl appearance : and took
them for feminal vermiculi deprived of their tail, which in
truth they often very much refemble. When difengaged
from the tail, Mr. Buffon adds, they acquire greater aCtivi-
ty. This was a necelTary confequence of the firft miflake.
When the infufion animalcula had taken place of the vermi-
culi, tlieir increafed agihty could not be unobferved, fince
the animalcula move with much greater quicknefs than the
vermiculi. This erroneous fuppofition being admitted, Mr.
Buffon had to relate, as he has done, the remainder of tile
phenomenon. He had to fpeak of the imaginary changes
of the vermiculi, of their divifion, and their diminution,
with the more confidence, as his opinions had to be confirmed
by a repetition of his experim.ents, if not upon all, at Icafl
upon many fpecies of infufion animalcula in the femicn.'"
p. 135--142. The following account of the fpermatic
vermiculi is taken from the work of Spallanzani already
quoted, which contains the moft complete account of the
fubjett.

'VVhcn the femen begins to difTolve, if it be examined
with a magnifier cf fmall power, the irregular parts feem to
be in an indiftinft flow agitation, produced by globular cor-
pufcula, of which each poffeffes a fort of filament, or fhort
appendage, about fix times the length of the body. They
have two motions ; one ofcillatory, from right to k-ft, and
•vice -vcrfd, in which the appendage is curved from one fide to
the other : the other is progreffive, the vermiculus tranfport-
ing itfelf by ofcillation. They ftrike againft every obftacle,
and when in confiderable numbers, make a thoufand contor-
tions to efcape, at laft taking that way where they feel
the leaft refiftance. Thus they are in continual motion.
In twenty-three m.inutes the motions of ofcillation and pro-
greflioii had diminifhed ; and in an hour and a half it had
leffened fo much, that a very fmall number of corpufcula
poffeffed any power of motion. In general, the progrefiive
motion cca!es before the ofcillatory ; fo that, at laft, the
corpufcle merely bends from right to left, and reciprocally.
They continue fixed to the fame fpot, until the ofcillatory
motion inf.n.ibly dies away. After all motion is gone, the
corpufcula remain entire in the fluid, and then they are bet-
ter feen than even when the liquid is diluted v.-ith water.
Each corpufcle is not properly globular, but elliptic, and
the appendage is not only longer than it appears, but the
breadth is not equal throughout like a thread, but increafes

as

GENERATION.

tis it approaches the body. Water or other fluids rendered
them iiiiiijediately motions. They may be fometimcs ob-
ferved, in the clots of the femen, before they have difTolved,
attached by their appendages to the filamentous matter :
they llriiggle to difengage themfclves, and then fsvim about
in the fluid. The motion continues much longer when the
temperature of the atmofphere is increafed : at 36 ' all mo-
tion had ceafed in three quarters of an hour : at •49'^ in two
hours; at 59 in three hours and a half : and at 81 ' tlif'y
lived for feven or eight hours. The corpufcula were feen in
the fluid obtained from the epididymis and tcfticles of various
living and recently dead animals. That they are not formed,
according to the fentiment of Buff'on, from the filamentous
part of the feraen, is proved by this ; that they are moll
abundant in the fluid part, and even do not exift at all in the
clots, where they are examiiied in a very recent (late, and
freed as much as poflible from the thinner part of the femi-
nal fluid ; while the latter, at the fame time, abounds with
them. Nor are they generated, as Needham aiferted, by
expofure to air. For Spallanzani faw them in the ufual
numbers, when the time employed in taking the fluid matter
from the feminal veffels fl.ill warm, to prefent it to the mi-
crofcope, did not exceed a fecond ; and they were ob-
ferved in the fame numbers in feminal fluid carried without
delay from the epididymis of a living ram to the microfcope.

Great care and attention arc neceflary in obferving the
appendages of thefe vcrmicuii, and hence they efcaped the
notice of BuiTon. It is wonderfully flendir, and at the
fame time tranfpai-ent, fo that too flrong a light confounds
it with the fcminal fluid : the Aider Ihould be fine and thin,
and the drop of fluid very thin : and a microfcope of a Angle
lens is preferable to the compound one.

They live longer in clofe veflels, than when the fcmen is
expoled to the air : and they alfo live longer in vacuo. The
difference of time at which they die in thefe different fitua-
tions amounts even to one, two, or three hours. " Thefe
fails prove that the air is noxious to the vermicuh, and the
following prove that it is the caufe of their being in conti-
nual agitation. With the blovv-pipe I formed capillary tubes,
one end of which I immeried in recent femen ; it afccnded
the cavity, filling the tube to a certain height. Breaking
the tubes near the part to which it afcended, I prefented
this extremity to the blow-pipe, and iinmediately fealcd it
hermetically. I did the fame to the other end, by which
means the feminal fluid was deprived of all communication
with the external air. 1 drew out the tubes, fo that tlu-
thinnefs of the tubes permitted me to fee the vcrmicuii
within. The peculiarities prcfented by the vermicull in the
tubes were very different from thofe of the refl. All, or
at leaft mofi of them, had a Angular mode of moving.
Some had that fort of activity obferved in thofe, which ex-
perience the influence of the open air. Others had a con-
tinued irregular motion ; they changed from quicknefs to in-
aftivity, and reciprocally. Others flopped entirely, and,
after reiling fome minutes, relumed their former velocity ;
befides, they were not obferved to rim againil the folid por-
tions of the femen, but to avoid them by turning afide or
retreating. Thefe peculiarities always fucceeded better, and
^^•ith more uniformity, when the tubes were kept warm. I
have before faid that the longefl period of life, of the human
fpermatic vcrmicuii, was fcven or eiglit hours, wlien cxpofcd
to the open air, but this period is greatly prolonged when
they are included in tubes. In iumm.er I have fucceeded in
preferving them two days or more ; and in ipring and au-
tumn they have lived almofl three.'' P. 158,

Cold, near to that of freezing, renders the vermiculi mo-
tionlefs ; but they are recovered by the application of heat.

Vol. XVI.

A temperature of 131' kills them ; but the animalcula pio.
duccd in the femen by putrefaction are deflroyt-d by a tem-
perature of 1 08 .

To this account of the feminal vermiculi we fubjoin the
following refleftions on them by Bonnet, obferving only
tint we are in a flate of the moll profound ignorance of all
the [Joints alluded to in his queilions.

«' The vcrmicuii arc, of all the animalciila of liquids, thofe
which liave mofl excited my curiofity ; the clem.ent in \\ iiich
they live, the place of their abode, their figure, motion, fc-
cret properties, all, in a word, fliould intereft us in fo Angular
a kind of minute animated beings. How arc they found
there, how are they propag-.ited, how are they developed,
how are they fed, and what is their motion ? Vv'hat becomes
of them when the liquid tliey inhabit is returned by the veffels,
and mixed with the blood : Why do they appear only at th>.'
age of puberty ; where did they exift before this period ? Do
they ferve no purpofe but to people that fluid, where they
are fo largely fcattered ? How far are we from being able
to anfwer any of thefe queflions!" Spallanzani's Tracl:.,
p. 179. The reader may alio confult, on this fubjecl,
W. F. von Gleichen liber die Saimien-unk infufions-thier-
chcn, Norimb. 1778, 4to.

The opinions of Leeuwenhoeck concerning thefe vermi-
culi ; ik's. that they are of different fexcs, that they co-
pulate, become impregnated and produce young ; and that
they are the rudiments of the future beings, to be conveyed
by copulation into the body of the mother, and tliere deve-
loped ; are deilitute of all proof, and completely chimeri-
cal.

We have no accurate accounts of the fcnfible properties,
nor any chemical hiftory of the fluid feparattd in the tellis.
When obferved in the vas deferens or epididymis of man,
after death, it poffeffes a light-brown or yellowifh colour,
and approaches in fluidity to water. It may be feen in ani-
mals, on cutting into the teftis or epididymis, m;;ch thicker,
vilcous, and of a grey colour. At leail it has this appear-
ance in a dog. The whole gland, in a healthy ariraal, is tur-
gid with this fluid. The contents of the vcficulae feminales
differ in their appearance from the fecretion of the tefticles.
It is a browniih or yellowifli fluid of light colour, femi-
tranfparent, and often containing flakes or coagula, fo as to
vary in confiftence in different parts of the bag. Expofure
to the air produces no change in its confiftence, as it does in
the femen. Sometimes the contents of thefe bags are a clear
mucous fluid. Mr. Hunter took the trouble of obfers-liio-
them, in two healthy perfons killed fuddenly, immediately
after death. In one the fluid in the veficulx was of a lighter
colour than is ufually found in men who have been dead a con-
fiderable time ; but it was not by any means like the femen
either in colour or fmell." In the other " the contents of
the veficulae were of a lightifh whey colour, hafin-T nothin'^
of the fmell of femen ; and in fo fluid a ftate, as to run out on
cutting into them." (Obf. onthe animal Economy, p. 28.)
Thus it appears that the fluid of thefe bags differs' both from
that contained in the teftis, and from the femen emitted in
coition ; confequently, that they are not merely refervcirs for
the matters feparated in the teliicle, but that they add to the
fecretion of tliat gland fome conilderable bulk of fluid,
feparated by their own veflels. The peculiar organization
of their internal furface would have led us a priori to ex-
pcft this, as it exhibits an arrangement of parts found only
where fome fecretion is performed. The fame argument
will lead us to alTign a fimilar fuutlion to the enlarged por-
tion of the vas deferens lying by the fide of the veficula fcmi-
iialis. The exaft nature of the fluid feparated in the velicul.c

F is

GENERATION.

is not known ; nor have we any cliemical anulyfis of it. In
many inCances it looks like a limple mucus ; and tliirc can
be very littlo doubt, that in all cafes the contei>ts of thefe
bags c'onfill cluL-fly of their own fccrctions.

Tlie opinion, tjiiit the veficuhT; perfonn a particular fe-
cretion, was held by Haller : " Ihave," fays he, «' no ex-

months before his deatli. On examining the body, the vefi-
cula- were both found nearly full ; more efpecially that of
the left fide, which I fuppofe might be accidental. But
upon examining the vas deferens of the left fide, where it
lies along the fide of this bag, and where it has a fimilar
ftrufture with the vcficula;, 1 found it filled willi the fame

pcruiients of my own to prove that any thing is feparated in kind of mucus ; and this, I believe, is always the cafe,

fhefe organs, and mixed with the fluid furniLd in the telles. whether the ttilicle has been removed or not.

I fufpec? however, that a fecretion takes place here as in the " A young man, a coachman, who had a ddeaie m his left

C-Jl bladder" (Elem. Phyfiol. t. p. 540.) Galen conceived leftlcle, had it removed, at St. George's hofpital, by Ivlr.

thit thefcmen was generated in thefe parts; and Riol'.iu, Walker, in Auguft 1785; and in February 1786 he re-

R nvfch, and S wammerdam, were of opinion that they added turned again to the hofpital, on account of uncommon pams
feimetliing to the feminal fluid. The point has been mod

clearly proved by Mr. I lunter in a paper contained in his Ob-
fcrvations on the animal Economy, and entitled " Obierva-
tions on the Glands fituated between the Rcftum and Blad-
der, and called Veficula; feminales." His chief argument is de-
rived from the examination of the organs in pcrfons who

have U>!1 (me oftheteites by accident, or in confequence of were exaftly fimilar,
difeafe. It is well known that this lofs does not alfetl the
• frcnerative powers, and that fuch individuals retain their
fexual appetites and the faculty of procreation. We may
confeqiiently prefume that they have afterwards had con-
neftion with women, and confequently had the adtion of
emiffion, which mull have emptied the veficula of the caf-

all over him, and for which he lequeited to be put into the
warm bath. But as he was going from the ward to the bath,
he dropped down, and died almolt immediately. The body
was infpetted, with a view to dilcovcr the caufe of his death,
and u])on an examination of the veficidx, the bag of the left
fide was as full as that on the right, and the contents in both

" In dilTeding a male fubjee'^, in the year 1755, for a fide
view of the contents of tl'.e pelvis, I found a bag on the left
fiele, lying contiguous to tlie peritoneum, juft on the fide of
the pelvis, where the internal iliac vefiels divide above the
angle of reflet'tion of the peritoneum at the union of the blad-
der and reClum. The left vas deferens was feen paffuig on

trated fide, if it had contained femen ; and, as the removal to the bag ; and, what is very Angular, that of the right or

of the teitismuil have cut off all fource of fupply from that oppoiite fide croffed the bladder near its union with the

(niarter, it fliou'.d be found empty after death, on the fuppo- rectum to join it. I traced the left vas deferens down to the

fltion of its contents being ordinarily derived from the tcllis. teiUcle ; but on following the right through the ring of the

Such cafes alfo afford an opportunity of making compara- external oblique mufcle, I difcovercd that it terminated at

tive obfervations between the veficula of tl.-j perfect and that once, about an inch from its pafTage out of the abdomen, in

of the inioerfedf fide. a blunt point, which was impervious. On examining the

"A man," favs Mr. H., "who was under my care in fpermatic cord from this point to the tefliele, I cou'd dif-

St. George's hofpital for a venereal complaint, died there, cover no vas deferens, but by beginning at the tefticle, and

and was difcovercd to have loft his right tefliele. From tracing the epididymis from its origin about half way along,

the cicatrix being hardly obfervable, it mufl: have been re- where it lies upon the body of the tefticle, I found that it at

moved fome confiderable time before his death ; and the firfl became flraight, and foon after feemed to terminate in a

complaint, for which he was received into the hofpital, is a point. The canal at this part was fo large as to allow of

convincing proof that he had connection with woman after being filled with quickfilvcr, which however did not pafs

that period. I infpeded the body in the prefence of Mr. far, fo that a portion of the epididymis was wanting ; and the

Hodges, the lioufe furgeon, and i'everal of the pupils of the vas deferens for nearly the whole length of the fpermatic

hofpital. Upon dilTeCting out, and examining the contents cord of the right fide. On the left iide the vas deferens be-

ofthe pelvis, with the penis and fcrotum, I found that the gun where the epididymis commonly terminates; and there

vas deferens of the right fide was fm.aller and firmer in its was a deficiency of nearly an inch of the extremity of the

texture than the other, efpecially at that end next to the ab- epididymis. I then diffefled the bag above-mentioned,

dominal ring, near to the part that had been cut through in which proved to be the two veficulx ; for by olowing air

the operatiein. The cellular membrane furrounding the duft from one vas deferens I could only inflate half of it ; and

on the rifht fide was not fo loofe as on the left ; neither from the other vas deferens, the other ha'f. They contained

were the veffels wliich ramified on the right veficula fo full the mucus commonly found in thefe bags ; but upon the

of blood. But upon opening the veficuls, both appeared to moll accurate examination I could difcover no daft leading

be filled with a kind of mucus fimilar to that which is found from them to the proftate gland, nor any remains of one.

in other dead bodies ; and the veficula on the right fide was In this fubjeft it was evident that there was no coir.munica-"

■rather larger than that on the left. Whatever, therefore, may tion between the vas deferens and epididym.is ; nor between

be the real ufe of thefe veficula, we have a proof from this thefe bags and the urethra. The caput gallinaginis had the

difieftion, that in the human fubjed they do not contain the common appearance, but there were no orifices to be feen.

femen. The tellicles were very found ; and the duels from them to

" In a man who died in St. George's hofpital with a very the epididymis were very manifefl, and full of femen.''
laro-e bubonocele, the tefliele of that fide was difcovercd to

have almoll loll its natural texture from the pren"ure of the
hernial fac ; and upon examining the tefticle with attention.

P-30— 3--

Mr. Hunter obfervcs further, in fuppcrt of his opinion,
that theie bags are as full of mucus in boelief! much emaciated,

was no appearance of vas deferens till we came near the where the perfon has died from a lingering difeafe, as in
er, where it was a'mofl as large as ufual. The veficula flrong rob ulf bodies where death has happened from vio-

there

bladder, wucie- le v\a3 d'liiiJiL txii iai^t ^

of that fide was found to be as full as the other, and to con- lence or acute difeafes ; and they are nearly as full in the

tain the lame kind of mucus. old as in the young ; which moll probably would not be the

" I extirpated the left tefticle of a Frenchman on account cafe if they contained femen." Ibid. p. 33.
of its bcino- difeafed. He was a married man, and died about The fecretion of the proftate is the lall ingredient in the

a year afterwards, having been extremely ill for feveral fcminal fluid ; and it contributes very largely to the bulk of
2 what

GENERATION.

wlmt is expelled in copulcition. Its opaque whitenefs and
vifcidity completely oblcure the properties of the fluid fe-
cretcd iii the teilis, and bellow on the feminal liquor its moft:
obvious charaClers. The opinion which luppoios that the
fi-men is formed, or that part of it is produced in the prollate,
is not therefore fo very far from the truth. A thick, white,
p.iid opaque liquor may be expreffcd in coniidenibie abundance
from the proilatic dufts on each fide of the caput gallinagi-
nis after death. PhyfiologiitS afcribe to the proilatic lluid
the-officeof ircreafing the bulk of the femen, and of thereby
augmenting its impetus, fo that it may arrive with greater
force at the place of its dellination.

It has been conjetlured that a nervous fluid is mixed with
the femon, and lience the weaknefs of the male after copula-
tion has been explained. We may be excufed from difcufling
this opinion until we know what nervous fluid is. The con-
vullive exertion of the whole frame, which occin-s iu the ve-
nereal organs, will fufficiently account for the fenfe of
fatigue that follows It.

It appears from what we have faid, that the fluid expelled
in copulation is furniihed in a fmall proportion only by the
teiles ; that a peculiar fecretion of the veficulos feminales is
added to this, and that the chief bulk is made up of the
proilatic liquor. An important quellion arifes here, which
ot thefe is the eflential and immediate agent in impregnation ?
The general prailice iu the Eaft, continued from ages ol
the moll remote antiquity, of entrufting their females to the
care of eunuchs, and the common operation of gelding, as
performed on various domellic animals, lead us to aflign this
prerogative to the fluid fecreted in the teilis. In emafcu-
lating animals, or men, the teiles are cut or torn out, or they
are compreffed fo as to dellroy their organization, or the
cord is fo fqueezed or bruiled as to annihilate the tuntlions of
the part. Yet, under the circumilauci-S juft enumerated,
>ve read of numerous examples where venereal delires have
been experienced, where erection, copulaliuti, and emiffion
have taken place, and even where children have been be-
gotten. Thefe examples, however, are too repugnant to the
general effetl of cattration, as oblervable in man and animals,
to allow of our admitting them. Ordinarily we obferve not
only that no defires are felt, but alfo that the lofs of t'le
organs, in which the natural and leading ftimulus refides, oc-
caiions the other parts concerned in the bufinefs of genera-
tion to be much diminiflied in fize, and altered in appear-
ance. Where emalculation has been performed merely by
comprefiing the cord or teilis, tlie organization of the part
may not have been dcltroyed fufficiently to interrupt its
functions, and fuch an anlmjl might be Hill capable of fecun-
dating ; but no well authenticated inllance can be produced
of impregnation being eifefted v.'hcre the tefl;es had been
cut out in any male animal. Yet it cannot be doubted that
eunuchs may have cretlions, lince the ieat of the phyfical
feeling is in the glands, and the whole apparatus concerned
in ereclion remains entire after the lofs of the teiles. A
man, after the latter occurrence, like one who has loft his
powers through age, may at times be ftisiulated by the re-
colletlion of pall joys. Hence, in the Eaft they value
thofe eunuchs moll highly, in whom the penis as well as the
teftes has been removed ; no caufe for the flighteft jealoufy
can then remain. The proftatic liquor, or that of the vefi-
culx feminales, might be difcharged in tl.c eunuch. If an
animal has impregnated another after calti-ation, there may
have been fome lemen remaining in the veficulE femmales.

Befides the fatls now enumerated, we may obferve that
all animals which copulate have telles ; but that fcveral have
either no prollate or no veficul^e.

The lecreted femea is either expelled from the body, fuU

filling thcpurp.>fesof its formation ; or it is retained in its
receptacles, and taken up by the absorbents. The feminal
vefl^.ds are always full of their peculiar flu'ds, which are only
difcharg.'d at c onliderable intervals, and often only at pe-
riods of fome months or years. As the teftis and vedciife
feminales pofTefs numerous abforbcnts, .we cannot doubt that
the contained flui3s arc conveyed by thefe veflcls into the
general circulation. It has been a general opinion that this
abforption produces many of the ch?.ng;-s which arc well-
known to take place at puberty ; and wh'.cii obviouflv de-
jiend, as we have already fhewn, on the teiles. We refer
to a former part of the article on this fnbjeft. The males
of animals, when the rutting feal'on approaches, have their
whole bodies penetrated by a lingular fetor, fo that they are
unfit for food. The flefli at this time putrifies more rapidly
than at other feafons in the ll:ig. That abforbed femen is
tlie caufe of this fetor, is rendered probable by the fadl,
that the removal of the teiles deftroys it ; and by its abfence
from caftrated animals of the fame fpecies. The fame caufe
lias been aifigned for the phenomena confcquent on concen-
tion in the fenude ; but this feems very doubtful. This ab-
forbed i'emen has been fuppofod by phyiiologifts to aft as a
ftimulus on the heart, and the organs of motion, to incrcafe
the mufcular ftrength, and to contribute thereby to health
ot body and ftrengtli of mind. Hence, too, tl-.ey have ex-
plained the foftnefs and inllp^dity of the flcfh obfen-ed in
fome animals after the copulating feafon ; as, for inftancc,
in the boar. The tlefli of the i'ahnoii is remarkably changed
in colour and flavour at tliis time. Caftration produces de-
bilitating effects both on the boJ\ a;id mind "of man and
animals ; the ferocious and powerful bull is changed into the
mild .and patient ox. The influence of the fame proccfs in
mankind has been already noticed ; and we have fu.Ticientlv
proved that the remarkable developem.ent of the frainc at the
time of puberty arifes entirely from the influence of thu
tefticles. And it is no lefs true that tlie reft of the fexual
organs are particularly affected by the prefence and aclivity
of the teftes. In this country we iiave little or no opportu-
nities of obferving in eunuchs »he effeft of the mutilation on
the other organs of generation'; but v.-e can fee the confe-
quences in animals. In Mr. Hunter's opinion, the penis,
urethra, and all pai-ts connefted with them, are fo fub-
fervient to the tefticles, that he conceives that few of them
would have exilled if there had been no tefticles in tiie ori-
ginal conftruction of the body ; thefe parts would then have
been fo formed as to affift merely in the expulfion of the
urine. To illuftrate this opinion, let us obferve what is the
difference between thefe parts in the perfect male, a"d in a
male that has been deprived of the tefticles when very young,
at an age when they have had no fuch influence on' the a;;^
mal economy as to afFeft the growth of the other part;-. In
the perfecl male the peni.s is large ; the corpora cavernofa
being capable of dilatation. The corpus fpongiofum is
very vafcular ; and that part of the canal which is called the
bulb is coiifiderably enlarged, forming a cavity ; the mufculi
acceleratorts urinx, as they are calh d, are ftrciig and
healthy. In many animals which have long penifes, thev are
continued forwards to the end of it, and iu others thev arc
not extended !"« far, but are very large. On the cont'rarv,
in the caftrated animal, the penis is fmall and not capable of
much dilatation ; the corpus Ipongiofum is lefs vafcular ; the
cavity at the bulb is a little larger than the canal of tlie
urethra ; and the mufcles are whiu-, final!, and have a li 'a-
meiitous appearance. The fame wbfervations are true, if ap.
plied to the erec\ore.^ penis. The jjcnis of the perf<ct male
is of lufiicienl length, when erected, to reuch to tlie further
end of the vagina of the femr.lr. In the caftrated luiimai ii

GENERATION.

is much (Tiorter ; and ereftlons having thus become unneccf- ftrong (late of t!ic animal, nutritious and perhaps rather o;e-
fary, the parts which (houkl projeft often adhere to the in- nerous food, and a certain warmth of the weather, pro-
fide of the prepuce. The prollate, Cowper's glands, and mote the feminal fecretion. All thefe cucumilances diipoie
the Kl;ind6 aloi'g ''>«^ urethra, of which the lacunre are the the organs for adion, when the natural feelings are didy ex-
cxcretory duds, in the pcrfetl male, are large and pulpy, fe- cited; and the oppofite caufes, as infirm hcakh, fatigue,
creting a confiderable ([uaiitity of a Ilimy mucus, which is infufficient or bad food, and conliderable cold,^prevent the
fait to the talle, is moll probably for the purpofe of lu- feehngs or difpofitions neeeffary for the aftion of the genera-
bricatingthofe parts, and is only thrown out when the animal tive organs from taking place. The rcprodudive funaion is
is in vigour for copulation; while in the tailrated animal fo much influenced by the i'cafon in animals, that it is only
they are fniall, flabby, t'-mgh, and ligameutous, and have carried on at a particular time of the year ; and tlie lc?.dmg
"little fecretion." Animal Economy, p. 39. organs (the tcllicles) are reduced in many inilances to a Yery
It mull be acknowledged that we have no very dircft proof fmall fizc in the winter. But in man, and in fuch domefti-
thal any aftual abforption of femen takes place from the cated animals as are not in a ftate of nature, no fuch change
tefticles or vcficulx, and fome phyfiologills deny it altoge- takes place in the tefticfes ; they are coufequently always ia

• -. . . . . good condition, and in that ftate to which other animals that

are left to themfelves, can only attain in the warmer i'ealuii.

ther. " I very much doubt,'' fays Blumenbach, " whether
real femen be ever abforbed from its veficular refervoirs in a
healthy man ; — (lill more of what has been occailonally
aflcrted, that it is immediately conveyed into the ticiglibour-
ing veins : and moft of all, that fuch abforption (fuppofing
its exiftence to be granted) rtiould be coHlidered as a provi-
fion afainft premature venereal ftimuli. On the contrary, it
we compare the phenomena obferved in aniir.alo, the impe-
tuous ii-rehftible nature of their defires at particular feafons
of the year, with the conftitution of fuch as are caftrated,

lily ;

That the femen, fecreted in the terpentine tubuli of the
teftis, is conveyed from them into the epididymis, andtiiencc
into the vas deferens, is fuflicienily obvious from the anatomi-
cal ilrufture. De Graaf proved it ttill further, by tying tlie
vas deferens of a dog before copulation : all the lecreliiig
tubes vvei-e dillended to the utmoft, and the tellis conlider-
ably fwollen.

We cannot doubt that the fecretorv veffels of the teftis

we (hall rather deem fuch abforption the caufe of that ungo- propel their contents by fome contraiEtik- power ; although

vernable and almoft furious appetite. I conceive that a very the precife manner in which this is effefted efcapes our ob-

differ-'Jit means (peculiar, as far as I know, to the human fervation. Does the elevation of the teftis to the ring, by

fubj 'ft) has been adopted to anfwer the purpcfejuft alluded the aftion of the creraafter, conftantly obferved to accom-

to; viz. nofturnal emiffions, which I refer to the natural ex- pany emiffion, promote the progrefs of the fecreted fluid?

cretions of man, inafmuch as their more rare or frequent oc- The immenfe length and numerous turns of tlie femuial tubes

currence, according to varieties of temperament and coiifti- muft render the paflage of this fluid from its firft fecretion

tution, ferves to liberate him from the troublefome and in- very flow : hence, when the fup])ly contained in the veficulx

is entirely exhauiled, an intermifiiou of fome time is necella-
ry for the reproduftion of a fuflicient fupply ; hence too,
ip the dog, where there are no veficuloe, the aft of copula-
tion is unufually prolonged.

It has been generally conCdered that the fluid produced in
unmarried man, of a fanguine temperament, plethoric habir, the teftes is depofited and retained in the veiicula; feminales,
lively and warm imagination, particularly if he indulges in as in refervoirs, until occafion occurs for its difcharge.

convenient confequences of an abundant feminal fecretion.
It may be readily granted tliat barbarous nations, of a
phlegmatic temperament, and praftifing irregular fexual inter-
courfe, do not require fuch an excretion : yet, I think it
muft be deemed a very natural and fuitable relief in a young

Mr. Hunter has endeavoured to fliew that thefe bags are not
to be regarded in the light of receptacles for the femen,
but as dellined to perfonn a peculiar fecretion. The com-
mon opinion refts on the fafts of the very free communica-
tion between the vafa dcferenti^ and veficulje, on the courfe

d luxurious mode of life and enjoys perfeft health. See
Clir. Rud. Jaenifch de pollutione nofturna. Getting.
1795, 4to. Inftitut. Phyflol. feft. 36.

The length of courfe, and tlie fmall diameter of the fper-
matic artery, together with the impoliibillty of forcing any
injefted fluid from i's branches into the fecretory tubes of which iu)ofted fluids take in the dead body, and the extreme
the tefticle, have led phyfiologifts to cenclude that the fecre- minutenefs, numerous convolutions, and great length of the
tion of the feminal fluid is performed very flowly. But va- feminal tubes, which feem very unfavourable to the produc-i
rious circumftances are capable of accelerating this procefs. tion of femen in the fudden way, and at the veiy {hort notice-
" Princeps eft amor ;" fays Haller, Elem. Phyfiol. 7. 551. at which it mull be formed, if we do not fuppote it to come
" Nemo forte fuerit, quin in juventute fuafeminam concupi- from the veficulse. We have already detailed the proofs by
vcrit ; quin fi cafta fuit, in ejus familiaritate ignes conceperit which it appears that thefe organs perfonn a fecretion ; but
cccultos : quin fenferit cum dolore et iucommodo fibi teftes none of thofe fafts fliew that the contents of the veficulae

intumefcere, et vafa feminalia ; dolore certe tanto, ut vix
tangere poifet earn regionem, vix incedere. Manifeilo in
hoc malo accelerataeft fecretio leminis,ejufque liquoris major
penus teftem diilendit. Id mali genus ex reddita tranquilli-
tate animi, et abfentia aniots feminoc fedatur ; et celcrius
ctiam fanatur fruitione cupitse puella:, et fi neutrum remedium

may not confift, in part, of matter formed in the teftis. We
know that the gall-bladder produces a copious fecretion of
its own ; but that it alfo receives bile from the hepatic duft
through the duftus cyftlcus. Mr. H. endeavours to adduce
a decifive argument from comparative anatomy : he llate*
that in many animals, the parts correiponding to the human,

acceflerit in diflicilcs tumorcs abirc poterit. Quare in uni- veficula; feminales have no communication with the vafa defc.

vcrfiun, ut plurimum ad movendam venerem irritanieiita fa- rentia, and moreover, that their ftrufture, in fevcral iiiftances»

ciunt defideiatx feminae, aut imagines alpcftu lubricie, aut feeras little calculated to make them refervoirs. Where the

a'ia quEecunque, quae per legem affociationis idearum volup- obvious ftrufture is fo different, we are by no means war-

tatis memoriam renovant ; ita abfentia ejufmodi ftimuli, et ranted in concluding that the fun<5lIon3 are exaftly funilar.

cogitationes perpetuo ad alia averfs, ipiaque rehgio, ita mi- To argue that the fem.eu does not pais into the veficulx of

nuunt feminis gentrationem, ut multo minori copia gigna- man, where the vafa deferentia are fo intimately conneiled to

tur, neque molellum fit, et demuin vafa feminis pene coale- thofe bags, becaufe the analogous parts are not conuedled in

fcent, et genitaUuru moles ipfa diminuatur." A healthy and other animals, ia not more reafonable, than it would be to

affun»

GENERATION.

affirm that the fluid of the vafa dcfercntia palTes into the ve-
ficuls in animals, where the two are not conneftetl, becaiife
the ftrufture leads us to infer that it does to in man.

Mr. Hunter continues, " we may likcwife infer, from
what has been faid, that the femen is not retained in rcfcr-
voirs after it is fecreted, and kept there till it is ufcd ; but
that it is fecreted at the time, in confequence of certain af-
fcclions of the mind ftimulating the teilicles to this aftion :
for we find, that if lafcivious ideas are excited in tl'.e mind,
and the paroxyfm is afterwards prevented from coming on,
the tefticles become painful and fwelled from the quantity of
femen fecreted, and the increafed aftion of the veffels ;
which pain and fwelling are removed immediately upon the
paroxyfm being brought on and the femen evacuated ; but if
that does not take place, the aftiov. of the vefTels is Hill kept
lip, and the pain in the teilicles will generally continue till
the paroxyfm and the evacuation of the femen are brought
on, which renders the aft complete ; without which a Hop
cannot be put to the aftion of the vefTels that produce the fe-
cretion, northe parts be allowed to fall back to their natural Hate.
There is at this time no fenfation felt in the fituation of the
veficulcE feminales. The pain in the tefticles, in confe-
quence of their being filled with femen ; and the aftion
bei:i^ incomplete, is fometimes fo confiderable as to make it
neceflary to produce an evacuation of the femen to relieve
the patient." Animal Economy, p. 33.

We certainly admit with Mr. H. that the veficulae femi-
nales of the human fubjeft perform a particular fecretion ;
but we do not conceive liim to have fucceeded in proving that
they are not alfo refervoirs for the femen.

The opinion, which denies the veficali feminales to be re-
fervoirs for the f.-men, is defended alfo by J. A. Chaptal, in
the Journal de Phyfique, February 9, 1787, p. loi. Soem-
merring has refuted it in the third vol. of Blumenbach's Me-
dicinifche Bibliothek, p. 87.

The tranfmifTion of the femen, from its dufts or veficulse,
into the urethra, takes place under the intluencc of a parti-
cular (late of mind ; and its expulfion from the body is effeft-
ed, in all animals which have a penis, by means of what is
called the erection of that organ. In the human fub'ieft, this
is an increafe of volume produced by the dillention of the three
corpora cavernofa. Among the exciting caufes of this procefs,
we mav enumerate, in the firil place, the prefence of a fuflicient
iupply of feminal fluid : when this is prefent, any additional
ilimulus ealily produces the effeft. Hence, we obferve, that
the venereal powers of animals are the greateft, when their
teltes are of the largell iize ; hence, too, we may perhaps
explain the erection fometimes obferved after a full meal. A
fecond and more powerful excitement is derived from mental
caufes. " Altera caufa," fays Haller, " in fano homine efl.
imaginatio, five cupido veneris, quae ex quacunque caufa
orta, leftione, vifa piftu.-a, memoria voluptatis prillinae, con-
fabulatione, taftu, et aliis caufis, in fano homine continuo in
ereftionem crumpit. Eadem nofturnam illam et folltari:im
venerem fola ab^olvit, qua fe natura nimii feminis onere libe-
ral variis, pro varia ieminis ab'jndantia, et fenfu acriori aut
obtufiori, intcrvallis. Nam pueris facillima, fenibus ea venus
rarior ell, aut nulla. Soli homini data eft, forte quod homo
potifiimum memoria et imaginatione valeat. Imaginationem
folam, non ercclionem, fed plenam venerem, eliam in vigilan-
tibus perfeciiTe adfunt teftimonia. Neque poteft abfqHe ima-
ginatione excitata unquam hoc opus perfici ; ut turpi, ne-
que haftenus adamata in femina venus vix exerceri poffit.
Inde ills impotentix ex verecundia, ex imaginaria debilitate,
quo fafcinum revoco, aut ex odio, qua; quidem fpecies cum
relativa poteftate coiijunfta eft. Hinc manifefta iniquitas
ejus legis, qux ex congrelTii de virilitate mariti judicabat,

S

qnem in exof;! uxore, poft fummam injuriam pafTam, in con,
fpedlu tot hominum, ferrcum oporteret elTe, ut iis cum im-
pedimentis venerea jura perficiat. Quare in Gallii anno,
1677, die 18. menfis .Tanuarii, ridicula lex abolita fuit,
cum Marchio de Lanrjey, a judice poft congreflum pro impo-
tcnte damnatus, difiolato matrimonio, cum alia uxore multos
filios generaflet." (Element. Phyfiol. 7. 557.) The pecu-
liar odour exhaled fnam the female organs, particularly at
certain feafons, is a very powerfu! incentive of venereal feel-
ings in the animal kingdom. Haller confiders that this caufe
adls in the human race alfo. " Propius partes genitales
ipfas adficit, et excretioncm extorquet, auget et perficit,
fritlio glandis, et potiffimum colliculorum, qui funt fub
ortis urethrse, quocunque fere modo ea friftio adminiftrctur.
Sed ea cum voluptatc pcculiari, fumma, pene nimia, conjun- .
gitur, agitque iterum manifeilo in Mcrvos, ut vel ex acuto
fenfu glandis conjicere licet.'' Elem. Phyf. ibid.

Eretlion of the penis takes place from various caufes, not
enumerated under the foregoing heads ; and then it has no
concern with the expulfion of the feminal fluid. When a
perfon wakes in the morning, with the bladder tolerably full
of urine, the organ is commonly eredl ; but it fubfides when
the water is evacuated. Striking the nates with a rod is
well known to produce erection ; and has fometimes been
reforted to to roufe dormant paflions. Calculus, ftrangu-
ry, and hemorrhoids are fometimes attended with this fymp-
tnm ; which has been occafionally obferved alfo in other af-
fedlions. It is often particularly troublefome in gonor-
rhoea ; and has been obferved many times after death, parti-
cularly in thofe who have been hanged. (See Morgagni de
Sed. et Cauf. Ep. xix.) Mechanical obftrufticn to the re-
turn of blood from the part will produce ereftion, and even
fuch a fwelling as ends in gangrene, if the obftacle be con-
fiderableand long continued. Ligatures, thoughtlefsly placed
on the penis by children, and the ftriclure produced by
the retracted glands in paraphymofis, come under this defcrip-
tion. In the fame way dangerous fwelling has been produc-
ed by di-awing a ring over the penis. The effeft of inter-
cepting the return of blood is clearly fliewn, in an experi-
ment made by Mr. Hunter on the dog. " In April 1760,
in the prefence of Mr. Blount, I laid bare the penis of a
dog, almoft through its wiiole length ; traced the two veins
that came from the glans (which in this animal makes the
largeil part of the penis), and fepar.ated them from the arte-
ries by difledlion, tliat I might be able to comprefs them at
plea'.ure, without a.fFefting the arteries. I then compieiied
the two veins, and found that the glans and large bulb be«
came full and extended ; but when I irritated the veins, in or-
der to fee if there was any power of contraftion in them,
which might occafionally ftop the return of the blood, no
fuch appearance could be obferved.'' Animal Economy,
p. 40, note a.

That eredlion is produced by blocd being fent into the
penis fafter than it can le returned, and that the encreafed
fize of the organ is entirely produced by this fanguiaeou*
diftention, are points clearly alcertained. The obftacle to
its return is fo complete, that no mechanical prefTure applied
to the body of the penis can force the blood on into the
s'cins. The exacl mode, in which this object is accompliih-
ed, has not, we believe, been as yet afcertained. There cer-
tainly is no power capable of directly coinpreiring the veins:
and the ereftor penis in particular, by drawing the organ
away from the fyjiphyfis pubis, would rather free them front
preflurc. The accelerator urinae, by fqueezing the blood for-
wards from the bulb, may make the front of the corpus
fpongiofum and glans rather more firm when they are
ereft, but can produce no effedl on the penis in general.

Neither

GENERATION.

N'-'itlier is tlie phenomenon at all like tliofc produced by
niufcular contraAion : it is a quiet and gnidual incicalo, and
it often lads for hours. Mnfcular aclion is fudden, and not
of fiich long duration. There arc oth-r examples of analo-
gous effects, which arc totally incxplicahle by mufeular ac-
tion. The nipple, wlien left to itfelf, like the penis, is foft
and flaccid, ihort, and retracted : when excited by gentle
friilion, it rifes into a cylindrical form, fwells, grows red
and warm : yet there is nothing like a nuifcle in the part.
The red flefliy organs about the head and neck of fume
gallinaceous birds undergo a limilar proccfs.

It appears, therefore, that the change termed erection, may
take place in animal llrudture;;, without the alfiftance of any
mufeular power ; and it is by no mean:; certain, that any
mufcle is concerned in the particular cafe now under conii-
dcration. All that we can afcertain on tlie fubjeit is, that
the blood is fent into the corpora cavemola in much greater
quantities than it can return. If a mechanical obftacle does
not produce that rigid Hate of the organ, wliich is created
by the immediate action of defire, we conclude, that a more
fudden and complete congeftion is produced by the latter
than bv the former canfe. We cannot explain how tlie
proportion of blood, which arrives, is thus altered in relation
to that which returns, any more than we underftand the
analogous phenomenon in iiiflammation. It docs not feem
polTible to afcertain the mechanifm of the procefs by actual
(ibfervation. The circvnnllances already mentioned render
it proljablc that the nerves are materially concerned.

Erection varies confiderably in its degree. The organ at
firll fwells, but continues foft ; it then grows confiderably
longer, thicker, more firm and warm ; and the glands become
redder. The corpora cavernofa penis are firll diilended, and
the glands fubfequently. In the Hate of greatelt rigidity, it
is proved, bv ridiculous experiments, that confiderable weights
can be fupported by the organ. The mere ait of erection
is not attended with thofe remarkable effedts on the frame
which accompiun emiffion ; it may be repeated or continued
for any length of time without any injurious operation on the
animal economy : hence, it is much more frequent than the
latter aft.. Under the influenc:; of certain feelings of the
moft acute 'kind, excited in the adt of copulation, the femi-
nal fluid is expelled from the ejaculatory duels into the ure-
thra. The pleafnrable fenfation is raifed to its highell pitch,
and is attended with a convuliive agitation of the whole
frame, before this effecl follows. " iVIaxima certe ell in
Venerc convulfio, et late patens tremor, ut femina, cui clitoris
titillatur, neqne fe fullinere pofiit, neque genua cocrcerc, n?
'tremant, et in alils res in plenam epilepfiam crumpit : nihil
audit neque fentit animal in venerea tentiginc. .Sunt, qui
animo in venerc linquantur, ctiam feminiE ; lunt non rari, qui
in grato nimis opere perierint. Eil autem oninino major
maris volnptas, ctiam in plerifquc animalibus ; n^.m mares,
prseter pauca exempla, feminas fequuntur, et nonnuuquam
pene invitas vi fubigunt : eft in viris glans, fenfus venerei
prascip'ia fedes, multo quam clitoris major, et certe ia vc-
uere tumidior. Et n aliquis fenfus ell in oilio uteri interiori,
quando femen eo perrenit, manifcllo tamen mas in egerendo
fcmine mijyribus, quam femina in toto venere, furiis agitatur.
Qux omnia fapienlillimis confiliia ita facia funt, ut virum
robore armatum, amoris dnlcedo feminag redderet a;quiorem.
Demum et cordis vires vehementer incitantur, et pulfus ac-
ceieratur, et cor palpitat, et refpiratio laborat, et eadem,
qr.x in nixu, phxnomena oriuntur.'' Element. Phyfiol. 7.

567-

After this tumultuous agitation of the whole frame, and

when the fwelhng of the penis and glands has reached its

greatell extent, the feminal fluid is thrown into the urethra.

The antis is clof.-d by its fphinfter, and it is faid that tlie
Icvatores ani, by their mechanical prelTure, fqueeze out the
contents of the proitate and velieula; into the urethra.
Probably the coats of the-veficulx and vafa deferentia potiefs
fome contractile power, by which their evacuation is afiiiled.
T!ie contents of the prollate and veficulse are collected in
the bulb of the urethra, which is enlarged fo as to form a
kind of refervoir for them ; and are expelled with fome
force, by fuccelTive fpafmoJic contradtions of the accelerator
urinre. As foon as this is finiflied, tlie temporary agitation
fubfides, the blood returns from the cells of the penis, and
that organ regains its original magnitude. A degree of lan-
guor follows, proportioned to the previous excitation ; the
palpitation of the heart goes off, the hurried refpjration is
quieted, and the ilrength flowly returns. The fiibfequent
weaknefs is greater, in proportion as the aft has b< en more
frccpicntly repeated, and at fliorter intervals. In many
animals, where tlie fexual appetites are only exerted at a
particularfeafon, and where thepowersare exhibited andexcr-
cifed on a much grander fcale than in man, the debilitating
influence is '.v^ry llrongly marked. Tlie venereal powers of
the human fiibjeft certainly appear very limited, when com-
pared to thofe of moil animals : with a due regard tc lieallh,
he cannot much exceed the limits affigned by Haller. '■ Ho-
mini adeo modiex funt vires, ut non multo plus, quaiti bis in
feptem dlebus eoire poffit, et fi forte acri amore perciius, poft
longam caftitatem, femina concupita potltus, aliquotieJ
polTit femen emittere. Sed ea neque multum repeti poffunt,
neque durare." r>n attention to the diftates of nature
will certainly enjoin temperance in tliefe enjoyments. Tlie
performance of a funftion, fo neceffary to the contiiuiance
of the fpecies, has been enfured by the phyfical pleafure
affociated with it : but the effefts of too frequent repeti^ ion
produce thofe ferious confequences which the univerfal and
violent influence of the aft on our bodies would naturally
lead us to expeft. Severe nervous affeftions, impaired men-
tal faculties, and premature death, are the fure concomitants
of excefllve venereal enjoyments. Whether the convulfive
agitation of the body, or the eraifTion, be the moft injurious
under thefe circumilances, cannot, perhaps, be. decidedly
afcertained. " Omnia ilia majora et celeriora, ct minus
medica; manui obtemperatura, evcniunt ab-illa deteftabili ju-
vcnum circe, a qua amor abeft, ct in qua femen, multo
quam in naturx opere difKc.lius, ellcitur. Ab ca eVi.n cor-
riiptela impotentia infanabilis inper\enit, et feminis fliixus
involuntarius perpetuus, ob!llpa rigiditas, tabes intra trien-
nium funclla, aniiffa judicii vis, et omne fere malorum genus,
quod volis velis avertere." Elem. Phyfiol. y. 573.

Thefe circumilances render it very ph'in that pol-s'gamv
is not fuittd to the organization and powers of man ; and
afford a much flronger argument againil the practice, than
the alleged fuperior munbers cf females in Eallern co'.mtrijs
would be in favinir of it, even if the faft were well proved ;
which we by no means admit. We may colleft alio, from
the foregoing accour.t, that the iexual functions ought not
to be exercifed, until the growth and ilrength are complete ;
and that all attempts at eKciting tlte venereal appetites,
before the natural period of their dcvelopement, mult be
prejudicial. On this fubjecSt we (hould bear in niind the
obiervation of Tacitus concerning t!ie ancient Germans ;
"Sera juvenum Venus, eoque inexhauita pubertas,'*

Man is capable of exerciiing tlie generative funftions
through a certain portion only of his life. We have ex-
plained that the organs are in a llate of very imperfeft dcve-
lopement during the early periods of his exiitence. Bovs
have ereftions, but they are not produced by thofe ftimuli
which aft at a myre advanced age. In the middle of Europe,

a ff.cre^

GENERATION.

a fecretion of feminal fluid generally takes place about tlie
twelfth or fourteenth year, infoii-.iich that it is commonly
difchaigcd from the efiVft of dreams. Soon after this time
there is a complete capacity of performing the fexual func-
tions J and there is a well-icnown inftance of a prince who
b;-got twins in his 1 6th year. The approach of puberty is
ngulated conliderably by the climate, and alfo by manners ;
in warm coivitries it comes on earlier tlian we have men-
tioned, and later in colder regions. In the higher ranks of
fociety, where the feelings arc prematurely and ai-tliicially
excited, and encouraged by a copious and generous diet,
and loole morality, the generative funftions may be called
into cxercife more early, than under the oppolite circum-
flances. As the individual approaches to the yoth year,
the venereal lufceptibility is conliderably diminiflicd. Semen
is ftill lecreted, but hardlvever emitted duringfleep, even after
the longell abilinence. The venereal adl is more flowly
performed, but is equally eiTicncious in producing impreg-
nation. From this tine tlic powers are gi'aduallv diminiflied ;
but a man of 60 may iliU become n father, although fome
legiflators have chofen to determine otherwife. A longer
continued and more powerful irritation is required to pro-
duce ercdtion and emillion at this age. In rare examples
men have been known to retain their powers of propagation
even to the age of 100 years ; and it is very well authenti-
cated that Thomas Pane married at 120, and performed
the duties of a huiband until th.e age of 140. Thefe latter
examples muft, however, be regarded as deviations from the
ordinary courfe ; and we have equally remarkable in (lances
of the generative funftlons being performed at an unufually
early age. Perhaps the moft remarkable cafe of this kind
is a boy now living in I^ondon, of whom an account is given
in the Medico-Chinirgical Tranfaftions, vol. i. p. 276, &
feq. At the time of birth this child had much long hair
on the head, and the futures of the cranium were perfectly
clofed. At the end of the firft year thofe changes took,
place which ufually happen at puberty. The penis and
teiles increafed in iize, hairs appeared en the pubes, and th.e
tone of the vaice was evidently altered. From this time
his body grew ve-y rapidly, and the exprcffion of his fea-
tures, as well as the general organization, had a completely
manly charafter. The prominence of the thyroid cartilage,
and the voice, refcmbled thofe of a youth of 16. " The pubes'
and Icrotum are covered with black cr.rling hair. Tlie penis
;'.nd teftcs are as large as I have fcen in fome adults. The
latter are firm and perfeft in their foimation, and the cord
may be diftinftly felt. The ufual brown appearance of the
integuments of thefe parts is here to be obfcrved." There has
been a fecretion of fumer. from the end of the fecond year^
This account was drawn up when he was three years old.
In his " Anecdotes de Mcdecine,'' Borden mentions three
boys who tfed flrong venereal delires between 10 and 1 1
years of age : the generative orgai-.s were unufuallv large
in thefe individuals, and were fully capable of exercihng
their ordinary fuiitlii ns at this time. " lis ne penfaient
qu'au plaillr pliyilque de lamour ; iis ne femblaient avoir
autre fenfation qiie celle de cetle paffion ; ils fe fondaient,
pour ainfi dire^ en T'erme ; ils tiraient leur car:'.ftere indi-
viduel de I'organifme feminal."

The moilfuitable and natural ftate after the ac;eof puberty,
is that of marriage. If the defigns of nature are not fulfilled ;
if, by rcfuiingto fatisfy the impi-rious callscf lo .e, we prevent
the exeefs of vital energy, v.-hich foon animates the genera-
tive organs, from being carried off in its riatural channel,
the accumulated Irritability of thefe organs will frequently
ditturb the whole frame by its re-aAion. The phyfical
feeling of love, the irjpulfe of reprodudion, has generally a

remarkable charafter of violence and energy in animals.
The phenomena of the rutting feafon fnew the effec'^s of
this powerful apprtite in a much llronger point of view than
they arc feen in the human fubjeft ; as the influence of the
paflion is iiere heightened by its being reduced within a fliort
period of time. Great fiercenefs, impetuous motions, and
often even convulfions, arc tiie cffefts of the new want in
many animals. Parrots, canary-biid.s, and biill-fmches, ex-
perience attacks apparently of an cpilept'c kind, when fepa-
rated from their females. The phyf.cal appi'-te is rarely
accompanied with fuch phenomena in man. With many in-
dividuals, the obfcrvance of the laws of chaftity hardlv re-
quires an effort. However, if the influence of the genera-
tive organs fliould predominate fo far as to conftitutea wcU-
charafterized erotic temperament ; if an ardtnt imagination
and a forced ftate of celibacy flioidd ilrengthen this tempe-
rament, its influence on the conftitution may be excefllve, and
caiife various kinds of general diforder. Under the influence
of fuch circumllances, a foldier feized and attempted to vio-
late a girl in public at Montpelier. Neither the publicity of
the lituation, nor the cries of his victim, nor the exclamations
and blows of thefarroundlngpcrfons, could prevail with him to
relinquiili his attempt, for which he was hanged. (Borden,
Anecdotes de Mcdecine.) The unnatural vbl'incnce obferved
from miilaken notions of religion, has produced very remark-
ableeffctts in lome cafes. Ancccleliafticmcntioned bv Bufl'on,
in whom the feelings were very flrong, fearing he (liould be
tempted to break his vow, cut away the organs. The fame
author relates the fufferings cf another individual during a
kind of erotic dehrium, which lailcd for fix months, and
feems to have amounted nearly to mental derangement.

Female Organs of Gimralljii — Woman contributes more
largely than man to thebufinefsofreproduelion ; andtheappa-
ratus dellined to this function includes the generative organs,
properly fo called, and the brealts. Thefe ifolated parts arc
appropriated to the execution of a common objeft, to which
each contributes in its own way, and tlicir developement is
regula.ted by a common law. They are called into aftivity
at the lame epocha, and their refpeftlve funftions ceafe, or
at lealt their capacity of fulfilling them ceafes at the fame
time. The clofe fympathy which connects them has been
remarked at all times. The breads, however, are mani-
feftly dependent on the generative organs ; while the former
excrcife but a very flight influence on the latter. As the
male organs are calculated by then- formation to convey the
prolific fluid, fo the female are conllructed with a view to
its reception ; and the two differ ooinphtily from each other.
Yet there is a conliderable reftniblaiice in fome parts of the
apparatus in both fexes. Thus ihe clitoris, which is con-
cealed under the pubis in the fuperior commHTure of the
labia, refemblcs the penis in many points ;■ diiTcrinti^ from it
by having no conne£t;on with tlie urethra, and eonfequently
being imperforate, alfo in being very fmall in well-formed
individuals. The mofl con\T;nient arrangement oftlic fubjeit,
for anatomical defcription, is that in which the organs are
dividf d into the external and internal. The latter include
the eiiential agents of the generative procefs in the female ;
vh. the vagina, with the uterus and its appendages. The
former confilt of a longitudinal flit, pkced between the
thigiis, con:<iiningthe termim-.tion of the urethra and vagina,
and i-ertain prominent parts conipcded chiefly of folds of the
integuments..

The external organs, wliich can be feen witlieut the aid of
difit^ti.on, are the mons veneris, the vidva or LMdendum, the
labia, frenulum, fofla navicularis, clitoris, nympiia:, meatus
uiinarius, and opening of the vagina.

A broad prominence, pLced in front of the pubes, and'

between-

GENERATION.

liftween th« groins, is called the mons veiviis. At the lime
of puberty, this part becomes more convex, niid is covered
with liairs, of whieh the number, length, and colour, vary-
in different individuals. Thefe very I'eldom advance aloiig
the middle line ot' the abdomen, towards the navel, as in
man. Their eminence is formed fmiply by tlie accumula-
tion of an adipous cellular fubilance at this particular point,
and it confequeiitly varies in lize, according to the cttibon-
point of the indi'idual. A longitunal fiffure, or flit-like
cavity, extends from the mons veneris, between the thighs,
to within an inch of the anus ; this is called the vulva, or
pudendum, (which names fometimeo include, in a more large
application, the external organs^) or fmus pudoris. This
excavation is larger in women who have had children, tlian
in virgins. TIk' fpacc left between the pollcrior end of the
vulva and the anus, whieh may be about one inch in length,
is the perineum, in which the raphe can hardly be traced.
The labia, or ala; majores, are two elongated cutaneous
eminences, filled with adipous fubttance, defcending from the
mons veneris towards the anus, and forming the lateral
boundaries of the cavity jull mentioned. They liave been
named, from a comparifon with the lips of the mouth ; but
the fiflure between them is vertical, inftcad of being tranf-
verfe, as in the other inftance. Their length, which is nearly
the fame in all irillances, and may be fomcwhere between
two and three inches, determines the extent ot the vulva.
Their fize and prominence vary according to the general
embonpoint of the individual. Thefe folds are thicker
above than below ; their external furface, which correfponds
to the upper and ii.ner fide of the thighs, is covered with
hairs iimilar to thofe of the mons veneris, and pofTeffes feme
febaceous giands. The internal iurface, formed by a mucous
membrane, is fmooth, foft to the touch, is contiguous to that
of the oppoiile fide, ard to the nymplire. In virgins the
colour of this furface is red ; it acquires afterwards a pale
and rather livid call. The upper edge of tlie labia is adhe-
rent, and continues externally with the integuments, on the
infide with the covering of tlie nymphs : the inferior margin
is unconnefted, convex, rounded, and covered with hairs, and
exhibits the continuity of the integuments with the mucous
membrane. The anterior, or fuperior extremity, is con-
founded with the mons veneris : the pofterior, growing
gradually fmaller, ends in a point, and is united with that of
the oppofite fide behind the foffa Kavictdaris. From this
union a fharp prominent ridge refults, called the commiffure
of the labia, or frenulum, and in French la fourchette.
The following parts enter into the compofltion of the labia ;
J ft, a continuation of the ikin forming their external furface
and inferior or convex edge, provided with febaceous glands,
inthefecretion of which thediftinguifhing odour of thefe parts
refides : adly, a mucous membrane covering their internal
furface, continuous on one fide with the integuments, and on
the other with the mucous covering belonging to the whole
■vulva : sdly, an adipous tilfue filling the interval between
thefe layers, and giving to the parts their various degrees
of thicknefs and prominence. The latter texture refembles
on the whole that of the mons veneris, with which it is con-
tinuous, but it prefents, in addition, fome membranous la-
minx defcending from the ifchium and pubes to theloofe edge
of the labium. It does not contain ic much fat as the mons
veneris, and hence, like the Icrotum of the male, it is a part
in which anafarcous depofitions are frequently obferved.

The labiacover all the other external organs of generation,
which, by this means, are conllantly nioillened with a mucous
fluid, preventing the eftecls of friftion, and prelcrving the
acute fenfibility of the parts. In the ordinary attitudes of
the body, thefe organs arc in a ilate of mutual contaft, and

therefore completely conceal the parts which we are pro-
ceeding to defcribe : they are feparate only when the thighs
are thrown widely apart ; they receive an extraordinary deve-
lopement during parturition, and thereby iiicreafe tlie capa-
city of the vulva. When the labia are feparated, the fol-
lowing parts may be cbferved in fucceffion from above
downwards: l.The elite ris, which appears as a fmall tu-
bercle, more or lefs prominent, feparated from the upper
commiffure of the labia by a fmall fir.ooth furface : 2. Tlie
nymplia-, alae rninores, or petites levres, araing from the in-
ferior lateral parts of the clitoris, defcending and diverging
as they defcend, and loft on the fides of the opening ofthe
vagina: 3. A triangular furface ilightly concave, bounded
above by the clitoris, belowr by the meatus urinarius, on
the fides by the nymphae, and lomctinies called veftibulum :
4. The meatus urinarius, fituateO about one inch below the
clitoris : 5. The orifice of the vagina, with the hymen, or
caruncula; myrtifoi mes, placed immediately under the meatus :
6. The fofla navicularis, a fmall tranfverfe depreflion, fepa-
rating the entrance of the vagina from the frenulum : 7. The
frenulum, or pollerior commiffure of the labia ; behind •
which is the perineum. The clitoris occupies the upper
part ofthe vulva, and forms a reddifh flightly elevated tu-
bercle, which ordinarily does not exceed the level of the
labia. Its figure is obtufely conical, foniething like that of
the end of the penis ; this is called the gians clitoridis, and
is covered by a loofe fold of the mucous membrane lining
the vulva, and named preputlum clitoridis. Befides, the
difterence of its fize, the want of a perforation at the
extremity, fufficier.tly diftinguifhes it from the penis. A
fmall part only ofthe organ appears on external examination;
the larger portion, which is concealed, and can be brought
into view only by diffeftion, lies over the vagina, and under
the arch of the pubes, and bears a great analogy to the
penis, as it confiils of two crura or corpora cavcrnofa, with
ereftor mufcles. Thefe arife from the inner and even pof-
terior furface of the rami of the oiia innominata ; alcend,
approaching to each other, and unite into a fmall cylindrical
body, terminating in an obtufe extremity, called the glans.
Thefe crura are made up of a firm fibrous membr.ine, con-
fufed with the pcrioileum, forming a tube filled witli a cellular
or fpongy fubflance, into which blood is effuied from the ar-
teries, to be again taken up by the veins, as in the penis. .
There is a complete feptum between the two crura, io that
they are dilHnct throughout. The fpongy fubllance of the
crura is more denfe than in the penis, and confcquently admits
of lefs difleiition ; hence tlie fize of the organ is not greatly
increafed in the erecl ftate.

Tlie ercSor clltoritHs mufcle is analogous in every refpeft
to the ereftor penis of tlie male ; its origin, tern.ination, and
probably ufe, arc timilar, but the fize is fmaller in propor-
tion to that of the crus. It arifes frcm the inner furface of
the ifchium, afcends and pafTes forwards, and is implanted in
a tendinous form, in the inferior and pollerior extremity ofthe
crus clitoridis.

The fubilance of the glans is not different from that of.
the body ofthe clitoris, as there is no urethra in this organ,
and confequently no peculiar corpus cavernofum. It is
rounded above and flightly bifid below. The loofe and
folded prepuce covers it above and at the fides, but not be-
lou", being attached to the two fides ofthe flit, by wliichthe
jjart is marked in this fituation. A white, friable, febaceous,
and concreting fubllance, fimilar to that formed by the glan-
duhe odurifera; of the penis, is depofited under the preputiura
clitoridis.

This fecrction, being liable to acci'mulatc, and becoming ir-
ritating in warm countries, as is the cafe with the analogous

lubltauce

GENERATION.

f[i!}/lance in the malt?, has given rife to a fimilar operation of
circumcifion in girls in feveral parts of Africa and Aim.
Niebulir enjoyed the very rare opportunity of feeing the
pudenda of an Arabian girl, eighteen years of age, v.hohad
been circiuncifed ; lie drew tlie parts from the life, and
brought the rcprefer.tation home with him. See his Befch-
reibuilg von Arabicn, p. 77. et feq.

The clitoris correfponds above to the arch of thepubes, to
whicli it is fixed by a kind of fufpenfory ligameiit ; below to
the urctl'.ra, to which it is united by a loofe cellular tiffiie.

It refenibles the penis in its acute fcnfibiUty : " fcnfus
mire vehemens ell, ut tola crura ab ejus particulcc folllcita-
tione contreiiiifcant, feminaeque tot:E extra feponantur, ni-
hilque poffint proco neg.'.re. Qui extra venereni, in cafta
femina parva fuerat, fed ctiam modo arrigit et intumefcit,
;it prepollcra: veneri infervirc pofiit, multoque sfu ejus tur-
pitudinis denique moles ejus augetur, ut omnia membra fo-
lent, quibus multum utimur. Qua: caufa videtur fuide, cur
orientales populi, accuniti cailitatis muliebris cuilodes, banc
particulam in nuper natis puellis ainpiitaverint, aut certe feiTO
dccurtaverint." Element. Phyfiol. lib. 28. i"! 20. We have
made fome obfcrvations, concerning tiie occafional increafe
in fize of this part, in the remarks on hermaphrodites.

The nymphse are two membranous folds, connected above
to the preputium clitorldis, and defcending about as far as
the middle of the aperture of the vagina. They are thin and
flattened, broadeft in the middle, and narrower at tiie two
extremities. Their external furface correfponds to the in-
iide of the labia, while the internal, approximating above to
that of the oppofitc fide, correfponds below to the meatus
urhiarius and orifice of the vagina. Their adherent edge is
tolerably thick ; while the loofe margin is thin and convex :
the latter is fometimes wrinkled or notched, fo as to have oc-
cafioned a comparifon of the part to a cock's comb. The
fuperior extremity arifes from the preputium or glans cli-
torldis : the inferior ends at the fide of the vagina. They
arc fmooth and of a red colour in young women, and acquire
a darker hue in older fubjefts, and particularly iuch as have
had children. They are <ortned of duplicatures of the m.em-
brane lining the vulva, filled internally with a cellular fub-
llance, free from fat : and they contain febaceous glands,
the excretory dudls of which form very obvious pores :
they differ very much in fize. Ordinarily, they are com-
pletely covered by the labia, when approximated. Some-
times they form fcarcely perceptible prom.inences, while at
others they are very large, and hang down between the la-
bia, fo as to form an inconvenient obftruc^ion to the fexual
functions ; in this cafe their furtace is irregular, being
grooved and tuberculated. Such formations are more fre-
quent in the inhabitants of warm climates, where it is not
unufual to cut off fome part of them; and the operation is
even occafionally praiflifed in European countries. Fre-
quently one is larger than the other. They pofiefs confider-
able fenfibility. I'lie chief ufe afiigncd to them is that of
afiiftmg, bv their developcment, the enlargement of the vulva
Qu.-ing parturition : the di'ilention of the parts by the paf-
fage of the child deflroying the fold. The name of nymphas
■was given to them from a fuppofition that they regulate the
jtt ot urine ; but as woiTien evacuate this fluid with the
thighs apart, and as the direftion of the ftream feems to de-
pend fo entirely on that of the urethra, we cannot adopt this
luppofition. And we arc further confirmed in rcjefting the
opinion liy the exiftence of thefe folds in m.any animals where
they can have nothing to do with the ftream of urine.

We have nothing further to fay concerning the veftibu-
l«m, exci pt that the furface is fmooth, and that it is termi-
catrd below by the opening of the urethra, which is about
Voi.. :)iVI.

three quarters of an incli, or an inch from the clitoris. The
defcription of this canal, and its termination, v/ill be found,
together with that of the female bladder, under the article

KlIi.NEV.

Immediately under the orifice of the urethra is the en-
trance of the vagina, called fcjmetimes the osextcrnum uteri ;
the diameter and appearance of wliich vary verv confiderabK-
m different individuals. In virgins this opening is verv
narrow; it is broader after the fexu.l nft hai, been pcrformtj,
and moll ample in uomcn who have had many children.
The narrownefs in the firft cafe arifes from the' prcfence of
a duplicatiire of the mucous membrane, called the hymen,
which contracts the opening fo confiderablv, that marriagi-
cannot be confummated without its being ruptured ; henc<-,
after this laceration, the entrance of the canal is more free.
As the parts are vatcular and frnfible, more or lefs bleeding
and pain generally attend this dilatation of the aperture; and
thefe circumilances are cxpedled in fome countries as the
necefiary proofs of virginity in the bride. However, tlicv do
not always attend the firll; coition ; and it fhould fccm, by
the following quotation, th.at the exillcnce of the hymen
hangs by a very fiender thread ; " L'hymen, pendant le
premier age, eft tres mince, fe rompt facilcment et fe dc-
truit, lorfqu'on effuie a%-ec trop pen de mcnagcment ks par-
ties extcrieures de la generation, foit lorfque I'cnfant Ini-
menie, avec ou fans intention, contrafte des habitudes I^ei-
biennes, prepare et difpofe ainfi aux plaifirs folitaires, des
organes qui font a ptine cbouchcs." iVIoreau Hilt, dc lu
Femme, torn. i. p. 53.

The hymen is a duplicatiire of the fame membrane which
lines the entrance of the vagina, and has the fame texture
and properties. It is foft, red, vafcuhir, and fenfible. The
pofterior furface is reticulated, as the columns of the vagina
terminate on it. Its fize and figure vary very confiderably.
Generally it has the fhape of a erefcent, with the concavity
turned upwards or forwards. The convex edge is attached,
the concave loofe ; the former is fixed to the inferior part
and fides of the vagina, the latter is turned towards th.c
urethra. The orifice of tlie vagina, in the virgin, is the
fpace bounded in front or abos'e by the meatus urinariii',
below or behind, and at the fides, by the loofe concave
edge of the hymen. The dimcnfions of this opening muit
depend therefore on the breadth of the hymen, which differs
much in different individuals : ordinarily, it will admit the
little finger without any ftrctching. This crefcented or fal-
ciform figure of the hymen is feen only when the labia are
drawn apart, and the fides of the vagina gently ilretched ;
for in the ordinary attitudes, the membrane is thrown into
longitudinal folds, the fides of the vagina comyig into con-
taft with each other, fo that the entrance of the canal is
completely fiiut. However, the fpace left between the
urethra and the edge of the mem.brane will always allow
the efcape of the menllrual difcharge. The lower part of
the hymen is the broadeft, and the horns of the erefcent,
where they advance along the fides of the aperture, grew
gradually narrower, until they are completely loft.

Sometimes the hymen is continued under the orifice of the
urethra, fo -as to form a complete membranous circle, per-
forated in the middle, inftead of a erefcent. Indeed Halkr,
and many other very accurate anatomifts, have found the
fold, when the parts were carefully examined in water, ge-
nerally continued under the urethra : but verv narrow at
that part. In more rare cafes the hymen is an imperforare
circular membrane, attached to the edge of the orifice ot
the vagina i[i every part, fo as to clofe the canal completilv.
Such females have been termed afrcf.i, by a word derivid
from the Greek, and figiiifving imperforate. A.= there it

G I*

GENERATION.

no aperture in fiich cafes for the difchargo of tlie mcnftrual
fLuid, it accumulates in the uterus and vagina, and mull be
evacuated bj a furgical operation, confining of a punfture
of the hymen. For the various appearances which this
part exhibits in different individu;Js, the reader may confult
J. G. F. Tolbeng, de varietate hymenum, Hal. 1791, 4to.
It his generally been aficrted, that the hymen does not
exill in quadrupeds ; but the ilatemcnt of Cuvicr, in his
Lc5ons d'Anat. comparee, torn. 5, lc§on 29, fedt. ii. art. 2,
renders this point very doubtful. The general opinion of
its non-exillence in the other mammalia befides man, and
the circumilance of its being found in women only, at a par-
ticular period of life, and even then not uuivcrfally, have
led many anatomifts to deny its exiftence in the human fub-
jeft. But the faft is fo clearly proved by the concurrent
tcftimonics of all modern anatomifts, wlio have enjoyed con-
iiJerable opportunities of diffcdion, that we wonder to find
Buffon ftill contefting the point ; any of his anatomical friends
juight furcly have con\-inced him by ocidar proof. Though
we are fully convinced, by repeated obfervation, that Buf-
fon's opinion is incorrect in point of faft, \ve cannot help
admiring the clocjuence with which he inveighs againft the
difgraceful opinions and praftices which have prevliiled on
this lubjec\. " Les bommes,'' fays he, " jaloux des primautes
en tout genre, ont toujours fait grand cas de tout ce qu'ils
out cru pouvoir pofTeder excluhvement et les premiers : c'eil
cette efpece de folie, qui a fait un etre reel de la virginite
des filles. La virginite, qui ell un etre moral, une vertu
qui ne confifte que dans la purete du cccur, eft devenue un
objet phyfique dont tous les hommes fe font occupes ; ils
ont etabli fur cela des opinions, des ufages, des ceremonies,
des fuperllitions, et meme des jugemens et des peines ; les
abus les plus illicites, les coutumcs les plus delhonnetes ont
ete autoril'ces ; on a foumis a I'examen de matrones igno-
rantes, et expofc aux yeux de medecins prcvenus, les par-
ties les plus fecretes de la nature, fans fonger qu'une pareille
indecence eft un attentat contre la virginite; que c'eft la
violer que de chercher a la reconnoitre ; que toute lituation
honteufe, tout etat indecent, dont une fille eft obligee de
ronglr interieurL-ment, eft une vraie defloration. Je nefpere
pas reufiir a detruire les prejugcs ridicules qu'on s'eil formes
fur ce fujet ; les chofes, qui font plaiiir a croire, feront
toujours crucs, quelque vaines et quelque dcraifonnables
qu'elles puiffent etre ; cependant, comine dans une hiftoire
on rapporte non feulement la fuite des evenemens, et les cir-
conftances des fiiits, mais auffi I'origine des opinions et des
erreurs dominantes, j'ai cru que dans I'hiftoire de Phcmnie
je ne pourrois me diipenfer de parler de I'idole favorite a la-
quelle il facrifie, d'examiner quelles peuvent etre les raifoiTs
de fon culte, et de rechercher fi la virginite eft un etre reel,
ou fi ce n'eft qu'une divinite fabuleufe."

It is not fo eafy to explain the \\k or purpofes of this
membrane, as to eftablifti the faft of its exiftence. The
partifans of final caufes have been much puzzled in attempt-
ing to difplay the wifdom or goodnefs of the Creator, as
evinced, in this part of our anatomy, and have as yet
aKigned no rational explanation of it. We fubjoin from
lialler a ftatement of the cumm.only received notions,
which, however, appear to ourfelves entirely unfatisfadory.
'•' Vix tamen dubites, cum folo in hornine fit rcpertus, etiain
ad morales fines ei cfTe concefi'um fignum pudicitire, quo et
vitium illatum cogcofcatur, et piira virgo decus fuum poflit
tueri, et ipfe maritus de caftitate.fponfa: facile convincatur,
CO facilius, quod prxterea in iliibata virgine vagina angufia
fit. Etfi enim poffit fieri, ut laxus, ut parvus fit hymen,,
atque prima venus aliquando abfque fanguine abfolvatur,
iieque hymen rumpatur ; etfi artificii porro in parum pv.dica

femina fanguis pofiit elici ; etfi tcnefx virgines aliquando
etiam in altero coitu fanguiucm reddant, et menfes fiuentes
vaginam laxant ; tamen in univerfem debet prima venus
cruenta effe, coque figno pudor virgineus adferi, cum vix
poflit plena venus obtineri, quin fuperior margo partis nia-
joris hymenis laceratnr. Quare et mofaicK leges, et mul-
"torum populorum conruetudo, hoc fignum fervata; callitatis
et requirunt ct oftentant, et de exemplis in virginibus etiam
pene trigenariis certus fum, quae infignem in prima venere
ianguinis jacturam funt pafts." Elem. Phyfiol. lib. 28,
fed. 2, §. 27.

After the hymen has been torn, the entrance of the vagina
prefents fome flelliy prominent tubercles, called carunculs
myrtiformes, and varying in number and fize. Thefe are
generally confidered to be the remains of the lacerated mem-
brane ; " et corruptee adeo pudicitias indicia." The
carunculae are generally largeft at the fides of the vagina,
where the li-,'men is narroweft ; . fo that all thefe prominences
cannot well be referred to the origin juft mentioned. Some
are found behind the hymen, and exift previoufly to the
laceratitm of tliat membrane : thefe are the prominent,
obtule, and callous apices of the columns of the vagina.
Laftly, there are proje<Elions at the terniination of the mu-
cous ducts, v.-hich may be enumerated among thefe carun-
cula; : and warts are fometiir.es formed in tJiis fitnation.
Whatever their origin may be, we find from two to five or
fix rounded and firm, or thin and loofe prominences, of a
red or livid colour, about the entrance of the vagina.

The frenulum, or fourchette, is a cutaneous fold of a cref-
ccnt (liape, with the concavity upwards, placed behind and
be'ow the entrance of the vagina, vifible in the virgin ftate,
when the fides of the vulva are drawn apart, but not well
marked when the parts are cqllapfed. It lies between the
two labia, not quite at the lower extremities, and is ex-
tended almoil to the nympha:, protefting in fome degree the
entrance of the vagina. It is near to tlie hymen, which it
rcfembles In fome refpefts. The aft of copulation does not
injure it, but repeated parturitions entirely efface it. A
very manifefl tranfverfe cavity, named tlie foffa navicularis,.
is intercepted between the frenulum, the hymen, and the
labia ; and this cavity is loft of courle ivhen the frenulum
difappears, fo that it may not be recognizable in married,
women.

A mucous membrane, by wliich the [^enital and urinary
organs are united in the female, is continued over all the
parts contained in the vulva, and even fonns many of them..
It arifjs on the loofe convex edges of the labia, and at their
commiffures ; covers the internal furface of thefe folds, the
fpace below their anterior commiffure, and th.e foffa navi-
cub.ris, then forms the nymphae and preputir.m clitoridis,
covers the veftibulum, is continuous with the lining of the
urethra, and with that of the vagina, after forming the
hymen or caruncvdae myrtiformes. It is connected to the
fubjacent parts by a copious and loofe cellular texture, in-
v.-hich, gei-erally fpeaking, there is very little fat. Its
colour is of a tolerably bright red in young women ; but it
affumes darker fhades in more advanced ages, particularly
when the fexual funftions have been much exercifed. The
texture of the integuments changes graduidly into this mu-
cous furface, fo that there is no abrupt line of dlftindion,'.
and an epiderrais can be diftiniilly demonftrated at its origins.
The colour proves that it is copioufiy lupplied with blood.'
The membr.-me is foft on its furface, and plentifully bedewed
with a mucous fluid, poured out from fmall tubes, which
commence by opc.i orifices, and run into the fubllance of
the membrane, where they terminate by cul-de-facs. , Thefe,
wliich are called lucunsp, are fimilar to what we have de-

fcribcd

GENERATION.

fcribed in the male urethra, and they have been very minutely
inveiligated by Haller. He defcribes fome fmall ones, to
the number of fevcn or eight, between tlie clitoris and ure-
thra ; and others confiderably larger, on each fido of the
urethra, admitting a fine probe for the length of fome lines.
There arc alfo two or three large lacuna: on each lide of tlie
va'Wna, admitting bridles for half an inch or more. Nothing
of a glandular fcruciure can be deteded about thefe parts ;
the bcun:e feem to produce the mucus here as in the male
uretiira. Thefe parts, together with other lacunx fituated
in the urethra, are the fources of the fiuid by which the
female organs are lubricated : the circumftances, under wliicli
it is effufed, are thus mentioned by Haller ; " mucus, quam
femim in venerem ardentes profundunt, aut in coitu, aut a
turpi friftioue, aut demum, nam reperiuntur mulieres ejus
naturae, ad confpe>ftum forifiofi amatique juvenis." Elem.
phyfiol. lib. 28. p. 88.

This membrane enjoys a high degree'- of fenfibliity, and
appears in part to be the feat of that peculiar modilication
of fenl'ation experienced in coition. Its extraordinary dila-
tation in parturition, and the recovery of its former lize,
lliew that it poflefles extenfibility and contradtility.

Sometimes the labia are united at their convex edges, and
the ur'ne efcapes by a fmall opening towards th^^ir upper end.
The line of feparation can be ealily recognized in fuch a
cafe, and a very flight incifiOH is luflicient to bring the parts
to their ordinary ftale. The nymplwe may be fmiilarly cir-
cuHftaaced.

^Vc have mentioned aL-eady, that the women of hot coun-
tries generally have large nymphoe ; it would not be right to
pafs unnoticed the peculiarity of formation afcribed to the
Hottentot women. Travellers have related that the fexual
organs ar^- covered, in thefe females, by a natural kind of
apron, i. e. by an extenfion of the fliin from the pubes. Ten
Rhyne, who had opportunities of perfonal obfervation, ex-
plains the faft by an unufually large fize of the nymphae (de
promontorio bonae fpei, p-33.); but this does not agree
with the ftatement of Le Vaillap.t, who feems to have taken
confiderable pains to afcertain the truth. He reprefents it
as an enlargement of the labia, produced by artiiicial means,
from a whimfical notion of beauty. " Thefe organs,'' fays
h?, " may be extended to the length of nine inches, according
to the age of the individual, or the perfeverance witli which
fhe endeavours to bring to perfection this very fmgular per-
fonal decoration. I iaw a young girl, fifteen years old, in
whom they were already four inches long. Tiiey are
brought to that fize by rubbing and drawing them, which
is the beginning of the procefs ; the affair is completed by
fufpending weights from the parts. I have faid tl»t it is a
peculiar taile, a iirange kind of whim ; in the horde, where
I was, there were only four v.-omen, and the young girl,
whom I have juft mentioned, in this ridiculous Rate." The
account given by Meffrs. Peron and I^efucur, in a memoir
addreffed to the national inftitute, feems to differ fomewhat
from the ftatement of Le Vaillant, but this perhaps arifes
only from the mode of defcription. They fay that the part
is an appendage of the labia, 8^ centimetres in length in an
adult, adhering above, where it is narrowe*1:, to the fuperior
commifTure of the labia, in front of the rlitoris, and divided
into two lobes, which, approximated to each other, cover
the vulva. It conilils of a foft, wrinkled, and very ex-
tenfile flcin, entirely free from hair, rather redder than the
reft of the integuments, and fufceptible of corrugation, like
the fcrotum of man.'' (Cuvier, toni. 5. p. 125.) Steller
mentions fome peculiarity, fimilar to that of the Hottentots,
in the Kamtfchatkan wom.en. See his Befchreibung von
Karatkhatkau, p. 30c.

The inlrrnal Orgiwi of Gcntration. — The vagina, or cana-'i»
uteri, is a membranous canal, extending with a verj- flight ob-
liquity from below upwards, and from before backwards,
frcjn the vulva to the neck of the uterus. Its anterior pofi-
tion is nearly tranfverfe ; the pofterior afceiids tov.ards the
uterus. It lies in the middle of the inferior ape!l;ure of the
pelvis, between the urethra and bladder, which are in front
of it, and the reclum ivhich is behind. Tlie ordinary
length of the canal is from five to fix inches, and the breadth
one inch ; but as it is very extenfile, thefe dimenfions are
fubjecl to change. It is narrower, but at the fame time
longer in the virgin, than in married women ; during parturi-
tion its fize is equal to that of the child's head ; it is very
capacious after delivery, fo as to be three inches in diameter ;
but it foon regains its previous fize, never however returning
to the narrownefo of the virgin ftate. Its form is nearly
cylindrical, but fomewhat flattened towards its anterior ex-
tremity. It is (lightly bent towards the pubes; its two ex-
tremities are obliquely truncated, fo that the anterior fur-
face is fliorter than the pofterior. We Ihall defcribc in it an
external and an internal furface, and two extremities.

The external furface may be divided into an anterior, a
pofterior, and two hiteral regions. Ti;e anterior, llopLig
upwards and fliglitly concave, correfponds to the tladdn
and urethra, being connedted to the foiTner by a loofc cellular
texture, and very intimately united with the latter by a doufe
and firm fubftance. The pofterior region, (loping from
above and behind dov, nwards and for\vards, is , gently con-
vex, and correfponds to the rectum ; its fuperior half, being
covered by the peritoneum, is fimply contiguous to the intei-
tine ; while the inferior part, poffelling no fuch covering, is
connected to the inteftine by cellular fubftance. This con-
nefting medium is much loofer above than below ; and in
the latter fituation it is difficult to feparate the two organs
without cutting one or the other. The lateral regions arc
narrower than the parts juft defcribed, and furrounded by
much cellular fubftance. They correfpond to tlie ureters, to
the plexus formed by the blood-vefTels of the uterus and va-
gina, and below to the levatores ani. Tlie internal furface
of the organ prefents a vaft number of folds and proTr.i-
nences, wiiich make it irregular throughout. Thefe callous
rugofities exhibit a rnoft elegant arrangement in the foetus
and in the virgiii ; they are confufed and partially obhterated
by parturition, but are very foon reftored, and may often
be very diftinctly obferved even in old women. In fome
fubjecls, however, the whole vagina is nearly fmooth. Tile
half of tile canal next to the uterus contains the feweft and
leaft remarkable irregularities ; the folds here are foft, moftiy
tranfverfe, but fometim.es partly oblique. Tliefe promi-
nences are jagged lamina, ending in a thin edge, turned to-
wards the opening of the vagina, difTering in fize and va-
rioufly interwoven v.ith each other. On the anterior half
of the canal are railed two prominent cohimnt ; an anterior
and a pofterior one. Thefe are beict witii hard and nearly
cartilaginous warty prominonces, clofely arranged, of a
roundilh figure, and circumfcribed by grooves. The ante-
rior column is the largeft, and correfponds to the orifice of
the urethra. Frequently thi^ is bifid towards the front, and
its two portions, joined by tranfverfe rugae, end in the hy-
men. The front end of this column fometimes projects like
a papilla at the orifice of the vagina. Tlie pofterior fmaller
column is exat\ly oppofite to tile anterior, and correfponds
to the reclum ; fometimes it is hardly diftinguifhable. This
ends alfo in the hymen, and in fome inihmccs projeils an-
teriorly hke the anterior column, but lefs confiderably.
From each of thefe columns, hard, cartilaginous, tranfveife
or oblique folds are extended ; tliey project downwards,
O 2 have

GENERATION.

Iiave a jagged cdj^e, aiul are mixed with verrucx and other
Icfs prominent lamina; in various dirertion?. Fjclwccn the
Jtwo cohimns is a reticulated furface, formed from the tranf-
vcrfe producUons. The iil'e of this ilrm'tnre does not feem
very obvious. It may poflibly facilitate the dilatation of the
ort^an. " Voluptatcm et atcritum augeiv crederes, nifi in
uteri ccrvice fimilcs valvula; redirent. Arftant tamen cmi-
nendo vaginam ; et inferior coliimna parti glandis frenulo
vicina occurrit. Scniilem vaginam etiam facere credas,
qua; ob has valvulas et ipfa r.iagis eonfrieetur. Infcnfdem
tamen fuifle lego." Hallcr, Elem. Pliyfiol. lib. 28.

All tiie generative apparatus abounds with mucus, and
thismoilUiro is obvioufly convenient in many of the funcWons
of the part. In the fcctus it appears as a whitifh milky
kind of fluid ; and it is a true mucus in the adult. The
tluor abas and gonorrhcea feem to be merely a difealed Hate
of this fecrction. Round livid fpots are frequently obfcrvcd
on tile fmooth part of the vagina, near the uterus ; their
caufe and nature are unknown. Numerous pores are ob-
fcrvable among the folds and rugae of the vagina. Eufta-
chius noticed iinufes in the membrane ; /'. e. tolerably large
flits, fometimes ramitied, and containing mucus. No glands
eau be difcovered in the organ.

The funerior extremity of tlie vagina is united to the in-
ferior part of the neck of the uterus. It embraces the lat-
ter oro;an obliquely, fo that the anterior furface of the
vagina is nearer to the os uteri, and the pofterior is more re-
mote from it ; and the v;icuity between the vagina and the
neck of the uterus extends higher behind than before. The
inferior extremity occupies the lower and pofterior portion
of the vulva, in front of the anus, and ends there by the
orifice which we have already defcribed. The lides of the
vagina poflefs confiderable thicknefs and ftrength. The
upper half of its pofterior furface is covered by peritoneum.
The chief fnbftance of the canal is a thick, clofe, and firm
texture of a greyilh colour, polfefling large vefTels, and
having fibres in various diretlions, fo as to give it fomewhat
of a mufcular appearance. It appears to be continuous
above with the fubftance of the uterus. Below it is fur-
rounded by a kind of corpus cavernofuin, of about an inch
in breadtli, and two lines in thicknefs, compofed apparently
of veins, and called the plexus retiforrais. A dcterniinatiou
takes place to this part at the time of copulation, and it
experiences a kind of fwclling analogous to ereftuin. On the
ivhole, tl'.e membrane of tlie vagina is not fo thick, as the
diftention which it experiences in parturition might lead us
to expeft. Excepting wliere it is covered by the perito-
neum, and by the plexus retiformis, the furface is furroundcd
by a copious cellular fubftance, containing many vafcular
lamiiications.

The vital properties of the fides of the vagina are not well
■underftood. Some afcrlbe to it a contradtile power, exercifed,
as it is faidj in coition, and felt by the hand when introduced
iu the procelfes of midwifery. The plienomena of parturi-
tion (licw that it pofTeffes in a high degree the powers of cx-
tenfion and fubfequent contraction.

The infernal furface of t!ie canal is lined by a mucous
momlirane, to which the peculiar tifllie of the vagina already
mentioned adheres ven.' dofely. It is continuous with the
membrane of tlie vulva ; and, after lining tlie vagina, is ex-
tended over that portion of the cervix uteri, which projefts
into the can.al, and communicates, at the or. tincse, with tlie
lining of the uterus. This mucous lining forms all the ine-
qualities already defcribed ; it is thicker near the vulva, and
grows manifeftly thinner towards the uterus. At the en-
trance of the canal it has a red colour, which changes
farther into a grey or whitifli call, divei-fificd near the cervix

uteri by the livid fpots already mentioned, whicli give it a
marbled appearance. The almoft cartilaginous hardncfs ol'
the :nembrane in fome parts is peculiar to tne vagina, as well
as the permanent tolds in its ftrufture ; in other mucous mem-
branes the inequalities are occafioned by fome external caufe,
and difappear by extenfion. Some anatomifts afcribe an
epidermis to the vagina ; but this point is doubtful. The
organs, by which its mucous fluid is fecreted, have been
already mentioned.

The place of the accelerator urina; of the male fubjeft is
occupied in th.e female by the J'phiriffer va^'nis, which covers-
the plexus rctiformls. It deicends on each fide from the
body of the clitoris, behind the ereftor ; furrounds the an-
terior extremity of the vagina, immediately behind the la-
bium, where it poffefics confidcrable breadth, and terminates
below, on each fide, in the lateral fibres of the fphinfter ani.
It muft have the power of contrafting the front orifice of the
vagina.

The arteries of the vagina come from the internal iliac ;
its V ins join the venous plexus, wiiich furrounds the canal.
The lymphatics are not well known ; the nerves come from
the facral trunks.

The uterus is the organ in which the fcetus and its coverings
are contained until the time of parturition. It is almoll
always fiiigle ; in fome rare cafes there have been two uteri.
There is loine variety in thefe iuftances ; either there may be
two uteri and two vagince ; or a fingle vagina divided by a
feptuni in its whole length, or only in its upper half; or one
of the uteri may open into the reitum, and the other into
the vagina. In fome cafes the uterus is divided internally
by a longitudinal feptum, either confined to the neck, or
prolonged to the orifice of the vagina. Sometimes the uterus
is altogether deficient. A vaft number of references to au-
thors who have related examples of all the above-mentioned
unufual form.ations may be feen in Voigtel's Pathologifchc
Anatomic, b. iii. p. 452 — 456.

This. organ is fituated in the pelvis, behind the urinarv
bladdtf, before the reftum, below the convolutions of the
ilium, and above the vagina. Its fituation is oblique, tiu
fundus being placed upwards and rather backwards, the
neck downwards, and ilightly inclined forwards. Two
broad folds of peritoneum, named the li^'amenta lata uteri,,
fix it to tlie fide of the pelvis. Other ligaments aflift in-
maintaining this vifcus in its fituation ; viz. the round, the
anterior, and the pofterior ligaments.

The broad ligaments extend from the fides of the uterus
to the fides of the containing cavity. Together with the
uterus they form a complete tranfverfe partition, divldin"-
the pelvis into an anterior and a pofterior cavity, of whicli
the former and fmalk-ft contains the urinary bladder, the
latter and largeft, the reftuni. Thefe ligaments are flat-
tened from before backwards and quadrilateral. Their two
furfaces are fmooth, and unattached ; tlie anterior beiii"-
turned direftly forwards, towards the bladder, the pofterior
direftly backwards, towards the reftum. The upper edge Is
divided into two prominent lines ; of which the anterior and
higheft contains the Fallopian tube, the pofterior, the ovarv
and its ligam.ent. The three other margins are adherent ;
the inferior, to the lower part of the pelvis ; the external, to
the fide of the cavity ; and the internal to the lateral margin
ot the uterus. Thefe ligaments are formed by two layers of
peritoneum, between which are placed the veifels and nerves
of the uterus, the ovaria and their ligaments, tlie Fallopian
tubes, and fome cellular fubftance. They fix the uterus in
its fituation, and give it a covering, in proportion as It in-
creafes in fize during pregnancy ; they confequently become
much narrower at the time ; in the latter months, indeed,

they

GENERATION.

tliey arc almoil entirely effaced, fo that t!ie tulics and ovarifS, one Fallopian tube to tlie other, is gently convex, and fup-
\vhich they eoiitaiiied before the enlargement of the ntcrus, ports the convolutions of the fmall intefliiie. At the ends
arenovv' applied immediately to the lateral and inferior parts of tin's upper edge angles are formed between the fundus
of the uterus, in confequence of tl'.e manner in which this and tlie lateral fides of the vifcus. To thefe angles of the
organ has feparated tlie two layers of peritoneum. uterus the round ligaments, the Fallopian tubes, and the

The anterior ligaments are two fmall folds formed by ligaments of the ovaries are attached. The inferior edge,
the periton-.-um, as it is reflcfted from the back of the much Ihorter than the fuperior, is continuous with the
bladder to the front of the uterus. They are vilible only neck of the organ ; and indeed the line of feparation is
when the two vifcera are feparated from er.ch other, and imaginary. The lateral fides are very (hort, ilightly con-
they appeir under the form of en fcents, with the con- vex, and convergmg ■ they give attachment to the broad
cavities direfted upwards. The poilerior ligaments are ligaments, and are concealed by them.

two other folds of the fame membrane, v.-here it is conti- The neck of the uterus refembles a cylinder, Ili<rhtlv
nuid from the back of the uterus to the reflum. They flattened from before backwards, and continued down-
refemble the former in every rcfpeft. The round ligament.s wards from the body. Its long a.xis is perpendicular to the
are two whitiftt cords, extended trom the upper angles of tranfverfe diameter of the body. We defcribe in it an an-
the uterus, in front and rather below the Fallopian tubes, to terior and pofterior furface, two lateral margins, and a fupe-
the groins. They pafs firll outwards and rather upwards, rior and inferior extremity. The two furfaces are convex
in the broad ligaments, on the front furface of which they and fmooth ; the former currefponds to the bladder, and
form a remarkable prominence, they then pafs on the inner the latter to the rectum. To the fides, whicli are ilraight,
furface of the iliac veifels, behind the peritoneum, to the the broad ligaments are attached. The fuperior extre-
upper opening of the abdominal ring. They traverfe that mity is continuous with the boily of the or-ran ; the in-
canal in a direction obliquely downwards and inwards, ferior is obliquely embraced by the vagina, in which it
juft as the fpcrmatic cord does in the male fubjeft, and projects, more confiderably on the interior than on the
efcape at the !'»wer orifice. They then ieparate into fevc- polterior part. This extremity is perforated bv an oval
ral threads, which are loft in the cellular fubftance of the opening, with its long diameter placed traiifverfelv, named
mens veneris and labia. Thefe ligaments are flightly the os utevi, 03 internum, or os tincse. The latter name
flattened in their whole extent, and broader at their tv/o has been given to it from a comparifon to the mouth of
extremities, than in the middle. They are arched, fo as to the tench ; the end of the uterus is obtufe, and as the
defcribe altogether a femicircle. aperture is tranfverfe, there is fome refemblance to two-

The round ligaments are compofed of longitudinal fibres, thick lips. In a newly born child, the length of the open-
confifting apparently only of a denfe cellular tiflue, very ing is two lines ; in a girl of twenty years, three lines ;
flightly fufceptible of extenlion, of blood-velfcls and lym- in women, who have had children, five to eight lines. Thu
phatics, and nerves. As they are fwelled in pregnancy, orifice is always naturally gaping, but it is more or lefs
and in fome affeftions of the uterus, this circumftance fo, iu proportion as women have had many children, or
has been employed to explain the pains in the groins none. Indead of being exaftly in the middle it is rathef
experienced by females on fuch occafions. They con- behind ; fo that the anterior lip of the orifice is the thickell.
tribute to fix the uterus in its pofition, and to limit its That portion of the cervix uteri, which projefts into the
motions. vagina, and forms the os tincx, is about four or five lines long

The ligaments, which we have juft particularized, are in front, and rather r.iore behind : it meafures about eight
fo diipcfed, as to allow to the uterus, in its natural ftate, or nine hnes tranfverfely, and fix or eight from before
a certain degree of mobility. Hence its fituation may be backwards, being ilightly flattened in that direftion. This
flightly changed in all the confiderable morions of the part of tiie uterus is fometimes much loni-^er and thicker,
abdomir.al vifcera in general; coming to the ground on the without any difplacem.ent of the organ, or' fwclliii'r of its
feet with much force, a violent exertion in raifing a con- neck. In women who have hud many children, theV.cck of
fiderable weight, a deep, forcible, and long continued in- the uterus is generally thicker, and more roimded. It.s
fpiration, all tend to force the uterus downwards into the oriiice is almoft always very gsping, and the lips more or lefs
vagina, and thereby to produce the afTeftion termed pro- irregular, prefenting gfnenilly one or moi-e grooves cr
lapfus or defcent of the uterus. Diftention of the bladder, chops, feparated by a kind of tubercles. .The cs uteri niav
cr of the reflum, occafions changes in the pofition of the however be as regular in its firrure in women who have
uterus. But age and pregnancy produce the moft fignal had children, as in others : and, on the contrary, it may
eifefts in the pofition of this organ. preient in the latter thofe irrcsrularities which are more

In an adult and unimpregnated female, its length is about ufual in the former. Hence the inferences drawn from thV
2^ inches, its thicknefe one inch, its breadth at the fundus ftate of tins part, in inftai:ces where infanticide is fuf-
l| or 3 inches, and at the cervix about 10 lines. Although petted, or where parturition is fupi^ofed to have been
it returns after parturition to its original fize, it never concealed, are very liable to uncertainty,
becomes again fo fmall as it was in the virgin. Its figure The cavity of the uterus is proportionate to the bulk
on the whole is triangular, with the bafc upwards, and of tlie organ when it is empty ; the parietes are conti'ruous,
the apex downwards, and ftattcncd from before backwards, and leave between them no farther vacuity than fufficcs
It is divided into twoparts, afuperior and broader, named the to hold a little mucous fluid. In this hollov/ the nientlrual
body; an inferior and narrower, called the neck. The body difcharge flows, and the produce of conception is received,
of the uterus is nearly oval externally, with the greateft It is divided into two parts, one belonging to the bodv,
diameter tranfverfe. We obferve in it an anterior and a the other to the neck of the organ. Of thefe, the forrrer
pofterior furface, a fuperior, an inferior, and two lateral is the largeft : its figure is nearly triangular, efpecially
fides. The auter'or furface, flightly convex, flepes gently when the uterus has experienced no alteration in its bulk,
"downwards and forwards, and corrcfponds to the bladder. We have to notice in it an anterior and a pollerior furface.
The pofterior, more convex, is inclined in the fame di- three edges and three angle?. The two furfaces are
reftion, and is contiguous to the reflum. The fuperior fmooth and contiguous to each other. On each of thcru
edge, which is named the fundus, and which extends from a flightly prominent longitudinal line may be cbferved,

uividin^

GENERATION.

JivldiaT them into equnl right and left parts. Of the feven jufl above the os tincse, the fundus of which is to-
throe margins one is fuperior, and two lateral : they are wards the inferior end of the uterus. Thefe are large,
flightly concave, particularly in women, who have had many and receive the terminations of feveral fmaller ones. They
children. The fuperior, which makes the bafis of the tri- are filled with a mucous fluid, which can be fqueezed
angle, and is continued from one Fallopian tube to the out, and they will often admit of a fine briftle for a certain
other, is ufually the fliortell : fomelimes, however, it is the length. They are bed feen in a woman who has juft
longcll. Of the throe angles, two are fuperior, and one been delivered, or who has died in the latter periods of
inferior. The former may be confiderod as two flender utero-geilalion ; the prominences being flattened, the lacunas
appendaires of the cavity, terminating at the Fallopian are more expofed. Thefe organs fccrete the mucous fluid,
tubes. The inferior angle prefonts an opening of about with which the cervix uteri is moiflened.
four lines in extent, communicating with t!;o cavity of the -^Vg fgg gifg fometimes in this cavity a confidorable
cervix. The cavity of the body of t!ie uterus is lined by a number of round or oblong, larger or fmaller folHclc?,
mucous membrane, on \vhich the vellels that furnifli the formed of a thin membrane, filled with a clear mucous
•raenttrual blaod terminate. fluid, and not pofleiruig any excretory duft. They adhere
The cavity of the cervix uteri is a kind of canal, flat- to the trunk or branches of the arborefcent ilrufture
toned from before backwards, and more capacious at the already defcribed, and their number is not conftant. Some-
middle than at the two extremities ; fo that it has the figure times they are half buried in the fubltance of the uterus ,

of two cones, joined by their bafes. Sucii is the figure
which it conilantly exhibits in women who have never
"borne children ; but, from the time of conception, that ex-
tremity of the canal, which opens into tlie vagina, is dilated ;
and after parturition has once taken place, it is always
found much wider than before. Jt then reprefents a cone,

fometimes they are completely ifolatcd, and hold only by
a pedicle. Their nature and ufe are not known. Probably
they are one fource of the mucous fecretions of the part
although we cannot explain how tiie lecreted flu'id is
evacuated.

The thicknefs of the fides of the uterus varies from four

with the bafis towards the vagina, and the apex towards ^j. j-,^ jj^gg ^^ fifteen ; but it is not uniform in all parts of

the uteriis. The cavity of the cervix uteri has an anterior - . - -

and pofterior furface, and a fuperior and inferior orifice.

A gruMt number of hard, and as it were callous rugoiitics,

differently difpofed in different fubjefts, may be obferved

on each of the furfaccs. In order to fee their arrangement

to advantage, the uterus of a newly-born child, or of one

not very old, fliould be felefted. They will then be

obferved in an arborefcent form [arhor Morga^m) on each

furface. A hard ridge extends along the middle of each

furface, and ends above in a flattened point, which is often

continued with the line dividing the ccrrefponding furface

of the body of the uterus. The inferior end is prolonged

to the OS tincx. From this kind of trunk lamina? are

extended laterally on each fide; the fuperior ones forming

nearly half right angles, and the inferior niore open angles.
The number of thefe plates may amount to about 15. They
are continued outwards, defcribing a curve, of which the
convexity is always towards the uterus, and the concavity
towards the vagina. Their margin is grooved, except to-
v^'ards the outer end, which is fmooth. The breadth
of the laminae diminiflics infenfibly, and they difappear on
the fides of the cavity, where the anterior and pofterior ones
are confufed v.'ith each other. The fuperior are broader
than the inferior. Thefe laniinx are not fimple, they pro-
duce other fmaller ones. More or lefs deep grooves fepa-
rato the plates from each other : in the bottom of thefe
are obferved fmall eminences, like the teeth of a comb,
palling from one lamina to another.

The difpofition of thefe wrinkles is regularly fuch as we

the organ. It is much tlie fame on the furfaccs and
edges. The fundus is generally the thickei^ ; and this is
thicker in tlie middle than towards the angles. The
neck is rather thinner than the body. The iubftance of
the organ is of a greyifli colour, and a firm confillence,
efpeciaily towards the neck, which is more compaft than
the reft of the organ. It confifts of an external membrane,
of a proper tiflue, of an internal membrane, of arteries,
veins, lymphatics, and nerves.

The external membranous covering is contributed by the
peritoneum, which is reflefted from the pofterior furface of
the bladder over the uterus, of which it covers the anterior
furface, the fundus, and the pofterior furface, is continued
to the upper half of the pofterior furface of the vagina,
and is reflefted from that vifcus to the reftum. It adheres
every where to the proper tiffue of the uterus by means of a
very fine and clofe cellular texture, without any fat. It is
very difhcultly feparable, particularly at the fundus.

The proper tiflue forms nearly the whole thicknefs of the
organ. It is a greyifli, dcnfe, and very compadl fubftancc,
very refifting to the fcalpel or fciffars, cutting almioft like
cartilage, and containing numerous fmall vefi'els. Thisfub-
ftance, which appears cellular, fpongy, and to contain fluids, is
manifeftly fibrous : but the order and arrangement of the
component fibres cannot abfolutely be detern^ned in the uu-
inipregnated ftate, on account of their being fo inextrica-
bly interwoven. They are paler and more condenlcd in the
cervix than in other fituations, where they are loiter and
more red. Although in the empty ftate of the organ thefe

liave defcribed in newly-born infants ; but, when the cervix fibres have fcarcely any of the charafters of mufcularity.

utei'i is enlarged in pregnancy, the eminences are flattened,
and the whole ftruftiire is confufed ; this is ftill more re-
markably the cafe juft after parturition ; the laininx are then
nearly deftroyed, and the arborefcent appearance almotl
entirely effaced.

The fuperior opening of the cavity communicates with
that of tie body, fo that they form indeed but one.
The ip.fericr has been already defcribed under the name
of OS tincx.

In the cervix uteri we may notice the openings of ninne..
rous lacuns or fhort duels ending in cul-de-f (cs, concealed
among the rugofities already defcribed. Moft of thefe
are fraull; feme aie larger and longer. There arc fix or

their nature feem.s to be fufficiently pointed out by the con-
traftile powers which they exhibit in parturition.

The external membrane of the uterus is continuous on
one fide with the mucous lining of the vagina ; and gives
origin, on the other, to two prolongations, which enter
into the Fallopian tubes. It is extremely thin, and fo
clofely united to the proper tiffue of the organ, that it
feems to jforr.i one fubftaiice with it. It is redchfii in the
body of the uterus, and whiter in the neck. It is perforat-
ed by an infinite number of pores, wliich arc merely the ex-
tremities of exhaling veffels, and give ilTue to the menftrual
.difcl.arte.

u^ppc.-.dages of the Uterus. — Under this name are iocluded
I thj

GENERATION.

the round ligaments wliich have been already defcribed, the
ovaries, aiul the Fallopiin tubes.

Tlu- Fallopian or ult-rine tubes are two (a right and left)
conical, tortuous, and vermiform canals, arifing from the fu-
perior and lateral parts of the uterus. They float loofely in
the cavity of the pelvis, being enveloped in the upper and
anterior edge of the broad ligament, and fixed by their inner
extremities. Their length is four or five inches ; and the
direction of their courfe very uncertain : it may be ilated in
general that they go tranfverfely outwards, and that they
bend backwards at their outer ends, fo as to turn towards
the ovaries. But, as they are in great m.eafure loofe, and as
the edge of the broad ligament reftrains them but flightly,
the inteftines, when dillended with air or aliment, may dif-
place them in different direftions. The calibre of the tube
is fo narrow towards the uterus, that the orifice by which it
communicates with this vifcus will only admit a hog's brillle.
It enlarges gradually to the middle, where it is flightly con-
trafted, and dilates again to terminate by an aperture which
communicates with the cavity of the abdomen. The tube
is confiderably broader at its end than at the uterus, but ra-
ther narrower than in the portion immediately preceding.
The internal membrane of the tube, together with the ex-
ternal, which is formed of peritoneum, is produced to fome
length beyond this orifice, and forms round it a fringed and
radiated kind of ornament, called the fimbriae (pavillori de
la trompe ; morceau frange). When this part is examin-
ed in water, it has a very beautiful appearance, and feems
compofed of fmall feparate leaves, like fome flowers. The
breadth of this membranous fringe is not equal at all parts :
its circumference has iomewhat of an oval figure. All the
portions into which it is divided are not of the fame length :
the longell extends to the ovary, and is firmly fixed to its
outer extremity, fo that the fringed end of the tube is con-
ftantly retained near to that body. The fimbriae are con-
ceived to poffefsa mufcular ftrudture.

The Fallopian tube is compofed: id. Of an external
membrane, fiirni(hed by the peritoneum, which covers it as
it does the inteftines ; 2. Of an internal, foft and pnlpy
membrane, the furface of which prefents every where more or
lefs prominent longitudinal lines, confidered by fome authors to
be mufcular fibres. Indeed tlie office of the tubes feems to re-
quire the exiftence of contraftile fibres in their compofition ;

3. Of a fpongy tiffuc. compared to that of the urethra and
corpus cavernofum, but the real nature of which is not un-
deritood. Very numerous blood-veffels are diftributed in
this fubftance, which appears to fwell and experience a
kind of ereiftion in the aft of copulation : in confequence
of this the finibris are applied to the furface of the ovary ;

4. Of blood-vcffels, derived from the fpermatic arteries and
veins, of lymphatics, and nerves fnrnifhed by the renal plexufes.

That the office of the tabes is immediately connedted with
the bufinefs of generation, and that they convey the germ
from the ovarium to the uterus, cannot be doubted : but we
do not underliand how they execute this function. We may
obferv>" that they form a communication between the uterine
cavit) and that of the abdomen : aiid, as the former commu-
nicates externally through the medium of the vagina, the
ferous menibrane of the abdomen lias thus a continuity with
the furface of the body : — a circunillance that is obferved
in no other inltaiice.

The ovarLs, called by the ancients the f/jinale tefticles, are
two oblong, flattened, and whitilh bodies, placed at the
pofterior furface of the broad ligaments, in which they are
included. They nearly equal the fize of fmall pigeons' eggs
in the adult ; but their flattened form gives them a ditfcrent
figure. Their long diameter is placed tranfverfely. They

prefent two furfaces, two edges, and two extremities. Th":
furfaces and the upper edge are loofe, and prefent nothing
remarkable except flight tubercular rifings. The inferior
margin adheres to the pofterior edge of the broad ligament.
The external extremity is connected to the longeft of the
Fallopian fimbri;e ; and the ligament of the ovary is attach-
ed to the internal end. This ligament is a fmall fibrous cord,
about I ,', inch long, contained in the pofterior part of the
broad ligament, and fixed to the angle of the uterus behind
the Fallopian lube. Some old anatoniifts regarded it as a
can:d dollined to convey into tlie uterus the femeii, which
tliey fuppofed to be fecreted by the ovaries ; but it is in reali-
ty a folid fafciculus, fimilar in its nature to the round liga-
ment, and having no other office than that of fixing the ova-
rium in its place. Yet the latter organ podefTes confiderable
mobility ; its fituation in the broad ligament, which is itfelf
moveable, giveo it a power of motion. The inteftines and
the urinary bladder may make it change its pofition ; and wc
know that it has fometimes been contained in a rupture.

The ovaria are compofed ; I ft. Of an external membrane,
derived from the peritoneum forming the broad ligament;
2. Of a proper membrane, of a white colour, and firm
fibrous texture, hardly fep;'.rable from the proper tiffue of
the organ ; 3. Of a flefiiy fubllance, which is denfe on the
outfide, more foft on the infide, where it is greyifli, and in
fome degree cellular and fpongy. In this fubilance are
lodged fome fmall, roundifh veficles, amounting in number
to between fifteen and twenty. Scarcely vifible in infancy ;
thefe are very apparent in adult and fruitful women. Ge-
nerally, in old women, thefe veficles are no longer vifible,
and their place is occupied by hardifli tubercles. The vefi-
cles are not all of the fame fize : thofe which are near the fur-
face of the organ are as large as hemp-feeds ; while the
others, being more deeplv feated, are confidera'bly imaller.
Thefe bodies are placed in the cellular- or fpongy iubllance
of the ovary, in which they may be faid to beenchafed ; but
they form for the moft part fmall prominences under the ex-
ternal membrane. Others are completely elevated on tlie
furface of the organ, and others again are concealed in tlie
interior. They are not fufnendcd by ftalks, nor do they
form any particular cells different from the cellular m.atter
comprifmg the parenchyma of the ovary. They were very
particularly defcribed by De Graaf, and have often been
called, after him, ova, or ovula Graafiana. They aie gene-
rally regarded as fo many germs, or rudiments of new
beings. They are compofed of a fimple and very thin mem-
brane, fmooth internally, and containing a clear, fometimes
yellow or reddifti liquor, coagulable by heat and alcohol,
and forming whit? threads, like the albumen of an egg.

The arteries of thefe parts are derived from two fources ;
•viz. the fpcrmatic branches of the aorta, and the uterine
branches of the internal iliacs. The former are more tor-
tuous than the correfpondlng veffels in the male ; they pafs
between the two layers of peritoneum, which form the broad
ligaments, and aie chiefly diftributed to the ovaries. But
they fend numerous ramifications to tlie Fallopian tubes ;
others to the fides of the uterus, and fome along the round
ligaments, which communicate with fmall branchtsof the epi-
gallric?;. Tliechiefarteriesof the utcrusarethe uterine branches
of the internal iliac trunks ; the right and left. This artery firft
runs downw.irds, then turns up at the neck of the uterus,
and enters between the layers of the broad ligament. It
gives large branches to the vagina, then runs along the fide
of the uterus, from the neck towards the fundus, pro-
ducing numerous arteries, which ramify overthc organ in every
dircttion. Thefe have a tortuous courfe, and cortimunicate
freely with each other, and with tliofe of the oppoiite fide..

Sum;

GENERATION.

Some afceiid to the upper edge of the broad ligament, arc
diftributed in the Fallopian tube and round ligament, and
communicate with the fpermatic.

The veins, like the arteries, may be referred to two divi-
iions ; the fpermatic and xitcrinc. Numerous brandies come
from the uterus, ovary, and Fallopian lube, and form a
large venous plexus in the upper part of the broad ligament ;
under the name of corpus pampinifirme, this afcends to-
wards the loins, and terminates in forming a fingle vein,
which has the fame termination in the male fubjeft. A
great number of venous ramifications accompany the arte-
ries all over the vifcus, but are in general lefs tortuous.
They communicate freely with the fpermatics. Tiicy form
a large plexus running along the fide of the uterus, with the
uterine artery, and end in one or more confiderable venous
trunks, which join the internal iliac.

The uterus poffeffes numerous lymphatic veffels, which
are divided into three orders : one of thcfe afcends with the
round ligaments, and goes to the inguinal glands ; another
joins thole of the vagina, and palfes to the pelvic glands ;
and the third, togv:ther with thole of the ovary and tube,
afcends with the fpermatic veflels, to terminate at the glands
in front of the aorta and vena cava near the kidneys.

The nerves come from tlie great fympathetic (the hy-
pogaftric and fpermatic plexufes), and from the facral
pairs.

p'ital Properties of the Uterus Until the period of impreg-
nation, this organ feems to poffefs only that modification of
fenfibility and contraftility, which are necelTary for the pur-
pofes of nutrition, and the menftrual evacuation. It feems
doubtful whether or no it is endoived with animal fenfibility
in its healthy ilate. It has been imagined, and alferted, that
the conlaft of the glans penis with the os tinea;, in copulation,
is one fource of the phylical fenfation experienced by the fe-
male on that occafion : this we conceive to be problematical.
Haller ftates, that a wound of this organ by a leaden bullet
produced very violent fymptoms ; viz. repeated faintings,
and fpeedy death. It muft be doubtful how far this could
. be referred to the uterus merely, as much other injury mull
have been inflicled in fuch a cafe. Animal fenfibility is cer-
tainly developed in the uterus by difeafe, whether it exift in
the natural ftate or no. The fame wbfervations may be ap-
plied to the vital properties of the Fallopian tubes and the
ovaries. However obfcurcly the vitality of thefe organs
may be exhibited, when not immediately engaged in the ex-
ercife of their important funtfions, it is manifelled in a much
more ftriking point of view by the fympathies eftablillicd
between them and other parts of the body. We have al-
ready (hewn, that the removal of the ovaries at an early age
entirely changes the fubfequent charafters of the animal ;
affecling even the organization of the bony and mufcular
parts ot the frame. From the time of puberty, when tjie
organs now under conlideration acquire a fitnefs for exercif-
ing their particular funftions, we fhall find that their condi-
tion and various changes affedi in the mofl ftriking manner
all the other vital phenomena of the female conftitution.
The previous fymptoms, the commencement and periodical
returns of menftruation ; the firll impulfes of love ; the
change to a new temperament ; pregnancy and its various
epochas ; parturition and its confequences ; laftly, the ceffa-
tion of the fexual hfe, and the fymptoms of the critical age,
are fo many remarkable changes in the organization of the
female, keeping up a conftant alternation of fuffering and
difeafe, of lively imprelTions, nervous and fpafmodic affec-
tions, the influence and general refult of which muft be
carefully attended to in appretiating the nature of woman,
and the part which ftie has to fill in fociety. When we con-

fider thefe fafts, and refletl; that the inclinations, the appe-
tites and taftes, in a word, all thofe qualities which imprefs
the dilliiiclive character on any animal, flow from the con-
formation and predominating influence of certain organs, and
are modified by their degree of jierfcAion, and the energy of
their functions, we fliall have hltle hefitation in referring the
peculiarities of the female frame and conftitution to the ac-
tion of the generative organs taken altogether ; an opinion
which is exprelfed in a more limited way by Van Hclmont,
" propter uteruni folum, muli(rr eft id quod eft.''

Devdof-cment of the female Organs of Gcv.eraUov — Thef .,
like the corivfponding parts in the male, arc vvry early in
their original formation ; but they grow lefs rapidly in pro-
portion towards the latter periods of geftatiun. This mult
be underftood of other internal parts ; for the vulva, which
bellows the diftiniftive external fexual charafter, aifuraes a
more decided figure towards the time of birth. From tlie
various parts compohng it we muft except the clitoris ; for
although it polfefs in a ffftus at the full time a confiderable
fize compared to its magnitude, when tlie formation of the
generative apparatus is complete, it is nevertiielefs .much lefs
developed at the time, in propor;ion, than at tiie third or
fourth month : and we may obierve, in general, that it is more
prominent in proportion as the foetus is younger.

Although the female organ prefent no phenomenon ana-
logous to the delcent of the teftis in the male, the round liga-
ment is fometimes accompanied by a fmall ciJ-de-fac of peri-
toneum, fimilar to that which forms the tunica vaginalis.
The exiftence of this canal was firll recognifed by Nuck,
who called it a diverticulum, dcfcribed it as being about half
an inch in length, and by no means conftant : ( Adenographia
curiofa, cap. lo. l)e peritona;i diverticulis novis.) IhelaCl
was queftioned by fome ; but the fame circumftances have
been obferved by other accurate anatomills. Camper found
the canal in three out of fourteen newly born children : and
Le Cat obferved, in a woman of 46, a canal of the fize of
a goofe's quill, leading through the ring into a fmall canal
that would admit the finger. (Phil. Trans, v. 47.) Wrif-
berg has particularly inveiligated thefe diverticula. In nine-
teen out of two hundred female fubjefts, he found an open-
ing, generally on both fides, but fometimes on one only, lead-
ing through the ring into the groin or labium, lined by pe-
ritoneum, and placed over tlie round ligament. Thefe canals,
in different inllances, would admit a probe, a quill, or the
finger. (De tefticulorum defcenfu, &c. in the Gcittingen
Commentaries for 17^8.) We do not know that this canal ia
doled before birth, as the tunica vaginalis is in the male, nor
that its exiilence in the adult at all favours the occurrence of
hernia:.

At the time of birth, there is a confiderable proportion of
fat under the integuments of the pubes ; the labia are very
%vell formed, and the clitoris is proportionally larger than it
will be in the fequel. The latter circumftance, which is very
fingular and unaccountable, has fometimes occafioncd mis-
takes in the fex of newly born children. The nymphae are
fo broad as to exceed the level of the labia, and are remark-
ably thick and long : they do not in general end by a point,
as in the adult, but by a rounded extremity. The fofla navi-
cularis is large. The entrance of the vagina, although the
hymen exift conftantly at this time, is larger in relation to
the diameter, which it prefents at puberty, when the part.?
have experienced no unnatural violence. The opening does
not appear to participate in that developemeiit which the reft
of the vulva undergoes after birth. The vagina, confidera-
bly advanced in its formation in comparifon with the uterus
and its appendages, is particularly remarkable for its length.
Its inner membrane, of which the rugofities are very well

5 jtiarked,

GENERATION.

tnirked, is nearly white, and does not exhibit thofe fucceflive
fnadcs which, at a more advanced age, diltinguifh its orifice,
its middle, and its pofterior extrc.T.ityf In the newly born
child, and during the firft years of life, the uter'Q" does not
occupy the cavity of the pelvis : together with the ova-
ria and tubes, it is placed above the fuperior aperture. At
this time it is very fmall, and has a very different figure from
what it prcfents when pcrfe<flly developed. The nock is
larger and thicker than the body, which narrou-, and elon-
gated, has not the triangi^lar figure. The parietes of both
are thin, and the cavity very fmall. The tubes are propor-
tionate in length to tl-.eir future itate.

From birth till puberty, the generative organs of women
experience ilill fewer changes than thofe of men : yet they
grow in proportion as the body cncreaies ; and thofe, which
at firfl were remarkable for their lize, as the clitoris and
nynipha?, gradually lole this diftinction. The uterus ap-
pears lefs elevated above the pubes, in proportion as the pelvis
changes its form and proportions, and as the fuperior aper-
ture becomes lefs inclined. It encreafes principally in breadth
and thicknefs, but its growth is not very rapid. The changes
which occur at the time of pubertv, confidered in an anato-
mical point of view, are not confiderable : there is a remark-
able revolution in the vital powers of the generative fyilem,
rather than any confiderable increafe of the organs. The
internal parts, however, at this time, have acquired their
complete fize, and the external organs become covered, in the
fituations already particularized, with hairs.

In extreme old age, the generative organs of the female,
already reduced for a confiderable time to complete inaftion,
bear the marks of decrepitude common to the whole frame.
The vulva prefents the moll remarkable changes ; this is the
part mo!l affetled by the performance of the fexual func-
tions, and many parts of it partake the general emaciation.
The prominence of the mons veneris is nearly effaced, and a
great part of the hair, which covered it, is loll ; the remain-
der becoming grey and ilraight. The labia and nymphce
are foft and flaccid ; the latter loraetimes can icarcely be laid
to exift : the mucous membrane is whitifli, or at leaft very
pale in its colour. The flate of the vagina prefents nothing
very remarkable. The volume of the uterus is dirainilhed,
its parietes having become thinner. The tubes and round
ligaments are alfo in fome degree reduced. The ovaria do
not exceed half the fize which they had in the adult age ;
they are fometimes very denfe, and marked with deep
grooves, fo as to render the furface tubercular ; in other iiw--
fiances, their fubllance is removed, fo that they are reduced
to a very thin appeai^ance. The veficles contained in their
parenchyma are no lunger difcernible.

Stale of ihf Geiieral'inje Organs during Pregnancy. — The
uterus, intended to ferve as a receptacle for the foetus, di-
lates after it has received the germ from the ovary, and en-
larges in proportion as this is developed : its blood-veifels
bring an additional quantity of fluid, from which tlie fa'tus
draws its fupport : laflly, at a certain period, fixed by the
laws of nature, it difcharges the produce of conception by
virtue of the vital properties, with which it has been endow-
ed, during the remarkable change of its organization. Such
are the threefold objefts, to the attainment of which are
direfted the new difpofitions acquired by this organ during
geilation.

The anatomy of the gravid uterus has been moft fully
tl'.icidated by Dr. William Hunter, whofe fplendid and beau-
tiful plates form an epocha in the hiftory of our knowledge
of this fubjeft. " T!ie anatomical Defcription of the human
gravid Uterus and its Contents," London, 4to. 1794, drawn
up by Dr. Bailhe, from the papers of Dr. Hunter, contains
Vol. XVI.

a very clear account of the fubjeft ; this, with ihe plate*
already mentioned, is the fource from which the foUov/ing
defcription is prhicipally derived. The obfervations, unlefs
where it is otherwife exprelfed, apply to the flate of the
organ as it is found in the 9th month.

CuiifiJerable variety exiits in the fize of the organ. Th'?
child and placenta may be twice as Isrgc "t One cafe as in
another : there may bi fix or eight times more water in one
cafe thai! in another : not to mention the diiftreiices arifinor
from there being only one child or twins, &c.

The develope.T.ent of the uterus appears to be immediately-
produced by the general diilention of the liquid furrounding
tlie fcetus, and not by the foetus itfelf, fince the latter docs
not come in contaft with the orgRn. The fize cf the part
depends principally upon the quantity of the liquor amnii.
For, though women who have twins, or a very large child, "
are commonly obferved to be very big, yet the greateft num.
ber of thofe who are really very much fwellcd out, are fo
only from a ^'^il quantity of water. In fuch cafes tliere is
frequently but one child, and that very often a finall one.

The general figure of the uterus is oviform ; the fundus
anfwering to the largeft extremity of the egg, and the cer-
vix and os uteri to the fmall end : but the fundus is larger and
more flat, <n- lefs pointed, in proportion to the lower extre-
mity of the uterus, tlian one end of an egg is to the other ;
and the whole uterus feems more or lefs comprefled, fo as to
be broader from right to left, tlxan it is from the forepart
backwards. Befides thefe niore conftant deviations, the fi-
gilre of the uterus diflers from the reguJar oviform, from a
variety of accidental caufes, as it adapts itfelf to the neigh-
bouring parts, to the attitude of the body, and to the pofi-
tion of the contained child. In order to conceive thefe va-
rieties more eafily, we mull remember that in moll cafes the
uterus is not fo completely filled as to be upon the full llretch.
AVere it out of the body, and filled artificially, it would eafily
contain more tiian it actually does. Thus the uterus, like
a bladder of water not quite full, is plaflie, and moulds itfelf
into various ihapes from accidental circumftances. The
figure of the organ, in particular fituations, is modified by
the prefTure of the furrounding parts : the brim of the bony
pelvis has the efteft of a belt girding the lower part of the
organ, and the projeftions of the fpine, and of the pfos muf-
cles and ihac veffels, mould the outfide of the uterus into cor-
refponding cavities. The attitude of the body influences
the figure of the uterus, as the parts againll Vi-hich it refls ■
vary in different pollures. The pofition of the child is an-
other caufe influencing the figure of the uterus. Not onlv ia
dead bodies do we fee the parts of the child making various
diiferent projeftions on the outfide of the uterus ; but we
can frequently obferve the fame variety in the living flate, by
examining the outfide of the abdomen. The round project-
ing ball, made by the cliild's head or buttocks, is commonly
very perceptible, and in many inllances fmalier part-s, as th«
knees or elbows, can be dillincily felt. Dr. Mackenzie met
with a cafe of twins, where the uterus, inileadof making one
compafted oval body, had llretched into two dillinc\ bags,
for containing the reipcftive fcetufes ; fo that its outfide \s-as
marked by a notch, dividing it into two apartments, as deep
and dillintt in proportion, as that in the heart reprefented on
cards. Tlie organ often flretches unequally in the corre-
fpondlng oppofite part.s ; fo that cither the right or the left
half may be confiderablj- larger than the- other. It may
fwoU unequally on the front or back part, fo that the dif-
tance between the infertions of the Fallopian tubes may be
much fmalier either before or behind than in ihe oppofite di-
rections. In the unimpregnated Hate, it has commonly one
U-ianguhar cavity : but it is fometimes iubdivided, at its upper

H part,

GENERATION.

pari, into two lateral cavities, fo as to bear fonu' analogy to benumbed, and more liable to cramps, and ocdematous fwell-
the two horns of the uterus in a quadruped. This peculiar ings

conformation may explain the unequal extenfion of the two
fides in fonie cafes of pregnancy ; and may elucidate the
above-mentioned cafe of Dr. Mackenzie.

The fmall or lower end of the organ is placed in the ca-
vity of the pelvis. This generally contains the greater
part of the child's head, and fills tip the cavity fo com-
pletely, as to prefs the bladder againfl the pubes, and the in the fame manner as the analogous membi
refturii ao-ainft the facrum. The os uteri is directed againil tinal tube makes the mefentery. When tl
the coccyx, or the lower part of the facrum. The body and
fundus, which contain the reft of the child and the placenta,
are fo placed in the front of the abdomen, from the brim
of the pelvis upwards to the epigaftric region, as to be un-
der and before all the other bowels, and in immediate con-

Of the Ligivnetils, Tubes, and Ovar'ui of the Pregnant
Uterus. — It has been commonly obferved that the liganients
and tubes of the pregnant uterus are attached lower upon
the fide of the organ than they were in the unimpregnated
ftpte ; and the reafon is very obvious. The peritoneal coat
of the uterus makes the broad ligament on each llde, much
analogous membrane of the intef-
le woman is not

pregnant, the ligament is of confiderable bread'.h, the fper-
matic velfels pals between its two laminx, the round ligament
runs downwards and outwards, on its anterior furface, and
the tube runs in loofe ferpentine turns on its upper edge.
But in proportion as the circumference of the uterus grows
tact with the parietes abdominis, and to occupy the whole larger, the broad ligaments become narrower, their polierior
fpace from one hip-bone to the other, and a proportional lamella covering the pofterior furface, and their anterior la

extent from thefe bones upwards. As it rifes up from tl
cavity of the pelvis into the hypogaflric and umbilical re-
gions of the abdomen, the loofe connections of the inteftines
and omentum ealily account for thefe parts being pulhed up
before it.

The axis of the uterus is oblique, its lower end being
turned backwards, and the upper proportionally forwards.
This obliquity is changed by the attitude of the body,

mella the anterior furface of the uterus itfelf. We obferve
now, that the round ligsments do not run down on the fore-
part of the broad ligaments, but upon the forepart of the
body of the uterus itfelf. In proportion as the fundus rifes
upwards, and increafes in fi/e, the ujiper part of the broad
ligament is fo llretched, that it clings clofe to the fide of the
uterus, £b that in reality the broad ligament dlfappcars, no
more of it remaining than its very root ; namely, its ujjper

and by maiiy other caufes. In the ereft pofture, the weight and outer corner, where the group of fpermatlc velfels
of the uterus prefles the forepart of the organ into a greater pafTes over the lilacs, to the fide of the uterus. In this
rotundkv, and its axis then approaches the neai-eil to a ilate, altlunigh the fmall end of the tube opens into the fame
tranfverfe or horizontal line. In the recumbent pofture, part of the uterus,' as before impregnation, yet the tube has
the contrary fituation is exhibited. In a firft pregnancy, a very different direftion ; inftcad of running horizontally
the uterus ftretches itfelf higher up in the epigallric region,
and its axis comes nearer to the longitudinal or vertical di-
redtion, becaufe the parietes of the abdomen do not eaiily
give way : but in a w-oman who has had many children,

outwards, it palTes downwards, clofely attached to the fide
of the uterus. Behind the timbrix lies the ovarium, alfo
connefted to the uterus. The fimbrias and -ovarium are
commonly placed upon the iliac veftels, or flefhy brira of the

the abdomen, by repeated diftention, is rendered more loofe pelvis, behind the group of fpermatlc veffels.
and pendulous, and the uterus extends forwards rather than The round ligaments run ahnoft perpendicularly down-
upwards. This pofition is more remarkable in very fliort wards from the fundus uteri to their paffage through the
fubjefts ; becaufe in them the cheft is fo near the pelvis, mufcles ; they are confiderably enlarged in thlcknefs, and
that the uterus is ftopped in afcent. The fame circumftance are fo vafcular, that u'hen injetted they feem to be little more

happens, and for a fimllar reafon, when the pelvis is very
narrow : as no part of the organ, in fuch a cafe, can be
lodged in the pelvis, it muft be placed proportionally higher.
In a very (hort and crooked woman, on whom the cs-
farean feftiou was performed, the fundus uteri was not only
turned forwards, but even a little downwards. As fhe lay

than a bundle of arteries and veins. Their arteries are all
convoluted. Both their arteries and veins proceed princi-
pally from the fpermatics, and anailomofe evidently with the
external vefi'els in the groin or upper part of the labia.
Even in this enlarged ftale of the round ligaments, it is very
dlfHeult to lay how they terminate in the groin ; they appear

upon the table, the navel could not be fcen, as it was placeci to be infenfibly loft. The tubes are more flelliy, vafcuL'
on the pofterior and inferior part of the abdominal tumour.
lu order to expofe that part of the abdomen to the furgeon,
it was necelTary to lift up the fundus uteri, without which
Llie hypogaftricreglon would havebeen inacceflible. Thedevia-
tion of the organ towards the right or left llde cannot, in ge-
neral, be very confiderable ; as it poffeffes nearly the whole markable change. The latter body can be diftinguiflied by

and foft in their fubftance, and are lefs convoluted than in
the unimpregnated ftate. The fimbria: and internal rugfe
are larger and much inore beautiful, efpeclally when their
vefl'els are well injetled. The ovaria, excepting that which
contains the corpus luteum, feem to have undergone no re-

fpace between the hip-bone, and its lower extremity is fixed
to the pelvis. A fmall lateral obliquity is very common ;
and we can eafily fuppofe, that in a reclined pofture, the pro-
jeftion of the lumbar vertebra: will throw rather more
than one-half of the uterus into the lateral cavity between
the fpine and one hip-bone. We know, indeed, that in all
the laft months, the abdomen is often more full on one fide
than on the other. Women fay in fuch a cafe, that the
child lies on one fide, and they judge rightly. Where the
child lies the bulk mull be both more confiderable and

a rounded fullnefs, and frequently a confiderable promi-
nence, fenfible both to the fight and touch, upon the mid-
dle of which there is a fmall pointed cavity or indentation,
like a cicatrix. Upon flitting the ovarium at this part, the
corpus luteum appears a round body, of a very dlftinft
nature from the reft of the ovarium. Sometimes it is oblong
or oval, but more generally round. Its centre is white,
with fome degi-ee of tranfparency ; the reft of its fubftance
has a yellowifli caft, is very vafcular, tender and friable,
like glandular flefh. The larger veffels appear round its

more permanent, but where there is only uterus, placenta, circumference, and fend fmaller branches inwards. A fev

and water, the fweUing will be fofter, and projedf lefs. of the larger veffels are fituated at the cicatrix or indentation

TheprcfTure of the child, when it lies more in one fide than on the outer furface of the ovarium ; and are there fo little

ill the other, makes the limb of that fide weakerj more covered, as to give that part the appearance of being bloody,
4 wh«n

GENERATION.

when feen at a little diftance. Wlien there is only one
child, there is only cni corpus luteum ; and two in cafe of
twins. There may be, in the latter cafe, two diftinft ones in
one ovarium, or one in each ovarium. The fex of the foetus
has no relation to the corpus luteum being formed in the
right or left ovary.

Th'icknefs of the Uterus. — Thofe who fay that the uterus
grows thicker in proportion as its bulk i.-; increafed.have pro-
bably been deceived by examining the uterus of a woman
who died fome hours or days after delivery. In that con-
trafted ftate the uterus is often found even two inches thick :
but in the natural diftended ftate, though there may be fome
difference, the thicknefs, in general, is but little more con-
fiderable than before impregnation. When not injefted, its
ordinary thicknefs is from one to two-thirds of an inch ;
when its velTels, and particularly the veins, are pretty well
filled with wax, its thicknefs is tk.neby coniiderably increaf-
ed, more efpecially where the placenta is fixed, on account
of the number and fize of the veflels at that part. For this
reafon only, perhaps, the uterus is thickeft at that part, and
for the fame reafon it is thicker towards the fundus than near
the cervix. Much variety may be obferved with refpeit to
thicknefs : and fuch inequalities in the fame individual, tliat
even where the placenta did not adhere, the uterus may be
almofl: twice as thick at one part as at another. On open-
ing the organ, its thicknefs is generally found more confi-
derable than external exainination would have led us to ex-
peft. For its fubftance is foft, and a fludluation, like that
of water in a thin bladder, may be felt.

Blood-veJJlh. — There is no circumftance, in which the
gravid uterus differs more from the unimpregnated, than in
the fize and termination of its vefTels. The arteries, both
fpermatic and hypogaitric, are very much enlarged. There
are infinite numbers of anaftomofing arteries through the
whole fubftance of the part, fo that the wliole fyftem
makes a general net-work, and the branches are convoluted
or ferpentine in their courfe. None of the larger ramifi-
cations are fccn for any length of way upon the outlide of
the uterus. As they branch from the fides, they difappear
by plunging deeper and deeper into the fubft:ance. The
arterial branches, which are much enlarged, are thofe which
run towards the placenta ; fo that, v.-herever it adheres, that
part appears evidently to receive by far the greateft quantity
of blood ; and the greateft number, both of the large and
fmal! arteries at that part, pafs through to the placenta, and
are necetTarily torn through upon its feparation. The veins
of the uterus appear to be ftill more enlarged, in propor-
tion, than the arteries. From the fides of the uterus they
ramify through its fubftance, running deeper and deeper as
they go on, and without following precifely the courfe of
the arterial branches. They form a plexus of the largeft
and moft frequent communications which we know of
among the vefTels of the human body. And this they
have in common with the arteries, that their larger branches
go to, or rather come from that part of the uterus to
which the placenta adheres ; fo that, when the venous fyftem
of the uterus is well injetted, that part is evidently the
chief tource of the returning blood. Here, too, both the
large and fmall veins are continued from the placenta to
the uterus, and arc alvvays neceffarily broken upon the
feparation of thefe two parts. The veins are without valves,
and are therefore eafdy injefted. In injecling them,
we obferve that at firft they become turgid, and projeiit on
the outer furface of the uterus ; but in proportion as we
throw a greater quantity of wax into thefe vefTels, they
grow more flat and obfcure ; becaufe the uterus itfelf be-
«omes more filled and tcnfe, which has the effed of coni-

prefTing the veins that run in its fubftance. On account of
the large fize of thefe vefFels, and the appearance of cavities,
which they exhibit on a feftion, the name of finufes has
fonietimes been given to them.

The lymphat'ics are m.ore numerous, and many of them
larger than could have been imagjined. They pervade the
fubftance of the organ univerfally. Its peritoneal coat ap-
pears, like that of a calf's fpleen, to be interwoven with a
crowded plexus of thefe vefTels ; and where they get to the
fides of the uterus, when filled with mercury, fome of them
are even larger than a goofe's quill. Some are remarkably
varicous, or enlarged at particular places.

We do net know that any change takes place in the
nerves of the uterus during pregnancy.

Mufcular Fibres of th: Uterus The fubftance of the or-
gan is rendered remarkably fofi and loofe in its texture by
pregnancy ; fo that, when an incifion is made into it, the
wound can be eafily made to open wiJe ; or if a narrow Urip
be cut out, it can readily be extended to at leaft twice its
original breadth. This laxity appears to depend on two
caufes ; -ulz. the great quantity of large vefTels in its com-
pofition ; and the loofe connexion between the fafcicuh of
its fibres. When we fpeak of the mufcidar fibres, it is dif-
ficult to treat the fubjcct wnth precifion. We neither kn w
theirexternal appearance, nor their internalcompofition. 1 hey
only manifefl themfclves to our fenfes, where numbers of them
are coUefted into bundles, and make what we commonly call
mufcular fafciculi. In the quadruped, as, for inftanc-, the cat
or rabbit, the mufcular adlion of the uterus is feen as evidently
as that of the inteftines, when the animal is opened immedi-
ately after death. In many parts, particularly cf the internal
furfaceof the uterus, thefe fibres have the fame ftriking fafcicu-
lated appearances as we obferve in common mufcles ; yet they
are of a paler coloiir and harder texture. Dr. Hunter exa-
mined the fibres very can-fully in a woman who diedfeven da)-^
after dehvery. He ftretched it gradually in warm water, and
then inverted it, to have a full view of the inner furfr.ce.
The remains of the decidua had pafTed off with the lochia,
fo that the fafciculated flratum of mufcvJar fibres appearea
to be bare, and to make the internal furface of the uterus.
In many places, but particularly where the placenta had beesi
fixed, the fafciculi left oval fpaces between them, for the
pafTage of arteries and veins, fomev.hat like thofe fepara-
tions in the tendinous fibres of the abdomen and loins, where
vefTels pals out to the cellular membrane and integuments.
The cervix uteri, where the rugoe are fituated, had not fuch
regular nor fo large fafciculi as the reft of the ttterus. In
the body of the organ the fibres were very regularly circular.
The fundus was made up of two planes of concentric fibres,
at tlie very centre of which was the orifice of the Fallopian
tube. When this internal ftratum was removed, the fafci-
culated appearance and regular direction of the fibres was
lefs and lefs apparent, in proportion as the diffection was
continued outwards; which feemed to be o-.nng in great
meafure to the infinite number of branches and comm.unica-
tions of the large veins. Afterwards, fays the doctor, I
had tlie moft favourable occalion that could be defired, for
examining the fibres on the infido-of the uterus. It was in
a woman wh.o died at the end of the ninth month, without
being in labour, and v.ithout having any flooding or dif-
charge of waters. When I had examined, and taken
out all the contents, I attended particiilaily to the internal
furface of the uterus. I found it every w'u-re covered witli
a thin ftratum of the d'cidua, tlirough which the mufcular
fibres appeared, but with fume degree of obfcurity. Upon
rubbing off this tender niembrane with a cloth, it gave me
H 2 pleafure

GENERATION.

pleafure to fee how exaftly the above defcriplion agreed
> with the appearances.

The cxiilence of mufcular fibres in this orj^an lias not,
however, been univcrfally acknowledged. " Relpetting the
alleged mufcular text\n-e of the uterus,'' fays Bhnnenbach,
" I mail obferve that all the human uteri, which I have caie-
fully examined both in the pregnant and uninipregnated conr
dition (and I have had opportunities of fucli inveftigations,
not merely in preparations, but in the moil recent (late after
death) have not exhibited any thing that could be taken tor
genuine mufcular fibres. The advocates for the mulcula-
rity of this organ muil allow that the fibres differ mofl re-
markably from all others in the body. I am more and more
convinced every day that the uterus pofleffes no true irrita-
bility ; but that it poffetres, if any part of the body can be
faid to polfefs, a peculiar modilication of vitality (vita pro-
pria) correfponding to its peculiar motions and functions,
and not referrible to the common laws of irritability. Thefe
funftions appeared fo fingular and peculiar to the old phyfi-
cians and phllofophers, that they called the uterus an animal
contained in an animal." Inflitut. Phyfiolog. p. 422.

'J'lie mouth of the uterus differs conliderably in the dif-
ferent times of utero-geilation. For the grealeft part of
the nine months, that is, till the cervix uteri be fully dif-
tended, tliere is a projedlion of both the anterior and pof-
terior lip of the os tinea; ; and in fome women this continues
till the very time of labo\ir. But in moll women, when they
are at their full time, or very near it, the os uteri is flat, and
makes only a fmall rugous hole, often not i-eadily difco-
verable by the touch on the lower or pofterior part of the
rounded lower end of tlie uterus. The border of this ori-
fice, and tlic internal furface of the uterus, for an inch or
more all around, is full of little irregular cavities. Thefe
contain a tough gluten, which fhoots acrofs, and plugs up
the inner part of the orifice. This -gluten is commonly
fqueezed out from all the lacunje, by the dilatation of the
OS uteri in the beginning and progrefs of the labour ; and
fo lofmg its hold, it falls Out. In the dead body, when
the part is kept fome days in water, the gluten fwells out
more and more from all thefe cavities, and then feparates
entirely. Then the innumerable lacunae, which contained it
being empty, are very vifible. And if the gluten be thus
carefully taken away, and be floated in water, its external
furface is feen beautifully ornamented with all the proceffcs
which were drawn out of the innumerable lacuiioe.

Dr. Hunter gives us tlie following account of the uterus
in the earlier months of pregnancy. " In the third and
fourth months, the fubftance of the uterus is become more
foft than before conception, and all its veffels being propor-
tionably enlarged, it appears to be much more vafcular.
We may, therefore, reafonably believe, even if we knew no-
tliing from diffe Aions of quadrupeds, that the uterus changes
its nature in that rcfpeft from the time of conception, and
receives a greater quantity of blood. Its thicknefs is only
a little increafed in its natural flate, but confiderably when
the veins and arteries are artificially diflended with any fluid.
At this time the concfption is lodged entirely in the fundus
uterij or in that part which in the unimprcgnatcd flate has a
fraooth internal furface ; no portion of the conception llretch-
ing then down into the cervix uteri, or that part of the ute-
rus, which is narrov.- and rugous within. ^

■'• The cervix uteri remains contracted and hard in its fub-
ilance, and contains a tough and firm jelly, which ce-
ments and fills up its cavity fo completely, that upon at-
tempting to pu(h a probe through it, the probe will as rea-
dily force its way through the hard fubftance of the uterus
jtfelf, as through the cementing jelly. When the uterus is

kept a confiderable time in water, fix or eight days perhap$,
this cen.enting jelly fwelLs, grows in- proportion fofter, and
at lafl comes away, or falls off in one mafs. Then' the inter-
nal furface of the cervix exhibits a mofl beautiful appearance;
being variegated with projefting ruga, and innumerable
intermediate narrow, but deep cavities, v.hieh lodged fo
many procefles of the jelly. In feparating the jelly, when
by previous maceration it had been fit for fuch an operation,
I have feen thofe proceffcs drawn out of the httle cavities
as diftiniSlly as we can fee a hand drawn out of a glove: and
wlicn the jelly is carefully feparated and floated in clear wa-
ter, it preferves its figure, and exhibits a moft elegant ap-
pearance, produced by the proceffes that flioot out from its
furface all around.

" The OS uteri, or very extremity of the uterus, is in fome
women narrow or pointed, with a very fmall orifice, that
will jufl admit the point of a very fmall finger ; and in fome
it is large, foft, or fpongy to the touch, granulated upon
its furface, and the orifice fo wide as to admit the end of
the finger full half an inch up with great eafe. There the
paffage becomes narrow, and is clofed with the gelatinous
cement. The os uteri, all around its paffage, is crowded
with fmall cavities, containing the fame fort of jelly, wJiich
by maceration fwells, pufhes out from the cavities, and
comes away, leaving the cells void. This, no doubt, is part
of the jelly which naturally comes away in labour. Some
women have much more of it than others ; and, in comparing
different diffections, I have obfervcd more of the jelly within
the cervix uteri, and more likewiie in tlie cells round the os
uteri, in one fubjeft than another.

" The uterus, at the time of three or four months, is by no
means fo tightly filled but that it would eafily contain more.
It is like a bladder therefore, fo filled with water, that it
would eafily contain a third part more. Hence it is foft
and fwagging, and eafily changing its fhape, accommodates
itfelf to the neighbouring parts.

" The fituation of the uterus, which at firfl is in the cavity
of the pelvis, but afterwards gradually rifes up into the ca-
vity of the abdomen, and the changes which its ligaments
undergo, may be eafily conceived by any perfon acquainted
with the flate of thofe parts before conception, and who has
confidered what has been already faid about the fame things
in the ninth month of pregnancy.

" The peculiarities of the ovarium are very different at the
different periods of utero-geflation. In the earlier months
the corpus luteum is confiderably larger and more vafcular ;
and within it there is a confiderable and evident cavity con-
taining a fluid. When the uterine veffels have been injetled,
I have obferved that the wax very eafily extravafates into
that cavity. On the outfide of the ovarium there is a little
pit, which looks like a hole, leading into tlie cavity of the
ovarium. But in the cafes which i have feen, no briftles
would pafs ; it appeared to be an obliterated dutt, or paffage
grown together."

The ferous covering of the uterus, derived from the peri-
toneum, undergoes very confiderable extenfion during the
enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy. We have already
fhevvn that the broad ligaments nearly difappear at this time,
but there is no accefhon of tlie fame kind either before or be-
hind, as the bladder and re&um flill continue to be covered
to the ufual extent by that merabi'ane. The increafed fur-
face of the peritoneal coat mufl be afcribed therefore to an
extenfion of the membrane.

As the mucous furface of the organ is the medium of com-
munication between the uterus and the fecundines, its changes
refer to the purpofes accompliihed by this connexion. In
the natural ilate, it exhibits merely the fine orifices of ex.

halinjT

GENERATION.

haling vcfTi-ls, but after conception a largo number of confi-
dcr.ible arteries and veius pafo from it to tlie furface of the
ovum ; and thefe are more numerous and large in the lltua-
tion of the placenta than elfewhcre. Thefe communicating
veffels liave been deferibcd already in the article Embrvo.
Towards the latter periods of gellatioii the vulva becomes
fwoln and relaxed, atfuming aftate which favours its dilata-
tion in the aft of partin-ition.

The vital properties of]ithe uterus, as well as its organiza-
tion, are confiderahlv altered after conception. The organ
acquires animal fenfibility ; hence women feel the motions
of the child, and even experience very confiderable pain in
particular pofitions of the fcetils ; hence too the fharp pains
felt in partiyition. We do not know whether much pain is
experienced by the incifion of the utei-us in the ca'farean
feclion. But, fuppofmg that it is not, the faft -would not
prove that the organ is not pofTeifed of animal fenfibility.
Its pov-ers may render it fufceptible of fome ftimuli and not
of others. When no circumitancea interrupt the ordinary
phenomena of pregnancy, we have no proof, until the natural
period of this condition arrives, that the organ pofFcfTes fo
ilrong a contraftile power as that which we fee exerted in
parturition. We might even believe that this property is not

the term of geflation, and for which we can afllgn no other
caufe than the immulabk- laws by which the operations of
nature are regulated. However this queftion may be decided,
it is Clear that the contraction of the uterus alone does not
accomplifli the expuliion of the fetus. The diaphragm and
abdominal mufclcs afilll in tlie opr^ation ; and hence parturi-
tion is iji fome degree voluntary, is accelerated in fome cafes
by the courage of the individual, while in others it c-annot
be concluded without the adiftance of art, in conftquence of
the ftrengtli being exhaufied. Yet this aftion of the abdo-
minal mufcles is not fo indilpenfdilc, but that the uterus can
get rid of its contents without fuel', aid. We know the ex-
traordinary facihty with which parturition takes place in
fame women, who, in confequence of particular circum-
ftances in th.eir condition, exert themfelves even to retard the
procefs ; and the expulfion of the child is fometimes com-
pleted at the approach of death, when the abdominal muf-
cles can hardly be fuppofed to contribute.

After the expulfion of the child, and of the fccundines,
the action of the uterus ftill continues, and the organ is gra-
dually reduced in its bulk. Fur a (hort time its parietes
are in a ftate of increafed thicknefs ; the vefitls, being com-
preffed by this pcnnanent ftate of contraction, pour out but

developed until the end of pregnancy ; but there is no cpocha a very fmall quantity of blood, notwithftanding the preceding
of geflation, from the firtt prefencc of tlie germ in the ute- dilatation of tlitir oriiices. This blood, cffufed very llowly,

" ' " is foon "fucceeded by an abundant fecretion of mucus from
the furface of the uterus, conftituting a fpecies of difcharge
peculiar to Vi-omen recently deliveredj and known by the
name of lochia. This evacuation lafts for a longer or fhorter
time, and probably does not ceafe altogether, until the
uterus has regained its original ftate. The contraction of
the organ is owing at tirft to the evacuation and contraftiou
of its veffels ; but foon nutrition is carried on in it with lefs
aftivity, while abforption proceeds vigoroufly until the
excefs of matter depofited for its developcment has been re-
moved.

rus, at which this contraftion may not be excited by the
aftion of particular caufes, which, under certain circum-
ftances, are powerful enough to produce the expuliion of the
child. Violent contufions of the abdomen, and penetrating
wounds affefting the uterus, are frequently followed by
abortion. Violent pafllon may caufe this premature expulfion
of the foetus. The fame eifeCl is produced by the evacuation
of the waters of the amnios, independently of any other
caufe ; the uterus, when no longer diftended, contrafts,
and abortion enfues. This contradtile power, with which
the uterus becomes endowed on the change of its organiza-
tion, partakes of the characlers of animal contraftility and
of irritability. The inactivity of the uterine parietes, until
the termination of utero-geftation, refembles, in fome re-
fpefts, the quiefcent ftate of the voluntary mufcles, when
they are not excited by the influence of the brain ; and the
contraftion, by means of which this organ expels its contents,
can be co:r.pared only to the exertion of thofe mufcles. On
the other hand, the contratWity of the uterus is independent
of the cerebral influence, and its exercife is abfolutely invo-
luntary ; this circumftance particularly characterizes irrita-
bility in thofe organs which poilefs it in the moft remarkable
degree, as the heart. Like the latter power, it may be fym-
pathetic«lly roufed, when the aetion of the uterus is fuf-
pended during or after parturition ; and it continues for
fome time after apparent general death.

The attention of phyfiulogift.s has been much occupied in
inveftigating the immediate caufe of parturition ; that is,
the caule which calls into attion the contraftile power of the
uterus at the end of utcro-geftation. Many adopt the
following explanation. They admit a fpecieM of oppofition
between the body and neck of the uterus, during geftation.

Phvfwlogy of the Female Organs of Generation.

Puberty mid Menjlruat'wn. — From the uterus of every
healthy woman (at leaft with very rare exceptions) who it
not pregnant, or who does not give fuck, there is a difcliarge
of blood at certain periods, from the time of puberty to the
approach of old age (during a period in general of about
30 years) ; whicli, from the periods or returns of the dii-
chavge, is called the menfes or catamenia, and, from the ge-
neral regularity of its appearance, is termed in French les
regies. The commencement of menftruation is coeval with
that fignal revolution in the female conllitution, which in-
dicates the power of executing the generative funftion?, and
may be regarded as the developcment of the fexual life. It is
therefore one of thofe circumftances which, taken altogether,
mark the period of puberty in females. At the fame time
their complexion is improved, their countenance is more ex-
prefiive and animated, thuir attitudes graceful, and their
converfation more inteUigent and agreeable ; the tone of their
voice becomes more harmonious, their Vvhole frame, but
particulaily the breafts, are expanded and enlarged," and.

the refiftance of the latter overcoming the tendency of the their minds are no longer engaged in childKh puriuits and

amufenients. Thefe phenomena have been deicribed very
elegan'Iy by Harvey i " nee minus notum eft, quanta vir-
gmi akeratio contingat, increfcente prinuim et tepefacto
utero ; pubcfcit nempe, coloratior evadit, mammts protube-
rant, pulchrior vuhus renldet, fplendent oculi, vox canora,
inccOus, gcftus, fermo, omnia decora fiunt."

The whole human race is fubject to this law, and the ac-
counts of fome travellers, fta'-ing that the Brafdian or Sa-

former to contract. As the neck is gradually obliterated,
its oppofition is diminiflied, and it then gives way to the con-
tradtions of the body and fundus. Againll this explanation
■we may urge that the fuppofed ftruggle between two op-
pofing forces is purely hypothetical, that there is no evidence
«f any contraction or attempt at it during pregnancy, and
that it comes on quite fuddenly at the expiration of the
term. It i.^ this fudden exercife of the contrattile power, at

the end of the ninth, mouth in die human fpecies, that marks moied women are exempt, have not been coulirmed by more

recent

GENERATION.

recent and accurate inquiries. It is a general and elTential been fubjcft to the regtilar periodical return of the catamenia

phenomenon in the life of woman, and if different climates, for fome years, witliout any other apparent difadvant.ige

or the varieties of the favage and civilized dates, are capable than that of being rather ihort and delicate in her make,

of modifying the phenomenon, their influence is not fuffi- He mentions another inftance in Switzerland of a girl having

cient to annihilate it altogether, even in the frozen and in- a child by her uncle at nine years. Many of the accounts

liofpitable regions, where fome writers have fuppofed that it of menftruation in early infancy muft be deemed morbid or

does not occur in a conilant and regular manner. It is hardly fymptomatic difchargcs, and cannot be referred to the cata-

neceffai-y to refute an opinion, which has prevailed very ge- mcnia. When the female conftitution from any caufe is dii-

nerally, that whole nations, particularly Americans, are not pofed to, or requires a fanguineous difcharge, it is com-

■liable to this difcharge. In tlieir vilits to thofe countries, monly made from the veffels of the uterus

i

Europeans faw numerous females in a ftate of nakednefs,
without obferving any figns of the diicharge, which may be
accounted for by two circumftances. The women at that
time are generally fuppofed to be in an impure ftate, and to
communicate a mahgnant influence ; they are confequently
compelled to fhun fociety while the difcharge lafts, and to
avoid the iiglit of man by hiding themfelves in folitary huts.
Travellers have alio obferved that tlieir fcrupulous attention
to perfonal cleanlinefs, and to the modell attitude of the
lower extremities, would prevent the fpeftator from difeo-
vering any traces of the eatanienia. The difcharge is peculiar

The early or late appearance of the menfes may depend
upon the chmate, the conjlitution, the delicacy or hardinefs
of living, and upon the manners of thofe with whom young
women converfe. In general, the warmer the climate the
looner the menfes appear. In Greece, and other warm
countries, girls begin to menftruate at eight, nine, and ten
years of age. According to Thevenot and Charuin they
even marry and bear children at eight and nine years of age
in fome parts of Afia. Tiie difcharge does not appear in
Europe until the female lias nearly attained her full growth.
Haller mentions the twelfth and tliirteentli years as the ufual

to the female of the human fpecies, which, in the language of periods in Switzerland ; the difcharge appears fooner in the

Pliny, is the only " animal menllrualc." Many naturaliils,
favs Blumciibach, and among others Buffon, have afcribed
a periodical flux of this kind to fome other animals, particu-
larly of the monkey kind. But having had the opportunity
ef obferving feveral individuals for many fuccefllve years, I
difcovered that thefe fuppofed catamenia did not exift at all
in fojne, wliile in otliers there was a final! occafional uterine
hxniorrhasje appearing at no regular intervals. (Inftitut.

more foulhern countries of Europe, and later as we approacli
to the north. According to Linnsus, in his " Flora Lap-
ponica," the women of Lapland do not menfl;ruate until a
maturer age, and then in Imall quantities, at long intervals,
and fometimes only in the fummer. But if the procefs does
not go on according to the general prevailing rule in the
country, they fuffer equal inconveniences a-i in warmer
climates, where the quantity difeharged is much greater, and

Phyfiolog. feft. 37 ) There is a great determination of the periods (horter. ' In this country girls beg^in to men
blood to the organs in animals when they are in heat; this is ftruate from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year of their

age, and lometimes at a later period, without any figns of
difeafe ; but if they are luxurioully educated, lleeping upon

attended with a mucous fecretion, and fometimes even blood
Las been difeharged, lo as to give rife to the erroneous notion

-of their being lubjett to the menftrunl flux. Such a cafual (i

down beds, and fitting in hot rooms, inenliiruation ufually

and unfrequent occurrence can by no means be compared to commences at a more early period
the regular periodical difcharge obferved in women almoft

Heal aucnarge observed in
withaut an exception. On the other hand there are exam-
ples of women who have never menftruated, and of others,
in whom this difeliarge has not appeared throsgh long
periods of their lives, witliout any ill confequence. Dr.
Denman knew two inftances in which the menfes had never
been difeharged ; the individuals married, but had no children
( Introd. to the Pract. of Midwifery, 410. p. 115".]
continue to nienllruate during the time of fuckling,
circumftar.ce is not very rare, altliough it is the general rule
that the difcharge iliould ceafe at tliis time. The vital
powers are differently employed, and their exercife has a dif-
ferent objecl and direction. Pregnancy almoll invariably
interrupts the procefs. The important functions carried on
in the uterus at this time require all the powers of the mo-
ther ; and the adhefion of the ovum to the uterus feeir.s to original early or late appearance of the m.enfes. About the
form an infuperable mechanical obflacle to the difcharge. fortieth year, a little fooner or later, the regular periods of
Hence Mr. Denman ftates that he has never known an in- the catamenia are interrupted; and before the fiftieth year,
ilance of menilruation during pregnancy. The ceffation of profufe diJeharges occur followed by long intervals ; about
the difcharge without the prefence of any unhealthy caufe, the time juft mentioned, the catamenia generally ceafe, and
is the only fign by which women know that they have con- the power of reproduction is lotl. With thofe who began to

The variety in the time at which women arrive at puberty
has given rife to fome moral deductions. It f.asbeen afngn-
ed as the reafon why women in hot climates are almoft uni-
verfiilly treated as flaves, and why their influence is fo power-
ful and extenfive in cold countries, where perfonal beauty is
in lefs eftimation. In hot climates, women are at the height
Some ^^ their beauty when they are ilill children in underilandmg ;
and the '*"'^' when their underftanding is matured, they are no
longer the objeffs of love. In tempenite climates their
perfons and their minds acquire perfection at the fame
time, and the united power of their beauty and fa-
culties is irrefiftihle.

At the approach of old age women ceafe to menftruate,
but the time of the ceffation is commonly regulated by the

ceived. Autliors relate many examples, however, where the
catamenia have flowed during geftation ; but very ftrong evi-
dence would be necetfary to prove a circumftance fo unlikely
in itfelf.

The menfes may appear prematurely in fome women,
from peculiarity of organization, as tlie phenomena of pu-
berty have occurred at unnaturally early periods in men ; and

menftruate at ten or twelve years of age, the difcharge will
fometimes ceafe before tliey arrive at forty ; but if the firft
appearance was protraftej to fixteen or eighteen years of age,
independently of difeafe, fuch women may continue to men-
ftruate until they have p^{^ed the fiftieth, or even approached
the fixtieth year of their age. In this country, tlie moll
frequent time of the Ci-'ffation is from the forty-fourth to the

the circumftance muft be referred to original difference of forty-eighth year, after which women never bear children,
conftitution. Haller knew a girl of good family, nine years By this conftitutional regulation of the menfes the -propaga-
of age, well conftituted both in mind aud body, who had tion of the fpecies is, in every country, confined to the mofl

GENERATION.

vio-orous part of life, and, had it been olhcrwife, children
might liave become parents, and old women might have had
children, whon they were unable to fupply them with proper
or fuflicient nourithmcnt. Yet the rules jull mentioned
are not free from all exceptions. The catamenia, with
powers of fecundity, ha^e continued in particular inftances
much beyond the age we have fpeciiied. Some of thefe
have had regular catamenia ; in others, after a loni^ fup-
preffion, the difcharge has returned. V/e muft be careful,
however, here, as in the cafe of premu.ture appearance, not
to confound with the mciif;s accidental and rnorbid hemor-
rhages. A relation of Haller's had two fons after her
fiftieth year, and in colder countries, where the accefs of
puberty is late, children have been born when the mother
was even above 60.

The proper menftrual blood is generally preceded, fome-
times even for fome months, by a vvhitiih ferous fluid.
Symptoms of more or lefs violence, indicating the
accumulation of blood about the hypogallric vefFels,
fuch as pain in the loins and about th;: pelvis, hiflitade
with painful aiTeftion of the lovicr extremities, and various
nervous and hyfteric feelings, are then obierved. Pains in the
head, flufhing of the cheeks, and even pimply appearances
in the face fometimes take place. In younger virgins thefe
fyrnptoms are milder, and i.n the firil inftances often go off
fpontaneoufly : but they return with greater intenfity, at-
tended with confiderable colic pains, and quick and llrong
pulfe, until a bloody ferum, and then m.ore genuine blood
flows more or lefs rapidly from the vidva. The duration of
the flux is uncertain ; it may be accompliflied in three or four
days, or be protrafted till the feventh or eighth. The
quantity is fubjccl to no fettled law : it is greater in warm
countries, where it may amount to a pint or more ; while in
colder regions it does not exceed five, four, or three ounces.
" Yet,'' fays Dr. Denman, lib. cit. p. 1 18, " there is a com-
mon quantity, to which, under fnnilar circumftances, women
approach, and it may be ellimated in this manner. Suppof-
ijig the quantity to be about eighteen ounces in Greece, and
two ounces in Lapland, there will be a gradual alterati;;n
between the two extremes, and in this country it will
amount to about fix ounces." Manners and way of life
make a confiderable difference. Luxurious ;'nd lafcivious
women have a more copious difcharge : while thofe who take
much exercife, or arc weak or infufficiently nouriflied, fur-
nith a more fparing quantity. The pain fubfides as the dif-
charge proceeds ; the infl immatory fyrnptoms about the
uterus go off as tl'.e determination to that organ ceafes, the
pulfe is diminifn-jd, and the blood is followed by a ferous
fluid. Signs of debility fucceed, with a hollovvnels about
the eye, and a dark circle furrounding tlie organ. The
firil appearance in a young girl is generally follov.ed by an
interval of fome months, and this period approaches gradual-
ly to a folar montli ; fo that a healthy woman, in wh.om the
difcharge is eilablilhed, will have it return on the fame day
of the m.onth for many fucceediiig years. If fcvcn or eight
days are occupied by the flov.' of the catamenia, there is an
interval of twenty-tv.-o or twenty-three, making up the
menftrual period. Such is the courfe obfcrved in healthy
temperate fubjefts, whofe bodily and mental powers are not
abufed or overftraiued. Improper regimen and mmners
may precipitate or retard the difcharge. Luxurious m.mners,
with high living, may occafion returns after fifteen days : un-
der various other circumftances tliere is a fimilar protraction
ot the period, which recurs however at regular intervals.
Similar fymptoms to thofe which attend the firll menftrua-
tion, but in a milder form, accompany each return. In this
ref^eft confiderable varieties are obfcrved ; the afFcdion

recurring with confiderable violence, at every period, in fome
women, while others do not feem to fuffer at all.

The nature of the difcharged fluid has not been afcertain-
ed by any accurate invefligations, but its obvious charadlers
are fo exactly like thofe of blood, that it has been generally
confidered and called blood. This remarkable difference,
however, at leaft, fccms to diftinguifli the two fluids ; -viz.
that the catamenia do not coagulate. They are blood de-
prived of fibrine. Coagula are fometimes feen, but are con-
fidered to denote unhealthy menftruation, as they occur
when the proccls is obvioufly diflurbed, and attended with
great pain, S;c. Opinions have been very generally received
tliat the menftrual difcharge poffeffes fome peculiar mahgnant
properties. Tiicfe notions leem to have originated in the
liail ; they appear in all their force in the ordinances of the
Jewifn legiflator, were adopted by the Arabian phyficians,
and have been credited in moft countries. The fevere regu-
lations which have been made in fome countries, for the con-
duct of women at the time of menftruation, the expreffions
ufed, the difpofal of the blood difcharged, or of any tiling
contaminated with it, the complaints of women attri-
buted to its retention, and the effefts enumerated by
grave writers, indicate the moft dreadful apprehenfions of
its baneful influence. The following quotation exhibits thefe
abfurd notions in very elegant language. " Penis cum m.cn-
ftruata concumbentis excoriatur ; ft novella vitiseo tangatur,
in perpetuum Ixditur ; fteriles fiunt taftos fruges ; moriun-
tur infita? ; exuruntur hortcrum gerniina :• fi mulier praeg-
nans alterius incpftrua fupergrediatur, aut iUis circumlinatur,
abort um facit ; ciautem.quxultronongtftat, concipiendifpem
adimit ; purgantis fpiritus, etvaporab ore,fpecula atquetboris
nitorem oblcurat. Guftatus hie fanguis canes in rabiem agit,
homines vero dii'is cruciatibus afRigit ; comitialem morbuni,
piloruia efBuviuin, aliaque elepluuiticorum vitia inducit ; id-
circo a veteribus inter venena relatus ; pari malignitate
exiftimatur, atque fanguinis elephantici potus-" De
Graaf.

Under peculiar circumftances of health, or ftates of the
uterus, particularly in hot countries, if cleanlinefs be not ob-
fcrved, and the evacuation take place flowly, the difcharge
may eailly become acrimisnious and offeniive. But there is
nothing of this kind belonging to healthy menftruation in a
cleanly woman, where theefiufed fluid differs from any other
blood only in the circumftances already mentioned. Nav,
when the catamenia are retained in the body for many months,
in cafes of imperforate vaginoe, they produce no ill vfleft
whatever, and are diilinguilhed by no particular odour or
oiTenfive qualities when difcharged by an operation. We
have,t!iercfore, no reafon for thinking otherwife than that this
difcharge is of tlie moft hioP.enfive nature.

That the catamenia come from the uterus is tolerably evi-
dent from the change in the lining of that organ during the
period of their flov.'. Its mucous lurface is rendered fofter
and more viUous ; and cxhib;ts bloody fpots, with numerous
pores, from which the fii;id may be exprefled. The ap-
pearance of the menftrual blood in its cavity dtiring the pe-
riod is a further proof : to which we may add the fupprelfion
of the difch.arge in various morbid conditions of the uterus,
and in. pregnancy, where its furftsce is occupied by the adhe-
fion of the ovi.m. Direft evidence of the faf.t is furniihed
in cafes of prolapfus, where the fluid may be actually feen
diftiUing from the os tincne. To thefe arguments we may
add the obvious conncdtion of the menftrual flux with tlie
funftions of the uterus. Some have contended th.at the va-
gina is partly or wholly the fource of the catamenia ; but
tke opinion refts on no fuificieiit ground : the ftrudure ind

fuu^lioiis

GENERATION.

funftions of the vagina, as well as the direft evidence of
facts, Ilroiigly oppofe the opinion.

Whether the menfes .come from the arteries or veins of
the uterus has been a point of difcuffion with pliyfiologiits ;
■^d alfo whether it be a fimple cfHiix of blood from the
vclTels or a fecretion. The ftruiflure of the organ rcfembles
tliat of glands, and the appearance of the fluid, on many
occafions, differs widely from mere blood ; which indeed it
never refembl cs entirely in the healthy ftate ; fo that we are
difpofedto confider it as a fecretion performed by the uterus
likefluidsthatareformedbyany other glands. A circumft^nce
is fomrtinics obferved in this proeefs, which mull be referred
to the fecretory adlion of the uterine veffels. This is the
difcharge of a membranous fubllance, of the figure of the
uterine cavity, fmooth on one furface, and flocky on the
other, and much refembling the d..-cidua on the whole. The
fiirt is mentioned by Dr. Denman, who firll faw it in mar-
ried women, and afterwards in unmarried ones vmdercircum-
llances which proved undoubtedly that it was formed inde-
pendently of connubial couununication. The menftruation
has been paiufvd in all thefe cafes, and conception has never
occurred while the habit remained.

The efficient caufe of menftruation has afforded an ample
field for thofe who delight in fpeculations and hypotheies.
As the periods of the moon agree nearly with thofe of the
difcharge, the influence of this body has been reforted to in
explanation of the occurrence. If we admit the folution,
the effcCl of lunar attraftion ought to be very different in the
various relative politions of the moon and earth : but the
obiervation of feveral individuals will immediately fhew that
there is no day of the month in which feveral do not begin to
menftruate, and that the moon's apugee or perigee has no in-
fluence :u all in this refpect. We fliall fee, too, that the dif-
charge begins in fome, is diminifhedor entirely ended in others,
at the very fame time ; confequently that the moon can have
notliing to do with the matter. Moreover, as the menftrual
period rather follows folar time, the fame woman menftruates
at one time in the new moon, and at another in the full moon.
Theexiftence of fome ferment, caufing an inteftine motion
in the veffels of the part, meets now with no advocates.
Local or general plethora have been affigned as the reafons of
the menfes, and many of the circuniilances which accelerate
or increafe, or on the contrary retard and diminifli the flow,
favour thefe opinions. But we ftill cannot adopt the opinion ;
the lofs of feveral times the quantity of blood previous to
or in the very aCl of menft:ruation, from the arm, or any
other part of the body, does not prevent or interrupt the flow-
ing of tb.e menfes ; and in thofe complaints which arife from
their obftrutlion, greater relief is afforded by a few drops
of blood from the uterus itfelf, than by ten times the quan-
tity from any other part. A curious circumftance muft be
noticed refpedling the effefts fometimes produced by obftruft-
cd menfes ; I'iz. that their place is fupplied by periodical
emifllons of blood from various other parts of the body, as
the nofe, lungs, ears, eyes, breafts, and almoft every other
part. Thefe probably ihould be deemed in many cafes rather
as difcharges belonging to fome difeafe under which the pa-
tient may labour, than as connetled with menftruation. He-
morrhages of every kind, in either fex, are frequently ob-
ferved to be periodical.

That the catamenia are a fecretion from the m-icous lining
of the uterus, of which we cannot underftand the dirett
Tnechanifm, any more than the method in which any
other fecretions are performed ; and that we are ignorant of
the caufes which determine their appearance to the monthly
period, lecm to b tnearly tb« furn of our knowledge on this

fubjeft. It is clear that the proeefs, being a part of the
healthy operations of the organ, and therefore indicating itj
general condition, is neceflary to preferve the uterus in a
ftate fit for conception. Obiervation has fully proved that
women, who do not menftruate from the uterus, or who are
not in a ftate difpofed to menftruate, cannot conceive, even
though they fliould have a periodical difcharge of blood from
anv other part of the body. All animals, at the time of
their being falacious, or in a ftate fit for the ] ropagation of
the fpecies, have a difcharge, analogous and perh:.ps equi-
valent to menftruation, which is generally mucous, but in fome
inllances, inany hotfeafons and climates, becomes fanguineous.
That the menftruous blood contributes to the formation
or nutriment of the foetus may be rcafoiiably doubted.
The time of the difchaige is not the raoft favourable to
conception, v.'hich occurs moft i-eadily juft after the period.
Since all animals, whether they menftruate or nat, fupply
the offspring of conception with nouriibment of a proper
kind, and in a fufficient quantity to bring it to perfeftion,
we may conclude that the end is accompliftied by fome
more common principle. The mucous difcharge from the
generative organs of animals, proves that they are in a ftate
favourable to the propagation of their fpecies, and the cata-
menia prove the fame circumftance in women.

From the time when the phenomena of puberty announce
the aptitude of the female for the exercife of her fexual
funftions, the generative organs exert an influence which
modifies the whole organization, andbeftows on woman the
moft ilriking traits of her phyfical and moral charafter.
The various revolutions to which her cohftitution is fubjeft,
the nervous affeftions, the frequent returns of indifpofition
and fuffering, the ftrange and unaccountable anxieties and
caprices, and fometimes the increafed aeutenefs of the im.a-
gination and judgment ; all depend on this influence ; and if
it be true that man is male only at certain times, while
woman is female during her whole life, it muft be attribu-
ted chiefly to this caufe. It is this that conftantly recals
woman to her fex, and marks her whole exiftence with fo
charafteriftic a ph"fiognomy. We fliall not be furprifed to
find, that a caufe of fuch power and extenfive influence is,
liable to irregularities which have very marked effefts on the-
conftitution. When the new powers with which- the organs
are endowed exceed the iuft ftandard, and deviate into
a kind of unnatural irritability, they affeft fympathetically
the whole frame, and particularly the nervous fyftem. This,
in an extreme degree, conftitutes furor uterinus. Generally,
however, this exceflive vitality of the fexual organs^ without
going to fuch an extent, produces various fpafmodic and
nervous fymptoms, conftituting what are called hyfterical
difordcrs, and arillng evidently from the artificial and forced
ftate of celibacj. Thefe affe&ions are removed by marriage,
which re-eftablifties the balance of the various funftions
by giving its natural employment to an organ, whofe excef-
five fenfibility deranged the whole fyftem. Other and very
various phenomena may be referred to tlio fame caufe ; and
thofe phyficians wlio have coUetted, in particular works,
obfervations on the difeales oecafioned by celibacy, or by
the imperfeiT: and unnatural enjoyments of the cloiftcr, pie-
fent us with an alarming catalogue. " Ut reliqui ftimuli a
natura dati inobfequiofos puniunt, ita et veneris abftinen-
tiam, ut naturae inimicam, hxc ipfa ulcifcitur. Ipfa ^ani-
malia ex defiderio veneris languent et pereunt. Cyprini ex
retentis ovis laborant. In lacris ^dibus, de quibus fevera
religio venerem arcet, multa, parum cognita, neque fanabilia
morborum genera vigere iduneus auftor exttat. Frequenter
cje potiflimum, quce veneris dulcedinem deguftarunt, qua
nunc privantur, in chlorofin, in hyfterica mala, in convul-

fioncs,

GENERATION.

fiones, in maniam, in furorem uterinum incidunt ; quam neo
fcmel villi ; inquc earum feminarum apertis cadaveribus
fchirri, et fteatomata, & liydropcs ovarii reperiuntur.
Quarc, nifi morum cuftodia vetuerit, ea mala pleraque, et fu-
ror uterinus, et vera mania, veneris ufu folvuntur." Haller,
Elem. Pliyfiol. t. 8. p. 14. We may affirni, in {hort,
that from the time when the organs, which characterize tliefe
amiable and fenfible beings, are fully endowed with all their
vital powers, woman is conltantly fubjeft to their influence,
until the period arrives when fhe is no longer capable of the
life of the fpecies, when (he has pafTed through the revolu-
tion of her latter age, and enjoys quietly her individual life,
during the remainder of which women differ much lefs, in
every refpeft, from the other fex.

A delineation of the effefts, which the phyfical cligngcs
occurring at the time of puberty produce on the moral cha-
rafter and ideas of women, may be feen in the eloquent
■work of Cabanis, " Rapports du Phyfique et Moral de
THomme." The various morbid derangements of the men-
ftrual procefs will be confidered in the medical department
of this diftionary.

The generative procefs is fub'ieA to very different laws in
animals and in the human fpecies. In the former, particu-
lar feafons of the year are appropriated to thefe funftion?,
and the organs undergo certain phyfical changes, by w hith
they are rendered fit for the procefs. It is a pccuharity be-
longing to the human race, that they are confined to no
feaion in exercifing thefe funftions. Mod animals, and
particularly birds, copulate in fpring : and that warmth has
much influence in the affair is evident from this, that animals
of warmer countries fcldom copulate or are fecundated in
Europe. Perhaps women conceive rather more frequently
in fpring ; at Icaft accoucheurs have obferved that there ai-e
moft labours in the months of December and January.

As the effeft of fexual communication is fo important, it
cannot be indifferent to the dofign of nature to what part of
the uterine fyftem the fcmcn (hould be conveyed. It admits
of no doubt, that it either remain.-, in the vagina, paffesinto
the uterus, or elfe extends its courfe along the Fallopian
tubes to be applied to the furface of the ovaries, which it
ftimulates, and from which the new animal derives its cxi'.l-
ence; but the queftion whether it be one orother of theft-, has
givenbirth to morephyfiological controverfy than perhaps any
other operation of a living animal. Thofe who have en-
tered the lifts have ranged themfelves either on the fide of
iipplication of the femen to the ovaries, by means of the
tubes ; or on that of the inutility of this procefs. Thefe
Litter contend for an abforption of this fluid by the vagina,
M\d a peculiarexcitement of the '.vhole frame asa confequence,
of which excitement the changes produced on the ovaries, are
to be regarded as the local effefts. The advocates for the
firft opinion allege, that the femen has been feen both in the
uterus and tubes, and quote as their authority the obfervations
of Morgagni for the former, and Ruvfch for the latter.
When feen in this laft fituation, fome have thought that it
was conveyed thither by the mufcular power of thefe parts,
in the manner of a periftaltic motion, beginning at the ute-
rus, and ending at the fimbriated tL-rmination of the tube ; and
when at this laft, it was fuppoied that the femen was applied
to the furface of the ovaries, and impregnated them by ac-
tual contadt. Various analogies, drawn from tlie animal and
vegetable kingdoms, have been adduced for and againft thofe
different opinions : but luch arguments muft be received
with caution. Where different inllruments are employed
to produce the fame ultimate effcft, we may reafonably
oonclude that the means ufed are effentially different. On
Ellis principle no direft conclufions can be drawn refpefting
Vol. XVI.

the human fpecies, from obfervations cither on vegetables,
or even on frogs, toads, and newts. The impregation of
birds, being effected by femen conveyed into the body, re-
fembles that of the human fubjcft more than the former*;
but they differ fo widely in the mode of perfecting the
foetus from the ovum, that v.-e cannot reft with much confi-
dence on their general analogy.

To the obfervations of Morgagni and Ruyfch a nume-
rous train of facts has been oppofed, afcertained by the ex-
perimental labours of Harvey, De Graaf, Haller, and
others, in which no femen was ever feen beyond the vagina
in anim.als, examined at various periods after coition. One
experiment of Haller, on a flieep, conftitutes a fingle excep-
tion to this obfervation : he o^ice faw femen in the utcrug
forty-five minutes after coition. Thefe fads bring the ad-
vocates for the neceffity of a contaft of femen wiih the oto-
ries into a dikmma, from which they attempt to extricate
themfelves by contending, that fecundation does not l-equire
the application of femen to the ovaries in a palpable form ;
but that there is exhaled from it a fubtile fluid in a vaporific
ftate, called aura feminalis, and that the contaft of this
vapour is fully fufficient to impart to the ovaries their due
quantity of ftimulus.

The opinion, that the prefence of the femenMn the vagina
alone was fufficient to account for impregnation, was defend-
ed by the uatement of cafes, in which, from fome anatomi-
cal peculiarities, it feemed almoft impoffible that the fecun-
dating fluid could be conveyed into the uterus ; yet in f^-vc-
ral of thefe cafes impregnation really took place. Thofe
who hold a contraiy opinion cither cavil at the accuracy of
the ftatement, or draw a different conclufion. In order to
throw fome light on this fubjeft by direct argumerts, Dr.
Haighton undertook a feries of experiments, tlie refults of
which are detailed in the 87th vol. of the Philofn-ihicnl
Tranfadlions. He divided the tubes which form the cci-
nua uteri in rabbits, and admitted them to the male, when
they had completely recovered from the experiment ; but
this operation feemed to deftroy entirely not only the power
of conception, but alfo the difpofition to employ the mesins.
After feveral ineffeftual trials, he varied the experiment by
dividing one tube only, and in many inftances the animals
concei\ed afterwards. Corpora lutea were found on both
fides of the body, but fa-tuics only on the found fide. If
the former bodies are produced only after conception, which
the dodor affumes, then conception muft have taken place
here, altliough the direft accefs of femen to the ovarium was
interrupted ; for the operation in queftion completely obli-
terates the tube. It muft be acknowledged that the proof
is incomplete in thefe cafes ; we cannot juftly affcrt that
conception has taken place, when no foetus was formed.
Dr. H. attempts to elude this objection, by fliewing that
the divifion of tiie tube at any period after coition, but be-
fore the paffage of tlie germs from the ovar\-, -will equallf
prevent the appearance of foctufes ; accordingly no fa-tufes
were feen in the tube, when it was divided as late as fortv-
eight hours after coition. But if the operation be deferivd
until the time at which the rudiments of the new anin-.nl
have paffed into the tube, the anions of the parts fuffer no
interruption, and fcctufes are formed in the tube of the mu-
tilated fide. " If,'' adds the Dr. " the ovaries are fuf-
ceptible of thoir proper excitement only from the contaft
cf femen, how did it happen that the effects of that excite-
ment were not more obvious v/here nothing had been done
to intercept its courfe for 48 hours, than" in thofe where
all communication between fhe uterus and ovary had
been cut off before the means of impregnation had beei.
employed ? I think it ntuft appear, ou iracino- nature's

1 " fteps

GENERx\TION.

{ieps through die different llages of this wterk, that they
are the produfl of that hwv in the coiillitution, uhidi is
called fympathy or confent of parts. That the femcn firft;
ilimuldtcs the vagina, os uteri, cavity of the uterus, or all of
them. By fympathy the ovarian vcfieles enlarge, projeft,
and biirft. By fympathy the tubes incline to tiie ovaries,
and having embraced ihcm, convey the rudiments of the foe-
tus into the uterus. By fympathy the uterus makes the
ncceffary preparation for perfefting the fornvalion and
growth of the fcetus. And, by fympathy the brealls fur-
jiilh milk for its fupport after birth."

Phyfiologills have certainly not yet afcertained, by direft
obfervation, whether or no the femen enters the uterus and
tubes ; and confequcntly all explanatitm of the niode in
vhich it co-operates in conception muil be, in a great mea-
fure, hypotheticaL If we cannot fpeak from aftiial know-
ledge on a point, which mufl be fo important as the prefent,
in the generative procefs, and the determining oi which
mud be fo effential towards forming right notions ot the
nature of the bufinefs, how uncertain muft our rtprefenta-
tion be of the more intricate and obfcure parts ol the fub-
jeft!

Haller's work furnifhes us with the following account of
" qua: feminis in coitu accidant.'' Primum voluptas efl.
Earn plerique nullam fatentur, et etiam ex, qute poffunt
abfque dedecore fateri, confirmant, fe abfque grato fenfu
concepifTe. Sinceriores alia; et appetunt venerem, et fe ea
deleftari agnofcunt. Potefl autem is fenfus in alia et alia
muliere major efTe minorve. Cum ea voluptate congeiHo
humorum ad partes genitales & calor conjungitur. Dixi
odium internum uteri fentire. Clitoris fenfu eil acerrimo,
fed in venere pal-um aflicitur. Vagina; columnr.s putes efTe
fenfu acriori ; neque carent papillis, ut neque vulvae odium,
neque nymphae. Potedin his partibus voluptas locum habere,
et ab ea fanguis in organa genitalia concieri, ut caleant, tur-
geant & acrius fentiant. Certum ed tamen in iis piiellis,
qu:e cum voluptate coeunt, vaginam tumefcere, ut maritum
propius ampleftatur. Id poted partim mufculi fphinderis
officio fieri, qiiem vis nervofa ad contradlionem Irritat, pur-
timex tumentibus vafis plexuimi venoforum, et corporum
cavernoforum vagina et clitoridis." Elem. Phyfiol. 8.

The circumdances jud defcribed do not appear to be
cffential to the bufmels of fecundation ; they contribute
to the important objeft of reproduftion in a fecondary
manner. The ftrong defire implanted in all animals, and
the phyfical gratification experienced in its indulgence, en-
fure the union of the fexes, and confequently the continua-
tion of the fpecies. The celebrated Spallanzani has given
to the world a very intcreding feries of experiments, by
which it is proved that impregnation in many cafes may be
effetled by artificial means. He proved the fird in the cafe
of various amphibia, as the frog, newt, and toad : and after-
wards in the bitch. He experimented on a fpaniel bitch,
which had before had whelps. He confined her very clofely
until file was in heat,^ and then proceeded in the following
manner : " A young dog, of the fame breed, furniflied
me, by a fpontaneous emifiion, with 19 grains of feed, which
v/ere immediately injeited into the matrix, by means of a
fmall fyringe introduced into the vagina. As the natural
heat of the feed in animals of warm blood may be a condi-
tion necedary to render fecundation efiicacious, I had taken
care to give the fyringe the degree of heat which man and
dogs are found to polfefs, which is about 30'. Two days
after the injetlion, the bitch went off' her heat, and in twenty
days her belly appeared fwoUen, which induced me to fet
her at liberty en the twenty-fixth. Meanwhile the fwelling

of the belly increafed ; and fixty-two day; after tlie inje£t:un
of the feed, the bitch brought forth three lively whelps, two
male, and one female, refembhng in cslour and (hape not
the bitch only, but the dog alfo from which the feed had
been taken."' (Didertalions, vol. il. p. 250.) The experi-
ment was repeated with fuccefs by Dr. RolTi, ibid. 476.
\Ve have an account of a fimdar trial in the human fubject,
made at the fuggeilion of Mr. Hunter. It was in an in-
dance of maIfonii:iLion, where the urethra opened in the
perineum. " Under thefe circumdances the pcrfon married.
When he had connection the emifiion v.as complete, which
proved that the tedicles were perfeft, but the femen always
paded out at the perineum. The late Mr. Hunter was
confulted to remedy, if pofiiblc, this inconvenience, and to
enable the perfon to beget children. He advifed that the
huftiand dionld be prepared with a fyringe fitted for the
pnrpole, prcviouflv warmed ; and that, immediately after
the emifiion had taken place, it fiiould be taken up by the
fyringe, and injcdhd into the vagina, while the female
organs were dill under the influence of the coitus, and in
the proper date for receiving the femen. This experiment
was aftually made, and the wife proved with child. On
a fubjeft of this kind it is proper to fpeak with caution ;
but, from all the attending circumdances, no doubt was
entertained by Mr. Hunter, or the huftiand, that the
impregnation was entirely the effeft of the experiment."
Plome on Hermaphrodites, in Philof. Tranfaft. for
1799.

Various circumdances have been cnnmerated, as proofs
that conception has taken place ; as peculiar feelings during
coition, horripilation, and even dridor dentium, &c. Haller's
fenfible remarks on this fubjeft feem to us to be nearer the
trutli. " Hxc omnia quidem mihi nimia videntur, et dif-
ficiliima expertu. Neque enim femina, dum maritum ad-
mittit, otiolo ed ad experimentum animo : neque, nifi longo
abhinc teir.porc noriint fere fe concepifTe, quando jam ejuf-
modi phenomena de memoria clapfa funt. A feminis certe^
a qiubus verum poteram expeftare, nihil de horripilatior.e,
neque de dolore potui difcere." Ibid.

The opinions concerning the eff^ufion of a feminal fluid
by the female, and its mixture with that of the male, are
altogether imaginary. That a mucous duid is fonietimes
poiu-cd out in coition, from the apparatus already delcribcd
in the external organs and the vagina, is undoubted ; but
this happens only in lafcivious women, or fuch as live luxu-
rionfly ; it confiils merely of mucu?, and is difcharged exter-
nally, inftead of pafling into the uterus.

Circumdances do not admit of the internal changes which
accompany and follow copulation and conception, beir>g ac-
curately afcertained in the human fubject ; and, confequenllyy,
thefe have been invedigated in various animals. Mr. Gruik-
diank gives the following defcription of the parts in a rabbit
at heat. The orifice and internal furface of the vagina are
as black as ink from the great determination of blood. The
ovaria had, under their external furfaces, a great number of
black, round, bloody fpots, fomewhat lefs than mudard-
feeds. Thefe black fpots are the calyces or cups which
fecrete the ova ; they^,,^re extremely vafcular ; "the ova
themfelves are tranfparent, and caiTy no vifible blood-ved'els.
Thefe calyces, on the expulfion of the ova, enlarge and be-
come yellow, projetting above the external furface of the
ovaria, and form the corpora lutea : a certain mark of con-
ception in all quadrupeds, and in women themfelves, whether
the embryo is vifible or not. The nfe of the corpora lutea
is not yet made out ; but the orifice, through which the
ovum burds into the Fallopian tnbe, is often extremely
manifeftj and always has a ragged border, as lacerated pitrts

ufudUy

GENERATION.

ul\i:illy have. The Fallopian tubes, iaJependent of their
hl.ick colour, were twilled like wreathing worms, the peri-
Italtic motion ftill remaining very vivid ; the fimbrix were
a'fo black and embraced tlie ovaria (like fingers laying hold
of an objecl,) fo cluL-ly and fo firmly, as to require fomc
force, and even laceration, to difengago them. Haller and
other obforvers f jpport this ftatement of the erection of the
t'ube, and its clofe application to the furface of the ovarium.
But Dr. Haighton feems not to have found it fo until a
later period. He examined a female rabbit in high feafon
a few minutes after coition, and found the fimbrii in their
natural fitualion. He fo-iud, moreover, from a regular
feries of obfervations made on different rabbits, at every hour
between tlie flrft and the ninth, that the fimbrire remained
nearly in their ufual fituation ; and the only difference he
noticed in the lafl hours was a greater turgefcency of veffels,
ts :f preparatorytoromeimportantaftion. That the prominent
veficles or calyces of the ovaria, already mentioned, burll,
and allow fomething to efcape into the Fallopian tube, which
conveys it into the uterus, is what all obfervers ieem to agree
in : and thev concur, moreover, in reprefenting the corpora
lutea as produced by a particular procefs carried on in the
«mpty ovarian calyces, and confequently, as exhibiting in-
contellible proofs of impregnation having been effedted.
Tliefe ciicumllances have all been afcertained by the ob-
fervations of rnimal bodies, and transferred by analogy to
the human fubjecl ; in which, indeed, the formation of a
corpus luteum is very evident, although the earlier flages of
the procefs have not been traced. Obfervers by no means
agree as to the time at which thefe changes are efFedlcd. Mr.
Cruikfhank reprefents the hurtling of the calyces as follow-
ing a fruitful coition very fpeedily. " I opened," fays he,
•' a female rabbit two hours after fhe had received the male :
the black bloody fpots jull mentioned now projected much
above the furfaces of the ovaria, fome of the ruptured orifices
'were jujl •vifible ; but in many of thefe fpots there was not
the lealt veilige of an oriRce ; whence I conclude that they
heal very quickly in general." The narrative of Dr.
Haighton' s experiments would lead us to conclude that
this efcape of the germs from the ovarian calyces does not
take place till a much later period. In twelve hours after
coition " feveral of the velicles evidently projedted ; they
had loft their tranfparcncy, and were become opaque and
red. When punttured a fluid cf the fame colour efcaped.
The corpora lutea, which are formed by the thickening of
the parietes of the veficles, were not very evident." At 24
hours after coition the fluid in the veficles was fimilar to that
of the lafl experiment. They projefled more evidently,
and their thickened parietes, manifcfling the commencement of
corpora lutea, were becom.e more apparent. At 48 hours pail
coition, the vejicles Jeemed to he In the very acl of burjlin^, and
a femi-tranfparent fubftance of a mucus-like confillence was
beginning to protrude from fome of them ; others, indeed,
ivere lefs advanced. The fimbriated extremities of the
I'allopian tubes were preparing to receive their contents, as
appeared by their having quitted their ufual pofition, and
embraced the ovaries in fuch a degree, that only a fmall
portion cou'd be feen until the tubes were taken away.
Sections being made into the thickened ve.leles, the form-
ation of corpora lutea appeared to liave made further ad-
vances. From the appeant-jce of an incipient rupture of
the vefscle? in this experiment, it was but reafonable to ex-
pect that their co;;tents would foon have efcaped. In two
days and'twelve hours after coition the fcctal rudiments had
efcaped ; but the cavity cf the ovarian vel';cles liad fuffered
but little diminution. Briilles were eafily introduced by
the raptured orifices. In this experiment the advances to-

wards the formatio.i of a pcrfeiEl corpus luteum were fuch
as the period of examination would naturally lead us to cx-
peft. The contents of the veficles having efcaped, it was
but reafonable now to look forwards to a fpeedy oblitera-
tion of the carity. I therefore examined thefe parts, under
fimilar circumftances, on the 3d, 4th, and 5th days. In
the lall experiment there was but httle vellige of cavity,
confequently the corpora lutea might be confidered as per-
fectly formed."

That a fomething^ which is the germ of the future animal,
and is fuppofed to be of a veficular figure, efcapes from
the ovarium after conception, is received into the Fallopian
tube, and conveyed by it into the uterus, is rendered highly
probable by the fadts jufl related : and various additional
proofs may be adduced on this fubjcft. Almofl the whole
animal kingdom poffefs ovaries, in which the rudiments of
tlie future being are obvioufly contained previoufly to im-
pregnation ; and it is the development of thefe rudimenis
after impregnation that forms the future animal. The
formation of tlie germ in the ovary, and its paffage into the
oviduft, are particularly clear in birds and reptiles ; and
analogy flrongly leads us to affign to the ovaries of the
mammalia the fame funftion of producing thefe germ>.
The removal of thefe bodies renders the woman completelv
flerile ; and Mr. Hunter has fhewn that the extirpation of
one has a very marked cffeft on the fecundity of the animall
In the Philofophical Tranfaclions for 1787 he has detailed
the refult of " an experiment to determine the effeifl of ex-
tirpating one ovarium on the number of young produced.'"
He felecled two fows of the fame colour and fize, and one
boar from the fame farrow, and removed one ovarium
from one of the fows. About the beginning of the year
1779, they both took the boar; but the one which had
been fpayed earlier than the perfeft female. The diftance
of time, however, was not great, and they continued breeding
at nearly the fame times. The fpayed animal continued to
breed till Sept. 1783. when fhe was fix years old, which was
a fpuce of more than four years. In that time fhe had eight
farrows, confilling of 76 pigs ; but did not take the boar
afterwards. The perfect animal continued breeding till
December 1785, when fhe was about eight years old, a
period of almoll fix years, in which tim.e file had thirteen
farrows, conlllling of 162 pigs " From this experiment,'*
fays Mr. Hunter, " it feems mofl probable, that the ovaria
are from the beginning dellined to produce a fixed number,
beyond which they ca;;not go, though circumftances may
tend to diminifh that number ; that the conilitution at
large has no power of giving to one ovarium the power of
propagating equal to two; for, in the prefent experiment,
the animal with one ovarium produced ten pigs lefs than
half the number brought forth by the pig with both ovaria.
But that the conftitution has fo far the power of influencing
one ovarium., as tc make it produce its number in a U fs time
tlian would probably have been the cafe, if both ovaria had,
been preferved, is evident fromthe above recited experiment. "
Certain irregularities in the procefs throw much light oa
the fubjecl, and tend to llrcngthen the argument jufl ad-
duced. Fcctufes maybe detained in the ovarium, and deve-
loped there to a certain point. Or, the germ may efcape
from the ovary, and not be admitted into the Fallopiao
tube ; in which cafe it has often become attached to fon e
part of the abdominal cavity, inftead of the uterus, conill-
tuting what is termed a ventral extra-uterine foetus. Alter
it has attained a certain degree of developement, lab*>i'r
pains come on, but parturition cannot be effefted ; and th"
bones of the child are, perhaps, difch.irged throne h an
abfcefs, or gain admifTion into the alimentary c4na!, and. ar »
I 2 voidci

GENERATION.

voided per ainun. Laftly, the gci-m may be detained in the
Fallopian tube, without arriving at the uterus. Tiie llruc-
ture of the pai-t does not allow it to dilate fufficiently to
contain a fuU-fized child, and it accordingly burfls, in ge-
nera], long before that time, and the patient perifhcs from
bleeding.

We muft allow, that the efcape of any thing from the
ovarium in the human fubjeft, or other mammalia, is rather
inferred than dircclly proved ; and that we cannot fee the
germs in the Fallopian tube, on their palTage to the uterus ;
m fo obfcure a Rate are tlie rudiments of the future animal
it the time, and immediately after conception.

Vv''e have reprefented the corpus luteum as the confe-
quence of a fruitful copulation ; but there is fome doubt
whetlier the latter circumftance be an etfential condition of
its production. It is well known that birds lay eggs witli-
out the concourfe of the male, and fuch eggs arc unproduc-
tive. Valifr.eri alTerts, that he has feen corpora Uitea in the
ovariee of virgins ; and Blumenbach appears, in the follow-
ing quotation, to agree with him in opinion on the fubjeft.
""Porro autem non minus verum ell innuptas aves ejufmodi
ova fubventanea ex meehanica titillatione genitalium conci-
pere pofTe, quod quidem phyfiologise comparatse, adeoque
omnis zoologice vcre fcientificx parens Arillotcles, et pretc-
rito feculo oculatiffimus Harveius animadvertit, quorum hie
adeo libidinofas interdum avcs effe alTeruit, ut fi dorfum
carum manu folum leniter tangas, ftatim procubant, et ori-
ficium uterinum nudcnt et exporrigant, quod fi blande digito
demulferis, vago murmure, alarumque gefticulatione, gra-
tam veneris dulccdinem eafdem exprimere ; quin etiam fe-
mellas ova inde concipere, in turdo, merula, aliifque fe effe
expertura. Idem de pfittaco refcrt, qaem uxor ejus diu in
delitiis habuerat, fxpe hunc ludibundum et lafcivum fedentis
gremium adiiffe ubi dorfum fibi demulceri geftiverit quaffa-
tifque alls et blando ftrcpitu fummam animi fui Ixtitiam
tejlatus fuerit. Non diu autem polt blandas has contrefta-
tiones eundem segrotalTe, crebrifq\ie tandem convuliionibns
obortis exfpiraffe. Diffefto itaque cadavere ovum fere per-
feftum fe in utero ejas reperiiife ; fed, ob defeftum maris,
corruptum. Ignofcunt marea iftarum virginum, fi lutea in
earum ovariis corpora non abfimilcm originem agnovilTe fuf-
picor ; utpote qui in puellari corpore, non minus quani in
turdis et merulis eundem afftri venerei in ovarii veficulas
effeftum effe reor, fitve is viri amplexu, fitve lefbio quodam
artificio excltatus. Quadrant in cam fufpicioncm, quas
diximus circumftantix, fub quibus corpora lutea in iimuptis
obfervarunt r.-.:ftores ; xtas fcilicet, a decimo quarto inde
anno, hyfterica quarundam affeftio, &c. Num climati quo-
que aliquid tribuendum, decidere non audco, annotans tan-
tummodo, quotquot uiihi haftenus apud auftores occurre-
runt ejufmodi baud inficiandi cafus, eos non nili in Italicis
virginibus obfervatos fuiffe." Specimen phyuologi:c com-
parata;, Goetting, 17S9, p. 4 — 9.

Phyfiologirts have queftioned whether a fecond impregna-
tion can take place after a fruitfid copulation. Inltances of
twins, born with different degrees of developem.ent, have
been confidered as proofs of fupcrfetation. The reafoning
does not feera very conclufive, the fail does not clearly prove
that the t'.vo fcctufes were conceived at different and diftant
periods, fince tlie growth and developement of one germ
may have been prevented by various caufes. The quelUon
is, whether a woman, having only a fmgle uterus, can con-
ceive two or more months after a fruitful copulation ; and at
prefent we have no fadts to prove the affirmative, while pre-
sumption is ftrongly againil it. The thing appears more
eafy, if we fuppofe the two conceptions to be feparsted by
a very fhort interval. Thus wc can conceive that tlie Ame-

rican lady mentioned bv BufFon, who received the embraces
of her hufband, and of a negro flave, in the fame morning,
may have brought forth twins of different colours.

On the fubjedls of the preceding paragi'aphs, the reader
may refer to the ample collection of facts, in the eighth
tolume of Haller's Elements ; to Spallanzani's differtatioua
relative to the natural hiflory of animals and vegetables,
vol 2d. ; to Haighton's experimental inquiry concerning
animal impregnation, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
1797 ; to Cruiklbanlvs's experiments, in which, on the third
day after impregnation, the ova of rabbits were found in tiie.
Fallopian tubes, and on the fourth day after impregnatiort
in the uterus itfelf, with the liril appearances of tfie faSus ;
ibid.

The various opinions concerning the fource from which
the new animal is derived, and the manner in which its forma- '
tion is effetted, form the lafl fubjeft of the prefent articfe.
In the feience of life, as in all others, the fpeculations and
hypothefes concerning any matter are in an inverfe ratio to
the number of afcertained fafts ; and perfons are difpofed to
talk more, in proportion, as they know lefs. Hence the vafl
abundance of theories of generation, which almoft exhaufted
the patience even of Halkr, and extorted from him the fol-
lowing very fenfible obfervations. " Iterum ingratifTmiunx
mihi impendet opus, fcribere de iis, qua; multis a natura cir-
cumjeilis tenebris velata, fenfuum luci inacceffa, hominum
agitantur opinionibus ; erit de iis ferenda fententia, in qui-
bus quod difpliceat, quod infirmura lit, ubique fe offert, id
autem parciilimc, in quo animus, tanquam in firmo aliquo
fundamento, adquiefcat. Erunt libranda cum phxnomenis
contraria phenomena, cum argnmentis contraria argumenta,
ut demum nihil docenm certius, quam nihil me docere. Et
eft tamen etiam in defperatione de problematis folutione fua
utilitas, proximumque eft vero, nihil docere, quod falfum
fit." The lirll fubjeft of our inquiry will be, from what
quarter the materials of the new aniinal arc derived ; then,
by what caufes thefe materials are formed into an animal,
fuch as we have fhewn to be produced in the female by con-.
ception. Tlie opinions concerning the fource of the off-
fpring may be reduced to three ; one gives to woman only
the humble ofRce of affording a proper nidus for the due-
evolution of the foetus, which, according to this theory,
already exiils in the male femen, and requires only a fruit-
ful habitation. Another direftly reverfcs this pofition ; it
puts the female in pofTeffion of every requifite for the forma-
tion of a new animal, and confiders the male a mere ftimulat-
ing engine, to call the latent powers of the female into life.
The third gives not pre-eminence to either fex, but, with
the mutual embrace, fuppofes a mutual effeft to be pro-
duced ; it regards both the male and female, as concurring
cffentially in the work of reproduftion, by each affording a
fomething, which, when united under proper circumftances,
becomes the proximate caufe of impregnation.

Tlie ancients adinitted a feminal liquor in both fexes, and
concluded, not unnaturally, that the fixtus was formed by
tlie union of thefe. Hippocrates and Ariftotle held this
opinion, and conceived that the fex of the offspring depended
on fome predominance in quality of one or the other fluid.
However obfcure the mode of this mixture may feem, fpe-
cious arguments are not wanting in fupport of the opinion.
Tile neceflity of the co-operation of the two fexes, in pro-
ducing a fcctus, in alraoil every in (lance in the animal king-
dom, may be alleged in favour of the doftrine. Alfo the
exiflence of different fexes in almoft ail plants ; the fecundat.
ing power of the male dull, and the perpetual prefeuce of
the feed before fecundation ; which, however, remains un-
fruitful without the influence of the former. The relem-

blance

GENERATION.

tiance of the fixtus to both parents in the human race, in
animals and even in plants, may be urged in fupport of the
fame doclrine.

The old opinion, which fuppofes that males arc produced
by the right teftis and right ovary, and are contained in the
right fide of the uterus, while females are formed on the
left, is deftitute of all foundation. A male with one teilis
has ])roduccd children of both fexes ; and male or female
fcetufes are feen indifferently in the right and left coniua uteri
of animals.

The hypothefis of Hippocrates andAriftotle was adopted
by Buffon, and is preftnted in his natural hiftory with all
the advantage it can derive from his warm imagination and
eloquent diclion. But figurative language rocompenfcs us
very imperfecT:ly in fcientitic matters for want of obferva-
tion, and hafty generalizations ; and the theory of Buffon is
fo dellitute of foundation, tliat we can hardly think it
worthy of notice. He conceives that there is a matter in
nature, compofed of incorruptible molecules, always living
and active, and deilined to the nutrition and evolution of all
organized beings. Tliefe particles are received in the food,
and are applied to every part of a plant or animal. Every
animal is an ii^terior mould, by which thefe particles are
fafhioned to their particular fliape. When there is more of
this matter than is required for purpofes of nutrition, the
overplus is conveyed from all parts of the body to the tefti-
cles of each fex, which are its refervoirs. It exifls here in
a liquid form, and contains molecules analogous to all parts
of the frame, fufficient to form a fmaller being, exaftty
fimilar to the large one, from which it is produced. The
molecules compoiing the new being are analogous to thofe
of all parts of the body, from which tliey have been ron-
Teyed to the telles, and may be deemed a kind of extraft
of the old body. Tliis matter, having paffed through the
interior mould, and finding the uterus in a favourable ftate,
generates a neV animal. We (hall not abufe ovir reader's
patience by the further detail of fuch vague chimeras ; they
more than juft ify the farcafm of Voltaire in his " Homme
aux quarante ecus." "Ah! monfieur le favant, fays the man
aux quarante ecus, could not you inform me how children
are made? no, my friend! replies the favant ; but I will
teU you what phiiofophers have imagined on this fubjeft,
or, in other words, how children are not made.'' This jeu
d'efprit contains a lively ironical account of the various thee-
ries of generation, which the reader will find much more
entertaining, and quite as inilruftive as the original accounts
of thefe reveries.

Of thofe, who confider tliat the father has the principal
ihare in producing tiie child, Leeuwenhoeck is the foremo'.l.
He confidcrs the fpermatic vermiciili as men in miniature ;
and conceives that one of thefe crawls in fome way or other
into the ovarian veficlej and is there developed.

That the foetus is produced by the mother has been more
generally fuppofed ; and feenis more probable »n the firil
glance, fince the child moll certainly comesfrom the mother,
although it is by no means clear that it ever went to lier from
the father. The analogy of almofl all animals, and of plants,
favours this opinion. The generation of the aphides has
been adduced in its fupport ; where a fingle fecundation fuf-
fices for fereral generations. In the frog and toad, and in
the bird, it is very clear that the foetus pre-exifts in the ova-
rium ; and that t!ie contaft of the femen produces at firil no
perceptible change in its appearance. Indeed the wonder-
fully Imall portion of fecundating fluid necefiary to produce
the requifite effcft in the frog or toad would lead us to con-

clude tha i cannot excite any very great tliange at the fir/l
moments of its apphcation ; and this circumilance, together
with the obvious cxillence of the fornethlng, wiiich is after-
wards evolved into a tadpole, in the ovarium before copula-
tion, clearly proves the pre-exiftence of the germ in the fe-
males of this fpecies of animals. " A quantity of feed,''
fays iSpallanzani, " far more inconfiderable tiian we fhould
ever Iiave imagined, is fufficient to animate a tadpole. We
have feen that it is not neceffary to cover the fatus complete-
ly with this prolific fluid : a drop will fuflice. Further,
three grains mixed with twelve, and even with eighteen ounces
of water, communicate to every part of it the power of
fecundation, fince tadpoles placed in any part of the mixture
are fecundated. The three grains of feed mull therefore
have been dilTufed ti:rough the whole mafs of v.ater. But,
what an enormo\is divifion of its particles naiil fuch a dif-
fufion occafion ! How fmall a fhare of prolific liquor muft
fall to the fhare of each tadpole ! Yet there are facts which
prove that the ft-men ilill retains its virtue after this exceffive
divifion ; for 1 have found a globule i-jOth of a line in dia-
meter, taken out of a mixture of three grains of feed with
eighteen ounces of water, was often capable of fecundatino-
a tadpole. Defirous of knowing the proportion, which the
tadpole (that of a frog is 2-3ds of a line in diameter) bears
to the particles of feed diffufed in a drop of this dimenfion,
I have found, on calculation, that it is as 1064777777 to i.
How infinitely fmall, therefore, is the quantity of feed in
comparif'i^n with the bulk of the foetus, which it fecundates !
This deduclion led me to calculate the weight of the parti-
cles of femen difperfed in this drop of water : it is
7 0-1 (•,'«? i iv of a grain. That I might view thefe particles
under every polTible afpeCl, I reduced their bulk to cubic
lines, when it appeared to be about equal to -j ttst ■ '■■ sr - 3
of a cubic line." Differtations, vol. ii. p. 212. The re-
fearclies of Haller, and of others on the formation of the
chick, have clearly proved the pre-exillence of the ftctus in the
female of birds.

But, although this hypothefis appears to beftipported by
the moft numerous and fatisfadlory proofs, there are difficul-
ties oppofed to its adoption. " It is very certain," favs
Haller, " that children often refemble the parents in the
human race ; fo that you may diilinguiih one brother by his
refemblance to anotiicr, or know a fon by his likenefs to tiie
father or mother, or even grandfather or grandm.other. All
the ii>dividuals of fome families are charatterized by particu-
lar hncs oi countenance. My own family iiave now been
dirtinguilbed for tallnefs of ftature for three generations,
without excepting one out of many grandfcns defcer.dtd
from one grandfather. Families of red-haired perfons are
not uncommon : the difagreeable colour being derived from
the father or moth.er or grandmother. But this refemblance
or children to parents is difccrned moil plainly when there
is any defeft or peculiar for.mation tranfmitted from one to
the other. The tranlmiiTicn of difeafe may perhaps not be
deemed fo furpnfing, fince nobody denies that the mafs of
fluids is derived from the m.other ; but the father contributes
the fmalleil drop poiTible, if any. Yet we find various dif-
eafes, or difpofitions to difeafe, pafTing from either parent
to the offspring. This is matter of common notoriety with
refpeft to gout, rheumatifm, infa:iity, fcrofala, confump-
tion, ^&c.but there is more doubt of fome others, as cata-
raft, hernia, aneurifm, fquinling, harelip, clubfoot, fa-
tuity, &c. of which, liowever, auihors relate many exam-
ples. We know a very remarkable inflance of two noble
females, who got huibands on account of their wealtli, al-
though they were nearly ideots, and from whom this mental

defeCl

GENERATION.

defect extended for a century into feveral families, fo that
fome of all their defcendants llill continue ideots even in the
fotirth and fitlii generations. Perhaps the refemblanccs of
the mollier are ratlier the moll common. The ill-made Per-
fians have improved thcmfelves into a very beautit'id nation
by their repeated marriages with the celebrated Georgian fe-
males. The offspring of Negroes and Europeans partakes
of the charaftcrs of both parents in colour, form of the
lips, nofe, &;c. ; and we may obftrve in general, of all fnch
mixed breeds, that the children produced feem to conllitute
a mean between the father and mother. Pecuharilies of for-
mation are not uncommonly tranfniilted ; as a very hollow
palate, which I mvielf have fcen, and many others. A
man covered univerfally with hard, elaAic, cyhndrical, warty
txcrcfeences, begot fons and daughters with the fame detor-
mity. An excels in the number of thumbs (four) paffed
from the father to the children : and there are curious exam-
ples of fimilar fafts in individuals pofreffing^ five fingers on
each hand. Pliny mentions that Q. Horatius, who had this
Ih-ufture, begot two daughters refembling him in this refpeft.
A family mentioned by Reaumur is more remarkable : the
grandfather had a fupernumerary finger on each hand, and a
toe on each foot. His iirft fon produced tiiree children
with tlio fame peculiarity : the fecond, wlio had the ufual
number of fingers, but in whom the thumb was very thick,
and appeared as if compofed of two united together, had
three daughters with the fupeinumcrary members : the
third had the natural ftrufture. A daughter, with a very
thick thumb, brought forth a boy with the additional finger.
'That too much influence may not be attributed in this cafe
to the influence of the male, it may be obferved that another
daughter, who had large thumbs, produced fome fons with
fupernumerary members. Maupertuis has alfo recorded a
family of children diftinguilhedby this charafter, produced
by a mother with the fame peculiarity. The thick lip in the
Aullrian family was introduced by the man-iage of Mary of
Burgundy with Maximilian. It is affertedthat cafual muti-
lations, as blindnefs, Sec. have been tranfmitted to the off-
fpring, in horfes : and fome complain of the plan of em-
ploying Arabian ftalUons rather than mares for improving the
breed. There is a pecuUar breed of four-hcrned fheep, dc.
fcending from the female ; and another of pigs with undi-
vided hoofs. The difficulty of the fubjeft is increafcd by
the circumftance that thefe defeifls and pecuharities do not
in gen.'ral pafs to the offspring. Blind, lamcj or mutilated
parents have perfeft children. In the family with the fuper-
jiumerary fingers, already mentioned, feveral individuals had
the ordinary formation. Fowls without the rump breed
wiih the common kind of chicken, both with and without
that particular formation ; and the fame mother has children
like herfelf and the father, and others without fuch refem-
blance." Elementa Phyfiologiae, lib. 29, feci 8.

The phenomena afforded by hybrid generations are cu-
rious. It is only in the cafe of animals very nearly allied in
their general characters that anv hybridoffspring is produced :
and this has the mixed charafrters of both parents. The re-
lations of women in Africa breeding with monkeys are not
fufHciently authenticated. " The mule (produced from the
mare by the afs) ^oes not,'' fays Haller, " feem to me to
be an afs, which however it refemblcs in its tail, ears, and
^;5b(lip.acv, fince the form of the body, the ilrength and fizc,
the hocks, the hair, and colour are thofe of the mother,
■The voice is more like that of the father, and tliere is a
farther refemblance of the afs in the peci liar hollow of the
larynx. As the mule feems to be ilronger and more
lively than the afs, fo the hijiny begotten by the ftalHcn

on the (he-jfs, feems rather to follow tlie mother : it is faid
to have the ears of the horfe, the mane and tail of the afs ;
and to be fmaller than the mule. The offspring of the com-
mon flie-goat with the Angora he-goat has the long hair of
thefather; while that of the Angora female with the European
male has not that characler. The fine hair of the former
breed was continued in Sweden to the third generation. This
hc\ (hews the prevalence of the male, which, being born in
a warmer region, exceeds in ilature the European animal.
The pheafiint breeds with the common hen : the offspring
has the mother's colour, with the form of the father, whom
on the whole it moft; refembles. If the animal produced from
fuch a connection breeds again with the male pheafant, the
young are complete pheafants. When thcfe and various
other analogous fafts are compared, we remain in as much
doubt as before. It appears that the offspring is affected by
both parents, in fome cafes more by the father, and in others
more by tlie mother. And I think, that where the father is
greater in fize, his characters prevail, and vice vcrfa." Ibid."
Neither is it merely the form and external appearance that
are changed in the cafes of hybrid animals ; we have already
obferved that th; mule has the peculiar laryngeal cavity of
the afs ; and it is further known that this animal, and all
other hybrids, very rarely propagate : fo that we may con-
clude that fome general internal change is effefted in thefe
cafes. A more accurate anatomical defcription of hybrid
animals would probably contribute to illuftrate the fubjecfl ;
the fafts at prefent in our poffeffton lead us to conclude that
the foetus is not produced entirely by the mother or father,
that both parents contribute fomething to the offspring, and
that the new being is rather generated de novo than evolved.
In confidering the powers by which the admirable flrutture
of the animal frame is raifed, we encounter a vaft holl of the
moil wild and vifiouary hypothefes : we defcend, to ufe the
expreffion of Haller, from twilight into regions of utter
darknefs. In the firft place we rejeft entirely the operation
of fortuitous caufes : the notions concerning equivocal ge-
neration have been fufficiently refuted by modern naturahlls,
even in the lower orders of animals, where the phenomena,
on a fupcrficial view, tend to confirm the vulgar opinions,
and there is not even the fliadow of probability in favour of
fuch explanations in any of the higher claffes.

In thefe times, however, men of confiderable reputation
have not been wanting to defend opinions very much refem-
bling the hypothefis of equivocal generation. Buffon has
contended that all the parts of an animal are not formed at
once, but fucccffively, by epigcnefis. His obfervations
conctrninc: the or'ranic molecules of the femen have been al-
ready noticed ; he even admits the formation of new bemgs
by putrefaftion and by the fortuitous concourfe of particles.
His affociate, Turberville Needham, does not allow of equi-
vocal generation, but fuppofes the cxillence of a power,
which forms the body from the fmalleft germ by the affmiila-
tion of aliment. He thinks that the primitive germs alone
are created at once, but that there are no compound germs
at all refembling animals. He quotes the phenom.era ob-
fervable in vegetable infufions ; and conceives that animal and
vegetable fubftances are the fame in their origin, and
admit of being changed into each other. The firft germ
of an organized body is very fimple, and not yet organ-
ized, nor poffeffmg any lineaments of the animal. Hence
the fmallell animalcula, as confifting of the fewcfl germs,
are formed the fooneil ; and thofe of a more compound
ftrufture, more flowly. The whole affair of vegetation
confifts of an expanllle force refiding in matter, and a
reHiling power. The former is perfettly elnilic, and exi:l-

111

GENERATION.

in every feiifibl'' point of matter ; it is afiilled by heat.
There is a power, in every point of vegetable matter, to pro-
duce filaments, from tvhicii niicrofcopic animalcu'.a may be
formed. A real generating caufe cxifts in nature. The
expanfive force is increafed, and the refillance diminiihed,
when matter is elevated to a ilate of vitality. This is
eiTccled bv the devclopement of the active principles ; it
returns again to a vegetable nature, when the contrai-/
caufes obtain. He does not; however, admit of equivocal
generation, but conceives it neceflary, that the feminal fluids,
both of the male and female, charadlerized by their pecuhar
properties, fhould be prefent.

In this hypothefis the power of the femen is not neglefted,
nor IS any attradlion er fortuitous concourfe of atoms admit-
ted. But the experiments on intufion animalcula are em-
ployed to authorize conclufions, v^hich cannot be very ealily
admitted. We find a great difficulty in admitting how any
blind force, not regulated by defign, can form animals de-
figi'.jd for certain purpofes, and fit to fill their place in the
chLiin of beings. Hence we fmd that thefe animalcula are
not produced when the experiments are fo'itondudled as to
remove all pofiibility of the introduction of ova from without.
The experiments of Spallanzani clearly prove this point.

The fyftem of epigenefis met with an able defender in C.
F. Wolf : fee his 1 heoriaGencrationis, Halle, 1759, 4to. He
explains the mode of growth, and the formation of parts in
animals and vegetables, by the aftion of a power which he
calls I'.'j- ejf.ntiaTts, without any mould or model. This power,
together with the fixation or coagulation (foli defcentia) of
juices, accomplices the whole work of formation. The heat
of the air in plants, and the heart in animals, are acceflbry
caufes of generation. The primordia of animals are glo-
bules, which cannot be reduced into fmaller component parts;
neither arteries, veins, nor heart exift in the egg at 24 hours.
The vis eflbntialis, different from the power of the heart, now
begins to aft, and, in the globular matter of the area umbi-
licalis, forms grooves, which gradually grow red, andconftitute
vefTtls. Thefe at firil are large intervals of the globular
matter, but gradually become fmaller. Membranes are
formed round thefe paffages. All parts are firft fluid and
inorganic, and then formed into veflels. Trunks are
funned to the branches, and at lall the great trunk of all,
the heart. New parts are formed, from the juices of the
firft.; and thus the organs appear in fucceflion, one after the
ether. Haller refutes this theory from his accurate obfer-
vations on the formation of the chick ; he fhews that in fadl
parts cxill, dilHnguiflied by their form and other charafters,
when fuperficial obfervation would lead us to infer that there
was only an inorganic homogeneous mafs. The tranfpa-
rencyof the whole prevents the outlines and diftinftion from
being vifxble, but coagulation by acids brings thefe dirfer-
ences into view. Bccaufe the original gelatinous mafs, which
forms the animal, feems to have no obvious ilrufture or
fmaller diilingulthable component parts, we are not therefore
to conclude that it has none. Spirit of wine, poured on this
jelly, hardens it fa, that we can fee fibres, vefftls, and vifcera,
where tliere fcemod at firfl to be a m.ere tranfparent concrete.
There is no effential power in the alcohol to model rude mat-
ter into an organic ftrufture ; but the dellrudion of the
tranfparency allowed the outlinesof parts to be diflinguifhed:
Cmilar explanations may be given of all his obfervations on
this fubjeft. Moreover, we can by no means underiland
how this fingle power can form fuch different parts always
in the fame place in one animal, and according to one arche-
type, if the materials be inorganic, mutable, and fufcepti-
ble of any configuration. Why ihould this matter aKvays
produce, without any error, a chicken in the common fowl,

a pea-chick in the pea-fowl ? Nothing is aflumed but a di-
lating force acfting progrcflivcly ; this might give origin to a
vafcular net-work, growing conflanlly larger as lung as the
expanfive force exceeded the refinance ; but how docs ii
produce a heart, a head, brain, and kidneys? Why is a pe-
culiar order of parts formed in each animal ?

Some again have explained the formation of the body ac-
cording to mechanical principles, by the power of fermenta-
tion, &c. We caimot, fays Haller, conceive that any power,
unlefs guided by intelligence, can aft on matter in a manner
conftantly ciianging, and fo direfted, that inorganic materi-
als are formed into bones, mufcles, vefll-ls, and vifcera, ar-
ranged in a certain order with refpeft to each other. All
fpontancous produftions, as for inftance the beautiful figures
feen in fnow, are arranged in an unifonn and invariable man-
ner. Let any perfon, in order to eftimate the value of fuch
hypothefes, refleft merely on the eye. How can this organ
be moulded by any expanfive force into fuch various fuccef-
five layers, all differently fabricated, where the light pafTcs
through tranfparent bodies, every where furrounded by others
perfeftly opaque,and fo arranged, that in the milhonsof men
and animals the rays of light conftantly converge upon the
retina \ Yet this bhnd material caufe knows nothing of light,,
nor of the laws by which it is refrafted, although we muit
fuppofe it to have adapted all the parts fo accurately, even to
the hundredth part of a line, in order to the colleftion of the
rays in the retina. Again, this unintelligent caufe has fur-
niihed the ej-e with eye-lids and eye -brows, and has given to
the iris a power of contraftion and dilatation, by which the
organ is accommodated to too great or too fmall a quantity
of light.

liuffon fuppofes the nutritive matter to penetrate all parts
of the body, andtobe formed in them, as in an internal moidd ;
and he conceives that the fuperfiuous particles are carried
back to the femen, conveying into that fluid every thin"
neccffary to the produftion of a new being, fimilar to the
former. The feminal fluid of either fcx contains the par-
ticles necefTary for forming an individual of the fame fex.

Thefe ir.uft be mixed for the produftion of a new being.
The generative organs are the bafis of the new animal, and
thefe are firft formed of themfeivcs : the other organic par-
ticles of the body are arranged round them as a centre,
according to the order, which they held in the body, from
which they were produced. Th.at fex prevails, of which the
particles are the molt numerous. The author of this hypo-
thefis confiders that it explains completely the rcfemblance
of the offspring to either or both parents, the formation of •
twins, &c.

The illuftrious name of Buffon can hardly induce us to
animadvert ferioully on fuch dreams. In the firfl place, what
is an internal mould or model ? The authors of the hypo-
thefis are fo far from fatisfying us on this fundamental point,
that they confcfs we could not underilandit, unlefs we had
a feventh fenfe. How then came they to know it ? So far
from underftanding what this model is, we have no heika-
tion in afferting that its exiftence is purely ideal. But if
we fhould grant this, there are ilill infuperabie difficulties re-
maining. Many children arc unlike both parents, and they
fometimes have parts which both the tathor and the mother
v.'anted, and with which, therefore, neitlur parent cculd
have fupplied them ; this is the cafe with the offspring of
mutilated individuals, and particularly v,-ith the male chil-
dren of fathers who had loft one teftis; a cafe which was not-
uncommon when caftration was an ordinary modeof treatino-
ruptures. The mother cannot bcftow on her daughter the
hymen, Mhich ftie has loft ; nor can we fee the fource from
which the foramen otale, the ductus artcricfus, and venofus, .

the-

GENERATION.

night rcfenible the
but whence tlo the working bees come,

The ad'ultfroc- has no bvancliii, which arc yet Icen in the
tadpoles. In the bee khid, the males, icmales, and working
bees differ in ftrufturc. The offspring mi
ialher or mother,
which refemble neither parent, and have no geiieialive organs.
How entirely docs the caterpillar differ, in all points ot Us
organization, from the butterfly ! How can the particles
unTte, when the male and female are fo entirely different, as
in

tioned : — of the likenefs of fruits or flowers, &c. on the
body, of various animals, of bruifes ; — of parts being cut,
dcffroyed, or otherwife injured, &c. &c. That credulity
and ignorance have given birth to moft of thele narratives,
cannot be doubted. Our faith in them muff be moft ferioufly
(haken, when we obferve that there are cndlefs examples of
the moft vehement mental difturbaiices, as terrors, longing,
paffion, occurring repeatedly during pregnancy, particu-

thecafe of many infects, where one is winged, and the larly in delicate and hyfterical women, without any thing

unnatural appearing afterwards in the child, even when the
"' The"f'mnofitlon of the fucccflive fixation of parts round mother has expreffcd her ftrong perfuafion that her child
the ..encrative organs is quite inadmifiible ; for tliofc very would be mutilated Nor can women foretel when the
parts'cannot be recogni/.cd until a comparatively late period, marks above alluded to (nsvi) will ^appear. Deformed
>ind after others have been fome tiiTie formed. ' "" " " " '

This faft was confirmed, fays Blumenbach, by an obfer-
yation which 1 lately made on abortive twins of different
fexes, about fixteen weeks old. Although thefe were re-
■markable for the beauty of their proportions, and \ycre moft
perfcftly formed according to tlie ffandard of their tender
acre, the difference of the fexual organs could be aicertamed

and monftrous children, and others ni?.rked with nsvi, have
been repeatedly obferved by the moft judicious and ac-
curate obfervers, when the mother was not confcious of
any fuch caufe as thofe above alluded to. Children are
born blind of healthy parents witliout the tircumttance
being confidered as extraordinary or requiring any thing
accidental to account for it. When women obferve any

onlvbv the moft careful inveftigation: in every Other refpeft, deformity in their offsprmg, they recal to their memory
.' J ^ t ,' r. ,^ — *■ ^^f tl.:o li,ir.c >v. i- pvprv tinner whirli h:ifi nannrnpfl fiiinno- thoir nrpcrnaRCV ;

as in the figure, phvfiognomy, meaUirement of the lines, &.c
they rcfembled each other completely. Inftitut. Phyliolog.

p. ^87. . , , re 1

in replv to fome of thefe objeftions it has been affirmed,
that thofe'parts of the fcctus, which the parents have not, are
formed bv intelligent nature from the fuperfluity of the cir-
o-anic molecules : that (he adds a fecond tefticle from the
cxcefs furnillied by the fingle gland of the fatlier.; and t.iat
the placenta and fetal coverings are produced in the fiime way
from the excefs of nutritious molecules ; but it nature can
make wings, intettines, nerves, feet, teftes, placenta, and
membranes, &c. without any mould, wh.y fliould (he not form
thp whole body in the fame way : and, whence arifes this
abundance of particles, produced by the tcftis of a '"""'J'yl"'
has only one gland, when the mould muff be one lialf lefs
than in a perfed: individual,' How came this intelligent nature
to be fo fuddenly produced in a mere machine, when we had
before heard nothing of her? Can any one underftand how
pariick-s tranfmitted from fo vaft an extent as the father's
whole body, can occupy fo fmall a fpace, even when uuited
to thofe of the mother, as to be invifible for feveral days after
conception ? In (hort, there is no female femen, no corpus

every thing which has happened during their pregnaRcy ;
and if they can remember any fall or fright, or iuddenly
feeing any uncommon animal, the carcafc of a beaft opened,,
or a wound, &c. they immediately fet it down as the
caufe of the phenomenon. And, from the various turns which
fuperftitious and whimfical fancies take in different countries,
the fame appearances are afcribed to very different caufcs.

In weighing tlie teftimonies of authors, we fhall find that
the moft experienced and judicious indulge the common
notions about nrevi much lefs than others. In the nume-
rous coUeftlons, wliere monfters and extraordinary produc-
tions of all kinds are carefully coUefted and prcfcrved, we
fee no example of a genuine nxvus, according to the com-
mon notions, that is, of the refemblance of a faufage, or
a pig's foot, or a wound, &c. in any part of the body of
a fcEtus. In further fupport of our opinions vi'e may quote
the numerous inftances of monfters, vegetable produfticns,
which cannot be afcribed to any power of imagination, or
any mental affeftion whatever. \Ve cannot doubt that the
feed and the ovum contain the caufe of the future ftruflure,
which is always preferved uniform in the fame fpecies.
That various external circumftances, as a copious or defi-

luteumbeforecopulation, and confequently no fluid from the cient fupply of nutrition, and many caufes^ of a nature

mother to be mixed with that of tlie father, and convey to
the fcetus the female generative organs, the maminie and the
other diftinciions of tlie female fex.

A vcrv different theory from that which \^•e have juft
<?on(idere'd, and a very old one, afcribes the formation of the
fatus to a formative power of the mind or foal (anima
ftrue^a-ix, vis plaftica) : and fome conceive that the objcft
is effefted by the mind of the foetus. The partifans of thefe
opinions rely much on the effetls faid to be produced on
the body of the foetus by caufes operating on the mother's
mind. They alledge that the ftrufture of the offspring is
often materially changed and impaired by tlie longing of
tiie mother, or by various violent emotions : that thefe
effefts are produced, not from any corporeal caufe, but
from the a6lion of tiie mivi.d on the anima ftruttrix of the
ftttus : that there is a harmony between the nynd of the
mother and her body, and between the bodies of the mo-
ther and child. Various attempts have been made to
explaia the maimer and nature of this influence and con-

entirely unknown to us, may have an cffetl: in altering or
variouily modifying the origkial fabric, within certain li-
mits, we do not pretend to deny.

If the phenomena of ncevi afford no proof of a plaftlc
foul ; if we acknowledge that the beautiful ftrudlure of
an animal body cannot be reared by chance, nor by any
blind force with which inorganic parts may attraft each
other, it remains for us to confider whether the fcetus is
formed before the time of conception, according to the
hypothefis of evolution. This opinion has been chiefly held
in modern times : it is ably defended by HaJler, and has
been fupported by the experiments and writings of Spal-
lanzani and Bonnet.

If, fays Haller, the germ or original of the firtus be con-
tained in the mother, if it be already formed in the
ovum, and fo far pcrfefted as to require merely a fupply
of nourilhm.ent for its growth, the grand difficulty of form,
ing fuch an artificial and complicated ftrufture from in-
organic matter is overcome. In this hypOLhcfis, the Creator,

witt

GENERATION.

vit!i whom nothing is difficult, forms the machine : he has
arranged dead matttr, in ctinformily with hi.i pr>;vious
defigns, and according to tlic archetype fixed by liis wif-
doni, before t!ie accefiion of tlie influence funiifncd by the
male. In the fame wav you may have in plants a perfeft
flower, capfules, and well-formed feeds, differing from frtiit-
ful feeds only in the circumftance, that they would not
grow into a new plant. The metamorphofes of infetls
have been adduced in fupport of this notion of evolution :
tl'.e butterHv, fo entirely different from the chryfp.lis, was
entirely contained in the former, and needed only to be
d'fengaged by the removal of the fl:in, and hav; its parts
.enfolded. The rudiments of tlie- tracheir:, which are to
contain air in the bee, exifl ia the fatty fvibilance of the
worm from which the perfect infeft is formed, and nu-
merous examples of a lirnilar defcription might be adduced.
The phenomenon of incubation, and the fucceffive ap-
pearance of various pavLs until the whole animal is com-
pleted, afford a convincing argument for the hypothefis
of evolution. After recou!iting the gradual and progref-
iive uufolding of the body of the chicken, Haller obierves,
that the progrefs is nearly the fame in quadrupeds. " In
the human fcctu?, which at firll feems a mere unorganized
inafs, Lteuv.'enhoeck. already difcerned, by means of his
n-.icrofcopes, diilincl organi/alion. Thus it is clear, that
an animal without any hmbs, or difcernible arrangem.ent
of parts, is gradually changed by various ilagcs into a
perfeft being, nourilhtd by food, and ful'ceptible of volun-
tary motion. It may be inquired, whether the animalcule,
before it can be recognized by the fenfes of the diffeftor,
exifts in the father or the mother : whether it were formed
by epigenefis, or the fucceffive union of particles ; or
fuddenly produced. Epigenefis is altogether impoflible.
Whoever has contemplated the ifru£ture of the body
with a little attention, mull be convinced that an animal
could not exift without a heart, fince the principle of life
and mo. ion exifts in that organ. But the heart mufl be
furniflied with arteries to carry the vital fluid to all parts,
and with veins to carry it back again.

It is eafily proved that the foetus does not confift of a
mere flvcleton of blood-veffels. Vifcera muft accompany
thcfc, of which, v/ith fome cellular fubftance, they are
entirely compofcd. But no one has fecn the vifcera com-
poicd by particles fucceflivcly depofited : they are perfeft,
although Imall, as foon as they can be difcerned. Muf-
cles mull have been prefent from the firft : for the young
animal, in the incubated egg, is capable of motion, and
from its llraight ftate bends the body. It is moreover
irritable, and mull confequently have mufcles, although they
are concealed under the appearance of a mere gelatine. The
head is large, and the eyes are vlfible among the firfl parts,
together with the heart. The mufcles require the preience
of Mcrves, the brain mufl have been prefent with the head
and heart." The hypothefis then, to which thefe argu-
ments lead, is, that the perfeft animal exiils previoufly to
conception; that nothing now is generated, but that tlie
part.-;, «hich were folded up, and contracted into a fmall
fpace, arc expanded, unfolded, enlarged, and rendered
confpicuous. In this mode of explication, we mull, it
leem.s, admit, that the germs of all the human race, as
well thofe who have already lived, as thofe who may here-
after be born, were contained in the ovaria of live : a
propofition of fo flrange a nature, and fo completely un-
fufceptible of proof, that we cannot value very higlily the
hypothefis, which renders it neceffary.

The pre -organized germ would remain in a kind of torpid
ilate in its ovari.tn receptacle, were it not llimulated by the
Vol. XVI.

male femen. This fluid roufes it from it* lethargy, and
caufcs its growth and developement. The flimulating
properties of the fcmcn are fuppofed by Haller to ezcile
the motion of the heart ; and he concc.'/es that the
fubfequent developement of the new being is eafily under-
flood.

The great re^utatio:i of Haller has not however gained
to his opinions on this fubieft univerfal alTent. The accu-
rate aiid well-informed Blumenbach of Gottingcu h;i-,
oppoled the hypothefis of evolution with great effcft, and
has arrayed againfl it a number of objeclions, whicli its
advocates « ill not eafily elude. His opinions on tliis fuh-
jetl are, on the whole, tlie mofl rational that have been
hitherto promulgated : the following Ilatement of them is
derived from his manual of natural liiftory, and his infti-
tutej of phyfiolog)-. « The hypothefis of evolution has
been employed, pai'ticulariy in modern times in order to ex-
plain the origin of organized bodies ; it has beenliated that
no man, no other animal, and no plant is generated, but that
they have all exifted in their parents and anccffors, in the
ilate of complete previoully formed germs, fince tJ;-:: firfl
creation. The various generations have beeiT continued,
one within the other, hke ? feries of pill-boxes, and have
been only gradually unfolded and brought to light bv
fecundation, in their refpeftive turns." Haller, who was
the leader of the modern evoiutionifts, roundiv afferted,
" that the vifcera, and all the bones of the future fcetus,
exill before conception in the maternal germ, but nearly in
a fluid ilate, and therefore inviiible." This opinion mull be
deemed, on the fnil view of it, irreconcileable with reafon,
on account of the fuppofition involved in it, of the ufe-
lefi cre.ition of innumerable germs, which are never to be
evolved ; and it is utterly at variance with all chafte and found
phyfiohigical reafoning, on account of the great aid which
it requires from preternatural agency, and the ufelefs
complication of natural powers which it fuppofes in
oppofition to all the laws of philofophical invelligation.
According to the unanimous reprefentations of the mofl ce-
lebrated and zealous advocates of evolution, the pre-organ-
ized germs lie ready in the mother, are roufed at the time
of fecundation, and proceed to their developement by thi&
agency of the male feminal fluid. What we call conception
is, therefore, nothing but the excitation of the torpid germ
by the affufion of the male liquor. Here then, in the firfl
place, we mull fuppofe an exciting power. But children
often refemble moil flrikingly their father only: bitches,
after copulating with different dogs, often have puppies re-
fembling their different fathers : two individuals of different
races, as a Negro and an European, produce together off-
fpring of a middle charafter, or a mulatto : and, where the
fpecies of animals or plants is different, mongrels are pro-
duced, having as many charafters of the father's formation as
of the mother's. All thefe fncls cannot be overlooked ;
and, in order to account for them, the evoiutionifts fuppofe
in the femen, in addition to its exciting influence, a forma-
tive power, by which it can change the prc-organized germ
contained in the mother into fomcthing of the form of the fa-
ther. Thus we find two powers in the femen, an exciting,
and a formative one. But, by means of an artificial hybrid
impregnation, repeated through feveral generations, we can,
at la!l, change one fpecies of organized bodies entirely into
another. One fpecies of plant, fecundated with the male
dull of another, produced feeds, from which hybrid fe-
cundable plants were produced. Thefe were again fecun-
dated with dull of the fame m.alo plant ; and, after this had
been repeated four times, a complete metamorphofis had
taken place, by which the cliarafters of tlie male were fub-
K llituteii

GENERATION.

flituted for tliofe of tlie female plant. The fame circum-
ftances will occur in the human fpecies if the offspring of
an European woman by a negro be fecundated by a negro ;
and the produce of that conception again by a negro, &c.
Thus, at l.-<!l, the preformation of the maternal germ, which
has been preferved fince the creation of the world, avails
nothing, but yields entirely to the formative power of the
male fluid, wiiich, according to the hypothefis of evolution,
fhould merely excite it to aftion. We may affirm, in fliort,
on the whole, that of all the phenomena adduced in fupport
of this hypothefis, not one can be eflablidied fufficiently
clear to be admitted as a proof ; while there arc numerous
unexceptionable obfervations dir-'ctly oppoling it.

But, in proportion as this hypothclia of evolution is in-
eonfiilcnt with the phenomena, and with the rules of philo-
fophifmg, fo, on the contrary, the opinion, not that any fic-
titious germs are evolved by means of conception, but that
the new being is in fact generated, and graduuliy and fuc-
eeflively formed from the generative fluids, commends itfelf
to our approbatio?) by its fimplicity, and its accordance with
the other procefles of nature.

Since this affair of a tru'^ generation by f jccrlfive fonna-
tion has been varioufly explained by phyfiologills, I con-
ceive that we (hall approach mofl nearly to the truth, by
adopting tlie following propofitions. ill. The materials,
of which organizL-d bodies, and confequently the human
frame iscorapofed, differ from all other matter in being re-
gulated fimply and exclulively by vital powers. 2d. Of
thefe the moft remarkable, and that, whofe exiftence and
agency can be the leaft quellioned, is the force which afls
on organized matter, when prepared for its deflination, but
not yet moulded into fhape, and bellows on it, according
to its various natures, various but determined and definite
forms. In order to dillinguilh this vital power properly from
all others, I give it the name of nifus formativus. 3d. This
nifus formativus is imparted to the materials of genera-
tion, when they are contained in a mature ftate, under the
requifite conditions, in the uterine cavity, builds up in it the
rudiments of the embryo, and gradually forms its organs
to correfpond to their pre-ordained purpofes : it preferves
the fame ftrufture by the procefs of nutrition, as long as
life continues ; and it obviates the effefts of ca'fual mutila-
tion, as far as that can be aCcomplifhed, by means of re-
produftion,

This gradual formation of new organized bodies can be
mofl manifeftly difccrned in thofe, which combine, with a
cohfiderable magnitude, a rapid growth, and fuch a kind
of delicate femi-tranfparent textvu-e, that they can be
clearly feen through, particularly in a fufficicnt light, and
with nioderate magnifying powers. This is the cafe in
the vegetable kingdom, witli fome flmple aquatic produc-
tions, as- the conferva fontinalis, which is propagated in the
early part of fpring ; in the bloodlefs divillons of the ani-
mal kingdom, with the polypes (hydra) ; in the animal king-
dom, with the incubated egg, on the firfl appearance of the
chicken, and its fubfequent daily developement.

Itmuil be obfervcd here, that the exprtflion nifus foi-ma-
tivus is employed fimply for t!ie purpofe of diftingulfliing
this from the other kinds of vital powers, and by no means
witli any intention of explaining the caufe of generation.
1 believe the latter to be concealed by no lefs impenetrable
darknefs than that v.'hich involves the caufes of gravitation
and attraftion, which are only names for effefts, recognized
like the nifus formativus, a pofleriori. I have employed the
word nifus chieiiy in order to denote that the nature of this
force is truly vital, and to dillinguifh it as clearly as poffible
from the merely mcclvanical powers, by means of v.^hich

fome philofophers formerly endeavoured to explain the bit-
iinefs of generation. The very point on which the whole
of this doftrine concerning the nifus formativus hino-cs,
and which alone fufficiently. diflinguifhes it from the vis
plaflica of the ancients, the vis effentialis of Wolf, and
other hypothefes of the like nature, confifls in the combina-
tion of the two principles, by which the nature of organ-
ized bodies is explained, viz. the phyfico-mechanical and
the teleological.

I hold it moll probable, that in the firft place, a definite
time is required for the various fluids of each fex, which
feem to be united in the cavity of the uterus after a fruit-
ful copulation, to be more intimately mingled, and brought
to maturity. When the period of this preparation is com-
pleted, the mature and intimately blended fluids become
animated by the nifus formativus, by which the hitherto
unformed materials of generation are partly moulded into
the elegant coverings of the ovum, partly into the figure
of the contained embryo. Hence we can underfland, why
the fmalleit veilige of a formed fcctus cannot be difccrned,
even with the affillance of the excellent modern diop-
trical inflruments, during the tiril week after conception,
excepting the unformed fluids contained in the uterine
cavity ; while the embryo appears as it were on a fuddeii in
the third week.

I fhould exceed the limits of thefe inflitutions, if I were
to recount at greater length thofe arguments drawn fro'tn
nature herfelf, by which the influence of the nifus format
tivus in generatioil feems to me to be rendered very highly-
probable. I fliall advert very fhortly to a few of thefe points,
the force of which will be cafily difcovered by a more at-
tentive conlideration. On. this principle I explain the me»
morable experiment in the hillor\' of hybrid productions,,
wliere prolific hybrids, fecundated during feveral genera-
tions, by the male feed of the fame fpecies, have produced
an oflspring gradually deviating from the original ma-
ternal form, and affuming the charaftcrs of the father,,
until at laft the former has been completely clianged into
the latter by a kind of arbitrary metamorphofis..

The well-known faft of the great frequency of mon-
flrous produftions in fome fpecies of doniillicated animals,
particularly fwine, and their rarity in the wild condition of
the fame animals, can only be explained on the principles
already flated. The evolutionifls are compelled to aflert
that all thefe monflroflties mufl have exifled in the germs
from the firfl creation of things. The phenomena of re-proi
duftion, taken altogether, can be much more aptly explain-
ed by the agency of the nifus formativus, than on the notion
of pre-exiflent germs ; and fome particular examples, as,,
for ini1ar.ce, of nails growing on the rniddlc, after the lofs
of the firfl phalanx, cannot well be folved on any otheC
principle.

After confidcring, and carefully weighing the arguments'
on both fides of the quelHon, it appears, that even thofe
who affuine pre-exiflent germs, muft allow to the male femi-
nal fluid a confiderable formative influence, in addition to-
the exciting power, which they recogni-/e in it, and con-
fequently that the doftrine which they defend requires, in
faCt, the aflillance of the nifus formativus ; while the lat-
ter fufhciently explains the phenomena of generation, with-
out the aid of prc-exifting germs." Whatever theory of ge-
neration v.--e adopt, we muil ultiinateiy alcer.d to the agency
of the Creator, the primary caufe of all exiflence..

The circumflances belonging to the flate of pregnancy ;
the period and phenomena of parturition and its confequences,.
are treated under thofe articles of the Cyclopa;dia which
relate to the fubjetl of midwifery.

Gene-

GEN

GkneRATION of Birds, Fijhes, Fq/fds, InfSts, Mdah,
MiniiaU, MuJ}:roc..is. See BjiiD, Fisii, Fossils, Insects,
&c.

Generation o/"/'/<?n^j. See Fecundation and Gemma.

Generation of Shells. See Shells.

Generation of St onus. See Stones, Spar, Trochites,
and Crystals.

Generation, in Theology. The father is faid, by feme
divines, to have produced liis Word, or Son, from all eter-
nity, by way of generation ; on which occafion the word
generation raifed a peculiar idea : that proceflion which is
really efleClcd in the way of underllandinrf, is called gene-
j-ation, bccaufe in virtue thereof the Word becomes like to
him from whom he takes his original ; or, as St. Paul ex-
prelfes it, is the iigure or image of his fub fiance, /. e. of
his being and nature. See Trinity and Person. — And
hence it is, they fay, that the fecond perfon in the Trinity
is called the Son.

Generation is alfo iifed, though fcmewhat improperly,
for genealogy, or the feries of children ilTued from the iame
ftock. Thus the gofpel of St. Matthew commences with
"tlie book of the generation of Jefus Chrilt, Sec." The
latter and more accurate tranflators, inftcad of generation,
ufe the word geiicalcgy.

Generation is alio ufed to fignify a people, race, or
nation, efpecially in the literal tranOations of the fcripture,
where the word generally occurs wherever the Latin has ge-
ttcralio, and the Greek y.-'.^, yiUTi;.

Thus, " A wicked and perverfe generation feeketh a
fign,'' &c. " One gen^:ratio:i paiTes away, and another
Cometh," &c.

Generation is alfo ufed i'l the fenfe of an age, or the
ordinary period of a man's life.

Tluis we fay to the third and fourth generation. In this
fenfe, liiftorians ufually recki.n a generation the fpace of
thirty-three years, or thereabouts. See Age.

Herodotus makes three generations in an hundred years ;
■which computation appears, from the latter authors of po-
litical arithmetic, to be pretty juH. See Chronology and
PoLlTK'.\L arithmehc.

GENERATOR, in Mnfic, fignifies the principal found
or faunds by which others are produced. (See Gener.\te.)
Thus, the lowell C for the treble of the harpfichord, be-
fides its oclave, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, or E in
alt. The C, therctoi-e, is called their "generator,'' and
the G and E its products or harmonies. But in the approxi-
mation of chords for G its oftave below is fubftitiited,
which conftitutes a fifth from the generator, or lowell C ;
and for E is hkewife fubftituted its fifteentli below, which,
with the above-mentioned C, forms a third major. To the
loweil notes, therefore, exchanged for thofe in alt, by fub-
ilitution, the denominations of produfts or harmonies are
likewife given, whilil the C retains the name of their " ge-
nerator.'' Bat ftill, according to the fyilem of Tartini,
two notes in concord, which, when founded, produce a
th:rd, may be termed the " concurring generators" of that
third.

GENERIC AL Name, in Natural Hyiory, the word ufed
to fignify all the fpecics of natural bodies, which agree in
certain cITcntial and peculiar characters, and therefore all of
the fame family or kind ; fo that the word ufed as the gene-
rical name equally expreffes every one of them, and fome
other words exprefTive of the peculiar quahties or figures of
each are added, in order to denote tliem hngly, and make up
what is called a fpecific name.

Thus the word rofa, or rofe, is the generical name of the

GEN

whule feries of fiowcrs of that kind, wliich are diAIngujfh-
cd by the fpecilic names of tiie red rtjfe, the white rofe, the
apple rufe, &c. The ignorance of former ages, in the
true principles of natural hiilory, h.as occafioned the bo--
dies, which arc the objects of it, to be arranged into very
unnatural feries under the name of genera ; and thcfe have
been called by names as improper as the chai'aclers they
were diflinguifhed by. Linnieus has done a great deal
in exploding the bad generical names in botany, and Ar-
tedi has applied his rules about the formation of thefe
names with very little difference to tlie fiibjctts of ichthyo-
logy.

Many of the generical names of fifh, till the time of thi»
autlior, were fo barbarous and obfcuro, that it was not
eafy to trace them to tlieir original, or to find wh.ether
they were truly Teutonic, Englifli., Dutch, Swedifli, French,
Italian, Spanifh, Portuguefe, Latin, or Indian. — The ig-
norance of the writers on thcfe fuLjfcCts, or their too fcru-
pulous adherence to the cuftomc of their jjredeccffors, feem
to have been principally the caufes of this, and often an en-
tire negligence. Artedi's rules for generical names for flfli
are thefe : whatever iifh there are which agree in the fame
generical charafters, and are properly of the fame genus,
thefe ought all to be called by the fame generical name, their
differences being only expre.Ted by fpecific ones. This ap-
pears fo plain, fo jufl, and fo neceffary a rule, that it is al-
moll a fli;ime to lay it down ; yet the writers on fifh, till the
time of this author, had very feldom obferved it.

Another barbarifm and impropriety in the generical names
of iifh among tlie old authors, is the uiing of the fame
words to exprefs them, Avhich are alfo the names of otlier
animals, quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles. Thefe are fub-
jetl to great objeftion ; becaufe when they a:"e ufed, it is
not eafy to fee, in fome cafes, whether the author is fpeak-
ing of a bird, a bcail, or a iifh. It is therefore one of the
general rules of Artedi, that all thefe names are to be abo-
lifhed, as alfo all thofe «hich are common to fifli, and to
plants, minerals, and to the tools of hufbandry, or other
lervices.

Anotl-.er rule of this excellent author is, that generical
names that are compofed of two whole words, unnaturally
tied togL-ther, are to be aboliflicd, it being eafy to contrive
nanies iefs barbarous, and r.s exprelfive : next to thefe are
to be exploded thole names which are formed ot two gene-
rical words before in ufe, tlie one broken or cut fhort, the
other prefervcd entire.

Ani)ther general rule in regard to thefe names is, that all
fuch as are not of either Latin or Greek origin, are to be
profcribed and wholly rejedled. This rule cuts oft a pro-
digious number of barbarous words, with which we find
the books of authors of former ages on thcfe iubjects
crowded.

A iixth rule for the regulating generical names is, that
all fuch are to be aboliihed as terminate in oides, as exprelT-
ing a refemblance often imaginary, and often alluding to
fomething unknown, or rendered difficult to trace from
the changes which the names of other things have under-
gone fince the time when it was formed. Thcfe words con-
vi-v no idea of the charafter of the genus exprelTed by tilcm,
except that they are like the other thing alluded to in fome
external, though perhaps not effential, character : of ihis
kind are the rhomboides, fcorpoides, 8:c.

A feventh rule in regard to thefe names is, tliat all fuch
are to be rejefted as are barely diminutives, and terminate in
idus or ula. Thefe convey no other idea, but that ot the
fifli being like fome other fifli, only Iefs : now bignefs is no
generical charader; therefore if this genus, and that re-

K i ferrcd

GEN

GEN

■ferred to, differ only in fize, they have no gjneiical dif-
ference at all ; if they do differ clhervvife, they flioiild be
expreffed. What makes many of thefe names alfo more
intolerable ie, that they allude not to fidi, but to other
things fo different in tht-ir nature, that there muil needs be
many other more cdential varieties between them, belide
lize.

Another general rule is, that fuch generical names as are
pure Latin, but are mere adjcrtives, are to be exploded,
there being no t^'al'on for ufmg them as fubflantives.

A ninth general rule is, that fuch names as are formed of
Latin words, unknown to the ancient Romans, and formed
by the later writers, are to be expelled as barbarous, and
others of better credit placed in their (lead.

Finally, fuch generical names as have been given to fifh
from the places where they are caught are to be rejected ;
of this kind are the fardella and fardina from the illand of
Sardinia, and the fturio from AiUiria, a province of Spain.
Thefe forts of names can convey no idea of the nature of
the fifli, and may belong as well to one genus as to another.
Artedi, Ichthyolog. p. lo. 69. 73. 79.

Thefe rules of profcription banilbtd fo many of the re-
ceived generical names of filh, that it might be fuppofed
the whole number was cxhauiled, and all the nlli in the
world to be named anew. But this is not the cafe ; the
genera are in reality much fewer in number than they have
been iifually fuppofed, and therefore fewer words will ferve
to exprefs them, and there yet remain many truly Latin
words ufed by the ancient Romans, by which the far greater
part of the genera may be expreffed, and the few remaining
may be bell denominated by compound Greek words, ex-
prelTive of their real charafters.

Among the true and genuine Latin, and Graeco-Latin
names of the genera of filh, are thefe : accipenfer, amia,
anthias, baliena, blennius, clupea, cobites, cyprinus, del-
phinus, elops, efox, exoccetus, gobius, labrus, lamia, lipa-
ris, mugil, mullus, mursena, perca, phyfeter, priilis, raja,
falmo, falpa, fcarus, fcomber, filurus, fparus, fqualus, thyn-
nus, torpedo, triton, turfio, uranofcopus, xiphias, zeus.
Thefe will go a great wav toward the naming of the true ge-
nera. Artedi has merited greatlv of the world, in thus re-
forming the names of fidi ; and the rules he has laid down,
thus given at large, may, with little variation, be made to
ferve for any other author, in whatever branch of know-
ledge he has occafiou to write.

GENERIS Secundi. See SEcuNDt.

GENEROSA, a Gentkivoman. See Gentlewoman and
Spiksteu.

GENEROSITY, Order of, an order of knighthood,
eflablilhed in 1685, by Frederick III., eleClor of Branden-
burg and king of PrufTia, whilll he was clettoral prince.
The badge was a gold crofs of eight points enamelled azure,
bearing in the centre this infcription " L.\ GEKtuosiTi;,''
and per>dent to a blue ribband.

GENES AN, in Geography, a town in the Arabian Irakj
go miles S. of Bagdad.

GENESAR, or Genesareth, called alfo Cmmth, and
afterwards Tiierias, a toun of Paledine on the lake of the
fame name, called alfo Sea of Galilee, which fee.

GENESEE, a townthip of America, in the ftate of
New York, and county of Ontario, having 217 cleftors.

Genesee Country, a large traft of land in the ilate of
New York, deriving its name from Genelfee, one of its rivers,
and bounded N. and N.W. by lake Ontario, S. by Penn-
fylvania, E. by the wcllern part of the military townfhips in
Onondago county, and W. by lake Erie and Niagara river.
This is a rich traft of country, and well watered by lakes

and rivers, it is flattifh, its rivers are fluggifli, the foil ii
moift, and its lakes are numerous.

Gexesee, or Gcnejfef River, rifes in PennfyKania, near the
mod elevated fpot of this ilate, where alfo the callernmoft
water of Alleghany river, and Pine creek, a water of Suf-
quehanna, and Tioga river rife. It has feveral falls, whicti
furnifli excellent m.ill-feats, that arc improved by the inha-
bitants. After a courfe of about 100 miles, chiefly N.E.
by N., it difcharsjes itfelf into lake Ontario, 4^ miles E.
of Irondequat, or Rundagut bay, and 80 miles E. from
the falls of Niagara. The fcttlements on this river, from
its mouth upwards, are Norlhlield, Northampton, Hart-
ford, Geneffee, and Williamflvargh. When the wcllern ca-
nals and locks are completed, there will not be any carrying
place betv.-een the city of New York and Vv''illiamfburglf.
Th.e Genefee flats lie on the borders of this river, about
20 miles in length and about four in breadth. Thefe ai"e
mollly the property of the Indians.

Gene.ske, or C'tiejfec County, is bounded N. by lake Onta-
rio, W. by Niagara river and 1 ike Erie, S. by Pennfylvania,
and E. by the counties of Tioga and Orondago. It com-
prehends the counties of Ontario, Steuben, and Genefee,
and coi.tained, in the year iSoo, upwards of 17,000 per-
fons. This coimty is finely watered by the Genefee river
and its tributary flreams, feveral creeks, and alfo lakes,
which are from 20 to 40 miles in length. The fouthern
part is watered by feveral branches of the Sufquehanna.
This county is large, and comprehends the wt. ilern part of
the ftate of New York.

GENESIS, in Biblical Hipry, the firft book of the Old
Teflament, containing the hiitory of the creation, and the
lives of the firft patriarchs.

Tiie book of Genefis Hands at the head of the Pentateuch,
which fee. Its author is held to be Mofes : it contains the
relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of the world
to the deatii of Jofeph. The Jews are forbid to read the
beginning of Genefis, and the beginning of Ezekiel, before
thirty years of age.

The Hebrews called this book Bercfch'ith, becaufe it be-
gins with that v.'ord, which in their language fignifies in.
principio, or in the beginning The Greeks gave it t!ie name
Genefis, I'ltiTi:, q. d. produftion, generation, becaufe it bc'
gins with the hiftory of the production or generation of all
beings.

This book, befides the hiftory of the creation, contains
an account of the original innocence and fall of m.an ; the
propagation of mankind ; the rife of religion ; the general
defection and corruption of the world ; the deluge ; the re-
ftoration of the world ; the divifion and peopling of the
earth ; and the hillory of tlse firft patriarchs to the death of
Jofeph. It was eafy for Mofes to be fatisficd of the truth
of what he deHvcrs in this book, becaufe it came down to
him through a few hands : for from Adam to Noah, there
was one man, I'.'s. Methufelah, who lived fo long as to fee
them both : in like manner Shem converfed with Noah and
Abraham ; Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from whom
the records of this book might eafily be conveyed to Mofes
by Amram, who was contemporary with Jofeph., — Pa-
trick.

Gk\esis, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a line,
plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point, line, or
furfa^e. See each refpeftivcly ; alfo Fluxion and Curve,,
and Geker,\tiox.

The geneiis, or formation, e. gr. of a g'cbe or fphere, is

conceived by fuppofing a femi-circle to revolve upon a right

line, drawn from one cxtrenie thereof to the other, called

its axis, or axis of circumvolution : the motion or revolution

5 cf

GEN-

GEN

rif tHat femi-circle is the genefis of the fphere, &c. Sec
Globe and Sphere. "

In the genefis of figures, &c. tlie h'nc or fiirface that
moves, is called the defcriheiit ; and the line round which,
or according to which, the revolution or motion is ir.ade,
the dirigent.

GENEST, Cii-\rles-Claude, in Bioxraphy, was born
at Paris in 1639. Being of an unfettled difpofition, he re-
folvcd to go to the Indies to feek. his fortune, but the veflel
in which he failed having been captured by the Englifli, he
was brought to London, where he fubfiiled fyr fome tune
by teaching the French language. On his return to his
own country, he obtained the poft of preceptor to Made-
fhoifelle de Blois, afterwards duchefs of Orleans, and other
confiderable offices among the great. He became a member
of the French academy in 169S, and died at Paris in 1 7 19.
Though a courtier,, he was iincere and limple in his manners,
and cliimable in. his charatter. He derived a tafte for natu-
ral nhilofophy from the lectures of Rohault, the difciple of
Defcartes, and for metaphyfics from the inftruclions and
converfation of Boffuet. He v--as an elegant fcholar, and
greatly devoted t-o poetry and polite literature. His works
are numerous, of which the principal are " Principes de
Philofophie," in which fhe author adduces many arguments
in defence of a God, and of tlie inimoi-tality of tlie foul'.
" Occai".onal Pieces of Poetry." Several tragedies, and
•' A dlfiertation upon Pallorahs." Moreri.-

GENEST-DAMBIERRE, Sr.in Geography, a town of
Fnincj, in the department of the Vienne ; feven miles V/.
of CiiatellerauU.

GEiMEST-MALLISAUT, Sr. a town of France, in
the department of the Loire, and chief place of a canton in
the diilrift of St. Etienne ; four miles S. of St. Etienne. Tire
place contains 1987, and the canton 5648 inhabitants, on a
territory of 150 kiliometres, in five communes.

GENET, Francis, in Biography, was born at Avig.
non in the year 1640; here he received his grammatical
learning, and h.iving acquired a confiderable knowledge in
the Latin and Greek, he entered upon philofophy, and was
for a time a difciple of Scotus, but he afterwards relinquifhed
his fyftem, and became zealotifly attached to the philofophy
and theology of Aquinas. In 1670, he was admitted to
the deirree of doctor in civil and canon law at Avicrnon, and
acquired much reputation by the thefes, which he delivered
on that occafion, againll: fimony. His talents recommended
him lo the notice of the arehbifhop of Aix, who for fome
time made ufe of him in th.e management of the ecclefiallical
concerns of Iiis metropolitan diftrift. He was afterwards
employed and patronized by M. Le Camus, bilhop of Gre-
noble, who engaged him in the compofition of a fyftem of
moral theology, which was afterwards publiihod in fix vo-
lumes i2-no. ur.J.-r the title of " Morale de Grenoble."
This work was well received, has gone through many edi-
tions, and has been traniiated' into the Latin language.
Soon after its pubhcation, the pope. Innocent XI. creatcd-
M. Genet canon and prebend of the cathedral church at
Avirnon, and in 1685 appointed him bilhop of Vaifon.
He difcharged all the duties of his epifcofal funftions with
exemplary watchfuhiefs and zeal, till the year 1688, when
Re was profecuted for having admitted" into his diocefe the
religious belonging to a new convent at Touloufe, which
Louis XIV.. had fuppreffed. Bv the arbitrary mandate of
the king, the good bifhop was aiTcfted, and imprifoned for
fifteen months m the ifie of Rhe, whence he was releafed by
the interf ofii ie-yi of the pope. He was accidentally drowned
in 1702. Moreri.

GtsiW, or Jenntl, faid to be derived from it^yvn.-, bene

r.alus, in the Manege, &c. a fmall-fized, we11-proportk>r.eJ
Span i ill horfe.

Some alfo give the name genda to wc*li-madc Italian
horfes.

Gevet, Orihr of, an order of knighthood, inftituted in
France by Charles Martel in the year 726, for commemo-
ratnig a fignal vic^tory, which lie obtained in that year over
the Arabian army, commanded by Abdiramo. The badge
of the order was a genet feiant, enamelled azure, fpolted
or freckled gules, and collared or, on a mount veil, ena-
melled with flowers proper. This badge was worn pendent
to a collar compofedof three chains of gold interlaced witii
red enamelled rofes. This order was inftituted for Axtecn
knights, and continued in great repute til! tlie reign of king
Robert, when it was abolished on his devifing the order of
the ftar, in honour of the holy virgin.

GENETHLIA, Xt^-'ix^-j, in y;.7//yv;Vv, afolemnity kept
in rwemory of fome pcrfon deceafed.

GENETHLIACI, formed of the Greek yt.i^U, or[^!n,-
generation, nativity, in yljlrology, perfons who creft horo-
icopes, or pretend to foretef wliat {hail bef 1 a man, by
means of the ftars which prefided at his nativity.

The ancients called them ChaUai, and by tin? general
name malhematici : accordingly, the feveral civil and canoji
laws, whicli we find made again!! the mathematicians, only
refpeft the genethhaci, or altrologers. ,»

They wxrc expelled Rome by a formal decree of the
fenate; and yet found fo much protection from thecredulity
of the people, tliat they remained therein unmolefted.
Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them as " hominum
genus, quod in civitate noftra femper & vetabitur, & reti-
nebitur."

Antipater and Archinapolus have fhewn, that n-enethlio-
logy fliould rather be founded on the time of the conception-
than on that of the birth. Vitruvius.

GENETHLIACUM, Genetiiliac Poem, is a compo-
fition in verfe, on the birth of fome prince, or other illuf-
trious pcrfon ; wherein the poet promifes him great honours,
advantages, fuccedes, victories, ic. by a kind of prophecy
or prediction : fuch is the eclogue of Virgil to PoUio, begin-
ning,

" Sicelides Mufa', paulo majora canamus.'"

Tliere are alfo genethliac fpeeches or orations, made to ce-
lebrate a perfon's birth-day.-

GENETIDES, in Nc~:.iral Hijhry, a name given by the
ancients to the ftone more generally known under the name
enchymoniLes. This was the fpar- incrnileu on the tops and
fides of fubteiTanean caverns, which they luppoled d.iily tv>
bring forth more, and therefore gave the powder of il to
women at the time of their lying-in, to promote tlieir fpeedy
delivery.

GENETTA, To ride a la, is to ridt in the Spanifh-
fafiiion, /. e. with the ftirnips fo ihort, that the fpurs beat
upon the flanks of the horfe. This is deemed, a- piece ot
gallantry in Spain, but not among us.-

Ge.setta, \nZ.oology, a fpecies of /'jjw/-<j, which fee.

GENETTE, in the /llanege, a Turki'li bit, the curb o£
which is all of one piece, and made like a liirge ring, and
placed above the liberty of the tongue. When they bridle
a horfe, they make his chin pafiv through this curb, whick
furr«unds his beard. This fort of bit was much afed at the
court of France when Guillet wrote.

GENEFYLLIS, rwili-xxi-, in ylraiquity, a folemnity
celebrated by women, in honour of Genetyllis, liie goddefs
of that fex.

GENEVA, or GiN", a populir name for a compound

viatcTf

GENEVA.

water, which is, or ou^^jht to be, procured from tlic berries
of the juniper-tree, diilillcJ with oraudy or malt-lpirits.
See Jlnh'kuws.

The word is formed from ^t-n^iwr, the Frefich name of the
■juiiiper-berry.

The bell geneva we now have, is made from an ordinary
fpirit, dillilied a fecond time with an addition of lome juni-
per berries ; but the original liquor of this kmd ivas pre-
pared in a very different manner. It was a cullom in the
dillillinjr of Ipirits from wort, or other fermented liquors, to
add in the working fome aromatic ingredient, fueii as ginger,
cortex Winteranus, or grains of paradife, to take ofl" the
bad flavour, and to give a pimgent talle to the fpirit.
Among other things ufed witii this intent, fome tried the
juniper-berries, and finding that they gave not only an agree-
able flavour, but very valuable virtues alio to the fpirit,
they brought it to a general cullom, and the liquor fold
under this name. The method of adding the berries was to
the malt in the grinding : a proper proportion was allowed,
and the v.'hole was reduced to meal together, and worked in
■the common way. The fpirit thus obtained was flavoured
{'.b origiiie with the berries, and exceeded all tliat coidd be
made by any other method. Our common dillillers leave
out the juniper-berries entirely from the liquor they now
make and fe.l under that name. Our chemiits have let them
into the fecret, that the oil of juniper-berries, and that of
turpentine, are very much alike in flavour, though not in
price: and the common method of making what is called
geneva in London, is with common malt fpirit, and a'pro-
jier quantity of oil of turpentine diflilled together. Shaw's
Effiy on DifliU. p. 7. See Di.stili.i'.u.

G];XKV.\, in Gcogrnphy, a city of France (fince the re-
volution), principal plice of a diftrift, and capital of the
department Leman, but formerly capital of a republic, in
alliance with the Swifs; fituated on the confines of Savoy,
•France, and Switzerland, at the foutiiern extremity of the
" lake of Geneva," or " Leman lake,'' upon the narroweft
part of it ; where the Rhone iflucs in two large and rapid
l'ream=, which foon afterwards unite, and, pafling through
the city, divides it into two unequal parts. Tiie adjacent
country is uncommonly picfurcfque, and abounds in magnL-
fieent views, formed by the town, the lake, tlie numerous
hills and mountains, particularly the Saleve and the Mole,
riflng fuddenly from, the plain in a variety of fantaftic forms,
backed bv the glaciers of Savoy, with their frozen tops
gliftening in the fun, and the my.jeftic Mont Blanc rearing
its head far above the refl:. Geneva, which ftands partly in
the plain, upon the borders of the lake, and partly upon a
gentle afcent, is irregularly built : the houfcs are high, and
many in the trading part of the city have arcade's of wood,
which are raifed even to the upper {lories. TheCe arcades,
fupported by pillars, give a gloomy appearance to the flireet,
-but are ufef.d to the inhabitants in protecting tlwni from the
fun and rain. This is the mofl: populous town in Switzer-
land ; aid ihe inhabitants are eftiniKted to be from 23,000
to 25.000. This population is owing to the indullry and
activity that prevail in tiiis place, to its extenfive commerce,
to the facility of purelialing the burghi-rfliip, and to the pri-
vileges which the government allows to all foreigners. The
members of this city are diftinguifhed into citizens and
burgeffts, inhabitants and natives, b.-fldes a fitth dais, effa-
bliflied after the revolution in 1782, and called " domicilics,"
who receive froin the magillratcs an annual permiflion to
rcfide in the city The citizens and burgeifes were, under
the old police, admitted to a fliare in the governm.ent ; the
inhabitants are llrangers allowed to lettle in the town with
certain privileges, and the natives are the foiis of thefe inha-

bitants, who poflefs additional advantages : thefe two lail
clafles form a large majority of the people.

The liberal policy of this government, in receiving ftran-
gers, and conferring the burgherfliip, is the more remark-
able, as it is contrary to the fpirit and ufage of the Swifs.
Here it is peculiarly necelfary ; as the tenitory of this ftate
is fo very fmall, that its very cxiltence depends upon tl-.e
number and induftry of the people ; for, exclufively of the
city, there are fcarccly 16,000 perfons in the whole diftridl
of the Genevois.

Geneva boafl^s, and not without reafon, of its antiquity.
The precife time of its commencement is not known ; but
it exilled before the Chriftian era, and is particularly men-
tioned by Ca:far. (De Bell. Gall. 1. i. c. i.) It belongeS
to the Allobroges (ice this article), and flouriflied under the
fucceflbrs of Casfar. The Chriftian religion was introduced
among the Genevans in the third century, and about the
middle of the 4th century Geneva appears to liavc been the
fee of a bifliop. It faffcred, however, in a confiderable de-
gree, and in common with other parts of the weftcrn empire,
from the incurfions and rav.ages of the northern barbarians.
About the middle of the fifth century the Vandals, vs-ho,
having fettled in the country of Vaud, and built feveral bo-
roughs, afluracd the name of Bourguignons, or, according
to modern orthograpliy, Burgundians, had pofl:"eflion of it ;
and in the year 620, it was transferred to the Franks. To-
wards th.e end of the 8tk century, Charlemagne convened an
afliembly of his ilates at Geneva, to confult about a war with
the Lombards, and confirmed both the civil and religious pri-
vileges of this city. In the year 1032, it was annexed to
the German empire ; but the authority of the emperor was
little regarded in diftant provinces, and they found it expe-
dient to proteft aifociations of the common people, and to
enlarge their liberty, in order to counterati the tyranny of
tlie lords and clergy. In procefs of time, the clergy acquired
a great degree of fecular power and jurifdiftion in connec-
tion with tlieir fpiritual authority : and thus the biihops of
Geneva had obtained of the emperor the title of princes and
fovereigns over the town and the adjacent country. On the
other hand, the counts of the Genevois, or of tiic diftrift in
the vicinity of Geneva, who were originally officers of the
empire, though afterwards they became vafials of the bifiiops,
afpired to an exclufive adminiftration of juftice both in the
town and tiie country. The people availed themfelves
ot the conteft between their fuperiors in rank and power to
confirm and extend their own privileges. In the mean time,
the liberty of the city was menaced by a third power, no lefs
formidable than either of the other two. The counts of
Savoy became powerful by the fuccefiivo poflTefilon of fe-
veral provinces ; and among the rell the Genevois favoured'
the pretenfions of the ancient counts, and afpired to the fo-
vereignty of a flouriftiing town, which was aUb a convenient
and llrong frontier.

It would not be very interefting to recite, in minute detail'
the contefts that were from time to time renewed between the
Genevefe and the counts of Savoy. We fliall content ourfclves
with obferving that in the year 141 5, the emperor Sigif-
mund vi!itcd Gencs-a, and that two yea';s afterwards he ert.6i-
ed Savoy into a dukedom in favour of Amadeus, the 8th
count, who, in the year 1420, petitioned the pope for the
fovereignty of the city. The duke's fuit was referred by the
pope to the biihop, who fummoned a general afl'embly of
the people, to deliberate upon the duke's requeft, which had
obtained the approbation of the pope. The inhabitant!
unanlm.oufly rejefted it, and at the fame time required the
bifliop to be true to his charge, alfuring him of their ccn-
* "cunence

GENEVA.

etirrence in maintaining his jud rights, and thofe of the city, quarters. Ii liad alio a public library, which owed its ori
Tliis noble fpirit encouraged the bifhop, and produced a moil gin about this period to the liberality of Bonnivard, prior
excellent aft in favour of liberty ; for he entered into a for- of St. Viftor, wlio was twice imprifoncd for havinjj af-
mal agreement with the people and the fyndics, never to alter
the conilitution without their confent. This aft, having

been engroffed in Latin, and the obfervance of it fworn to
by the bifhop, the fyndics, and the council, was fubfcribed
By all the magiilrates, commonalty, and clergy of Geneva ;
and in the following year w.-.s confirmed by the emperor
Sigifmund, who declared Geneva to be an imperial city,
under the title of " Nobile Imperii Membrani," and took
it into his immediate proteftion againft all powers, the duke
of Savoy in particular. The Gcnevefe, however, maintain-
ed their liberties againil the repeated attacks made upon them
by the dukes of Savoy under very great difadvap.tages. Never-
thelef^, they perfevered till about the beginning of the i6th
century, \vhen an alliance was entered into between Geneva

mprifoned tor navmg _.
ferted, againft the dukes of Savoy, the independence of
Geneva. He was a principal promoter of the reformation
by gentle means and gradual inftruftion. He clofcd his be-
nefactions to his b.-loved city, by the gift of his valuable ma-
nufcripts and books, and by bequeathing his fortune towards
the cftablilhment and fupport of the feminary. Geneva was
now regarded as the afylum of the reformed religion : and by
the acceflion of perfecuted proteftants from other cities and
countries, its arts and commerce flouriilied, and its papula-
tion increafed.

In 1584, Geneva concluded a treaty of perpetual alliance
with Zuric and Bern, by which it formed a part of the
Helvetic confederacy. The laft attempt of the houfe of
Savoy againil Geneva took place in 1602, v.hen Charles

and Friburg, the conteil continued, and was the occafion of Emanuel attacked the town during a profound peace. The
many afts of oppreiTion and perfecution. When the treaty inhabitants, however, nobly defended themfelves, repulfed the
was concluded, in conlequence of the aftive interference of a enemy, and obliged him to abandon his treacherous defign.
young citizen of Geneva, named Berthelier, two parties This perfidious attack was followed bv a war, which was
arofe in Geneva, one of which retained an attachment to the terminated in the foUo.ving year by a lolemn treaty, tjince
intereft of the duke of Savoy, and the other declared itfelf tliat period, uni:.teiTupted peace has been maintained be-
on the fide of liberty. Thofe of the latter defcription were tween Geneva and th.e duke of Savoy ; although the king
called " Eignots,'' which in Swifs, or High German, fig- of Sardinia did not, till the year 1754, formally acknowledge
nifies " confederates by oath," and from which the the independence of the republic. From that period, the
term " Hugonots" is probably derived ; whllft thofe of the hillory of Geneva contains little more fhan a narrative of
former were denominated " Mamalukes," in reference to the contentions between the ariilocratical and popular parties.
Egyptian foldiery, who being originally Chriilians, renounced The conilitution of Geneva, which iiad then been eftablilhcd
both their religion and liberty, to become Haves to the fultan. and which continued for feveral years, under a certain modi-
Theduke, irritated by this conduft, entered Geneva with an fication and improvement of the year 1768, was a kind of
armed force, and compelled the people to renounce iheir new mean between thofe of the arillocratical and popular cantons ;
alliance, whilft he perfuaded Friburg to withdraw from the more democratical than any of the former, as the fovereiffu
treaty, promifing not to injure the hbcrties of the Genevefe. and legiflative authority were veiled in the general afiemblv
Berthelier, the Genevan patriot, was however facrificed to his of the citizens ; but more ariftocratical than the other, he-
vengeance, and the magillrates of the city v.ere depofed by caufe the powers entrufted with the great and little councils
the bifnop. In the year 1526, a new alliance was formed were very confiderablc. The falaries of the magillrates

alliance was confirmed by the bilhop ; and may be confidered
as the true era of the independence of Geneva. Soon after
this period, ijis. in 1533, the doftrines of the reformation

year. Their conilitution, indeed, was defeftive, as they had
no precLfe code of penal law ; but that of civil law was tlie
moll perfeft part of their government. In Geneva, as well

were preached at Geneva by WiUiam Farel, a native of Gap as in all the other principal towns of Switzerland, a public
in Dauphine, and Peter Viret, of Orbe ; and the people, ani- granary was ellablillied, and they had always in relerve a
mated by the enthufiafm of liberty, determined to emanci- iufficient quantity of corn to fupply the inhabitants during- a
pate themfelves from the yoke of bondage, both ecclefialli- year and a half. Geneva was the only republic in Switzer-
cal and civil. The bifliop, who had always afted a weak and land which had no regular companies of foldiers in any fo-
deceituil p u-t, became defpicable both to the Genevefe and reign Jervice. Geneva was always more or lefs diilrafte'd I. y
to the duke ; and by his imprudent menaces and precipitate internal diii'enfions and tumults. In 1782, thefe had pri-
retreat, ferved to llrengthen the caufe of the reformation, vailed to Inch a degree, that the kino-s of France and
In 1535, the doctrines of the reformation were adopted in Sardinia, together with the canton of Bern, interfered, and
fall council ; and in confequence of this decifion, the canton threatened to bcfiege the city. The peafantsof the territoi-y
of Friburg renounced the alliance. In the following year, joined the Genevefe, and otiered to ferve in their caufe with-
th.' famous John Calvin, driven from France by perfecution, out pay, to mount guard, and work at the fortifications. M.
arrived at Geneva, and completed the reformation, that had de Jaucouit, the commander of the French troops, threaten-
been already begun by Farei and others. So great was the ed, in cafe of I'efiftance, to enter the town by force, and in-
afcondancy which Calvin, though a foreigner, acquired over filled that no perfon fhould appear in the ftreets, that all arms
the citizens, that he polleiicd confider.ible infiuerce even in ihould be delivered up, and that tiie chief of the " repre-
civil matters ; and was eminently inllrumental in fettling the fentants," as tie jJopiUar party was called, fhould retire from
political conlliti'tion. To this end, as well as to encourage Geneva, and that t!ie depofed magillrates ihould be rein-
theological erudition, he prevailed upon government to ella- ilatcd. Refifiance in thefe circumitanccs mull have been al-
bhfn a public academy, the profidentlhip of which he obtain- together unavciling, and mull, indeed, have terminated in
ed for his friend and fellow labourer, Theodore Beza. In the dellruclion of the city. The reprefentants, therefore
this new feminary, Calvin, Beza, and others, eminent for rcllored the confined magilrates to liberty, and left the city
their fupcrior knowledge, read leftures with fuch uncom- in a body. The Sardin ans, who firft entered die gates
nion reputation and fucceis, as attrafted lludents from all found the city almolt defertcd ; and foon after the two other

commanders

GENE V A.

.commanders made their entry at the head of their rtfpcftivc
-troops, with drums beating' ;iiid colours flvinp. Thcarillo-
cratical party ct-lcbratrd their triiunph with balls, feafts and
every fpeeies of public diverlion. A committee, appoint-
ed by the great and little councils, prepared, in concert with
the three generals, an edi.l: for new modelling the conftitu-
tion, which, being approved at the courts of V^rfailks and
Turin, and by the canton of Bern, was confirmed by the
great and little councils. Much as the Genevans feemed to
deplore the confequences of this revolution, the change tliat
was made in their conrtitution, and the diminution of that
liberty to which they had been accullomed, and to which
they afcribcd the increafe of their population and riches, the
ferment foon fubiided : and excepting the principal leaders,
thofe of the popular party who were banifhcd, and fome
few others who raiounced their country under the influence
of their political principles, the greater number of the emi-
grants, returned, and again fettled in the place of their nati-
vity. According to Mr. Coxe, this revolution caufed
fcarccly 60.0 perfons to leave Geneva. The emigrants prin-
cipally eftablilhed themfelvcs at Bruffels and Conftance ;
where they introduced manufaftures of linen and of watches.
A plan was alio formed for giving an afylum to the Ge-
nevan emigrants in Ireland, (.See Ahiu Geneva.) The
form of goyernment eitabliilied in J782 underwent another
very conliderable change in confequence of the revolution
in 1789. The ariftocratical party was obliged to yield, on
.this occafion, to the tumultuous demands of the people ; and
when the folicitor-general, in the name of the citizens and
burghers, requefted the recovery of their ancient liberties,
the permiffion of bearing arms, the re-eftablifliment of the
militia, and of their circles or political clubs, the removal of
tlie garrifon from the barracks, and the recal of the repre-
fentaiits baniflied in 1782 ; Inch moderate demands were
.received with fatirfadf ion ; and tlie new edift of pacification,
under the title of " Modifications a 1' Edit de 1782," was
approved by the Senate, Great Council, and General Coun-
-cll. In this latter cotmcU, the" Modifications" were car-
jriedby 1321 fuiTrages againlt 52. Tlie publication of the
new edift was foUov/ed by loud acclamations and general
rejoicings. This new conllitution was judieioufly modelled
into a mean between the too popular fornl eftablilhed in
1768, and the too ariftocratical form eftablilhed in 1782-
It is natural to imagine that the widely extended influence of
the French revolution would very foon reach the Gene-
.van repuWic. Many, feduced by the principles of infidelity
adively difteminated by Voltaire, and fafcinated bv the fyf-
tem of general equality laid down in the" Social Contract'
,of Roufieau, whom they proudly ftyled the philoibpher of
jGeneva, became the apoftles of irreligion and democracy.
Accordingly, a large party was pre-difpofed to admit the
French dodtrines ; and in the beginning of 1791, a club,
called the " Circle, of Ijght," gave energy and direCf ion to
the advocates of gener.d equality. Their efforts were op-
pofed by all the friepdi; <:f the conftitution, and two parties
were again formed, which threatened the renewal of paft
commotions. Intiii3 crins, enr'iTaries from France excited
an infurreftion among the pealants of the Genevois, and a
large body of them mai'ched towards Geneva, to demand
tile extenfion of the burgherAip. Although this firft hof-
tile attenipt proved uniu.:cc.''suil, the government, appre-
henfive of another infurreSion, and anxious to remove every
caule of complaint, granted additional priviieges to the na-
tives, and particulai-ly general admilhon to the burgherlhip
/or t.he fmall fum of nx guineas, (March 1791.) Soon
dfter the .abolition of monarchy, the Briflbtine party, in
coijformlty with thoir pl^ of furrounding France with a

chain of petty rcpubhc?, propoftd to feparate Geneva frnnj
the Helvetic confederacy, and eitljer form it into a fmall de-
pendent comnionwcalth, or incorporate it with the French
republic. Although this attempt failed, the independence
of Geneva was at length annihilated, and it was incorporated,
together with its territory, witli the French republic in 1 798^
and now forms part of the department of Lemaii, (which
fee.) Geneva, according to this new divificn, comprehends
three cantons, 22 communes^ on a temtory of izjkiliomc-
tres. N.lat. 46 12' 17':, E. long. 6° 8' 30". Mod. Un.
Hill. vol. xxxii. Coxe's Travels in Switzerland, vol. ii.

Genkva, a poft-town of America, in the county of On-
tario, and ftate of New York, in the great road from Alba-
ny to Niagara, fituated on the bank ot the N.W. corner of
Seneca lake, about 74 miles W. of Oneida caftle, and 92
W. of Whiteftovvn. It has nearly 100 Louies. N. lat. 42"
52'. W. long. 74 6'.

Geneva, Laie of, or Laie of Leman, a large lake of
Switzerland, which ftretches from Geneva to Villeneuve,
being in length 54 miles, in tl.e ftiape of a crefccnt ; the
hollow is formed by Switzerland, and the convex part by
Savoy ; the greatell breadth, from St. Sulpiee to Grande
Rive, is 12 miles. Savoy aflords arude and awful boundary
of afpiring Alpri, craggy and covered with ice of long
Handing. From Geneva to the environs of Laufanne the
country Hopes forja confiderab'e diftance to the margin of
the lake, and iseniichcd with all the varieties which nature
can beftow : the long ridge of the Jura, fertile in paft:urage,
and varied with woods, backs this beautiful tradl. Near
Laufanne the banks rife very confiderably, and form a moil
ciiarming terrace. A few miles beyond is a rapid defcent.
Near Vevay begins a plain, which is continued far beyond
the end of the lake, but contracting, by tlie approach of the
mountains, towards the lake. The colour of the water is
extremely beautiful, clear, and at a diftance I'eems of a
moft lovely blue.

Near Geneva the coaft abounds in fmall pebbles covered
with a browiT incruftation ; from thence, as far as Laufanne,
the (hores are fondy ; between that town and Chillon appear
ledges' of rocks, hard and calcareous ; and the extremity of
the lake is a marftt formed by the colleftcd mud of the
Rhone. The depth is various ; M. De Luc aflerts, tliat ou
founding it, he had found the greatell depth to be 160 fa-
thoms. The furface of the lake is faid to be 1230 feet, and its
deepsft part 837 feet above tlie Mediterranean ; like all in-
land lake* enclofed within high mountains, it is fubjedf to
fudden ftorms. The flcins of the tippet grebes, which ap-
pear in December and retire in February, becaufe this lake
is almoft totally dellitute of reeds and rulhes, in vvliich they
form their floating neft, are an elegant article of luxury, and
fell for about 12 or 14 ftiillings each. This lake abounds in
fiih, remarkable both tor their quality and fize.

GenlVA is alfo a lake in l.Ipper Canada, which forms
the weftern e^itremity of lake Ontario, to which it is joined
by a fliort and narrou' ftait.

"Geneva, Ntiv, a thriving poil-town of America, on the
bank of the Monongahela river, juft below George's creek,
about 1 8 miles N. of Morgantown ; this town is rendered fa-
mous as a place of much bufinefs, partly by the glafs-works
in its vicinity, wliich not/ only lupply the neighbourhood
with window-glafs botiles, &e. but fend large quantities down
the river. Here is alfo a paper-mill, and a munufadlory for
muflcets. Small boats are alfo built in this place.

Geneva, Nciu, a village of the county of Waterford,
Ireland, nearly oppofite to Duneannon fort, where many
good houfes were erected fevcral years ago by government
ior the reception of the expatriated citizens of Geneva, but

ihcy

GEN

they haring relinqiiiflied the dcfign of fettling in Ireland, the
place remains uninhabited.

Soon after the revolution of 1782, a memorial, figned by
more than 1000 Genevans of both fexes, who were either
perfons of fome property, or verfed in trade or manufac-
tures, expreffing a delireof fettling in Ireland, was prefented
to earl Temple (marquis of Buckingham) then the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland. His excellency, apprized of the ad-
vantage which would redound to Ireland from the reception
of fo many induftrious artiits, many of whom poffeffcd pro-
perty in the Englifh, Irifh, and French funds, communicated,
in September 1782, the propofal to the privy-council of
Ireland for giving an afylum to the Genevan emigrants.
This propofal, patronized by the lord-lieutenant, and unani-
moully confentcd to by the privy-council, was approved by
the king. The Irilh parliament votL-d 50,000/. towards
defraying the exponces of their journey, and building a town
for their reception ; lands were purchafed for 8000/. and
part of the town was atlually completed at the expence of
10,000/. ; a charter was granted, with very conliderable
privileges ; the llandard of geld was altered for the accom-
modation of the new manutufturers ; the foundation of an
academy, approved, upon an ufeful, extenlive, and econo-
.mical plan ; in July J7S3, feveral Genevans landed in Ire-
land ; and when the nation had expended near 30,000/.
the projett was fuddenly relinquiflied, and the fettlement
finally abandoned. The failure has been attributed to
delays in the arrangement of io complicated a plan, occa-
fioncd by the high demands of the Genevan commiflioners,
who, in preparing the ch.arter, required many privileges, that
were contradiiiiory to the laws of the land, and by the
building of New Geneva. In confequence of thefe delays,
and the refentment of the Genevans, many returned and
took the oaths of allegiance to the new government. The
projeft became gradually lefs popiJar ; tlie few Genevans,
who prematurely landed in Ireland, were difcontented, at
not liiiding the new town ready for their immediate recep-
tion ; and the emigrants who pofielTed mod property,
having withdrawn their names, the reft wanted fufficient
capital to fettle in a foreign country, and to eftablilh an ex-
tenfive manufafture without ftill farther affiftance. In con-
fequence of this deficiency, the Genevan conuiiifTioncrs peti-
tioned to appropriate 10,000/. of the 50,00c/. for the purpofe
cf forming a capital. But, as that fum liad been voted by
pariiament for other purpofes, the petition was rejefted ;
and the Genevans, in an addrefs to the duke of Rutland,
who fucceedcd lord Temple as lord-lieutenant, reliuquiihed
the fettlement, and foon afterwards quitted Ireland.

GENEVIEVE, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of Paris ; 6 miles VC. of Paris Alfo, a tov.-n

of France, in the department of the Avjiron, and chief
place of a canton, in the diilrift of Efpalioii ; 27 miles N.
of Rhodez. The town contains 1241, and the canton 6077
inhabitants, on a territory of 175 kiliometres, in 17 com-
munes.— Alfo, a town, or village, of Amcric?., in Louifiana,
on the wellern bank of the Miiiilippi, 12 miles fouthtrly of
fort Chartres. It contained, fome vears ago, more than 100
houfes, and 463 inhabitants, befides negroes. N. lat. 37'
35'- W. long, go 44'. — Alfo, a town of Canada, on the
Batifcan. N. lat. 46 38'. W. long. 72' 14'.

Genevieve, St. Genevieve, or Si. Ginevicfve, fathers or
religious of St. Genevieve, the name of a congregation of
regular canons of the order of St. Auguiline, eftabhflied in
France.

The congregation of St. Genevieve is a reform of the
Auguiline canons. It was begun bv St, Chailes Faure, in

Vol. XVI.

GEN

the abbey of St. Vincent de Scnlij, whereof he was a mem.
ber, in the year 161 8.

In the year 1634, the abbey was made cleftive ; and a
general chapter, compofcd of the fuperiors of fifteen
houfes who had now received the reform, chofc F. Faure
coadjutor pf the abbey of St. Genevieve, and general of the
whole congregation. Such was its beginning.

It has fince increafed very much, and has confifted
of above a hundred monafterics ; in fome of which the reli-
gious are employed in the admini(l(4kion of the parilkes
and hofpitals ; and in others, in tlje celebration of divine
fervice, and the inftruftioB of ecclefiaftics in feminaries for
the purpofe.

The congregation takes its name from the abbey of St.
Genevieve, which is the chief of the ord r, and whofe abbot
is the general of it. Tlf abbey itf.-lf took its name
from St. Genevieve, the patroncfs of tlie city of Paris, who
died in the year 512. Five years after her death, Clovis
erected the church of St. Genevieve, under the name and invo-
cation of St. Peter, wliere her relics have been preferved,
her ihrine vifited, and her image carried with great proceffion*
and ceremonies, upon extraordinary occafions, as when fome
great favour is to be intreated of hcaten.

Genkvieve Bny, in Geography, a bay on the W. coaft of
Newfoundland, in the Itraits of Belleifle ; 20 miles N. of
St. John's bay.

GENE VO IS, or Dtciiy of Geneva, a province of
Savoy, bounded on the N. by the Swifs territories, on the
E. by Faucigny, on the S. by Savoy Proper, and on the
W. by France, from which it is fcparated by the Rhone.
Geneva and its territory formerly made a part of it. It is
now annexed to France.

GENE V RAY, a town of France, in the department
of tlie Ifere ; 10 miles S. of Grenoble.

GENEURO, a m.ountain which divides Piedmont from
the ancient Dauphiny, in tlie road from Brian9on to Sufa.

GENGA, GiKOLAMO, in Biography, a painter of very
confiderablc celebrity in his day. He Houriflied at the earlr
period of the revival of the art, being born at Urbino in.
1476. At the age of 15 he ftudicd under Luca Signorelli
oi Cortona, then in great eftcem, and aiufted his mailer in
moft of his undertakings in different parts of Italy, but par-
ticularly at Orvieto, being acknowledged the bell difciple of
that fcliool. He afterwards fpeiit three years with Pietro
Pcrugino, at the fame time that Raphael was under the
tuition of that artiil ; and that intercourfe laid the foundation
of a moll cordis! friendlhip between Raphael and Genga,
which nevei" was i.-iipaircd.

He was highly encouraged by Guido-Baldo II., and
his iucceifor, Francefco Maria III., dukes of Uibino, in
tlieir palates and theatres, and in defigning trii:mphal arclics.
In Rome, Sienna, Forli, Pefaro, and many otl er places, he
left behind him ;:n incalculable number of works, both ia
painting and architeilare, which were iield in great eileem,
and which procured him honour and riches. He died of a
fever in 155 1, aged 75, leaving two fons, one of whom,
Bartolomeo, follo'ved the profelTion of his father in the fame
llyle, and was moreover an emir.cnt llatuarv and architttl.

Geng.\, BEnxARcr., a dcftor in phiLfophy and medi-
cine, was born in tlie duchy of Urbiii. He v/as a teacher
of anatomy and furgcry nt Rome about tlie middle of the
17th century ; and, acrovdiiig to Mangetii;, furgeon to the
hofpital of the Holy (H'.oll in that city. He was a .nan of
firm underllanding, and maintained the doclrine of the cir-
culation of the blood, wiien it was not generally admitted ii»
Italy ; but he attributed the difcoverv of it to Paul Sarpi.
L ' He

GEN

GEN

He alfo ventured to accj^e Hippocrates of committing fuch
errors, in the cure of feveral furgical difeafes, as would not
be pardoned in a ftiulent. His works are, I. " Anatomia
Chirurgica ;" or " Iftoria dell' odVi c mufcoli del eorpo
iiniaiio, con la def<^izzione de' vafi ;" Rome, 1675, 1687.
2. " Anatomia per ufo ed intellig^-nza del dcfigno ;" Rome,
1691. This worii contains fonie good figures of the ancient
ftatues. Genga prepared the bodies, by difpofing the
bones and mnfcles in tlic forced attitudes of the gladiators
iv tlicir combats : ihd Lancifi added explanations of the
fii^ures. 3. " Commentarla Latina et Italics r.d Hippo-
cratis Aphorifmos, ad Cliirurgiam pertiiicnlia ;" Rome,
1694, 8vo. Bonon. 1697, 8vo. Eloy.

GENGENBACH, in Geog'-aphy, an imperial town of
Germany, in t!ie circle of Swabia, litaated on the Kinzig,
in the Orler.au : in this town is an abbey, whofe prelate was
a prince of the empire. Among the indemnities agreed on
at Ratilbon in 1802, this town and abbey were given to the
margrave of Baden ; 15 miles S.E. of Stralburg. N. lat.
48 27'. E. long. 8 l'.

GENGOU-LE-R.OYAL, St., a town of France, in
the department of the 8a6ne and Loire ; celebrated for its
wine ; 1 1 miles N. of Cluny.

GENIAL, Genialis, an epithet applied by the ancients
to certain deities, whom they luppofed to prefide over gene-
ration.

They were thus called a gei\ndo, from bearing ; or, ac-
cording to the correction of Scaliger and VoflTuis, a generiilo,
to yean, produce : yet Fellus fays, that they were alfo called
geruli, which feems to require tlie former reading. M. Da-
cier, in a note, ihews that genere has the fenfe of ^paT'l:!-..

Among the genial gods, Jli genuiL-s, fays Feftus, were
■water, earthy lire, and air, which the Greeks called eleim-nts.
The twelve ligns were fometiincs alio ranked in the number ;
as alfo the fun and moon.

GENICULATUS, Culmus, in Botany, a ftraw bent
like the knee, as in Alopecurus genkulalus ; fee Culmuk ;
and Caulis, n. 19.

GENICULI, the joints or knots which appear in the
{hoots of plants ; whence botanlRs call thofe marked there-
with geniculate plants.

GENIE. See Gevius.

GE NIE S, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in
the diilritl of Efpalion ; 18 miles E.N.E. of Rhodez. N.
lat. 44' 28'. E. long. 3° 3'. The place contains 3333,
and the canton 7988 inhabitants, on a territory of 202^
kiliometres, in 8 communes. — Alio, a town of France, in the
department of the Gard ; 9 miles N.W. of Nifmes. — Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps ;
6 miles N.E. of Sifteron.

GENII, in Mythology. See Genius.

GENILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre and Loire ; 3 mile:. N. of Lockes.

GENIO-GLOSSUS, in Anatomy, (from ymc:, .the
ih\n, and y'-.n.-rTi-, thj tongue,) a large mulcle belonging to
the tong;!e. See Deglutition.

GENlO-HYOlDEUS, from^s.-.o-., the chin, and ■o.Jm;
an epithtt given to the bone of the tongue, is a mufcle be-
longing to the OS hyoides. See Dkglutition.

GENIO-PHARYNOEUS, from y»Ho. and focfvyi, a
name given by Winflo.v to a particular flip of the con-
ftriiib,:- pharyiigis fuperlor.

GENIOSTOMA, in Botany, from ■ymi'.v, a iearJ, and

. fCf^a, the mouth, becaufe the onlice of the flower is befet

with a deiife fringe. Forll. Gen. t. 12. ticlueb. 131.

WiUd. Sp. PI. V, I. 998. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 2. Juff,

420. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 133, merely copied from
'order. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Alonogynia. Nat.
Ord. " uncertain," Juif. Aptjcineie-^

Gen. Ch. Crd. Perianth inferior, turbinate, permanent,
with five acute fcgmentj. Cor, ai one petal, funnel-lhaped ;
tube dilated upwards, longer than the calyx, its oriiice
bearded ; limb fpreading, in live deep, ovate, rather ponited
fegments, as long as the tube. Staw. Filaments five, Ibort,
in the tube of the corolla ; anthers oblong, prominent.
Fiji. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thrcad-fliaped, longer
than the tube ; lligma cyHndrical, obtufe, furrowed. Peric.
Capl'ule ? oblong, of two cells. Seeds numerous, fomewhat
angular,.. ranged along a thread-lhaped receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, bearded at the mouth.
Calyx inferior, with live fegments. Stigma cylindrical,
abrupt, furrov/ed. Pericarp of two cells, with many feds.

I. G. riibejlris. Forll. Prod. 17. Native of rocky places
in the ifland of Tanna. Stem flirubby, climbing without
tendrils, branched in an oppoi'ite manner, round, with a
fmooth grey bark. Leaves oppolite, about three inches
long, elliptic-lanceolite, pointed, entire, flightly wavy,
fmooth, opaque, with one rib, and a few remote, curved,
interbranching veins. Footpialls flendcr, fmooth, cl^annelled,
half an inch long. Stipulas intrafoliaceous, united, (hort,
acute, rather membranous. Flowers fmall, . jn folitary,
forked, oppofite, fomewhat downy, axillary panicles, rather
longer than the footftalks. Bra8eas (hort, acute, united at
their bafe, in pairs under each fork of the panicle. Calyx-
minutely fringed. Corolla apparently reddith. — From one
of Foriler's own dried fpecimens. Juflieu probaWy never
faw the plant, or we think he would have referred it to his
Apocineie. No figure has been publiflied, except of the
fru6tincation.

GENIPA. (See GARDE>nA.) The name is barbarous,
of Weft Indian origin, and appears to be fometimes called
Gcnipo.t. See Tournefort, 658.

GENIPABU, in Geography, a river of Brafil, whicti
runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 5" 35'. W. long. 34' 46'

GENIS, St. a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift
of Jonfac ; 24 miles S. of Saintes. The place contains 86z,
and the canton 12,600 inhabitants, on a territory of 2i2|

kiliometres, in 1 7 communes Alfo, a town of France, in

the department of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton,
in the ditlriil of Chambery, ne^ir' the conflux of the Rhone
and Guiers ; 15 miles W. of Chambery. Tlie place con-
tains 1550, and the canton 796o> inhabitants, on a territcry
of 112^ kiliometres, in 12 communes.

Gexis la Fal, St. a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of
Lyons ; 4 niiLs S. of Lyons. The place contains 2400-,
and the canton 15,522 inhabitants, on a terriLory of 97!
kiliometres, in 10 communes.

GENISTA, in Botany, Green-weed, or Dwarf Broom^
The etymology feem.s not very clear, either from genu, n
knee, in allufion to the bending of the twigs, or from geno,
to produce, becaufe it grows wild in abundance ; yet fuch
are propofed bv the learned, and we hav.> no better to offer.
Linn. Gen. 368. Schreb. 488. Willd. Sp. PL v. 3. 936.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 754. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2, Juli". 353.
Lamarck Ilhiilr. t. 619. Gsrtn. t. 151. Clafs and ordtr,
Diadflphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionaccie, Linn. Lerru-
minij'x, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, tubu-
lar, two-lipped ; the upper lip with two teeth, more deeply

dividtd ;

^ • G E N

rfividcxl ! lower with three nearly equal teeth. Cor, papi-
lionacocius : ilandard oblong, remote from the keel, entirely
reflexed ; wiiiijs oblmig, lax, iltorter than the other petal,; ;
keel ftraight, cmargiiiate, longer than the llamlard. Stam.
Filaments ten, all united, emerging from tlie keel ; aiilluri
fir.iple. P'Ji- GeruiL-n oblong, enveloped by the con\mon
filament ; ityle finiple, directed upwards ; flignui acute, in-
■volute. Piiic. Legume rounditli or oblong, turgid, of one
cell and two valves. Sa-ils ievcral, inolHy kidncy-ftiaped,
with a fniooth elevated border round the fear.

EfT. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, the upper lip witli two teeth,
lower with three. Stiuidard oblong, bent backwards from
the reil of the flower.

A genus ol flnrubs, almoft entirely European, with tough
angular llems and branches, either teniate or funple leaves,
and yellow flowers. \\ iUdeiunv has twenty-five fpecies,
eighteen of which are unarmed, the other feven furniihed
\vith fpines, in many inllauces remarkably compound. The
ipinous ones have all iimple leaves. Three Gi:niJ}i!: are na-
tives of Britain.

G. iirMcria. Engl. Bot t. 44. Dyer's Green-weed. So""
called from its ule in dyeing yellow, and, with the addition
of woad, green. Ray fuys it gives a bitter flavour to the
milk of cows that feed upon it.

G. pilofa. Engl. Bjt. t. 208. Hairy Green.\?hed. Found
only on high fandy ground about Bury, Su.TcJk, at the
foot of Cadcr Idris, North Wales, and on foap rocks near
the Lizard point. It grows quite proilrate, and is difficult
to find except in May, when it flowers copionfly and forms
a ricJi golden carpet. Mr. Rofe firft delcribed this as an
Englifli plant, and figured it in his Introduction to Botany,
appendix 45^. t. 3.

G an'jl'ua. Engl. Bot. t. 132. Needle Green-weed, or
Petty V/hin. This is our only fpinous fpecies, and its fpines
arc very confpicuous, long, limple, and fpreading. St::m of
humble growth, but nearly erect. Flowers not inelegant,
turning green when dried. It is frequent on moift turfy cr
iandy heaths, blodoming in May and June.

G. candicans,filnricn,jlnnJa, and tnqiwlra, are hardy gar-
den plaiits, worthy of cultivation for llieir beauty or fmgu-
larity. The firll efpecially has a (howy appearance when
trained againll a wall. G. canancnfis, and linifuHa, Curt.
Mag. t. 442, are rather grcenhoule Ihrubs, and the latter is
very elegant on account of its filky fdvery leaves." It grows
in SN\ntzerland as well as in Spain, but like many other alpine
plants, does not well bear our winters.

Gkxi-STA, in GarJening, comprehends plants of the low
fiirubby evergreen and deciduous kinds, of whiclt the fpecies
chiefly cultivated are, the common dyer's broom (G. tinc-
toria) ; the \uinted broom (G. fagittalis) ; the Spanifli dyer's
broom (G. florida) ; the hairy broom (G. pilofa) ; the Eng-
lifli geniila petty-wliite, or needle fur/.e ((}. Ang ica) ; the
hoarv genift;a, or Mnntpelier cytilus (CJ. caudicans) ; and
ihe Canary gcnilla or cytifus (G. canarieniis. )

Method of Culture. — The fix firll forts are all of the hardy
kind, and capable of being increafed by fowing the feeds in
beds of common mould, and, which is better, in the borders
or clumps where they are to remain; but which fliould be
done in the early autumnal or fpring feafons, though the
former is by much the better, as a great deal of time will be
faved. In cafes where they are raifed in beds, the plants
fhould be carefully taken up and removed, as foon as they
have attain.J about twelve months' growth, into the fituatioi s
in which they are to continue. In the latter mode of culti-
vation, they however require no other management than that
of properly thinning them outj and keeping them free from
a!I forts of weeds.

G'£ N

forward. As foon as the plants have acquired a little growth
th.ey fliould be removed into feparate fmall j.ots, and be im-
mediately replung -d in the hot-bed. In their after-manage-
ment they demand the fame fort of attention as other Lf*
tender kinds of grecn-houfe plants.

Each of ihe tirll fix forts are proper for the more for-
ward parts of the chimps and borders in ornamented grounds,
and have a good eflecl from the fine appearance of their
flowers.

The lad kind produces a variety among other erernreea
plants in the green-houfe coUeftion.s.

GENITA BltljjOE, in Gcovrafihy, a town of America, i.i
Powliatan county, Virginia, 166 miles from Wafnir.gtcn.

GjisiT.A-ffi/jHfl, in Mytholory, a goddefs wiio pitfided over
child-birth, to wkomthe Romans fiicrificed a dog.

GENITAL, Genit.^i.i.s, in Anatomy, fomething that
relates \.Q ^duration ; whicli fee.

Gi.si\ ;\i. gods, dii genii rdes, are fometimcs iifed in the an-
cient Roman poets tor thoie we olherwife call indlgitcs.

Aufonii'.s, in the argument of the fourth book of the
/Eneid, takes tlie word in a different manner : the Jii gent-
tales, lie obierves, were fuch as were not born of huinai*
parents, and were not thus called qunfi genitl ex hominibut,
but rather becaufe they themfelves had begot human chil-
dren .

GENITALIA, or Genitores, in Anatomy, a name
fomc times given to the telles or tellicles of a man, on ac-
count of tlieir office in gcneralicn, w.Hich fee.

(iENITE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Correze ; iS miles W. of Brive.

GENI I'ED, in Geometry. See Genicratkd.

GENITES, V'.nrr , or Genetel, among the ILlre'ws-,
thole that defcended from Abraham, wilhojt any mixture of
foreign blood.

The Greeks diftinguinied by the names of o-enites fuch
of the Jews as were ilfued from ;)arents who, during- the
B.ibylonifli captivity, had not allied with any gentile fa-
mily.

Genitive, in Grammar, the fecond cafe of the declen-
fions of nouns. '

When one thing is reprefented as belonging to another,
in the relation ofcaufe, origin, or author, its name has a ter-
mination given to it, called the genitive cafe ; and as the au-
thor is properly the owner of a thing, the genitive is alfo
called the p'i[fe[fi-ue cafe.

In Englilli, the genitive cafe is made by prefixing the
particle of ; or it is exprefled by an apollrophe, wit'i the let-
ter j coming after itv as " thy father's houfe:' when the
plural ends in j-, the other s is omitted, but the apollrophe is
retained, as " on eagles' wings :'' fometimes alio, when the
fingular terminates in Js, the apoftrophic s is not added ; as
" for righteoufnefs' fake." In French the genitive is exprefled
by dc, or dn, &c. though, in itricbiofs, there arc no cafes at
all, or at moil only two, in cither of thefe languages, inaf-
much as they do not exprefs the diliercnt relation of thing*
by different terminations, but only by additional prepoii- ,
tions. (See C.VSE.)

An ingenious grammarian obferves, that though the ter-
mination called the genitive cafe be rendered by of, it
means invariably yj-om, beginning, motive; and this, he fa)'s,
feems to bo the true lignification of of, if we regaid
its etymology, it being taken from a?, a;ro, ab, from ;
and though cuilom feems to have aVfigiied it fome dif-
ferent imdeliiiablc meaning, it is in all files refolvablj it.to
L 2 the

GEN

'he fenfo oi from. Thus, a table of wood is a table /com
wood, wood being the origin or beginning of it. Again,
he is fick of love, i. e, dckfrom love, love being tlie caiife of
his ficknefs ; and fo in all other inftances. And this is the
reafon why fome prepofitions which fignify origin or iegifi-
ning in Greek, Latin, and French, are rendered in our tongue
by of. Jones's Greek Grammar, p. 194.

In the Latin, this relation is cxprefl'cd in divers manners,
tlius we fay, caput hominis, tli? bead of a man ; color rofs, ibe
colour of a rofe ; opus Da, the niwrk of Cod, &c.

As the genitive cafe fcrvcs to cxprefs very different, and
even oppoiite rel:itions> there fometimes arifes an anibignily
from this circiimftance ; thus, in the phrafe, vulnus .'IchiHis,
the lurjund of Achilles, the genitive, AchUlis, may either fig-
nify paffivcly the wound Achilles has received, or aAively
the wound Achilles has given : thus in that pafl'age ol St.
Paul, Certus fum qu')d ncijue mors, iieque vita, Isfc. nos potent fe-
parare a charitalc DA in Chrijln. oV. the genitive Dti has been
taken by interpreters in two different fcnfes ; fome, giving
it the re'.jlion of objCtt, undcriland the palTage ot the love
which the eledl bear to God in .lefus Chrift ; whereas otliers
ii-ive it the relation of fubjeft, and explain it from the love
which God bears the cledl in Jefus Chrift.

In die Hebrew tongue, the genitive cafe is marked after
a manner verv different from that of the Greek and Latin :
for whereas in thofe languages the noun governed is varied,
in the Hebrew the noun governing undergoes the alteration.

GENITO, St. in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Citra ; 21 miles N. W. of Bifignano.

GENIUS, in Mythology, a good or evil fpirit, or daemon,
whom the ancients fuppolcd fet over each perfon, to direft
his birth, accompany him in life, and be his guard until
death. Thofe that attended women were females, and called
Junones, but thofe that attended men were males, and called
Genii. They feem, in their original, to be nothing elfe but
the particular bent and temper of each perfon deihed ; and
as every one's own temper is in a great lueafure the caufe of
his happinefs or mifcry, each of thefe were fuppofed to fliare,
and have an equal feeling in all the enjoyments and fufferings
of the perfons they attended. ( See Horace, lib. ii. ep. ii. ver.
189.) The ancients had their Genii of nations, of cities, of
provinces, &c. Nothing is more common than the following
mfcription on medals : (iUN'ius populi rom. " the Genius
of the Roman people :" or, genio pop. kom. " to the Ge-
nius of the Roman people." The ancient Gauls acknow-
ledged Genii, who took care of each particular province and
canton : but the foundation of the worfhip, which they paid
to their deified cities, or rather to the genius who protefted
them, and became their tutelar divinity, was to engage them
to take care of them, to defend them againft enemies, and to
remove from them all evils, with which they might be dif-
treffed ; fuch as epidemical diftt rapers, and other calamities.
The names of thefe tutelar Genii were kept fecret, left, if
they fhoidd be known, they fhould be conjured away, and
forced to abandon the cities that were committed to their
charcje, and pafs into others, where they were promifed a
more folcmn worfliip.

In this fenfe, genius and lar were the fame thing ; as, in
tffeft, Cenforinus and Apulcius affirm they were.

Of thefe genii or demons, Plato fuppufes that every man
has his owa, who is his guardian, and the witirefs. not only
of his aftions, but of his very thoughts ; but that, at~death,
the genius delivers up to judgment the perfon who had been
committed to liis charge ; and if, when the perfon is inter-
rogated by tlie judge, his anfwer be found not agreeable to
truth, the genius cenfures and reprimands liim very fevercly,
33, on the other hand, he pronounces an encomium upon him

G E N •

when what he fays is true ; and it is upon the approbation of
the genius, that the doom is pronounced; for this dsemonknow?
whatever pafTes in the man, even his moft fecret thoughts.

Although Plato and Jamblichus were of opinion that every
individual had but one of thefe genii to conduft him, and
to preflde over all his adlions, other philofophers of the fame
fchool were perfuaded, that he had two, the one good, the
other bad. To this purpofe Servius upon Virgil (^n. 1. vi.
c. 74 v) fays, " Volunt unicuique gcniam oppofitum, Dacmo-
nem bonum et malum ; hoc eil, rationem qus ad meliora fem-
per hortatur, et libidinem quae ad pejora ; hie eft Larva ct
genius malus ; ille bonus genius ct Lar. " They will have
it that every one has two geni', the one good, and the other
bad ; that is, reafon, which always excites men to good, and
luft, which prompts them to ill: th.e latter is what they call
" Larva,'' or evil genius : the other good Genius, or " Lar."

The Platonifts, and otht^r eaftern philofophers, fuppofed
the Genii to inhabit the vaft region, or extent of air, between
earth and heaven. They were a fort of intermediate powers,
who did the office of mediators between gods and men.
Tliey were the interpreters and agents of the gods ; commu-
nicated the will of the deities to men ; and the prayers and
vows of men to the gods. As it was unbecoming the ma-
jelly of the gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns, this
became the lot of the genii, whofe nature v/as of a middle
kind between the two ; who derived immortality, from the
one, and palfions from the other ; and who had a body
framed of an aerial matter. Moft of the philofophers, how-
ever, held that the genii of particular men were born with
them, and died. Thus Plutaixh attributes the ceafmg of
oracles pai'tly to the death of the Genii.

The heathens, who conhdcred the Genii as the guardian
fpirits of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced and
were afflifted at all the good and ill fcrtune that befel their
wards. Tlicy never or very rarely appeared to them ; and
then only in favour of fome perfon of extraordinary virtue
or dignity. They likewife held a great difference between
the Genii of different men ; and that fome were much more
powerful than others ; on wh.ich principle it was, that a wi-
zard in Appian bids Antony keep at a dillance from Ofta-
vius, becaufe Antony's Genius was inferior to, and flood in
awe of, that of Oftavius.

There were alfo evil Genii, who took a pleafure in pcrfc-
cuting men, and bringing them evil tidings : fuch was that
in Paterculus, &c. which appeared to Erutus the night
before the battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larva,
and lemures.

According to the theogony of Hefiod, the men of the
golden age became doemons, or good genii ; thofe, according
to him, are the guardians of men, the earth having fallen to
their lot. Thofe of the filver age were changed into manes,
or fubterraneous genii, happy though mortal. Thofe of
the brazen age went down to the infernal regions. Thofe of
the heroic age took pofleflion of the Fortunate iflands, or the
Elyfian fields, fituate at the extremities of the world. See
D.EMO-V, and Djemon of Socrat.s.

The Mahometans alfo admit the exiflcnce of Genii,
fuppofed by them to be a clafs of interniediate beings, be-
tween angels and men ; of a groffer fabric than the former,
and more aftive and powerful than t'ne latter. Someof thein
are good, and otliers bad ; and they are, like men, capable of
future falvation or condemnation.

Geki us is more frequently ufed for the force or faculty of
the foul confidered as it thinks or judges.

Thus, we fay, a happy genius, a iuperior genius, an ele.
vated genius, a narrow confined genius. Sec. in like fenfe we
alfo fay, a work of genius, a want of genius, &c.

Giniiit

GEN

Gititut is alfo ufcd, in a more reilrained fenfe, for a na-
tural talent, or difpofition to one thing mort; tlian another.
Ill which fenfe we lay, a genius for verfe, for the fcienccs, &c.

Dr. Blair, in his " Leftures on Rhetoric, &c." (vol. i.)
diftinguifhes between Tafle and Geniu8. Tafte, he fays,
confilts in the power of judging : Genius, in the power of
executing. One may have a confiderable degree of talle in
poetry, eloquence, or any of the fine arts, who has little or
hardly any genius for compofition or execution in any of
thefe arts. But genius cannot be found witliout including
tafte alfo. Genius, therefore, deferves to be confidercd as a
higher power of the mind than tafte. Genius always im-
ports fomething inventive or creative ; which does not rell in
mere fenfibility to beauty, where it is perceived, but which
can, moreover, produce new beauties, and exhibit them in
fuch a manner, as ftrongly to imprcfs the minds of others.
Refined talle forms a good critic : but genius is furtlier ne-
ceflTary to form t lie poet, or the orator. Befides, genius is
a word, which, in common acceptation, extends much fur-
ther than to the objecl of tafte. It is ufed to fignify that
talent, or aptitude, which we receive from nature, for excel-
ling in any one thing whatever. Accordingly, we fpeak of
a genius for mathematics, as well as a genius for jjoetry ; or a
genius for war, for politics, or for any mechanical employ-
ment. This talent or aptitude, for excelling in any one par-
ticular, is received from nature; and though it may be great-
ly improved by art and ftudy, it cannot by them alone be ac-
quired. As genius is a higher faculty than tafte, it is more
limited in the fphereof its operations. AVhilll v.e i'nd many
perfons, who have an excellent tafte in feveral of the polite
arts, fuchasmufic, poetry, painting, and eloquence, all toge-
ther ; it is much more rare to nieet with one who is an ex-
cellent performer in all thefe arts. Indeed, an univerfal ge-
nius, or one who is equally and indifFercntly turned towards
feveral diftcrent profefiions and arts, is not likely to excel in
any. The rays muft converge to a point, in order to glow
intenfely. A genius for any of the fine arts always fuppofes
tafte ; and the improvement of tafte will ferve to forward and
corredl the operations of genius. But genius, in a poet or
orator, may fonietimcs exift in a higher degree than tafte ;
that is, genius may heboid and ftrong, when tafte is neither
very delicate, nor very correct. This is often the cafe
in the infancy of arts ; a period when genius freque tly
exerts itfelf with great vigou,-, and executes with much
warm.th ; while tafte, which requires experience, and
improves by flower degrees, iiath not yet attained its full
growth. Homer and Shakfpcare may be referred to as ex-
amples in proof of this affertion. (See Taste.) Longi-
mis, in his " Treatife on the Sublime," remarks, ih.at li-
berty is the nurfeof true genius : it animates the fpirit, and
invigorates the hopes of man ; excites honourable emulation,
and a dcfire of excelling in every art. It is obfcrvable, that
writers and artifts molt diftinguiftied for genius have gene-
rally appeared in confiderable numbers at the fame period.
Befides the moral caulcs which have been alleged to account
for this phenomenon, fuch as favourable circumftances of
government and manners, encouragement from great men,
and emulation excited among men of genius, the Abbe du
Bos, in his " Refleftions on Poetry and Painting," has col-
lected a great many obfervutions on the influence which the
air, the climate, and other natural caufes, may be fuppofed
to have upon genius. The opinion of the Abbe du Bos,
that geniu.i chiefly depended on foil, food, air and climate,
has been favoured by Montefquieu in his " Spirit of Laws :"
and it occalionally occurs in other writers. Mr. Hume,
■however, has attacked this hypothelis with great ingenuity
and ftrengili of rcafoning in liis " Eftay on National C'lia-

GEN

rafters." In that Eftay he has clearly proved, that the dif.
ferences we obferve in nations, with regard to genius, fcience,
and manners, arife from moral, and not from phylical caufes.
(See Climate.) The fafl, iiowever, is unqueftionable,
that fome periods or ages of tlie world have been much more
diftinguiftied than others for the extraordinary produftions
of genius. (See Agc, in lli; Hi/lory of I.iteralure, &c.) If
we inftitute a comparifon between the ancients and moderns
in this refpeft, we mull allov.-, that while the advancing age
of the world brings along with it more Icience and more re-
finement, its earlier periods may lay claim to more vigour
more fire, more enthufiafm of genius. Among the ancienH,
we find higher conceptions, greater fimplicity, more original
fancy : among the moderns, fometimes more art and cor-
reCtnefs, but feebler exertions of genius. Admitting this to
be in general a mark of diftindtion between the ancients and
moderns, it cannot be admitted without exceptions ; for, in
point of poetical lire and original genius, Milton and Sliak-
fpeare are not inferior to any poets in any age.

Gknius, is not a mufical term, nor does it appertain to
one of tlie polite arts more than another ; but Roufteavj
(Dlft. de Mus. ) has volunteered an article for it among
mufical terms, and has written it with peculiar eloquence
and enthufiafm.

Roufieau, paradoxical on almoft all other fubjefts, is
fometimes not only capricious, but mifchicvous ; yet his
bittereft enemies admit, that mufic is his bright fide :
and though he is not allowed by the prefent French mufical
critics to be a profound contrapuntift, yet his tafte in mufic
and poetry was refined, and of the highcft clafs ; and his
views concerning dramatic mufic were enlarged, rational,
ingenious, and free from all caprice and paradox.

GENLIS, in Geogrnphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriit of Dijon. The place contains 707, and the canton
8599 inhabitants, on a territory of 187;!; kiliometres, in 27
communes.

GENNABA, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan, in the
Perfian gulf; 15 miles N.W. of Bender Rigk.

GENNADIUS I., in i!;ci^ra/>/.js patriarch of Conftan-
tinople, was elected to that dignity, having been fome years
an ordained prefbyter of the church, in the year 458, on
tlie death of Anatolinus. In the following year, in a coun-
cil of 73 biftiops, he procured the pafting of a canon
againft fimoniacal ordinations, and eilablllhed tlie equitable
regulation, that the oblations made in the churches, which
it liad been cuftomary to claim for the patriarch's treafurv,
ftiould thenceforward belong to the officiating clergy. He
died in 471, leaving behind him a liigh char.iditer for great
zeal and dilinteicftednefs in correcting the relaxed ftate of
dlfcipline which prevailed in his fee. He is plated by
thole who lived about tlie fame period among the ecelefiafti-
cal writers of the dav, and is appljuded for the extent of
his learning and the elegance of his ftyle. The proofs of
this have not come to us, excepting in '• A fvncdal Epif-
tle" againft fimouy, infeited in tlie fourth volume of the
Colledt. Concil. ; and fragments againll the aiJ.Uhemas of
Cyril of Alexandria, quoted by Facundus, bifliop of Her-
miana, and another from a treatife addrefled to Parthenius,
and quoted by Leontius. Moreri.

Gf:NN'.\Dlus II., another patriarch of Conftantincple, in
the fifteenth century, affumed the name upon embracing the
ecclefiaftical life, having, prior to this, the name of George
Scholarlus. He was a native of Conftantinople, «here he
was educated, and attracted much notice by his talents and
remarkable progrefs in the different branches of learning.
He became fecretary to the emperor Jolin Palxologu.-;^

and

GEN

GEN

and afterwards chief judge of tlie Greeks. In 1438 lie fat'sfaftion and indignation, they beheld the fultan on h'S
accompanied the emperor to the council at Florence for tiie thrc^ne, who delivered into the hands of Gennadius the paf-
purpofe of bringing about an union between the Greek and tornl ftaff, the fymbol of his cccleiiaflical office, who con-
Latin churches : it is, however, a matter of much doubt dufted the patriarch to the gate of the feraglia, prefcntcd
whether Scholarius was in favour of the meafure which lijm with an horfe richly caparifoned, and direfted the vizirs
his duty to l\is mailer required him to fanclion and fupport. and baihaws to lead him to the palace which had been
After his return to Conftantinople he united witii Mark of allotted for hi:, refidence. The churches of Conilantir.ople
Ephefus, in oppofmg the reception of thofe terms of uinon were fhared between the two rehgions : their limits were
to which the emperor had acceded, as well by his influence marked, and till it was infringed by Seiim, the grandlcn of
as by his writings, which brought on him for a time the Mahomet, the Greeks enjoyed above fixty years the bene:.':
difpleafure of the emperor. After the death of Paliolcgus of this equal partition. Gennadius prefided over the fee ct
in 1448, Scliolarius was as violent as ever againil: th.e pro- Conllantinoplc between five and fix years, when he rcfigned
pofcd union, and finding that his oppofition muft fubjeft his dignity, and retired into a morallcry. He died r.bcut
him to danger with tiie new emperor, Con;lantine, he re- the year 1460. He was author of " An Explanation of
folved to reiinq'jilli his civil eraj)loyments, and to embrace the Chrillian Faith, dcUvered before the Turkifh rmpcrcr
the ecclefiafticdl life. He accordingly, in 1459, after fend- Mahomet." This work was the refuk of a long convcria-
ing a valedictory oration to th.c tniperor, ciiti.-red into a tion which he had with the emperor, foon after his inftalla-
monaftery adjoining Conftantinople, arid lived a fecluded tion, when Mahomet fullered him to produce all the arg'i-
life for two years, which is fuppofed to have been the relult ments he was able in fupnort of the truth of Chntlianity.
of the emperor's orders, to prevent him from taking part It is to be found in Crufius's Turco-Griecia ; and is alfo ,a
sgainft the propoled union. During his retreat from the David Chytrzeus's " Do' ilatu Ecclefiarum in Gnscia."
world he corapofed feveral homilies, wiiich could offend no Gcnnadius wrote likewife a trcatife concerning predeftina-
one ; but he did not engage in any controverfy until the tion, and another on the trinity. He conipofed many ho-
Ui-.ion was completed. This called forth his zeal in behalf milies in the early part of h^e, which were delivered before
of the Greek church : he wrote letters to all the ecclefiallics the emperor, as orations, which laymen were, in that age,
of Conllantinoplc, and to the different monaflic orders, ex- accuftomed to pronounce in the imperial dining-room.
hotting them to adhere to the faith of their anceftors, and Moreri. Gibbons Hill.

not to lubmit to the Florentine union : he alfo remonilrated Genkadius, an ecclefiallical writer, fiourifaed towards
with the emperor on tlic fubjetl, but the monarch was not the clofe of the fifth century, and became prieft of Mar-
to be turned from his plan, and made every effort, by per- feilles. He was a great writer, and is faid to have com.-
luafi.in and by threats, to bring over Gennadius. The pofed eight books againlt ail hercfies, fix againft Ncftorius,
attempt was futde ; lie had gone too far to retraft, and had three againil Pelagius, and a treatife concerning the millen-
obtained a multitude of adherents whom he had converted niura and the book of Revelation ; but the only works re-
by his writings and exhortations, which reprefented the maining of this author are entillcd " De viris illuflribus,"
UKion to be a deiertion of the caufe of God and his truth, which is a continuation of St. Jerome's catalogue of Eo-
The emperor fubfcribed the a£l of union at Conllantinople, clefiaftical Writers ; and a treatife " De Fide, leu de dog-
as it had been ratified in the council of Florence. On the matibus Ecclefiaflicis Liber ad Gelafium Papain niifl'us."
1 2th of December 1452, the two nations, in the church of This laft was for a coniiderable time attributed to St. Au-
St. Sophia, joined in the comniunion of facrifice and prayer, gulline, and was generally infcrted in the editions ot his
But the dreis and language of the Latin prieft who ofHciated works. The time of Gennadius's death is not known, but
at the altar were objects of fcandal ; and it was obferved, it did not take place before the year 395.
with a feeling of horror, that he confecrated a wafer of un- GENNARI, Cesare and Benedetto, two brothers
leavened bread, and poured cold water into the facraniental who both made painting their profeffion. They were ne-
cup. From the dome of St. Sophia, the inhabitants of phews, heirs, copyifts, and imitators of Guercino ; they
either fex, and of every degree, ruPned in crowds to the frequently repeated his pictures, but not with adequate
cell of Gennadius to confult him, as the oracle of the fwcetnefs or force. At firfl they wrought togetiier at
church. He was invifible, and entranced, as it fhould feera, feveral places in Italy.; but feparating, Cefare remained at
in deep meditation, or divine rapture ; but he had expofed Bologna, and Benedetto went to England, where there are
on the door of his cell a tablet, on which were written thefe many of his work?:, particuhirly at Windfor CalHe, difco-
worJs : " O miferable Romans, why will ye abandon the verable by a taboiired, drv imitation of Guercino ; with a
truth ; and why, inftead of confiding in God, will ye put mixture of the flutter and parade exhibited by the Frencli
your trull in the Italians ? In abandoning your faith, you painters of that period. Pie was made painter to James II.
will lofe youi- city. Have mercy on me, O Lord ! I pro- and executed a picture of that prince and his family. At
tell, in thy prcfence, that I am innocent of die crime. O their expulilon he returned to Italv : and as his manner, by
miferable Romans, confider, paufe, and repent ! At the the mixture of French art ho liad introduced, was novel, he
f.ime moment that you renounce the roJigion of your fathers obtained applaufe and employment. He died in 1715J
by embra.jng impiety, you fubmit to a foreign fervitude." aged 82.

This was the fignal for infurreftion, (fee Constantino- GENNE, in G'o^^raphy, a town of France, in the de-
ple) ; and, after the capture of the city, the fultan Maho- partnient of the Maine and Loire, near tiie Loire ; 9 miles
met, dcfirous of conciliating thofe inhabitants who had N.W. of Saumur.

furvived the immenfe flaughter made by his army, and of GENNEP, a town of France, in the department of the
recalling the Greeks, who had efcaped, to their deferted Roer, fituated on the Nie/s, near the Meuie. It contains
houfes, ordered Gennadius to be fought for, and offered two churches, one fr.r Roman Catholics, and another for
him to the choice of the cl=rgy and people, by Vvfhom he Proteflants ; 9 miles S. S. W. of Cleves. N. lat. 51 47.
was immediately el -cled their patriarch. In the eleftion E. lung. 5 50.

and inveftiture of Gennadius, the ceremoni.il of the Byzan- GENNES, a town of France, in the department of the
tine court was revived and imitated. With a mixture of Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-

trict

GENOA.

triel of SaUmur ; ^ miles N.E. of La Gui^rclie. The
jjhce contains 14.55, ^'"^ "-''^ canton 8248 inhabitants, on a
territor)- of 190 kiiiometres, in 15 commiine<!.

GENOA, and fuice the French revolution- the " Ligu-
riaa republic," is a fniall, mountainous territory, in the
northern part of Italy, forming a kind of crefcent along
tlie Mediterranean fea on the fouth, and covered on the land
fide by the Apennines, which feparate it from the countries
of Milan, Piedmont, the Montf,>rrat, the Milanefe, and Par-
mefan. Its length from the town of Vintimiglia on the
well, ulmoft to the tenitor)- of the republic of Lucca on
the eall, is about 150 miles, and its greateft breadth, from
the fea to the interior of the country, is not more than 20
mUej. The mountains that enclofe it are, in fome places,
covered, with forells, in others they are barren rocks, and in
fonie few parts they yield excellent pallure. There is but
a fmall quantity of arable land in this country, fo that it is
under a neceflity of feeking a fapply of corn from Naples,
Sicily, and other places ; but the inhabitants avail them-
felvcs of every fpot which is capable of cultivation. They
are furni.lied throughout the year with excellent legume;
and vegetables for the table ; they alfo make a coniiderable
qu:uititv of wines, and are amply provided with various
kinds of fruit, elpecially citrons, oranges, pomegranates,
almonds, and ligs. Tiiey raiie a great number of mulberry
trees for feeding filk-worms, and olives grow in great plenty,
particularly round the guli of Spezzia. Salt is produced
for c.'cportation. The Apennines, and fome other hills,
fupply them with excellent marble, while Polzevera, in the
Eocchetta, yields the beautiful itone fo called, being ferpen-
tine of various colours veined v.ith marble, which is eafily
conveyed by a magnificent road fonncd, in 177S, from the
Bocchetta, or mountains to the north of Genoa, through the
Polzevera, by three years' labour of from five to eight hun-
dred men, at the expence of one patriotic and noble family,
the Cambiafi. The inhabitants of this ccnntr;-, amounting
to about 400,000, are Roman Catholics, though the papcJ
power is not much venerated ; the peo]>le being devoted to
commerce, and difpofed to receive monied heretics, without
any religious fcru',Ies. The manufa&ures were formerly
very confiderable, but they have of late declined; the prm-
cipal are velvet, plufli, damafk, different kinds of fdk, for
which they are fuoplitd with llie raw material from Mef-
fma and other places ; gold and filver iluffs, lace, gloves,
ftockingG, ribbons, foap, paper, &c. Other articles of
commerce are, oil, fruit, macaroni, confecfionary, Par-
mefan cheefe, anchovies, &c. Although Genoa is a free
port, Leghorn, which is likewife free and indulged with
greater liberty, interferes with its trade, and din.inifnes it.
T"his country is part of die ancient Liguria (fee LiGUitlA) ;
■which, in the fecond Punic war, efpouled the interell ot the
Carthaginians ; but the city of Genoa, which was then a
celebrated emporium, taking part wish the Romans, was
plundered and burnt by Mago the Ciii'tliaginian. It was
afterwards rebuilt by th; Romans, and continued under
their dominion, together v.ith the reft of Italy, till the
conelufion of the Hfth century, about A. D. 498, when
Thcodoric, king of the Goths, having defeated the ufurper
Odoacer, was proclaimed by the army king of Italy, even
with the confcnt of the emperor Zeno. Genoa \ as after-
wards recovered by Belifarius, v. hen he entirely fubdued the
Goths ; and when the Lombards invaded Italy, this city
rerr.r.ined for fome time un.'nolefted, deriving an acceflion of
we.dth and inhiioitiuits by the refugees who fled from the
vicinity of the Po, in order to efcape the fury of the in-
vaders. At lenjjth, in the feventh century, Genoa \>'ss
plundered aad burnt by the Lombards, and remained undtr

their power till Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, when
the territory of Genoa, diilinguilhed by its wealth and
populoufncfs, was crefted into a marquifate. It foon after-
wards became fo powerful, under the Genoefe empire, and
after it had obtained a kind of independence, that, in 8c6,
it reduced the ifland of Corfica, and in 935 defeated the
Saracens, who had plundered and burnt the city, in their
return to Africa, on the coall of Sardinia. About the
year 950, when the Franks having loft all authority in
Italv, the Genoefe began to form tliemfelves into a kir.d
of arlftocratical republic, under a chief called tio^e, (fee
Doge,) elccled every two years, and to be governed by
their own magillrates, who were freely elected, and took
the name of confuls. In order to maintain thcu- indepen-
dence, they applied, with great alTiduity, to navigation and
commerce, and thus became rich and pov/erful. Their
commerce extended from Spain to Syria, and from Eg)-pt
to Conilantinople, and was carried on in veflels, that were
titled for war as well as traffic. In the year 1017 they
united with the Pifaus in an expedition againft Sardinia ;
and about 33 years after this expedition, the Genoefe and
Pifans were engaged in a deilruClive war, which laftcd
nearly 18 years;" but when a treaty of pcrxe and alliance was
concluded between them, they concurred in a fuccefsful
expedition againft the Moors, in Africa. What contributed
more than any other circumitance to the opulerce and
grandeur of the Genoefe, was the part they took m the
crufades, and the important fervices they rendered to the
religious warriors, towards the clofe of the eleventh and
commencement of the twelfth centuries. During the latter
century, they fubjeded the half of Sardinia, and the city-
cf SyVacufe ; they alfo made themfelves mafters of the
Black fea, formed eftabhihments in the Crimea and in the
fuburbs of Pera, at Conftantinople, where they remained
till the Turks took that city. In the thirteenth century,,
thev added to their conquefts the towns of Albengo,
Savona, Vintimiglia, and others in their neighbourhood ;
and for the fuperiority of the fea, they engaged in a long
and obilinate conteft with the Venetians, which did not
terminate till the year 1 38 1. In their various conflicts
with neighbouring powers, their ftrength was enfeebled, lo
that, in I471, they were expelled from the Crimea; though
their maritime power ftill continued refpeclable. Exhaufted
by the Venetian v%-ar, in particular, Genoa offered volun-
tary lubjection to France and to Milan ; but alter many
revolts and conflifts, with a view of recovenng their inde-
pendence, they were at length, -via. in 1528, refcu.d from-
the dominion of foreign princes, by the vigorous exertions
of Andrew Doria. Doria, having driven out the French,
and gamed poffeiTion of Genoa, alTembled the nobility, and
reftored the government into their hands, declaring that he
pretended to no greater fliare in it than becam.e him as a
nobleman. He re-eftablilhed the ancient form of the re-
public, and received from his countvy all thofe teilimonies
of gratitude, which a conduft fo difinterefted feemed to
dcfer.-e. (SeeDouiA. Y Towards the end of the fixteenth
centurv, Genoa was diltradled by a civil v^ar ; but after a
reconciliation had been effecled between the two contending
parties, diitinguiflied by tlie appellations of the old and
new nobility, the republic enjoyed peace and felicity for an
interval of 48 years, during wliich period fcarccly aa inci-
dent:, do.-netiic or foreign, occurred, that is worth recordinj^-
In the year 1624, a dif7)ute arofe between the republic and
Charl s Emanuel, duke of Saxony, in which Le.vis XIII.
bore a ihare ; and a treaty was concluded befAeen Frar.ce
and Savoy, that was hoftile to the Genoese. On this occa-
Con the Spaniards declurcd in favour o.^ Genoa j and a.

peace

GEN

peace with France and Savoy reftored the republic to its
former lituation, at the cominencement of the war. In
1636, the Spaniards attempted to furprife the city ; but
their enterprife was frudralcd ; and from this time till the
year 1656, Genoa enjoyed all the bleffings of peace and
commerce. In the folU)wing yoar Hippolito Centurioni,
the Genoefe admiral, gained fcveral advantages over the
corfairs of Barbary, which paved the way for a treaty
of commerce that was concluded with the piratical
ftates, and the grand fignior. The treaty with the
Porte was confiderably extended by the marquis Du-
razzo, who went in quality of ambaffador to Conftanti-
nople in the year i666. The refult of this treaty re-
newed the vigour of the Genoefe trade, to a pitcii beyond
what any of tiie maritime towns had experienced fince llie
Dutch founded their commercial repul)lic, and extended
their trade not only to the Levant, but to every (Quarter of
the globe. For fomc years Genoa lived ui peace witli all
the neighbouring powers, enjoyed domeilic harmony, and
afiiduoufly cultivated commerce, and whatever (hould render
the republic powerful and hap) y. Some little jealoufies
and differences arofe between her and Venice, the filler and
rival republic ; but they were fuch as terminated amicably,
and never cauled any diiturbancc to the repole of Italy.
In the year 1684, the Genoefe unfortunately incurred the
rcfentment of Lewis XIV., who looked with jealoufy on
their attachment to Spain ; and could not bear to fee the
republic under the proteftion of that crown. His attempts
for humbling them proved too fuccefsful ; but in confe-
quenceof their fubmifiion, and the interpofition of the pope,
peace was obtained. The terms ftipulated by the French
were peculiarly fevere and opprefilve ; among others, they
required that the doge and four counfellors (hould appear in
perfon at Verfailles,- in order to fue for pardon ; and that
the flate (hould difarm all their gallies, fix excepted, with a
promife not to fit out more, without the knowledge and
confcnt of the king. During the enfuing war, kindled by
the ambition of Lewis, which embroiled the greateft part
of Europe, the republic of Genoa adhered wifely to a
neutrality, and enjoyed the advantages of peace and com-
merce, while the dominions of their neighbour, Viftor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, underwent all the calamities of
war. In 1713, Charles VI. fold the marquifate of Finale
to the republic for a confiderable fum of money. In 1743,
the queen of Hungary, liaving at the treaty of Worms ceded
to the king of Sardinia all her rights to the town and mar-
quifate of Finale, and demanding that the Genoefe fhould
deliver up the marquilate, they entered into an alliance with
France, Spain, and Naples; and, in 1745, declared war
againft the king of Sardinia who had made himfelf mafter
of a great part of the ftate ; feveral Genoefe ports were
bombarded by an EngUfh fleet ; and the Imperiahfts feized
upon the city of Genoa j but after a dreadful flaughter on
both fides, they were again driven out by the inhabitants ;
and, in 1747, mifcarried m their attempt to recover it. The
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, reftored its tranquillity.
The ancient nobility confi ft of 28 famiUes, whom Andrew
Doria, in 1528, feparated from all the reft, and declared to
be only capable of holding the chief offices and dignity of
doge ; all the oth -r inhabitants being reduced by him to the
clals of commoners. Since that time it has been found necef-
iary to create other nobility. The nobility of Genoa were
allowed to keep manufactures of velvet, filk, and cloth ;
to farm the duties, and to have (hares in merchant velfelo ;
but all other bulinefs and handicrafts were forbidden. The
form of government in this republic was ariftocratical ; the
chief being called doge. This government continued till

GEN

the year 1798, when the French form was chofcn, and th«
new ftyle aliumed of the Ligurian republic, confirmed by
the more recent treaty of February 180 1. The troops of
this ftate, including the militia, may amount to about
30,000 ; and the fleet, anciently fo celebrated for its vic-
tories over the Saracens, the Pifans, the Venetians, Spaniards,
and Turks, and for maintaining during a long period a con-
fiderable dominion over Sardinia, Corfica, Malta, Majorca,
Minorca, Candia, Cyprus, and many other places in and
near the Mediterranean and Archipelago, and even the
Black fea, the Crimea and other parts, is now reduced to a
few gallies.

GcNOA, or Janua, frequentl)-, though corruptly, called
by the Latin writers Januta, is the capital of the country
dcfcribed in the preceding article. It is fituated partly on
a level ftrand near the fea, and in part rifcs gradually to the
top of the hill. It is about 10 miles in circumference, and
is defended towards the land by a double wall. Several
baftions are erefted along the fea-(hore, on rocks which
appear above the water. The ftreets are in general narrow,
but clean and well paved ; two of which, called the " Strada
Nuova" and " Strada Balbi," are filled with magnificent
palaces, fronted with marble. It is the fee of an archbiftiop.
The cathedral is built in the Gothic ftyle, and paved with
black and white marble ; in the trealury is preferved a
curious hexagonal difli, faid to be made of a fingle emerald,
found at Cxfarca in the time of the Crufades, which the
Genoefe received as their fiiare of the plunder. Befides the
cathedral, it contains 32 pari(h churches, fome of which are
magnificent, and adorned with fculptures and piftures by
the beft mafters. The doge's palace is large, without deco-
ration, except two ftatues of John Andrew Doria, and
Andrew Doria, larger than life, at the entrance. The
arfenal contains arms for 34,000 men, models for bridges,
the armours worn by a number of the Genoefe women in
the crufades, a fhicld containing 120 piftols, made by
Juhus Caifar Vacche, for the purpofe of adadinating the
doge and fenate at one time. Other public buildings are
the Albergo, which ferves as a poor-houfe, and houfe of
correfticn, where is a beautiful relievo, the Virgin fupport-
ing a dead Chrift, by Michael Angelo, and the affnmption
of the Virgin, in white marble, by Puget, an inimitable
piece of fculpture ; a large hofpital for t!*.e fick of all
nations and religions ; the confervatory, for educating and
portioning 300 poor girls ; and a great number of palaces
belonging to the nobility ; and the number of convents for
men and women is reckoned to be 69. Such was the ftate
of Genoa before the late revolution ; what devaftation it has
fuffered by its new mafters, we are not able to fay. It is
certain, that the fiege in 1799 was very deftruftive. The
harbour is large and deep, but expofed to the fouth-weft
wind ; but it has a mole for the fecurity of gallies and fmall
vefifels ; neverthelefs the city is much expofed to a bombard-
ment. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 80,000.
N. lat. 44° 25'. E. long. 8^ 58'.

Genoa Bar, a reef of rocks, extending fome miles from
the north coaft of the ifland of Bahama. N. lat. 26° 20'.
W. long. 79" 36'.

Genoa Balfam, in Msclkins, the name of a famous com-
pofition, called alfo the balfam of Aquapendentc. Its great
virtues are the curing pains in the extremities of the body,
and allaying the violent pains in the bowels, to which many
women are fubjeft after delivery. The prefcription is given
at large in Velfcius, but the medicine is now out of ufe.

GENOLA, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Stura ; three miles N. E. of Savigliano.

GENOLHACj a town of France, in the department of

the

GEN

GEN

the Card, and chief place of a canton, in the ditlrift of
Alais; 15 miles N. W. of Alais. The phce contains ivSOZ,
and the canton 9,5 9 inhabitants, on u territory of 195 kilio-
mctres, in 13 communes.

GENOPLE8IUM, in Botany, from v-''. a gemis, and
•vX-n-m, n arly akin, indicating its great affinity to Prnfoph;!-
hni, anotlier new orthidean genus of Mr. Brown's. Tiie
rame is but too expreflive of many genera recently eilabliftied,
iiifomuch that it is wonderful no writer has hit upon it be-
fore. Brown Prod. Nov. Holl. v. I. 3 19. Clafs and order,
Gyrdp.dria Monandiia. Nat. Ord. Orchidia.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth ringent, helmet-like in front,
its two lower or pollerior leaves longer and fpreadmg. Cor.
Petals, (inner calyx-leaves of Mr. Brown,) attached belov/
to the column. Nettary, or hp, afcending, undivided,
hooded at the bafe, without a fpur. Stylt, or column,
cloven half %vay dov/n, without any lateral membranous feg-
me.^t3, in which laft particular alone it differs from Prafo-
phylium. Aiitkcr parallel to the lligma, permanent, its cells
clofe together. Mafles of pollen not obferved. The only
fpecies is

G. B:v.ir,i, feen by Mr. Brown growing near Port Jack-
fon, New South Waies, but the above character was drawn
up by him from Mr. Ferdinand Bauer's coloured figure.

GENOSA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Otranto ; 10 miles S. E. of Otranto.

GENOVESI, Anthony, in Biography, a man of letters,
and philufopher, was born of parents of very moderate cir-
cumftances, at Caftiglione, a fmall town in the did rift of
SiJerno, in the year 1712. He was intended for the church,
and received an education fuitable to the purpofc. An early
attachment to the daughter of a neighbouring peafant in-
duced his father to place him, at a diftance from home, under
the care of a lay ecclefiaftic, who was an able clafilcal fcho-
lar, a? well as deeply ikilled in tlieology and jurifprudence.
Here the young man made fuch progrels in learning as
ailonifhed all about him. His rekdution to marry the objeft
of his love created in him a zeal and diligence that lul'-
mounted all difficulties ; before, however, he was in a fitua-
tion to maintain a wife, (lie, at tlie inftigation of his father,
married. This difappointmcnt made him rcfolve to devote
himfelf to the church, and he was in due time, coniecrated
3 prieft, and obtained the patronage of the arclibilhop of
Conza. Unfortunately for Gcnovefi the prelate died, which
made him repair to Naples, to follow the praiSice of the
law, an employment highly lucrative in that city. He was
foon diffatisfied with his bufmefs, and after diligently ftu-
dying the elements of modern and ancient philofophy, he
obtained the office of extraordinary-profeffor of metaphyfics.
He began his lectures in November 174I, and his fchool
was crowded with pupils ; the boldnefs of his manner, and
the novelty of many parts of his fyftem, excited his enemies,
who accufed him not only of infidelity, but of opening the
door of free-thinking in Italy ; merely, it is faid, becaufe
he recommended the v.orks of Galileo, Grotius, and Nev/-
ton. His friends, however, powerfully iupported him,
and by the influence of Galiani, tlie director of the Neapo-
litan univerfities, he was appointed to the office of pro-
felTor of ethics, vi hich afforded him ample field for combat-
ing the ignorance and prejudices of the fchools. Tlie
principle of his fyftem was, that the happinefs of man is the
only object of the philofophical doftrine of morals, and he
deduced liis duties from analytical confiderations. He in-
terwove in his iedturcs tlie hillorv of the h\iman paffious,
Voi. XVI.

and enlivened them by a boldnefs and fpirlt pecuh'arly his ovjri.
He compofed a nev/ fyftem of logic, which he dictated in
his lectures, and v.hlch was afterwards publilhed in 1745,
under the title of " Elemcntoruni Artis I>ogico<ritici;,
I.ibri qniiique." This might be confidered as an introdec -
tion to his metaphyfics, the firft part of which had bren
publiflied before this period, but the fecond and third paits
made their appearance in the years 1747 — 1751- In 1743,
he put U]) for the vacant chair of theology, but, as this wa»
always connefted with the epifcopal dignity, he was imme-
diately regarded as unfit for fo high an ofSce in the church,
on account of his heretical notions. His enemies now dif-
covered the moil ferious and alarming doArines, in the pub-
lilhed and unpublifhed pieces of which he liad been the
author. He was obliged therefore to renounce the fcience
of theology, and to lupprcfs fome valuable works on this
fubjedt. He now turned his attention to political economy,
and in a few years he not only made hinjfelf mafter of every
thing deferving of notice on this fcience, but ftruck out fome
new lights. He publiHied, in 1753, the firll fruits of Ins rc-
fcarchcs, entitled " Effays on Agriculture, vith confidera-
tions on the true Objeft of the Sciences." He was nov/, at
the inftance of his friend Intieri, made profefTor of pohlical
economy, with a confiderable falary. The office h.ad been
initituted folely for him, and it was agreed that th.c leflures
fliould always be delivered in the Italian language, a circum-
llance, at that time, wholly unknown at Naples. His
letture room was crowded, and in a fnort fpace of time lie
was obliged to take a ftill larger place for the difplay of his
talents, which alio was ififufficient to contain all who came
to be benefited by his inllruttions. His chief and avowed
ohjeft was, while he taught the principles of political eco-
nomy, to infpire the Neapolitan youth with the focial and
civil virtues, and above all v/ith a public fpirit of patriotifra,
without which no nation, he contended, could attain to that
height of profperity of which it is fufceptible. He caufed
to be tranflated Carey's Hiftory of the Enghfh Trade into
the Italian, and then publifiied it with ufeful notes. After
this he pointed out in a fhort treatife the caufes of the
decline and negleft of agriculture in the kingdom of Naples,
In 1765 he publiflied another work, in which he examined
the queftion, " Why countries, the moft fruitful by nature,
are often expofed to the miferies of fcarcity." He was
author of many other works, but his mailer-piece was the
"' Italian Syilem of Morality," of which the firft part was
publiflied in the year 1767, under the title of " Dicofyna. '
His health now gave way, and he was unable to profecute his
ftudies, and, in 1768, he was obhgedto difcontinue his lec-
tures, and in the following year he expired, in the fifty-
feventh )-ear of hij age. He had attained, as a man of
fcience, a very high reputation, and his moral character was
in every refpeft worthy of a true philofopher. He poffeffcd a
moft ardent love of truth, and a defire to extend its dominion,
in which he was aware the happinefs of his fellow-creatures
was deeply concerned. " He was," fays his biographer,
" an irreconcileable enemy to injidlice and deception : his
countenance difplayed cheerfulnefs, tranquiUity, and invin-
cible courage. He was too proud to floop to flattery in
order to become rich, and was contented with a very mode-
rate income." He died poor, and would have been in
diftreflcd circumftances in the latter years of his life, had
not the ibvereign fupported liim unfolicited. He was held
in high eftimation by pope BenediiSt XIV. and many of tlie
cardinals ; and by inipiring in the breafts of his pupils an
ardent love of their country, with a well regulated zeal for

M itB

GEN

its beil interefts, he was the means of introducing them to
offices of diftinftion, which they filled with honour to them-
fclves, and high advantage to the baft inteiells of the Hate.
Gen. Biog.

GENOUILLAT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Creufe ; nine miles W. of BoufTac.

GENOUILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Cliaiente ; lo miles W. of Jean d'Angely.

GENOWI, a town of Africa; fix miles N. of Sen-
naar.

GENSAC, a town of France, in the depai'tmcnt of the
Gironde ; nine miles S. E. of Libourne.
GENS D'ARMES. See Gendarmes.
GENSERIC, in Biography, a famous king of the Van-
dals, fucceeded his brother Gonderic in his Spanifli domi-
nions in the year 428. He had already fignalized his
courage and /kill in war, and was enured to toil and hard-
fiiips of every kind. Soon after his fucceffion he invaded
Africa, at the head of 50,000 men, and made liimfclf mafter
of the greater part of the country on the fea-coaft. The
pcrfecution of the Donatifts w-as an event highly favourable
to the defigns of Genferic. Seventeen years before he had
landed in Africa, a public conference was held at Carthage
bv order of the magiftrate, which ended in a moft fevere
perfecution. .Under thefe circumftanccs, Gonferic, himfelf
a Chriftian, but an enemy of the orthodox faith, avowed
liimielf the vindicator of the rights of the Donatifts, who,
in their turn, looked up to him as their dehverer, from whom
they migh reafonably espeft the repeal of the odious and
oppreiTive edifts of the Roman emperors. Genferic obtained
the moft fignal victories over his enemies, but notwithftand-
ing his fuccefs, he agreed to a treaty with the emperor
Vaientinian, whom he confented to leave in pofiTefTion of the
three Mauritanias. He delivered to the Romans his own
fon Hunneric, as a hoftage for the obfervance of his treaty ;
but thev, trufting to his good faitli, fent back the youth.
Genferic abufed iliis indulgence by feizing upon the city of
Carthage in 439, at a time when the empire was engaged in
a war with the Goths. From Carthage he failed with a
large fleet, and laided in Sicily. He ravaged almoft the
whole ef that ifland, and made a vaft booty, but was unable
to effeft the cor.queft of Palermo. The objetf ol this
prince was to render himfelf formidable by fea ; and he fuc-
ceeded fo completely, that the eaftern and weftern emperors,
Theodoiius and Vaientinian, thought it neceflary to join
againft him. They fitted out a powerful fleet, with a large
army, deftined for the recovery of Africa ; but Genferic
deluded them by propofals of accommodation, and the
irruption of the Huns obliged Theodofius to recal his
forces. V/hen Maximus afcended the weftern throne, lie
compelled Endoxi:i, the widow of Vaientinian HI., to
mar. y him ; (lie in a (liort t me fecretly apphed for the dan-
gerous aid of Genferjc to free her from his tyranny. He,
feizing the occafion, appeared at the mouth of the Tiber
with a numerous fleet ; and in the conteft Maximus was
llain, which afforded Genferic an opportunity of marching
to tiie gates of Rome,^ where he was admitted almoft without
Qppofition. For fourteen days the city was abandoned to
all the licentioufnefs of a barbarian foldiery ; and on his
return he carried away an immenfe quantity of trcafure,
befides multitudes of captives, chiefly of the female fex,
among whom were the emprefs and her two daughters, one
of whom he married to his fon Hunneric ; and after the
lapfe of feveral years, he reftored the other and hei mother
tftt.Ug.ir. native place. Qenferlc. continued to annex to liis

GEN

dominion the remaining Roman provinces in Afnca; and
then fent a fleet, confifting of fixty gallies, into the Itahan
fea, which was deftroyed. But the lofs of his fhips djd
not prevent him from renewing his ravages on the coaft of
Italy, till his power received a fevere check from the em-
peror Majorian, who now began to aft on the offenfire, and
formed the fpirited refolution of attacking the Vandals, in
Africa. He fitted out a formidable fleet for the purpofe,
wliich obliged Genferic to fue for peace. His fuit being
rejecled, he fent out a fquadron, which coming unawares
upon the Roman navy, in the bay of Carthagena, almoft de-
Rroyed it. Peace was now made between the two warriors,
the terms of which were obferved till the death of Majo-
rian, in 461. After this, Genferic prepared to repeat his
aggrefiioiis, and he again ravaged the coafts of Italy and
Sicily, and even took pofleflion of Sardinia. He extended
his hoftilities to all parts of the Mediterranean, and fre-
quently indulged in afts of the moft brutal atrocity. At
one time he is reported to have maflacred five hundred noble
citizens of Zacynthus, and to have thrown their dead bodies
into the fea. Leo, the eaftern emperor, refolvcd to make an
effort to free his dominions from this terrible fcourge, and
made vaft preparations for the invafion of Africa. The
conduft of the expedition was given to Bafilifcus, who
might have extinguiftied for ever the kingdom of the Van-
dals, had he fcized the moment of confternation, and boldly
advanced to the capital. Genferic beheld the danger with
firmnefs, and eluded it with his veteran dexterity. He
profeffed himfelf ready to fubmit his perfon and dominions
to the will of the emperor; but requefted a truce of five-
days to regulate the terms of his fubmiffion. Bafilifcus
confented to the fatal truce ; and during the fhort interval,
the wind became favourable to the defigns of Genferic.
He manned his largeft ftiips of war with the braveft of the
Vandals and Moors ; and they towed after them many large
barks filled with combuftible materials. In the obfcurity of'
the night thefe deftruftive vefTels were impelled againft the
unguarded and unfufpefting fleet of the Romans, who
were foon awakened to a fenfe of their inftant danger.
"Their clofe and crowded order," fays the hiftorian,.
" affifted the progrefs of the. fire, which was communicated
with rapid and irrefiltible violence ; and the ncife of the ■
wind, the crackling of the flames, the diflbnant cries of the
foldiers and mariners, who could neither command, nor obey,
increafed the horror of the nofturnal tumult." Bafilifcus
returned inglorioufly to Conftantinople with the remainder
of his fhattered fleet ; and thus the fruits of all this mighty
effort were loft. Genferic put to fea, recovered Sardinia,
which had been taken from him, reduced Sicily and all the
itlands between Italy and Africa, and became a greater
terror to the empire than ever. In 476, he made a peace
with Odoacer, king of Italy, to whom he reftored Sicily,
but on condition of receiving tribute. . The emperor Zeno
likewife relinquiflied to him and his fuccefTors all claims to
the African provinces. Genferic died in the year 477. In
his early youth he had renounced the orthodox communion;
and as an apoftate he could neither grant nor expeft a
fincere forgivenefs. He was exafperated to find that the
Africans, who had fled before him in the field, fti'l prefiimed
to difpute his will in fynods and churches ; and his ferocious
mind was incapable of fear, or of com.paflion. His catholic
fubjecls he oppreffcd with intolerant laws, and arbitrary
punilhments. The language of Genferic was furious and
formidable ; the knowledge of his intentions might juftify
tke mofl unfavourable iuterj»retatioi\ of his adions ; and
7. tlic

GEN

GEN

the Allans were reproached with the frequent executions
which ftained tlie palace, and the dominions of the tjTant,
Gibbon. Univer. Hill.

GENTIAH, in Geography, 3 town of Afia, in the
counti-y of Aflani; 370 miles jE. of Patna. N. lat. 25^ 10'.
E. long. 92' 10'.

GENTIAN, in Garilening, the common name of a large
hardy perennial herbaceous pla!:t, which has a root that
affords an extremely llrong bitter. See Gen'tiaxa.

GENTIANA, in Botany, -/^i^'**" of the Greeks,
named after Gentius, a king of Illyria, who is faid to have
difcovered it, or at lead to have firft experienced its virtues
as a cure lor the plague, which infefted his army. Gentian,
or Fell-wort. Tlie latter name, we prefume, is derived from
J'el, gall, alluding to its extreme bitternefs, and not from
fell, the north-country appellation of a mountain. It there-
fore ought to be, as Gerarde writes it, Fel-wort. — Linn.
Gen. 126. Sclueb. 175. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1331. Mart.
ISlill. Did. V. 2. Sm. Fl. Brit. 284. Julf. 141. Lamarck
Illullr. t. IC9. Gaertn. t. 1 14. Clafs and order, PentanJrla
Digyn'ia. {Monogynia ; Lamarck.) Nat. Ord. Rotacen,
Linn. GeiiUana, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Ciil. Perianth inferior, in five deep, oblong,
acute, permanent fcgments. Cor. of one petal, tubular in
the lower part, without pores ; in the upper five-cleft, re-
gular, various in form and direclion, withering. Slam. Fi-
laments five, awl-lhaped, fliorter than the corolla, connefted
with its tube ; anthers oblong, fimple, fometimes united
into a cylinder. PiJ}. Germen fuperior, ovate or oblong,
cylindrical, as long as the ftamens ; ftyles none ; ftigmas
t.vo, ovate, recurved. Perlc. Capfule oblong, roun.difh,
pointed, (lightly cloven at the fummit, of one cell and two
concave inflexed valves. Seeds numerous, fmall, flattiili.
Receptacles two, affixed longitudinally to each valve.

Efl". Ch. Corolla tubular at the bafe, deftitute of nefta-
riferous pores. Capfule fuperior, of one cell and two valves,
with many feeds.

Obf. The figure of the fruit is conflant, but the corolla
is very different in different fpecies, being either wheel-
Ihaped, bell-fhaped, or funnel-fliaped. In fome there
are fm^ll intermediate fegments, in others a fringe to
the corolla ; in fome it is plaited, in others plain. A few
fpecies have a four-cleft tetrandrous flower ; but the remark
in Linn. Gen. 176, that there is a fpecies with three addi-
tional parts of the flower, alludes to Chlora, once reckoned
a Gen'uina. Linnxus has crafed the line from his own copy,
and his editors might eafily have made the fame correction.
G. lutea, and fom.e others, however, have frequently a fu-
perabundance of divifions and ftamens in a few of their
tloffoms. — The upper part of the germen fo much refembles
a rtyle, that Lamarck has perhaps offered no great vio-
lence to nature, or the Linnaean. fyllem, in confidering it
fuch.

This very noble and beautiful genus of herbaceous plants
is chiefly of alpine origin, where the lovely blue flowers of
many fpecies enamel the turf in a moft fplendid manner.
Moil are perennial, fome few annual. All are intenfely
Ijitter in flavour, efpecially the roots of the larger perennial
kinds, G. lutea, Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 156, which is the
officinal Gentian ; purpurea, Fl. Dan. t. 50, which is the
Curfuta of the Edinburgh Phannacopoeia ; pannonica, Jacq.
Auft;r. t. 136 ; punSata, ibid, app, t. 28 ; and campanulala,
t. 29. Thcfe are fcarcely even feen in gardens, except the
firlt, which is not ealily eilablilhed ; but few plants are more

ftatcly and ornamental. The North American G.f<!(,ona-
ria. Curt. Mag. t. 1039 > ^^^ ^^'^ alpine afclepiadea,
t. 1078, are both very handfome, and we have found the latter
thrive for many years in a bed of peat, earth and loam, as
well as on its native mountains. See Curt. Mag. — G. acaulis.
Curt. Mag. t. 52. Engl. Bot. t. 1594, is one of the mod
common in ^rdens, but requires rather a pure air. G. "ver-
na, nearly allied to it in habit and beauty, fee Engl. Bot.
t. 493, though wild m the mountainous parts of Durham, and
abundant on the Swifs and Italian Alps, will fcarcely live in
a garden at all. G. Pneumotunlhe, ibid. t. 20, found on
turfy heaths in many places, is likewife very handfome, and
rather impatient of culture. We have never feen the cul-
ture of the annual kinds attem.pted ; fuch are nivaH:,
Engl. Bot. t. 896 ; Amarclla, t. 236 ; and campejlris,
t- 237.

LinnKus was by no means well acquainted with the differ-
ent fpecies of this genus, having never vifited the more
fouthern alps of Europe, where a'one they are to be fludicd
to advantage. Hence his -verr.a and bavarica are one fpecies,
and he confounded v. ith lutea, w hich he leems never to have
feen, or at leall to have afterwards forgotten, the G. Jlori-
bus termhiantibus d'taphanh, Gmel. Sib. v. 4. ic6 ; G. algtda,
Pallas. RofF. t. 95. Hence the erroneous remark urder
lutea, " petala pun£tis fparhs creberrimis, flava." There is
fome doubt whether G. feptemf.da, Sims in Curt. Mag.
t. 1229, be thefameas Pallas's t. 92. f. 3. In the former the
flower appears to us very rarely, if ever, witli more than
five divifions, nor do the habits of th.e two figures accord.
Willdenow has fifty-fix fpecies of Ger.t'una, fome of which
among the annual kinds we are not able to determine to our
fatisfadlion. He quotes a monograph by Froehch, which
appears to have great merit, but which has not come to our
hands. — Six fpecies only of this genus are wild in Britain,
the Chlora and Chironia being now, with the greateft pofljblc
propriety, feparated from it.

Gextiana, in Gardening, coraprlfes plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial, flowery kind ; of which the Ipecies
cultivated are the yellow gentian (G. luted) ; Ipotted flower-
ed gentian {Q. punflata) ; fwallow-wort-leaved gentian (G.
afclepiadea) ; and the dwarf gentian, or gentianella.

Method of Culture In the three firft forts it is eafily cf-

fefted by fowing the feeds in pots foon after it is ripe, as when
kept till fpring it will not fucceed : the pots (hould be placed
in a ihadv fituation, and kept clean from weeds. Som.e ad-
vife their being fown where they are to rem.ain, but the firft
is probably the beft method. In the fpring the plants ap-
pear, when they muft be duly watered in dry weather, and
kept clean from weeds till the following autumn ; then be
carefully fliaken out of the pots, fo as not to break or in-
jure their roots ; and a fliady border of loamy earth fhould
be well dug and prepared to receive them, into which they
fiiould be put at about i^x inches diftance each way, the tops
of the roots being kept a httle below the furface of the
ground, and the earth prefTed clofe to the roots. If the fol-
lowing fpring prove dry, they fhould be duly watered to for-
ward their growth. I'he plants may remain here two years,
by which time they will be fit to tranfplant where they are
defigned to grow, removing them in th.e autumn as foon as
their leaves decay ; great care being taken in digging them
up not to cut orbreak their roots, astiiat greatly wtakensthem.
They require afterwards no other culture but todig the ground
about tiiem early in the fpring before they begin to Ihoot,
and in the fummer to keep them clean from weeds. The
ryots continue many years, but the ft.-Uks decay every autumn ;
' ' M 2 the

GEN

the fame roots not flowering two years together, or feldom
oftener than every third. When they flower ftrong, they
have, however, a fine appearance among other iimilar
plants.

In refpcft to the kft fort it is mollly propagated by off-
fets or parting the roots, and planting them where they are
to remain in the early autumn ; but in order to have the plants
flower well, they {hould not be often tranfplanted or parted.
A'nd they are aifo capable of being raifed from feeds ma-
naged in the fame way as in the tirft kinds.

All thefe plants fucceed the niofl pcrfeflly in nioil>
loamy foils, where there is adegrceof fhade afiordt:<l.

They are ufeful as ornamental plants, for the clumps, bor-
ders, and quarters of pleafnre-grounds ; thofe of low
growth being planted towards the fronts, and the latter kinds
more backward in them.

Gen-tiaxa, Gentian, in the Matci-ia Mrdicn. Tlie i-oot,
which is the only medicinal part of the plant, has little or
no fmcll, but to the tafte it mariifells great bitterneis ; a
quality which iscxtrafted by aqueous, fpirititous, and vinous
mcnllrua, though not in fo 'great a degree by water as by
fpirit; and the extract of this root, prepared from the
watery infufion, is lefs bitter than that made from the fpiri-
tuous tinfturc. Gentian is the principal bitter nov/ employ-
ed by phyficians ; and as the intcnfe bitters are generally ad-
mitted to be not only tonic and llomachic, but alfo anthel-
mintic, antifeptic, emmenagogue, antiarthritic, and febri-
fuge, this root has a better claim to the poflefTion of thefe
powers than mod of this kind. Many difpeptic complaints,
though arifmg from debility of the ftomach, are more effec-
tually relieved by bitters than by Peruvian bark ; and hence
■may be inferred their fuperior tonic power on the organs of
digeftion ; but we are told by Dr. Cullen (Mat. Med. vol. ii.)
that the gentian, joined with equal parts of tormentil or
galls, conitantly fuccceded in curing interniittents, if given
in fuilicient quantity. As a fimple bitter the gentian is ren-
dered more grateful to the flomach by the addition of an aro-
matic : and for this purpofe orange-peel is commonly employ-
ed. The officinal preparations of this root are, the " in-
fufum gentians conipofitnm,"' and " tinftura gentians com-
pofita," (Ph. Lond.) and the '' infnfum amarum,'' " vinum
•amarum," " tinctura amara," five " elixir ftomachicum"
(Ph. Ed.) which latter is faid by Dr. Cullen to be the fame
as Stoughton's elixir, (fee Sioniai-/j/c Y^LWin) and by both
Pharmacopoeias the extraft is direfted. The " compound in-
fufion'' is prepared by taking gentian root diced and orange-
peel dried, of each a dram, of frefli lemon-peel two drams,
and boiling water twelve ounces ; and macerating for an
hour in a covered vcil'el, and then ilraining tlie liquor.
For the " tinfture," take of gentian root dried, two ounces,
orange-peel dried, an ounce, cardamom feed bruifed, half an
ounce, and proof fpirit two pints; macerate for four-
teen days, and ifrain. For the " extract,'' take of gentian-
root fliced, a pound, and boiling water, a gallon ; macerate
for twenty-four houi-s, then boil down to four pints; flram
the hot liquor, and evaporate it to a proper confiftence.
The extrafts are made in.to pills, with or \\ithout aix)matic
additions. Wines and malt liquors are likewife impregnated
with the virtues of this root in different proportions. An
ounce of the gentian root, the fame quantity of frefh le-
mon-peel, and two drams of long pepper, communicate by
maceration, without heat, a grateful warmth and bitternefs
to a quart of mountain. There is an Indian gentian brought
from America by the Portuguefe, of a pale yellovvifli colour,
jgintcd and marked with knots and circles like ipecacahuna,

GEN

more intenfely bitter than any of the ofRcinal bitter drugs.
This root is greatly commended in obllinate intermittents,
and other diforders ; a ieruple is faid to be more effeftual
tlian repeated half drams of bai'k.

There was a mixture of henbase root brought over fome
years ago with the connnon gentian, which occafioned vio-
lent diforders, and in iome initances proved fatal.

This root is of a paler colour than gentian, and its longi-
tudinal wrinkles liner and clofer ; the poifonous root, when
cnl, app'.-ars white, without any degree of the yellow hue,
wlijch is deep in gentian ; and its taile is not bitter, but mu-
cilaginous. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. p. 240. Leuis's Mat.
Med. WoodviUe's Mat. Med.

Gentian Water. See Water.

GENTIANiE, the forty-fixth natural order of plants in
Juflicu's fyftem, or the thirteen h of his eighth clafs, fo
named from the principal genus contained in it. The cha-
rafter of this eighth clafs is Cotyledons two. Flwzuers of fine
petal, inferted below the germen, regular or irrcrrular. Ca-
Ivx oi one leaf. Stamens of a definite- number, inierted into
th.e corolla, and ufually alternate with its divifions, when
they agree in number. Gcrmsn fuperior, fimple ; flyle one,
(fonietimes none in the jlpoctneee, with a double germen) ;
fligma fimple or divided. FruH fuperior, confiiling either
of naked feeds, or for the moft part enclofed, either in a
pidpy or a capiular feed-vefiel, of one or many cells.

The charafters of the Gentlants are thefe. Calyx divided,
permanent. Corolla regular, often withering before it falls,
with a limb equally divided, whofe fegments agree in num-
ber with thofe of the calyx and are moft commonly live,
fometimes oblique. Stamens as many, inferted into the mid-
dle or upper part of the corolla ; anthers incumbent. Style
one, or rarely, by fplitting, double ; ftigma fimple orlobed.
Capfule fimple or of two parts, of two valves, and one or two
cells, the valves inflexed at the margin, involute where
there is but one cell, flat arid confUtuting the partition whert
there are two. ferij numerous, fmall, inferted into a mar-
ginal receptacle connected with the valves. Stem herba-
ceous, rarely fomewhat flirubby. Leaves oppofite, nioflly
undivided and feflile ; floral ones occafionally fmallcr, re-
fembling brafteas, the flowers in fuch cafe becoming, as it
were, doubly bratleated. — The firft fctfion has a fimple cap-
fule, of one cell, and contains Gent'iana, Lita of Schreber
(Vohirla of Aublct,) Pkrhim of Schreber (Cciitouleuoi Aw-
blet), Siuertia and Chlora ; the fecond, with a fimple cap-
fule of two cells, contains Exacum, Lifantki/s, Myrmecia of
Schreber [Tach'ia of Aiiblct), Ckironia and NIgrina ,■ the
third with a didymous or two-lobed caj-fule of two cells,
contains only Spigel'ta and Oph'iorrh'rza. In a fourth fcdtion
ftandsas a kintothis order,by itrelf,A''/r™fi'/-i!of Sch.-cbe^(Po-
to&of Aublet.) The plants of this natural order are chiefly
remarkable for their intenfe bitternefs, and confequent llo-
machic virtues. Their flowers are ufually beautiful, either
blue, yellow or red, fcarcely wliite, except by occafional
variation of the bhie or red.

GENTIANELLA, in Gardening, the comn.on name of
the dwarf gentian, and which properly fignifies the link "Lil-
lian, which has a broad leaf and large flower. See Genua-
NA.

GENTILE, Gentilis, a pagan, or perfon who adores
falfe gods. The Hebrews applied the name XZ.''''y' g''"tes,
nations, to all the people of the earth who were not Ifraelites
or Hebrews.

Some will have it that the gentiles were thus called in con-
tradiltindion to the Jews, becaufe the latter lad a pofitive

law

GENTILE.

law to obferve in mattert of n-ligion, whereas the gentiles forming facrifices or worfliipping images. Three other fawg
had only the natural law : hence they are called " gentiles, of Conllantius were alfo publifhed in the year 356 or 357,
quia funt uti geniti fuerunt,'' becaufe they remain ss in a ftate with the penalty of death againft all who confultcd any of

the maflcrg of divination, who are enumerated under ihtir

q

of nature

The Jews apply the denomination gentiles much as the
Chrlllians do that of infidels. St. Paul is called the doHar,
or nf'nj)!- of ihc ^fnul's, w hich appellation he firft gave him-
felf, Rom. xi. 13. " As I am the apoiUe of the gentiles,
I magnify niLic office.''

The calling of tlie gentiles to Chrilliaiiity had been pre-
difted in the Old 'iVllanicnt, as it was accompliflied in the
New. See Pfal. ii. 8. Ifa. ii. .To?l ii. 29. Matth. viii. 11.
sii. 18. Afts, xi. 18. xiii. 47, 48.xxviii. 28. Rom. i. 5. iii.
29. xi. 1 2, 13. 25. Eph. ii. 1 1. Rev. xi. 2. xxii. 2.

feveral titles of harufpices, mathematicians, Chaldxans, La-
rioli, augurs, vatcs, and magicians. The empt ror Julian is
well known for his zial in favour of gentilifm, and for his in-
jurious treatment of the Chriilians. At his acceifion we may
reafonably fuppofe, tliat all the laws of preceding Chriilian
emperors againft gentilifm and its rites, were abrogated,
and that it was adually ellabliflied by imperial edifts ; whiHl
Chriftians were deprived of magittracy, and all honours and
dignities, as well as alfo ot equal rights of citi/.enfhip. The
emperors Jovian, Valcntinian, and Valens were ChriHians \

Some account may not be improperly given in this place of and they encouraged their fubjetls in the profeffiou of Chrif-

the ftate of Chrillianity both before an J atter tlie time of Con-
ilantiiie's converhon. Tlie oppoiition of the Jews to its
reception and prevalence appears in the Aiils of Apoftles, and
theepiRles of the New Tellament. Our prefent objeft is to
confider, firll, the Hate of its progrefs in gentile countries,
and under heathen emperors, from about the middle of the
firft century, when it began to be preached among the gen-
tiles, and to make fome progrefs among them, to the period
when Conftantine embraced the Chriitian religion ; and, fe-
condlv, its ftatc under the Chriilian emperors, and their
treatment by the gentiles. In the former period, we find from
St. Luke's account in the Afts of the Apoftles (ch. xiv.
19, 20. ch. xvi. 19 — 24.) that St. Paul met with fome diffi-
culties in preaching the gofpel in gentile cities ; but no impe-
rial edifts were i.Tued againft the Chridians, before that of
Nero in the year of Chrift 64 or 65, at which time the two
apoftles, Peter and Paul, were put to death. For an ac-

tianity, and protefted them in the enjoyment of the privi-
leges conferred upon them by Conftantine : but it does not
appear that during this period any new laws were iflued
againft gentiles and their facrifices. Jovian, indeed, pub-
lilheda law of univerfal toleration ; and Valentinian was re-
markable for the moderation of his governrrmnt. In the year
381 was iftued a law of Theodofius, with the joint autho-
rity of Gratian, and the younger Valentinian, enacting,
that apoftates from Chrillianity to paganifm fiiould lofe the
power of making a will. This law was aftcr.vards ratiiicd,
and followed by other laws of Theodolius the Great, Valen-
tinian the Younger, Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodofius II.,
with the addition of otlier claufes. In the fame year, 38 1,
and by the fame authority, was enabled a law, for-
bidding all facrifices in the way of divination, either
by day or by night, in the temples or elfewhere, upo.-i
the painof profcription. By another law of Theodofius, in

count of the ten perfecuiions, as they have been ufually the following year, the magnificent temple in the province of

reckoned, which the Chriilians fuffered under heathen empe-
rors, we refer to the article Persecution. Thefe perfecutions
were ordei-ed by edifts of emperors, beginning with Nero's
and ending with Dioclefian's. During the whole of this
period Chriftianity had been in a ftate of perfecution. At
the commencement of the fecond period, in 313, Conftan-
tine and Licinius iilued a law or edift, giving hberty to all
men, Chriftians and others, to follow that way of worihip
which Ihould be moft agreeable to them. However, it ap-
pears that Conftantine did not ftriclly obferve his own edict ;
for, according to the utmoft of his power, by various me-
thods, by laws, inftitutions, rewards and encouragements, he
endeavouredto rootout the ancient rehgion, and to promote the
Ciiriftian doftrine. Conceiving that neither he nor the Ro-
man empire could be fafe, as long as the ancient fu- laws were publiftied by Theodofius the younger againft all

Ofrhoenc, or Edeffa, wa" allowed to be open, and to be fre-
quented, provided no facrif.ces were perforn.ed there. In
3S5 Theodofius publifhed another law, forbidding facrifices,
efpecially fuch as were made in the way of divinat.on, and
for diicovering futurities, upon painof death. In 391 was
publiftieda lav,' of Theodofius, in which all lacrifices of inno-
cent victims, and accefs to the tem| les, and the worihip of
fenfelefs images, are prohibited. This law was particularly
deligned for Rome and Italy ; and in the fame year a fimi-
lar law was publilhed for Egypt, forbidding facrifices and
accefs to temples. In 392 was puhliilied a fevere law of
Theodofius, forbidding lO men of all ranks every kind of
heathenilh worfiiip ; and in 399 Arcadius pubiillied a law
for deftroying temples in country places. Several other

perftition fubfifted, he openly oppofed the gods of the gen-
tiles, and their worfhip, as dangerous to the public welfare.
After the death of Conftantine in the year 337, the whole
empire was divided between his fons. Conftans, with whom
his brother ConC.antius concurred, palTed a law in 341, or-
dering fuperftition to ceafe, and the madiiefs of facnficing
to be aboliftied ; under the menace of a proper and convtmcnt
punilhment. This law was followed by another la.v of
Conftans in the next year, 342, forbidding the demohtion

Pagan oblations and facrifices, and ordering tlie deiiruClion
of chapels, temples, and confecrated places. Neverthelefs
gentilifm ftill fublilled. Upon the whole it may be obferved,
that the period of 20 or 25 years, from the death of Coi»-
ttantiusto theacceilion of Theodofius, or thereabout, is re-
markable for the mildncfs with which the gentiles 'were
treated, and the fev.- laws that were iffutd againii them ; and
thefe laws againft gentilifm were not rigoroully executed j
but many gentiles were admitted into civil offices of grcit trult

of temples, which itood without the walls of the city of and profit ; and many inftances occur, whichevince the modcra-

Rome. Another law, wiiich was the firft of Conftantius, and tion of Chriftian magiftrates under Chriftian emperors ; and,

pafTed, as it has been fuppofed, in the year 353, ordained indeed, it is tn;e both with refpeft to Chriftians and gentiles,

that in all places, and in all cities, temples Ihould be imme- thit all wife and underftanding men of every feft and religion,

diately Ibut up, and that the people ftiould abftdin from fa- recommended moderation, and concurred in condemning force

Grifices, under the penalty of death and the confifcation of and compulfion in rehgious matters. See more on this jubjeift

their cftates to the treafury. The fecond law of Conftan- in Lardner's Works, vol. ix. 98 — 218.

tius, in the fame year, prohibited nofturnal facrifices ; and a Gentile, Gintilis, in the Roman Law and H'lf.or;), a

law, publiilied by the fame emperor in the year 356, ap- name which fometimcs expreifes thofe whom the Run.ani*

pointed capital punilhment to fuch as were convifted of per- olherwife call Barbarians ; whether they werealLcsoi Rome,

8 . 01

GEN

or not. In which fenfe the word occurs in Ammianus, Au-
'fonius, and the Notitia Imperii.

Gen'TILIS was alfo ufed, in a more peculiar fenfe, for
all ftrangers, or foreigners, not fubjcft to the Roman empire ;
as we fee in the Theodofian Code, in the title " De Nuptiis
Gentilium ;" where the word gentiles ilands oppofeJ to pro-
vinciaks, or the inhabitants of the provinces of the em-
pire.

The word is likewife ufed, in this fenfe, in the Greek;
'but it was not introduced either into that, or the Latin
tongue, till after Chriftianity was eftabliflied ; it being taken
from fciipture. See Esquire and Gkntleman.

GENTILESCHI, Orazio, in jB;'o^,-n^%, a painter, born
at Pifa in 1563. His parental name was Lonii, but he chofe
to adopt that of his maternal unci-. He lirft learnt the arc
under his half brother Aurelio Lomi, but afterwards ftudied

GEN

cipal profeffor of law. His fame extended very far, and he
received invitations to fettle at feveraluniverfities, and one from
pope Clement VIII. to fettle at Bologna, which he declined.
He died at Altdorf in 1616, leaving behind him many works
as monuments of his deep erudition. Thefe were after-
wards collefted and printed in 8 vols. 410. ; they are chiefly
on fubjedls connefted with jurilprtidence. As a teach.er, his
manner was clear and interefting. He was a good Latin
poet, and tranflated feveral of the Pfalms, and the hrll two
cantos of Taflo's Jerufalem. Bayle.

GENTILIS, Gentii.is, was born at Fohgni, in Italy,
about the year 1230. He Itudied medicine under the tui-
tion of Thaddeus of Florence, with great diligence and rt;-
.putation, fo that on his return to his native fdace he was re-
garded by his fellow-cidzens as the firll pliyfician of the
time ; and his fame foon extended through Italy. He was

at Rome. After diflingui.'hing himfelf at Florence, Turin, 'alfo efteemed one of the beft commentators upon Avicenna,

and Genoa, he paffed to Savoy and France, and thence was
invited into England by Charles I. who gave him lodgings,
and a confiderable falai-y ; and employed him in painting ceil-
ings, &c. at Greenwich. He was alfo employed by Villiers,
duke of Buckinghp.m, at York Houfe, on a picture of him-
felf and his family. After refiding here abo'.it twelve years,
he died at the age of 84 in 1647. The clearnefs and bril-
liancy of the ftyle in which he painted may be feen to the
greateil perfection in a piiture at Hampton Court of Jofeph
and Fotiphar's wife. Fle made king Charles a prefent of
a large book of drawings, and was deiervedly refpefted and
admired for his abilities.

Gentileschi, Autemi.sia, daughter of Orazio, and
his pupil, who obtained almoll as much (kill and credit as
her father. She followed him to England, where fhe prac-
tifed in portraits with great fuccefs. She alfo cxercifed her
talents in hiftoric?! painting, and has left many highly credit-
able works behind her.

Her pifture of Judith with the head of Holofernes at St.
James's palace, is in the fame ftyle of defign as her father's,
but though very (Icilful, is not fo bright, or fo finely wrought
as his pictures ufually are. After the death of Orazio, (he
retired to Naples, where Graham fays flie became as famous
for her amours as for her flcill in painting. She died in
1642.

GENTILI, Alberico, was born in 1550, at Caf-
tel S. Genefio, in the marchc of Ancona. He ftudied
the law, and took his degrees at the univerfity of
Perugia, and vsras prxtor at Afcoli, when his father, becom-
ing a convert to the reformed religion, determined to quit
Italy, and take with him his fons Alberico and Scipio.
The former, the fubjecl of this article, came to England,
and in 1582 was cholen profeffor of jurifprudenee in the uni-
verfity of Oxford, which he held with much reputation till
his death in 1608. He was a man of great learning, and
publifhed various works. One, entitled " Six Dialogues on
the Interpreters of Law,'' he dedicated to his patron the
eai-lof Leicefter. He is author of three books " De Jure
belli,'' which are highly applauded by Grotius : of three
others " De Legationibus," and feveral trafts relative to
antiquities. His " Lettiones Virgilianx" prove that he
had cultivated polite literature very fuccefsful'y. Bayle.

Gentili, Scii>io, brother of the preceding, was born
in 1563, and, while a child, was fent to Tubingen for his

whofe writings were tlien held in high veneration in moll of
the univerfities of Europe. Genlilis died at Bologna about
the year 13 10, and left feveral treatifes, which were collect-
ed and pubHfticd at Venice, in four volumes folio, in 1484,
i486, and 1492. Tlie following works were likewife print-
ed feparately : i. " Expolitiones in textu Avicennx." —
2. " De Febribus," Venice, 1484.— 3. " E:.pofitio cum
Commento ^gidii Monachi Benediftini Libri de Judiciis
Urinarum, et Libri de Pullibus." Ibid. 1494. — 4. " Confi-
lia peregregia ad qua; vis morborum totius corj)Oris genera,"
with fo me other trafts, Venice, 1503 — 5. " Quaeltiones et
Trac\atus extravagantes." Ibid. 152c. — '■. " De Lepra
Traftatus." Ibid, 1536, with the furgtry of Dinus de Gar-
bo. — 7. " De proportionibus Medicinarum,'' with diffei'ent
difl'ertations upon the fubjeft of dofes of medicines by the
mOil celebrated phyficinns, Prdua 1556, &c. See Eloy.
Diet. Hift. — Several other individuals of thefami'y of Gen-
tilis were diilinguiftied for their knowledge of medicine and
the fciences.

Gentilis, John-Valentine, was born at Cofenza in
Calabria. Educated in the principles of the Roman Catho-
lic religion, and becoming a convert to the principles of the
Reformation, he was obliged to quit his native country, and
take refuge in Geneva, where feveral Italian f imilies had al-
ready formed a congregation. His enquiries did not ftop by
the open renunciation of papal errors ; he became diffatisfied
with the orthodox doctrine of the Ti"inity. He was required
to fubfcribe to the articles of faith which the perfecutor John
Calvin had eftabliftied againft herefy, to which a prom.ife was
annexed, never to do any thing, direft'y or indirectly, that
fliould controvert the doftrine of the Trinity. At firft Gen-
tilis refufed the teft, but was afterwards prevailed on to com-
ply, dreading probably, in cafe of his refi(l?nce, a fimilar
treatment to that wliich Servetus had experienced. What
his hand had figned, and liis tongue confefled, his heart ab-
horred, and in private he did not fcruple to avow the truth,
which coming to the ears of the magiftrates, they commit-
ted him to prifon. From the dungeon he attempted to ex-
poilulate with his perfecutors, fliewing the inoffenfivenefs of
his opinions, but their hearts were fteeled againll the fuppli-
cations of a heretic, till he offered to abjure his errors, con-
fented to throw his writings into the fire, and take an oath not
to quit Geneva without leave of the magiftrates. Being thus,
in a meafure, freed from fufpicion, and feeling confcious that

education. Here he diftinguiflied himfelf in the ftudy of the he would be juftified in breaking an oath which had been ex-
clalTics and jurifprudenee, which he afterwards purfued torted by terror, he withdrew from the city, but finding no

with increafing fuccefs at the univerfities of Vv''ittemberg
and Lcyden. In 1589 he took his degree of doCtor at Bafil,
and then went to Witteiuberg as a public expounder of the
iaw. Shortly after he removed to Altdorfj and became prin-

place of fafty hQ returned, was again imprifoned, but in a
ftiort time liberated. From this period he feems to have
wandered from place to place, and we find him at Lyons, in
various parts of Poland and Germany, in Savoy, and at laft

at

I

GEN

at Befn, wKerc lie was accufed of hercfr. He underwent a
long and tedious trial, and bcin^ conviftcd of obllinately
oppugning the myftcry of the Trinity, he was fcntenced to
lofe his head. This fentence was carried into execution,
but death, which, at a greater dillance, fecncd fo formida-
ble to him, was now difarmed of his terror?, and by a manly
fortitude he was enabled to triuraph over his enemies, who
expcfted that his mind was ill-adapttd to fo trying a fccne ;
Jiis lad moments were probi-.bly the happicft of his life. He
died exulting that he was thought worthy of fuffering for
the caufe of truth, and that he was admitted to feal, with
his blood, the doftrine of the fupremacy and unrivalled glo-
ry of the Fatlitr. Moreri. Bayle.

GENTILITIA, Sacka, among the Romans. See
Sacr.a.

GENTILITIUS, an epithet ufed by feme authors to
exprefs difeafes propagated fron. father to ion, and running
through whole families ; fuch as are more ufually called here-
ditary diforders. Such are the gout very frequently, and
often many others.

GENTILLET, Valentine, in Biography, a native of
Dauphine, who flourilhed in the fixtecnth century. He had
in early life iludied jurifprudence, and was a civilian by pro-
feffion. He was an advocate in the parliament of Touloufe,
and afterwards a fyndic of the republic of Geneva, and at
one period of his life he was prefident of the parliament of
Grenoble. He became diilinguidied by his writings agninft;
popery, but by the edifis publifhed in France againft; thofe
of the reformed religion, he was driven into exile. His
principal works are, " An Apology for the Proteilants,"
v.hich went through feveral editions in the French, and was
afterwards tranuated into Latin and enlarged, under the title
of " Apologia pro Chriftianis Gallis Religionis, Evangelicae
feu Reformats, qua docetur hujus Religionis fundamenta
in Sacra Scriptura jacla efTe :" and " Le Bureau du Concile
de Trente, &c." This was printed in French in 15S6, and
in the fame year a Latin tranflation of it was pubhfhec, which
was frequently reprinted at different places. Its defign is to
flicw that mmy of the decrees of that council were contrary
to the ancient councils and canons. He was author alfo of
" Anti-machiavel,' and the " Anti-focinus." Bayle.

GENTIMANETOUR, in Gcogmphy, a town of Hin-
doollan, in the Carnatic ; 30 miles W. of Cuddalore.

GENTIOUX et P,\LLlEn, a town of France, in the
department of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton in
the diftrict of AubufTon ; 9 miles S.W. of Felletin. The
place contains 907, and the canton 6,507 inhabitants, on a
territory of 327.5 kilioinetres, in 8 communes.

GENTLE Pit Ore, in Mineralogy, a name given by
oar miners in SufTex, to a kind of iron ore found in
confiderablc plenty in that county, and very readily running
in the fire, though not over rich in metal. It is a ftrong
fubftance, and lies in feveral parts of that county in form of
a moderately thick ftratum. It is of a duiky brown colour,
and in feme places much paler than in ethers. It has al-
ways a great number of glittering fpangles in it, and
ver)' often contains foffile fhells, and other extraneous fub-
ftances in it. ,

GENTLEMAN, a perfonof good family, or di-fcended
of afiimily which has long borne arms, the grant of which
avlds gentility to a man's family.

The word is formed of the French ginlUhomtm, or rather
of gcntil, fine, fajhionahk, or becoming ; and the S:ixon man,
q. d. hor.efljs, or honejlo loco rutins. The fame figuiiication
has the Italian genliihuomo, and the Sp.-miili hidalgo, or hijo-
dalgo, that is, the fon of fomebody, or of a perlon of note.
If we go farther back, we iliall fiud gentleman onj^inally

GEN

derived from the Latin grntilis homo, which \ras ufed amon J
the Romans for a race of noble pcrfons, of th» fame name,
born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofc anceftors had
never been Haves, or put to death by law. Thus Cicero, in
his Topics, " gentiles funt, qui inter fe eodcm funt nomine ab
ingenuis oriisndi, quorum majonim nemo fcrvitutem fervivit,
qui capite r.on funt diminuti, &c." Some hold that it was
formed from gentile, i. c. pagan ; and that the ancient Franks,
who conquered Gaul, which was then converted to Chrif-
tianity, were called gentiles by the natives, as being yet hea-
thens. Others relate that towards the declenfion of the Ro-
man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcc-lliinis, there
were two companies of brave foldiers ; the one called gen-
tilium, and the oiYiar fcu/arioriim ; and that it was hence we
derived the names gentleman and efquirc. This fentiment ij
coufirm.ed by Pafcpiier, who fuppofes the appellation gentiles
and ccuyers to have been tranfmittcd to us from the Roman
foldiery ; it being to the gentiles and feutarii, who were tlie
bravefl of the foldiery, that the principal benefices and por-
tions of lands v>'ere afligned. (See Benefice.) The
Gauls obferving, that during the empire of the Romans,
\\\e fcularii and gentiles had the beft tenements, or appoint-
ments of all the foldiers on the frontiers of the provinces,
became infenfihly accullomed to apply the fame names, gen^
tilhnmmes, and ecuyers, to fuch as they found their kings gave
the beft provilions or appointmeuts to. Pafq. Rech. lib. ii.-
cap. 15.

■ In llridtnefs, Chamberlayne obferves, a gentleman is one
whofe ancellors have been freemen, and have owed obedience
to none but their prince : on which footing, no man can be
a gentleman who is not born fo.

Among us, the term gentleman is applicable to all above
yeomen ; fo that noblemen may be properly called gentle-
men.

In our {\.2.t\i.tei, gentilis homowz'; adjudged a good additioi>
for a gentleman, 27 Edw. III. The addition of knight is
very ancient : but th;it of efquire, or gentleman, v.as rare'
before i Hen. V.

We read that J. Kingfton was made a gentleman by king"
Richard II.

As it may juftly be aflced what conftitutcs a gentleman;
with us ? the reply is eafy ; being a gentleman, is being en-
titled to bear arms. And Mr. Camden obferves, tl'.at the
diftinclion of a gentleman of coat -armour, or an upltart, and
a gentleman of blood, is the bearing of arms from the grand-
father ; and that he wh.o bears arms from his grancfather i'.
to all intents and purpofes a genllt-man of blcod ; for which
caufe it is requiiite by the ilatules of the Bath that every
knightj before liis admifiion, proves himfelf to be fo qualified,
which done, it carries with it, if his merit be equal, a palT-
port alfo to the order of the Garter. Notitia Anghcana, .
p. 24. See 1U0 Doddridge's Honour's Pedigree, p. 147.-
Smith, De Rcpubl. Angl. & Fortefcue, fol. 82.

Guillin., in his chapter of gentlemen, fays, that the)-
have their beginning eitijer of blood, as being born of wor-
Ihiptul parents ; or that they have done fomething, either in
peate or war, whereby they deierve to bear arms, and be ac-
counted gentlemen. He farther fays, chap. xs.iv. if a gen-
tleman be bound apprentice to a merchant or other trader,
he hath not thereby loft his gentility ; and he defires it may
be remembered, for the honour of trade, that king Henry
VIII. thought it no dilhonour to him, when he quitted his
qu>en, to take to his wife Anne, the daughter of Thomas
Bullen, fome time mayor of I..ondoa. Tu which may be
add d the thought, that tlie firll Wiiham, who founded our
royal race, was the grandfon of a tanner.

Sir Edward Coke fays, that efquires and gentlemen are

only.

GEN

'Piilr nan\cs of woifliip, and not of dignity. And before
thefe the heralds rank all colonels, ferjeants at k\v, and
dodors in the three leained profeffions. See Prece-

DEN'CE.

Sir Thomas Smith (ubi fupra) fays, that whofoever ftu-
dieth the law r. of the realm, or lludieth in the univerfity, or
profcfTeth the liberal faiences ; and (in (hort) who can live
idly, and witliout manual labour, and will bear the port,
charge, and countenance of a gentleman, fliiill be called
mafter, and (liall be taken for a gentleman.

Gentleman Ufier of the Black Rod, is the chief gentle-
man ufher to the king, called in the black book " Lator vir-
gx nigra:, et haftiarius," and elfevvhere " Virgasbajulus." His
duty is to bear the rod before the king at the feart of St.
George at Windfor ; he has alfo the keeping of the chapter-
lioufe door, when a chapter of the order of the garter is
fitting ; and in time of parliament attends the houfe of
peers. His badge is a "black rod," with a lion in gold at
top. This rod has the authority of a mace ; and to his
cuftody all peers queftioned for any crime are firft com-
mitted.

Gentleman of the Bed-chamber. See Bed-Chamber.

Gentlemen of t'le Chapel, are officers whole duty and at-
tendance are in the royal chapel, being in number thirty- ; ten
whereof are priefts, and the other twenty called clerhs of the
chapel, who alutt in the performance of Divine ferrice. One
of the firfl ten is chofen for confeffor of the houlhold,
v'hofe office it is to read prayers every morning to the houf-
hold fervants ; to vifit the lick, examine-and prepare com-
municants, and adrninifter the facramcnt.

Another, well verfed in mulic, is chofen firft organifl :
who is mailer of the children, to inflruck them in muiic, and
■what is neceflary for the fervice of the chapel : a fecond is
likewife an organitl ; a third a lutenift ; and a fourth a
violill.

There are likewife three vergers, fo called from the filver
rods they ufually carry in their hands ; being a ferjeant, yeo-
man, and groom of the veilry : the firft attends the dean
and fub-dean ; finds furplices and other neceffaries for the
chapel : the fecond has the whole care of the chapel ; keeps
the pews, and feats the nobility and gentry ; the groom
has his attendance within the chapel-door, and looks after
it.

Gentlemen Perifoneri. See Pensioners.

GENTLEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
duchv of Magdeburg ; 30 miles N.E. of Magdeburg.

GENTLEWOMAN, Generosa, is a good addition
for the eftate and degree of a woman, as generofus is for that
of a man ; and if a gentlewoman be named fpinfter in any
original writ, appeal, &c. it hath been held that fl.e may
abate, and quaili the fame. (2 Inft. 668.) But it feems that
fpinfter is in general a good addition for an unmarried wo-
man, as fingle woman is for one w!jd, being unmarried, hath
had a ballard.

GENTOOS, in Mod:i~h Hiflory, according to the com-
mon acceptation of the term, denote the profefTors of the
religion of the Bramins (fee BuACiiMANs), who inhabit the
country called Hindoolian, in the Eaft Indies, from the
word _/?/!«, a region, and h'tr.d or h'lndoo ; which Ferifhteh, as
ve learn from colonel Dow's traudition of his Hiftory,
fappoles to have been a fon of Plam, the fon of Noah. It
is obferved, however, that Hindoo is not the name by which
the inhabitants originally ilylcd themfelves, but according
to the idiom of the Shanfcrit, which they ufe, jtimbodeep,
from fumboo, a jaciall, an animal common in their country,
and diet), a large portion of land lurrounded by the fea, or
IherteUiuntf from khunt, i. e. a continent, and iherrut, the

GEN

name of on? of the Srft Indian rajahs. It is alfo obferved,
that they have afl'umed the name of Hindoos only nnce th'* .
era of the Tartar government, to dillinguiili themfelvcs
from their conquerors, the MufTulmen. The term Ger.loo,
or Ctnt, in the Shanfcrit dialedl, denotes animal in general,
and in its more confined fcnfe mankind, and is never appro-
priated particularly to fuch as follow the doftrines of Brhima.
Thefe are divided into four great tribes, each cf which has
its ov^n feparate appellation ; but they have no common or
collective term that comprehends the whole nation undci- the
idea afSxed by the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr.
Halhead, in tfie preface to his tranflation of the " Code of
Gentoo Laws," conjeftures that the Portuguefe en their firll
arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the mouths
of the natives, ss applied to mankind in general, might
adopt it for the domeftic appellation of the Indians them-
felves, or, perhaps, their bigotry might force from the word
Gentoo a fanciful allufion to gentile or pagan. The Hindoos,
or Gentoos, vie with the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their
nation. They reckon the duration of the world by four
jogaes, or diilinft ages ; the firft is the Suttee jogue, or
age of purity, which is faid to have lafted about 3,200,000
years, during which the life of man was ioo,OCO yi-ar,--, and
his ttature twenty-one cubits ; the fecond, the Tirtah jogue,
or the age in which one-third of mankind were repi'obate,
which confifted of 2,400,000 yeai-s, when men lived to the
age of lo,oco years ; the third, the Dwapaar jogue, in
which half the human race became depraved, which endured
to 600,000 years, when mens' lives were reduced to i,coo
years ; and fourthly, the Collee jogue, in which all mankind
wei-e corrupted, or rather diminifhed, which the word ccHe
imports. This is the prefclit era, which they fuppofe will
fublllt for 400,000 years, of which neai' 5,000 are already
paft, and man's life in this period is limited to 1 00 years. It
is fuppofed by many authors, that moft of the Gentoojhajleri
or fcriptures, were compofcd about the beginning of tiie
collee jogue or cal jug, of which, according to Mr. Dow,
the year of Chrift 1 769 was the 4887th ; but an objec-
tion occurs againft tliis fuppofitien, viz. that the ffiafters
take no notice of the deluge ; to which the Bramins reply,
that all their fcriptures were written before the time of Noah,
and the deluge never extended to Hindooftan. Neverthc-
lefs it appears from the (liafters thcmfelves, that they claim a
much higher antiquity than this ; inftances of which are re-
cited by Mr. Halhead.

After all, it muft be allowed, that perfons of fagacity and
good judgment have made it appear with fufficient evidence,
tliat the oldeft accounts of the Hindoo nation do not, in re-
ality, go further back than to the deluge mentioned in the
books of Mofes, and that their religious inftitutions were
confequently pofterior to that event. Sir William Jones
fays, (Diflertations relating to Afia, vol. i. p. 199.) that the
firft corruption of the pureft and oldeft religion, which con-
fifted in the wcrfliip of one God, the maker and governor of
all things, was the fyftem of the Indian theology, invented
by the Bramins, and prevailing in thofe teiritories, where
the bock of Mahabad, or Menu, is at this time the ftandard
of all religious and moral duties. In his preface to the " In-
ftitutions cf Menu,'' (fee Menu) he fays, they are fuppofed
by the Bramins to have been prom.ulgated by Menu, the fon
or grandfon of Brahma, or the firft of created beings. Tliis
work he fuppofes to have been written about 300 years after
the 'Vedas, or about 1 280 years B. C. Sir W. Jones is of
opinion, that the origin of the Hindoo nation and govern-
ment is to be looked for in Iran, or Perfia, where a oreat
monarchy was cftablifhed before the All'yrian, called by the
oriental hiftorians the " Piftidadian dynafty ;" and they fay,

that

G E N T O O S.

tlint the firfl. oF thefe ancient monarchs, whom they call ednefs to divination, and the fame idea of the ufe of corpo-
M:i!r\b:ic!, or Menu, j-cccived from the creator a facrcd book, real aullcrities for the expiation of fin.

in a heavenly langi'.age, meaning the " Vcdas,'' (DifT. relat- There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the
ir.g to Afn, vol. ii. p. iii.) This firit monarch, they alfo religion of the Hindoos, and it is not improbable lliat tl>e
fay, divided the people into four orders, the religious, the commencement of all thofe fyftcrrc which deviated from the
military, the commercial, and the fcrvile. (Did". &c. vol. i. religion of the patriarchs, preferved in the v/rilings of Mofes,
p. 197. 206.) Ill th.p reign of Hu'hang, the third of the v.-as prior to the general difperfion of mankind. A fyftem
. Pifiidadian rac;, a reformation, he fays, was made in the re- fo ancient as that of the Hindoos mull have been formed
ligious fyltem, when tlie complex polytheifm of the preced- about the fame time with that of the Egyptians, from whicli
nig times was rejefted, and religion was reduced to what is that of the Greeks, and other weftern nations, was in fome
called " Sabaifm," which confiited chiefly in the worfhip of meafure derived; and accordingly many points of refemblance
the fun, moon, and ftars ; but it is probable, that fabaifm, have been obferved between them ; too many, and too flriking
being a more iimple form of religion than that of the Hin- to have been altogether fortuitous. Even fome of the inhi-
doos, mull have preceded it. The laws of Mahabad, how- bitants of Ethiopia appear to have been of the fame origin
ever, were retained, and his fuperltitious vfr.tration for fire, with thofe of Hindoollan (fee DifT. relating to Afia, vol. i.
Upon this change, the favourers of th.e old religion retired p. 1 12.) ; and both the Egyptians and Ethiopians feem to
to Hindooftvn, and their oldell exiftir.g laws forbad thom have had fome conneftion or intercourfe with the Hindoos ;
ever to return, or to leave the country the)- now inhabit. but of what kind it was, or when it fubfiiled, we have no

Another reformation, or change, in the fyilem, was made, certain account ; and they have been fo long feparated, that
he lays, under Gufhtafp, in the next, or " Kaianite dy- at prefent they are in total ignorance of each other. Ac-
nafty," thought to have been the fame with Darius Hyftaf- cording to Eufebius and Syncellus, fome people from the
pis. This was effefted by Zeratulht, or Zoroailer ; he in- river Indus fettled in the vicinity of Egypt in the reign of
trodnced genii, or angels, prefiding over months and days, Amenophis, the father of Sefoihis, and many Egyptians,
new ceremonies in the veneration Shewn to f re, and gave out banilhed by their princes, fettled in other countries, and fome
a new work,- which he faid came from heaven, but at the went fo far as India. It is alfo fuppolcd, that many of the
fame ti.Tie eilablilhed the adoration of the Supreme Being, priells of Egypt left the country on the invafiou of it by
This work was loll at the conquell of Perlia by the Maho- Cambyfes. But fuch circumftances as thefe are not of
metans ; bnt the priells of that religion have compofed themfelves fufficient to account for the great refemblance be-
another from what they were able to recolleft of their infli- tween the two fyllcms. The Hindoos themfelves fay, that
tution. It is called " Zf«fl'i!w//rt,'' which fee. The follow- their facred books came from the weft, (fee Ezourvedam,
e:'s of Zeratulht, now called " Gebrcs,'' or Parfis," perfe- p. 15 — 17.) But the Hindoos, as well as their books, moll
cuted thofe of the religion immediately preceding, and thefe probably came from that quarter, and their facred books
alfo took refuge in India, wliere they wrote a number of were compoled wliile the ieat of the empire was in Perlia.
books, which are now very fcarce. They refemble, accord- The affinity of the Egyptians and Hindoos may be inferred
ing to the account of lir William Jones, the Hindoo fefts from the limilarity tlial lublills between lome Egyptian
of " Sauras,'' and " Saguinas/' of which the lalt is very words and thole that occur in the ancient language of Hin-
numerous at Benares. dooftan. The names and figures of the 12 figns of the

Another innovator in the religion of the Eall, befoi-e the zodiac, among the Hindoos, are nearly the fume with ours,
Chriftian era, was " Budda," (fee BooDll), generally fup- which came from Egypt through Greece, and each of thefe
jiofed to have been the fame with the Fo (lee Fo) of the is divided into 30 degrees. Moreover, both the Egyptians
Chinefe, the " Somonocodom"' of Siam, the " Xaca" of and Hindoos had alio the fame diviCon of time into weeks,
.Japan, and the " Odin" of the north of Europe. Ac- and ihey denominuted each diiy by the names of the fame
cording to fir W. .Tones, he difapprovcd of the Vedas, be- planets. The relemblance between the oriental and otciden-
caufe they enjoined the facrificc of cattle ; and made his ap- tal fyilemj extends m.uch farther than Egypt. The office
pearance in the year 1027 B. C. His diiciples are thought and power of the Druids in the northern parts of Europe
to have been the fame with the " Sammanes," who were op- did not di.ffer much from thofe of the Bramins ; and tha
pofed to the Brachmans of the Greek hillorians. But thefe Etrufcans, from whom the Romans derived the greateft part
Sammanes were, it is probable, of much greater antiquity, as of their learning and religion, had a fyftem v-^ry snuch reiera-
was alio Somonocodom. The followers of Budda gave great bline that of tiie Perllans and Indians, and they wrote alter-
umbrage to the Bramins, who never ceafed to perfecute them natwy to the right hand antj left. (See ExHt'SCANS, ) Seve-
rill they had effecTied their extirpation from Hindooftan by ral remarkable " general principles'' were held alike by the
fire and fword, about 500 years :\ga. Tliere i.s, however, ancient Egyptians and the modern Hindoos. They both
a great refemblance between the fyilemof the Hindoos and beheved that the fouls of men exiftcd in a prior ftate, and
that of Budda ; and perhaps with a view to conciliate thefe that they go into other bodies alter death. They had tiis
people, the Bramins of Cafi make Budda the 9th avatar or fame ideas of the body being a prifon to the foul, and ima-
transformation of Vichnow. This religion is that which gincd that they could purify and exalt the foul by the mor-
prevails in India beyoi.d the Ganges ; it was received in tifieation of the body ; and from the idea of the great fup?-
China A. D. 65, and is eilablilhed in Japan. A religion, rioi'ity of fpiritual to corporeal fubftanccs, they held all mat-
very fimilar to tiiis, is alfo that of the Lamas of Thibet, ter in great contempt. They alio both believed that pla.its
" ' ' ■ ■■ ' ■ • 1 TT- 1 r n had a principle of animation. Several religious ideas and cuf-

toms were common to both countries. The Egyptians of
Thebais reprefented the world under the figure of an egg,
;yhich proceeded from the mouth of Cneph ; and this refem-
bled tlic lirll produclion according to the Hindoo fylleni.
Several of the Egyptian deities were both male and female,
which corrclponds to the figure of the •' lingam" with the
Hindoos. This obfcene figure, or at leaft tlie " phallus,''

N was

Indeed, all deviations from the original Hindoo fyftem, re-
tained the fame general principles. The advocates of them
all held the dodtrine of the pre-exiftence of fouls, their fub.
filling and acting independently of bodies, and their Iranlmi-
gration into other bodies after death. They had the lame
low opinion of matter, and tlie fame veneration for the ele-
ments of fire and water, as purifiers of the foul. They
h.rl fimilar rellriiftions y,-i:h refpedt to food, the fame addid-
Vol. XVI.

G E K T O O S.

was mucli ufed in the Egyptian worfliip, and from Kgypt it
was carried into Greece, where it was ufed in the myllerics
of Bacchus. Befides, the lafcivious poftures of the Egyp-
tian women before their god Apis, were the fame with thofc
of the Hindoo women, before their idols, (fee Brach-
MANs): and, moreover, the Hindoos chufe their facred bidls
by the fame marks that were ufed by the Egyptians. The
E'-yptians worihipped the Nile, as the Hindoos do the
Gano-es : the pyramidal or conical form of the Egyptian
temples refembled that of the pagodas : and the onion,
which was held in veneration by the Egyptians, is not eaten
by the Hindoos. Belides this refemblance of general prin-
ciples, and religious cuftoms, it is obfervable, th.it the Hin-
doo?, Egyptians, and Greeks adopted the fame gods, and
paid homage to them under limilar reprefentationsor in-:a";es.
"the Egyptians held cows in much greater veneration than
any other animal : they were facred to Ifis, and never facri-
ficed. That the cow was refpefted by th.e Ilindoos is well
known. Upon the whole, it is undeniable that a iyftem, very
fimilar to that of tiie prefent Hindoos, muft have been ot very
(Treat antiquity, and prior to the general dilperhon of man-
kind. For though fimilar fituations may lead to fimilar len-
tiraents, and correfponding praftices, the above-mentioned
iimilarity, v.'hich might be traced in a much greater number
of inftances, extends to too many particulars, to admit our
accounting for it in this way : nevertlielefs, it is impoflible
that a fyftem, fo extenfive and complex, and implying fuch
abltrufe metaphyfics, as that of the Hindoos, Ihould have
been completed at a very early period. This mull have been
fubfequent to the rudell age of mankind ; and, therefore, we
may well imagine, that it could not have had its origin long
before the time of Mofes. Whether the Jewifli law-giver
was acquainted with it or not, it will appear to any candid
as well as accurate examiner of the one or the other, that he
was far from deriving any advantage from it ; nor is there in
hi&.writings any allufions to tools pretended to be facred, fuch
as the Vedas, but only to fuch pradices as were common to
the Hindoos and other heathen nations.

The Hindoos feem to have preferved the knowledge of
the Supreme Being, when the Greeks, and other more po-
lifhed nations in the weftern parts of the world, had loft fight
of him ; their attention being ingrofiedby iriierior objcfts of
worfhip. Some of their defcriptions of the deity are jutt,
and truly fublime. In the " Inilitutes of Menu" he is faid to
be "one whom the mind alone can comprehend, whofe
eflence eludes the external organs, who has no vifible parts,
who exiils from eternity, the foul of all beings, whom r.o
being can comprehend." They alfo fay, that " goodnefs is
the very efTence of God." (See Brachmans. ) Nevcr-
thelefs, the moft fubhme conceptions of Deity entertained by
the Hindoos fall far below thofe that were formed of him by
the Hebrews, and which are recorded in t!ie facred writings.
In the Hindoo fyftem the firft production of the .Supreme
Being was fomething fimilar to the chaos of Mofes,. an earth
covered with water; and they fpeakof the " fpirit of Gcd''
as moving upon it. One of the Hindoo fables, related by
father Boucliet (Ceremonies of Religion, p. 38.) bears
fome refemblance to the mofaic hiftory of Paradife. The
Hindoos fay that the firft man was called " Adam," and the
firft woman " Manan-iva." The Hir.doos have alfo a pecu-
liar day of llie week, which they appropriate to cdls of re-
ligion, as prayer and fafting : and in agreement, at leaft in
part, with tiie account of Mofes, the Hindoos fay that in
the firft ages of the world men were greatly fupcrior to the
prefent race both in the length of their lives, and in the
powers botli of body and mind ; but that, in confequence of
vice, they gradually declined. The Hindoos have alfo pre-

ferved an untquivocal traditipn of an univcrfal deluge ; and
according to the " Puraiiams," books which are faid to con-
lain a faithful account of their doftrines, eight perfons ef-
caped the general deluge. A curious account of the in-
toxication of Noah, and of the behaviour of his tliree fons
on the occafion, is given us from the Hindoo writings in t!ic
third volume of " Afiatic Refearches." The 4th and 5th
"avatar" of the Hindoos, as fir W. .Jones fays (Diff. &c.
V. i. p. no.) relate to the puuiftmcnt of impiety, and the
humiliation of the proud ; and refer, as he thinks, to the
difpcrilon from Bubel. In tl;e " Bagavadam" there are,
befides the inofaic account of the deluge, the principal cir^
cumfta'nces of the hiilory of Iflunael, and the facrifice of
Ifaac. Several things occur in the Hindoo traditions.
v,'hich greatly refemble fome in the hiftory of Abraham ;
and Brahma, the Hindoo linv-giver, very mudi refembles
this ancient patriarch.

The feveral inditutos contained in the colleftion of the
Gentoo laws, wliich we ftiail prelcntly notice, are inter-
wovv'n with the religion of the Gentoos, and revered as
of the tilgheft authority. The curious reader -will difcover
an afloniftilug fimilarlty between the inftitutcs of this code
and many of the ordinances of the .Tewifii law, between the
character of the Bramins or priefts, and the Levites ; ;and
between the ceremonv of the fcape-goat, inider tlie
Mofaic difpenfation, and a Gentoo ceremony, called
the nihummeeti jug, in wliich a horfe anfwers the purpofe
of a goat. In this code we find fome of the more ex-
traordiiiary laws and cufloms of the Hebrew nation, fuel)
as were never received in the weftern part of the world ; as ■
that of a man taking the widow of his brother, in order
to keep up his fanTily. Polygamy appears alfo tc have
been allowed to the Hindoos, as it was to the Hebrews.
Many obfolete cuftoms and ufages, allucied to in many parts
of the Old Teilament, may alfo receive illnftration from the
inftitutcs of this code. It appears from the code, that t'le
Bramins, who are the priefts and legifiators cf the country,
have refigncd all the fecular and executive pow.-r into the
hands of another caft or tribe ; and no Bramin has been pro-
perly capable of the magiftracy fince the tine of the futtec
jogue ; the only privilege of importance which they have
appropriated to themfelves is an exemption from all capital'
punilhmcnt ; they may be degraded, branded, impriloncd
for life, or fent into perpetual exile ; but it is every where
exprefsly ordained, that a Bramin fnould not be put to death
on any account whatfoever.

Among the Hindoos there is a confiderahle difTcronce of
opinion on the fubjetl of creation ; but in tlie following
general outline they feem to be all agreed. They fay, thai
after the Supreme Being had exilled alone from all eternity,
he refolved to produce other beings. But this produftion
was wholly " irom his own fubftance ;'.' and after a certain
period, they believe that every thing will be abforbcd into
him again, wheivlie will exift alone as before. There will,,
however, be a fuccefiion of tiiefe creations and abforptions
v.'ithouc end. At what time the firit creation took place
they do not fay ; but according to them, every thing tjjat
now exifts has exified before, and will hereafter cxlit: again..
Tiie great fupcriority of the fplritual to the corporeal part
of man is the fundamental doftrine of the Hindoo fyftem ;
andhence fprings the fatisfaftion which the Hiiidjos always
exprefs on the ieparation cf tlicm. From the Indian pliilo-
fophy it is probable that the Manicheans had their idea of
an original difference in fouls, fome being neccfiarlly good,
and others bad.. 1'hat all nature is animated, and tlrat the
fouls which animate the loweft forms of things are capable
of fifing to the higheft ftate, is allertcd in th.e " Inftitutcs of
I, Menu."

G E N T O O S.

Menu." Thus it is fald, "■ the fouls that animate worms and
infccls, ferpeiits, moths, beads, birds and vegetables, attain
heaven by the power of devotion."

Tlie do(ilrine of tranfmii^ratiiui is one of the diftinguifliing
tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to tliis fnbjedt it is their
opinion, according to Mr. llolwcll, that tliofe fouls which
Irdve attained to a certain degree of purity, either by tlie in-
nocence of their manners, or the feverity of their mortilica-
tions, are removed to regions of happinefs, proportioned to
llieir refpeftive merits ; but that tho'e who cannot fo far
furmount the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful
deg' neracy of liie times, as to deferve fuch a promotion, are
condemned to undergo continual pnriillnncnt in the animation
of fucceffive animal forms, until, at the ftated period, ai other
renovation of the four jogucs Ihall commence, upon the diffo-
lution of the prefent. They imagine ii>: dillercnt fpheres
iibovo this earth, the highell of which, calleilyi/W^c, is the
r^lidence of Brhima, and his particular favourites. This
fphere is alfo the habitation of tliofe men who never uttered
a fallhood, and of thole women who have voluntarily burned
Jaemfelves with their huihands ; the propriety of wliich
prartice isexprefsly enjoined in the code of tlie Gentoolaws.
This code, printed by tl;e Eaft India company in 1776, is a
very curious colletlion of Hindoo jurifprudcnce, which was
felcCled by the moft expcr!er,ced pundits, or lawyers, from
curious originals in the Shanfcrit language, who were em-
ployed for this purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775 ;
afterwards tranflated iTito the Terlian idiom, and then into
the Engliih language, by Mr. Halhed.

We have already obferved, that the Hindoos are divided
into four great and original tribes, which, according to the
Gentoo theology, proceeded from the four different mem-
bers of Brhima, the fuppofed immediate agent of the crea-
tion under the ipirit of the Almighty. Thefe tribes are the
Bramins, which proccedtd from his mouth, and -vvhofe office
is to pray, read, inilvuft, and c<.ndudt the lacriHces ; the
Chehteree, which proceeded from his arms, whofe office is
to draw the bow, to fight, and to govern ; the Bice, pro-
ceeding from the belly or thighs, who are to provide the ne-
cedaries of life by agriculture and traffic ; and the Sooder
from the feet, which are ordained to labour, fcrve, and tra-
vel. See Cast.

Few Chriftians, fays the tranflator of the Gentoo Code,
have expreffed themfelves with a more becoming revcnnce
of the grand and impartial defigns oi Providence in all its
works, or with a more cxtenfive chariiy towards all lhe;r
iellow-creatures of every profeiTion, than the Genloos. It
is, indeed, an article of faith am.ong tlie Bramins, that God's
all-merciful power would not have permitted Inch a number
of diflerent religions, if he had not found a pleafure in be-
holding their varieties.

Mr. Holwell, and alio Mr. Dow, attempt to exculpate
the Hindoos from the charge of polytheifm and idolatry.
"Let us reil affured," fays the latter, "that whatever the
external ceremonies of religion may be, the fan-.e intnnte
being is the object of univerial adm-ation." But though
the Hindoos acknowledge one Supreme Being, from whoi^i
all power is derived, thev fuppofe that the immediate go-
vernment of the world is placed by him in other hands. To
thefe inferior deities their prayers and religious lervices are
extenially addreifed ; and this worfliip is encouraged and en-
joined in their facred books. According to their fyllem,
thfre fprung from the Supren.e Being, as emanations of his
divinity, an infinite number of fubaltern deities and genii, of
which every part of the vilible world was the ieat and tem-
ple. Thefe intelligences did not barely refule in each part of
aature ; but they diredcd its operations, each element being

under the guidance of fome being peculiar to it. Thefe
inferior gods, being of various and oppofite difpolition and
character, their wurfhippers adopted diflerent tnethuds of
deprecating their anger, and foliciting their favour. Hence
proceeded a great variety of whimiical and abfurd, and
alio of cruel and dreadful, as well as impure, rites. I'he ve-
neration of the Hindoos for the images of their gods fubjefts
them jullly to the charge of idolatry and polyihcifni ; al-
thougli I lie learned Bram.ins pretend, that they co n<it wor-
fliip t!ie vifible idol, but the invifible being reprefented by it.
Mr. Soimerat fays that, befides thofe whom the Hir.dooj
pl:<.ce in the rank of gods, they have alfo " faints," whofe
pictures they place in their temples, and tiiat they addrefs
prayers to them as well as to their gods. Nor let it be faid,
that thefe are the accounts of travellers, in the facred books
of the Hindoos mention is made (>f various divinities befides
tlie Supreme Being. The worlkip of the fun, fays fir W.
Jones (Difl". 3cc. v. i. p. 481.) is principally recommended
in the Vedas. The " lullitutes of Menu" fjy, that " the
Supreme Being created an alfemblage of inferior deities, and
divine attributes, and pure fouls, and a number of genii ex-
([uilitely delicate." In this work mention is alio made of
" orders of demi-cods that are wafted in airv cai'S, vrenii of
the figns and lunar manllon?=, SiC." The worlliip paid to the
manes, or ancellors, is a great article in the fylKm, and is
mentioned almoll in every page of the " Inllitules." All
the neighbouring nations whofe religions have fome affinity
to that of the Hindoos are polytheiils. The ancient reli-
gion of the northern European nations was, in feveral re-
ipc6ts, liniilar to that of the Eaft ; and we find among them
the acknowledgment of one Supreme God, with the wcrfnip
of feveral inferior ones. Thus, their deities, Odin the god
of war, Frea his wife, and Thor the gid of thunder, were
the principal objetbs of worfiiip to all the Scandinavians.

It has been faid that the polytheifn) of ti.e Hindoos, and
others, was m.ild and tolerant in its nature ; but the facl is,
that hke the ancient Egyptians, they quarrelled with one
anoth"r on accout of their attac!n;ient to different deities, ef-
pecialiy in Malabar ; and mild as the religicH of the Hindoos
appears to be, and gentle as are their general n'-anncrs, they
can a'i'ume a very diflerent character when their religion is
concerned. The Bramins exterminated the Sammanians,
and the foilo'.\cr3 of Bndda, with fire and fword, leaving
none of tLeni on the weft fide of the Ganges, under a pre-

tence of their being atheills ; and

any Hindoo is con-

verted to Chrillianity, he is not only banifhed from his tribe,
but abandoned to the infults of the whole nation. Such
alfo was the treatment of thofe who wore excommunicated
by the Druids. The Hindoos regard all Cliriiiians v.ith the
utmoft abhorrence and deteftation, as much below the loweft
of ih.eir own fects. The Bramins themfelves can be cruel
and malignant, where their religion is concerned. Never-
iheleis, when the Hindoos cimverfe with Clirifiians on the
iubject of religion, they profefs to belie%e, as we have aV-
reauv oblerved, that the Supreme Being is cipially pleafed
with all religions, and intended that all th.e different modes
of it ihoidd be adopted by difTerent nations.

Although there r.re many points of refem.blance between
the religion of the ancient Egyptians and that of the Hin-
doos, yet in mrfnv refpecls tiiey ju'e exceedingly difTerent ;
fo tliat though thev may have gone together at the lirll,
they mull have feparated at a verv early period. The Hin-
doos never worlhipped living animals, whicli is a principal
feature in the religion of tl;e Egyptians ; and the names, the
ch.iraCiters, and ttie images of tlieir deities have very little
refemblance to each other. But between the religion and
mythologv.d fables of th.e Greeks and thofe of the Hindoos,
N 2 there

G E N T O O S.

there is a very remarkable rcfcmblance ; though we are
unable to trace any conneftion that ever fjibllfted between
them.

The religion of the Hindoos fcems to be much too com-
plex to have been, as fir W. Jones fuppofes, the oldcft fyftem
of polythcifm and idolatry. It is evidently a relincment on
fomething much more fimple, and this feems to have been
tlie fyilem of the " Sammanes," whom the Greek writers
mention as a fedl; of philofophers in India, oppofed to the
" Brachmancs," and to be the fame with thofe who are now
called " Schamans" in Siberia. See Samaxcans.

Nothing can be more humiliating than the fituation to
which the Hindoo inftitutions reduce the female fex. Ac-
cording to the Vcdas, the fouls of women, as well as thofe
of all individuals of the inferior cafts, are condemned to con-
tinual tranfmigrations, till tlier are regenerated in the bodies
of men. The fame unfavourable charafter is amply juftihed
by the reprefentations that occur in the " Inftitutes of
Menu," and the "Code of Gentoo laws." Such being,
in the opinion of the Hindoo law-givers, the natural character
of women, it is no wonder that little regard is paid to their
evidence in courts of juftice ; nor can we be iurprifed, that
the birth of a female is no caufe of rejoicing in a Hindoo
family. In per fed agreement with fuch degrading ideas of
the female cliarafler, the women muft always be under the
abfolute controul of men ; nor has the fubjeftiou of tlie
wife to her hufband any bounds. As women are treated in
this difrefpeiSlful manner, and confidered as unqualified to
read their facred books, they are in general very ignorant, fo
that few of them can either read or write.

The devotion of the Hindoos is fuppofed to comprife all
other duties ; but their devotion confifts in the frequent repe-
tition of the names and attributes of God. The firll thing in
their prayer'is to pronounce the word ouni, then excluding all
fenfible objefts, even forbearing to breatlie, and to think
only on God. This kind of prayer ferves for the pardon of
fin and puriiication. This word oiim, on the pronunciation
of which fo much is fuppofed to depend, fignilies, according
to fir W. Jones, Brahma, Vichnou, and Seva, or the three
powers of creation, prefervation, and deftruftion. This
myllical word, he conceives, may be the Egyptian on, coin-
monlv fuppofed to m.ean the fun, and by the ancient idolaters
thefolar fire. The religion of the Hindoos confifls princi-
pally in oblations to the gods, /. e. to the inferior deities, and
ta the m.anes of their anceftors ; and thefe oblations are ac-
companied with many frivolous ceremonies. Moreover, a
great part of their religion connils in the aufterities to which
they fubjeft themfelves. Among other things, all fermented
or fpirituous liquors are forbidden, and they fubniit to va-
rious reftriclions with regard to their food. To a genuine
Hindoo nothing appears more heinous than the killing, and
much more the eating of any thing that had life. The
Hi.idoosare much devoted to pilgrimages for the purpofe of
bathing in diilant rivers ; and they generally prefer the Gan-
ges. In thefe pilgrimages, they praclile finguhr aufterities.
Their falls in honour of different deities are ot long duration,
and are very llriftly obferved ; and they are thought to have
fingalar eihcacy in effacing all fins. See FAQUiUtw

It is not uncommon with the Hindoos to devote them-
felves to certain and very painful death, under the influence
of their wretclied fuperllition. They throw themfelves on
the laro-e iron hooks that arc faftened to the wheels of the
carriages, which carry the images of ther deities in procef-
fion. Oiiiers lie fpi-awling on the groiuid for the wheels
to pafs over them, and ciudi them to death. But the
moil affciSing inftances of involuntary death are thofe of
the Hindoo women, who burn themfelves alive with the

i

bodies of their deceafed huftands. In this way of termi-
nating life they indulge the hope of attaining the fame
flate of happinefs with them after death. This is deemed
a kind of religious duty, though it is not regarded as of
univerfal obligation. On the death.s of perfons of high
rank and celebrity, thefe viftims of fuperftition, voluntary,
or involuntary, are fometimes very numerous. At the
death of a king of Tanjore, no lefs than 300 of his con-
cubines leaped into the iiames, and 4C0 burned themfelves at
the funeral of a naique, of Madura. (Maurice's Ind.
Antiq. vol. ii. p. 165.) The Hindoo religion, which has
been extolled as the mildeft of all rehgions, formerly en-
joined and countetianced human facriliees ; and fir William
Jones fays, that the ancient folemn facrilice of the Hindoos
was that of a man, a bull, and a horfe. Among other
fuperftitious notions and pra£tices prevalent among the
Hindoos, we may mention their exceffive veneration for
the cow, and alfo for the elements of fire and water. Pi--
nances of a Angular and fevere nature were enjoined for
killing cows without malice ; and if liiis crime was n-iali-
cioufly committed, it admitted of no expiation whatever.
Mr, AVilkins informs us, (Sketches relating to the hiftory,
&c. of the Hindoos, vol. i. p. 234.) that the Bramins are
enjoined to light a fire at certain times, and that it muft be
produced by the friction of two pieces of wood of a par-
ticular kind ; that with a fire thus procured their facrifices • •
are burned, the nuptial altar flames, and the funeral pile is 1
kindled. Their veneration for water, cfpecially that of the
Ganges, has already been mentioned ; and perions chuic to
die in rivers from an idea, that the foul paffng throu;^h
the water, as it leaves the body, is purged frum its iu.-
piirities.

The Hindoo religion is little, if at all, mor3-unexception-
able tlian the ancient Egyptian, with regard to the ex-.rava-
gance and indecency of many of its ceremt.nies. Irrltances
occur at their pagodas, which we have already noticed
under the article BR/.CHr.tANS, and which it is needlefs here
to repeat. (See alfo Pagoda.) Charms are alfo held in efti-
mation among the Hindoos ; a regard to them is authorized
by their facred books, and the prjAice of incantation is
profeiied by their learned Bramins. From a veneration for
the elements of fire and water, and an opinion of their pof-
feffing fomewhat of divinity, they have been deemed proper
tefts of guilt, or of innocence. Hence has jjroceeded the
trial by Ordeal; which fee. With regard to the Hindoo
doftrine of a future ftate, Mr. Dow fays, that rr.en firil
atone for their crimes in heil, where they remain for a fpace
of time proportioned to the degree of their iniquities ; then 1
they rife to heaven, to be rewarded for their virtues, and
thence they will i-eturn to the world to re-aniniate other
bodies. The more learned Bramins, he fays, affirms that
the heU which is mentioned in the " Bsdang" is only in-
tended as a bug-bear to the vulgar ; agreeably to the doc-
trine of the Greek philo!ophers. On the other hand, Mr,
Plolwell, contrary to all other accounts, wh.ich reprefent
future pimifirraent as in all cafes fiiiite, lays, that whofoevcr
ftiall free hirafelf by violence from this mortal body, iliall
te plunged in " Onderah" for ever. According to another
account of the religion of Malabar, tliey who deftroy them-
felves go neither to heaven nor hell, but ttroll about, and
become what are called " Spirits," under the pov.er of the
chief of the devils. Sometimes they enter into men, and
then they become demoniacs, and go about naked and mad,
to difturb the neigiibourhood, eating (iraf^ and rau' fltfli.
According to the Indians, fays p. D.lla Valle, fome very
wicked men become devils. To conclude our account of
the Hindoos, or Geocoos, we obferve, that notv.itlillaudiug

the

GEN

tlir unreafoiiali'c {Irefs wJiich they lay on more external
obfervaiiccs of various kinds, tlierc are not \vantii;g in their
writings foini; excellent moral maxims, fimilar to maiiy in
tlie books of the Old Teftameut, which reprcfeiU every
tiiing of this kind as infigniliiant, without moral virtue.
A peculiar flrefs, we find, even too great, is laid on the
duties to parents ; fo as to fupcrfede the obligation, and to
depretiate tlie importance of other duties. Upon comparing
the Hindoo fyftem witli that of Mofes, the abfurdity of tlie
former is as apparent as the fupcrior vvifdom of the huter.
With the Hindoos we perceive the rudiments, and more than
the rudiments, of moft of the arts and fcienccs, cfpccially
that of aftxonomy, of wl-.ich moft other nations are wholly
ignorant. And yet while th.e Hebrews made no difcovcric".
in fcience, they had a r^hgiov perftclly rational ; and that
of the Hindoos was abfurd in the extreme. This, fi;rcly,
is an argument of the internal kind in favour of the divine
origin of the Hebrew religion, almoft as irrefiftible as any
argument from miracles. From the preceding flietch of
the Hindoo religion, we mnfl be led to acknowledge the
neccffity and utility of a divine revelation.

Thofe who are delirous of being farther acquainted with
the principles, manners, and various inflitutes of the Gcu-
toos, may confult Holwell's IntereiUng hiftorical Events,
&c. 1766. Djv/'s Hil'iory of Hindcollan, 4to. 1768. and the
Code of Gentoo I>aws. Priellley's Com])arifon of the In-
ftitutions of Mofes with thofe of the Hindoos and other
Ancient Nations, 8vo. Northumberland, in America, i 799.
For a further account of the religious tenets and pracTticcs
of the Gentocs, fee Biiaciimaxs. See alfo Shastaii and

ViEDAM.

GEN-TSING, in Geography, a town of China, in Se-
tcliuen ; 87 miles N.W. of Hoei-li.

GENUFLEXION, cf g.nn, Lnee, and/n7p, / haul, the
acl of bowing, or bending tile knee ; or rather of kneeling
down.

The .Tefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, fliews, that
genuflexion, or kneeling, has been a very ancient cullom
in the churcli, and even under the Old Teftament difpenfa-
tion ; and that this praftice was oblerved throughout all
the year, excepting on Sundays, and during the time from
Ealler to Whitfuntide, when kneeling was forbidden by the
council of Nice.

Others have fhewn, that the cuftom of not kneeling on
Sundays had obtained from the time of the apoftles ; as
appears from St. Irenseus and Tertullian ; and the ^thi-
opic church, fcrupuloufly attached to the ancient ceremo-
nics, ftill retains that of not kneeling at divine fervice. The
Ruffians efteem it an indecent polhire to worfhip God on
tlieir knees. Add, that the Jews ufually prayed ftanding.
Rofweyd gives the rcafons of the pnihibition cf genu-
flexion on Sundays, &c. from St. Bafil, Anallalius, St.
Juftin, &c.

Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not cfta-
blifhed in the year of Ciiritt 58, from that pafi'age in Aif^s
xx. ^6. where St. Paul is exprcfsly mentioned to kneel
tlov.a at prayer : but Saurin ihews, that nothing can be
tl.ence concluded.

The fame author remarks, alfo, th?t the primitive Chrif-
tians carried the praftice of genuflexion fo far, that fome of
them had worn cavities in the floor where they prayed : and
St. Jerome relates cf St. James, that he had contradcd a
hardnefs on his knees equal to that of camels.

GENUS, in Al^clra. The ancient nigebraifts didri-
bulcd that art into two genera, or kinds ; the iogljlk, and
/j:uku4 ; which fee.

GEN

Genu.^, in Syjlemalic Botany, from yao^,, z family, implies
one or moi-e fpccies of plants, differing effentiallv in their
parts of fnifiiBcation from all others, and agreeing' together
in the general flrufturc of thofe parts, as well as in one or
more peculiar marks or charaAers. If a genus be pcrfedly
natural and diftincl, fuch charafters in the fruftification are
accompanied with more or Icfs decided diftindions in the
other parts of the plant, as well as in its general habit or
afpedt. On this principle it is contended by Linnaeus and
his fchool, that all genera are, or ougiit to be, natural, and
that the genus ought to give the charafter, not the charafter
the gcTiUS. The fame principle is cxtend^J to the animal
kingdom. Botanills of the French fchool, on the contrary,
maintain that all fuch aflbciations and dittinftions are merely
arbitrary, ferving to facilitate the fludy of plants, but not
at all founded in nature. It is fingular that, with fuch
ideas, thefe philofcphers (liould not only ftrenuoiiHy contend
for a natural fyllem of anangcment, but objeft to the Lin-
nxan method, \:-\\ok facility cannot be difputed, merely bc-
caufe it is not natural, terming it in their language le-^t
nature. ^ If genera are not natural, certainly the ir.oi-e com-
prelienfive adembhiges, of fuch genera into orders and clafll-s,
can, in no fcnfe, be fo. We nevcrthelers do not fcruple to
allow, that the principles of all fuch diilindtions are founded
in nature, though we readily admit that no fyflcm has as
yet applied them correctly to praclice, even wi'th regard to
generic, and fr.r lefs to claflical, diftinftions. The latter in-
deed have been fcarcely found capable of definition, or in fo
vague a manner as to leave us moft in doubt where prccifioii
is moil wanted j and were it not for that intuitive, or :.t
leafl: praftical, perception of affinities and differences, whi^h
is, by tie French, contended to be issdmifiible in judging
of genera, we could certainly come at no knowledge cf
mod of the natural orders of thefe learned writers.

Examples of natural genera, each charsfterized by an ef-
fential charaftcr of its own, which dittinguiflics it, not only
from every other genus in its natural order, but from every
one hitherto difcoveredj are found in Qutrcus the Oak,
whofe acorn afFoi-ds fuch a charader ; in Trapa, whofe
fingular quadrangular nut is armed with fpines that once
coi.lUtuted the calyx-leaves ; in Parnjjp.a, fo well marked by
the fringes and lucid balls that border its neftaries ; in Sol-
danflla with its many-cleft monopetalous corolla, and EUccar-
pus, whofe polypctalojs one is fimilurly cut ; in Geofr<ta,
the only known inllance of a papilionaceous flower with a
drupa ; not to mention a great number befides. Inftances
of good natural genera, dillinguiflied by fome one cflential
charaftcr from all others in their natural order, are found in
Echium, whofe irregular corolla keeps it dilUnft from all
otliers of the Afp rifulia ; Cornucopia, known from all other
grafles by its remarkable involucnnn ; Pimpinclla diftin-
guidied from its allies by the globofe ftiginas ; Ranunculus
by the neftariferous pore in the chuv of each petal ; Ftilj
by the jirominent dilated partition of its pouch, extendino-
twice as far as tlie valves ; to whidi may be added many
genera of the clafs Didyn.wiia Gymnofpi'rmia \ fee Smith''s
Introd. to Botany, 434. The Linnieau IcofmJria Pohgynia
affords one of the n.oit perf-d examples poffible of a' natu-
ral clafs and order, of which all the genera are naturr.1, .in J
fo well diltinguilhed in habit, that any perfon at all obfcrv.
aut of plants may know them by their foliage, inflorefcence,
or general appearance, v.-liilc their fruit aflords clear eifcn-
tial generic charafters. The natural family cf Orchidex, as
arranged by Swart/, and Brown, come verv near the fame
point of perfection, but their differences of habit are lefs
obvious. Such inllances ought to ftinuil.-ite the philofophi-
cal botanill to " go on from oue degree of perftiSlion to

another,"*

GENU S.

anotln;r," though, like 'the chriftian niorahft, he cannot
hope to reach the lummit.

Lamarck has very well traced the indiftiiift origin,
and gradual improvement of generic knowledge amonj;-
botanifts. In an early ftate of the fcience, fome general
atTociations were formed, though founded on vague and un-
philofophical principles. The idea and name of a rofe fooii
embraced many different fpecies, an<l l^-nce the dog-rofe,
the white-rofe, the 'damaft;-rofe, &c. were dillinguilhed
from one another, and a fort of generic and fpecilic nomen-
clature arofe, fuially extended fydemalically to every plant
by hinnsus. Cafpar Bauhin in his Pimix, anno 1623, firil
dillnbuted plants under a kind of generic fedtions, with
fome mention of the peculiar characters of each ; but he
did not profit, as he ought to have done, of the groat prin-
ciple flrll inculcated by Conrad Gcfncr, that the parts of
the flower and fruit afford the only clue to a fcienlific diftri-
bution of vegetables ; a principle to which " the very ex-
ifLence of botany, as a fcience, is owing." Tourncfort at
length, adopting this maxim, undertook the arrangement
of all known plants into genera, illuftraling eacii by a
ficure of the parts of fruftilication, fo as to difplay their
dilUnguifhing characters ; but it was referred for I^innsus
to deiine thofe charafters in words, and thus to perfett the
.plan of Tournefort, as well as to reform it in many points,
and correcl fome fundamental defcits. He extended more-
over his improvements to the clear definition and nomencla-
ture of the fpccies, which Tournefort had, v>ithout difcri-
mination, merely collected, by tlieir old appellations, under
. each of his genera, except indeed that he preferved an uni-
formity in their generic names.

Linnaeus did not at once hit upon the befl manner of dc-
.Sningr his genera. His firft aim was to defcribe all the feven
parts of fruclification in each, fo that their differences
might appear, v.-hich is the plan of all the editions of his
Gsn;ra Plaiitarum. At length, in the fixth edition of his
Svflcma Nalur,^, publifaed in 1748, he undertook a fynop-
tical table of the fliort cffcntial charaftero of the genera,
and in the tenth he carried this plan nearly to the perfeftion
i:i which he left it at his death. It lias been adopted, not
. only by his pupils, and the followers of his fyftem of clafTi-
Hcation, but even by tiie celebrated Juffieu and his fcholars,
v.ho have widely differed from the learned Swede as to otl »'r
ir.-inciples of arrangement, and who have certainly not im-
proved upon h.is flyle of definition, terminology, or nomen-
(ciat are. Juffieu indeed has, like Gctian, fub;oined to tl.e
i'-.-neric charaflers takeuvfrom the fruttitication, very uftful
indications of the habit, which invention of the latter
botanill was highly applauded by Linnxus.

Linn^us termed the full dtfcriptions in h.is dmra Planla-
rum, the nfl/Hra/ eharafter of each genus. Tiiey ought to
accord with every fpccies of each, but in large genera,
many fpccies of which have been difcovered fublequently to
their etlablilhment, this is fcarcely pofilble. Such cha-
racters as ferve merely ta dillinguifa e?.ch genus from
every other in its artificial order, in the Linnxan, or
any other artiiici;d, fytlem, are called fiicl:t!n;is • tlicfe are
•much b;tter extended fo as to include fufficient marks of
difcrimii.ation between the genus under .confideration and
every other, and they then become the cif:!nic.! characUrs
iibove-mentioned, which ought in every fyltemauo botsnieal
woriv to 'land at the head ot each gcnas, or at i":'.il: 10 be in-
dicated by a reference. Lainarck, tlioug!i n-.vch difpofed
to criticife the great Swedifh botaniil, a::d differing totally
from him refpecting his opinion of nat jral genera, very can-
didly allows that " tliefe effential characters are the refult of
one of Linnxus's moft happy ideas, and cannot but contri-

bute greatly to the perfeetion of Botany.'" The fame able
writer affents entirely to the Linna-an maxim, founded on
the good fenfe and penetration of Conrad Gefner, that
" generic charafters ought always to be taken from the
parts of fructification alone ;'' " at leaft," fays Lamarck,
" if that be always prafticable." When it is not, he would
borrow characters from any thing very decided in the habit ;
nor does he perceive that any inconvenience would rrfult
from it. To this we objeft the uncertainty of fuch charac-
ters, even when taken from what is leaft exceptionable, tlis
inflorcfcencc. 'Of this no more Itriking example can be
found than the UmLiIhte, as diflribuled by Linnxus after
the principles of his friend Artedi, in which, however it
may be difguifed by fophiftry, the inflorefcence makes a
leading part. Thofe who juilly, like Lamarck, complain
of the errors, unjurtly termed by him arbitrary and iilunlary
errors, which are found in this part of Linnajus's fyltem,
cannot but allow that they all originate from his having had
rcfpeft to the inflorefcence, that is, to the umbels and in-
volucrums, inftcad of the flowers and feeds, which if truly
obferved arc fully fufficient in this, as, we behcve, in every
other natural order. Indeed the more we confidcr the f\ib-
ject, the more we are convinced that, although the inflo-
refcence ought, like every part of a plant, to enter into
our general contemplation before we decide upon a genus,
it ought never to form a part of the technical or effential
charatl-'r. It is tempting enough to botanills who are not
endowed with clear mathematical powers of difcrimination
and definitiorv, to amplify their generic characters with airy
thing that, as they fuppofe, may give them additional
ftrtngth But characters, when too long, rather indicate
feebhnefs in themfelvcs and in their authors, and endanger
a return towards barbarifm in a fcience, which has been
raifed to its preient pitch of perfection by the didaftic pre-
cifion and decifive brevity of Linnxus. S.

Genus, Kind,'m Logic and l]Ielaphyfics,'n that which has
feveral fpecies under it ; or it is the origin and *-adix of
divers fpecies, joined together by fome affinity, or com-
mon relation between them. See Clas.sificatio.v.

Genus is a nature, or idea,focommon and univerfal, that
it extends to other general ideas,- and includes them under
it. Thus, animal is faid to be a genus, in refpeft of man and
brute ; becaufe man and brute agree in the comnion nature
and character of animal ; fo a right-lined figure of four
fides is a genus in refpetl of a parallelogram, and a trape-
zium ; and fo, hkewile, is fubftance in refpcdt of fubffance
■ extended, which is body ; and thinking fubftance, which is
mind.

A good definition, fay th.c fchoolmen, confifts of genus
and difference.

In tiie general, genus may be faid to be a clafs of a
greater extent than fpecies ; and which is not convertible
therewitli : for though we may fay, that all body is fub-
ftance;; yet it cannot be faid all fubilance is body.

Add, that whatever may be faid of the genus may
likewife be faid of tlie -fpecies under it : e. gr. whatever
is faid of ens, being, will equally hold of the body.

'i'he fchoolmen define the genus logicum to be, an univerfal
which is predicaVile of feveral things of different fpccies ;
a.id divide it into two kinds : the one, the fiimmu:n, which
is the higheft, or moft general ; and has nothing above
it to relpecl as a genus : the other, tli-i fubalicni, which they
likewife call mdiiiw.

Gf.sva /ummi/m is that which holds the uppermoft place
in its clais, or predicament ; or that which may be divided
into feveral Ipecies, each whereof is a genus ia refpcdt 01
other fpecies placed below it.

Thus,

GEO

TIius, in the predicament of things fubfifting of themfelvcs,
fiihjlance has tlie place and effeft of genus fummitm, and is
predicated of all the things contained in that clafs : for
Plato, and man, and animal, and even fpirit, are pro-
perly called fubllance.

Accordingly there arc as imny fumma genera, as there are
clalTes of predicaments, or categories.

Genus, fubaltern, is tliat which, being a medium be-
tween the higheft genus and the lowed fpecics, is fometimes
aonfidcred as a genus, and fometimes as a fpecics.

Thus, bird, when coniparc-d with animal, is a fpccies ;
when to a crow, an eagle, or the like, it is a genus.

Genus, again, is divided into remotum, remote, where be-
tween it and its fpecies there is another genus; -A-nA pfox't-
num, or next, v>-here the fpecies is immediateh" under it ; as
man under animal.

Gexus is alfo ufed for a charafter, or manner appli-
cable to every tiling of a certain nature or condition. In
which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in divers
Iciences ; as mulic, rhetoric, botany, anatomy, Sec. e. gr.
Genus, in Mufic. See Geneua.

Gents. By the word genus, in Natural Hi/lory, we
underlland a certain analogy of a number of fpecies making
them agree together in the number, figure, and fituation
of their parts in fuch a manner, that they are eafdy dillin-
guilhed from the fpecies of any other genus, at leafl by
fome one article. This is the proper and determinate fenfe
of the word genus, whereby it forms a fubdivifion of any
c'afs or order of natural beings, whether of the animal,
vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in certain com-
mon and dilHntlive characters. See Generical name, and
Classification of Animals.

GEXUSjin Rhetoric, is one of the common places or topics,
and contains under it two or more forts of things differing
]n nature. From this head logicians reafon thus ; Becaufe
every animal is mortal, and man is an animal, therefore man
is mortal (See Genus, in Logic.) But orators make a
further ufe of this argument, which they call afcending from
the hypothefis to the thefis, that is, from a particular to a
general. As if a perfon, fpeaking in praife of jullice, (liould
take occafion from, thence to commend and fhew the excel-
lency of virtue in general, with a view to render that virtue
more am.iable. For iince every fpecies contains in it the
whole nature of the genus to wliich it relates, befides
what is peculiar to itfelf, whereV i- it is diflinguifhed from it ;
what is affirmed of the genus mud, of necellity, be applica-
ble to the fpecies.

Befides, authors diilinguilh the art of rhetoric, as alfo
orations, or difcourfes, produced thereby, into three genera,
or kinds ; detnonfirative, deliberative, and judiciary. See
each term.

GENUSIUM, in Ancient GeogragJjy, a town of Italy,
ill that part of Magna Grxcia called MelTapia. It was
fituated a little S. of the road that led to Tarentum

GENZANO, in Geography, ?i town of Naples, in BafiU-
cata; 12 miles E. S. E. of Venofa — Alfo, a town of Cam-
pagna di Roma, in Italy ; 3 miles W. of Veletri.

GENZINGEN, a town of France, in the department
of~the Rhine and Mofelle ; 5 miles N. E. of Creutznach.

GEOCENTRIC, of yr., earth, and xwlfo., centre, in
jtjtrr.r.om-/, is applied to a planet, or its orbit, to denote it
concentric with the earth ; or, havmg the earth for its centre,
or the fatne centre with the earth.

AH the planets arc not geocentric : the moon, alone, is
pa\)perly geocentric.

GEtK-tNTiUC lalitude of a planet, is its latitude feen from
the eartli ; or the iacliuation of a line connetling the planet

G i: o

and the caith, to the plane of the earth's (or true) etlij-
tic.

Or it is the angle whicli the aforefaid line (connefting
tlic planet and the earth ) makes with a line drawn to meet
a perpendicular let fall from the planet to the plane of the
echptic. See Latitude.

Thus in /"/ij.vXIII AJlronomy,ftg. 116, the angle 2 7"f is
the meafure of that planet's geocentric latitude when the
earth is in 7'.* and the a)igle et % the meafure of it when
the earth is in /.

GicoCENTKiC'^/flf^of aplanet, is the jjlace wherein it ap-
pears to us, from the earth, fuppofing the eye there fixed ;
or, it is a point in the ecliptic, to which a plarict, fcen from
the earth, is refen'cd.

GEOOKNTnic longitude of a planet, is the didancc mcafured
on the ecliptic, in the order of the figns between the geocen-
tric place and the firll point of Aries.

GEODiESIA, that part of practical geometr)' which
teaches how to divide, or lay out, lands, or fields, between
feveral owners.

The word is Greek, ',vxl-j.\7ty., formed of -, >-, terra, earth,
and i'aii-, c]fS:do, I divide.

Geod.esia is alio applied, by fome, to all the operations '
of geometry which are performed in th.e field.

This is more ufually called furvcying, (which fee,) when
employed in meafuring of lands, grounds, roads, coun-
tries, provinces, otc.

Vitalis defines geodjf fia the art of meafuring furfaces and
fohds not by imaginary right lines, as is done in geometry,
but by fenfible and vilible things : as by the fun's ra) s,
&c.

GEODES, in NaturiJ Hijlory, a genus of cru.flated
bodies formed into large, and in great part, empty cafes,
iuclofing a fmall quantity of earthy or arenaceous matter.
See SlDEROClIIT.\.

Of this genus are five known fpecies.
GEOFF, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied
to a mow of hay, corn, &c. Sec Stack.

GEOFFRyEA, in Botany, fo named by Jacquin, in
memor}- of Stephen Francis GeofTroy, M. D. of Paris,
author of a Materia Mcdica, in which a chemiral analyfis is
given, to little purpofe indeed, of every officinal plant ;;
and of fevcral iurcnious chem.ico-botanical cffays in the
Memoircs de lAcad. dcs Sciences. Jacquin fecms to con-
found hlni witli his brother Claude Jofeph Geofiroy, author
of an effay ou the (lrufturean<" ufe of the principal parts of
flowers, and of fo.me other p'lyfiological papers, printed in
the fame Memoire.<-.. — .Tacq. Amer. 207. t. jSo. f. 62. Linn..
Gen. 37S. Schreb. 500. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 11 29. Mart.
Milh "D;a. V. 2. Jufl". 3f^3. Lamarck Illufir. t. 604— Clafs
and order, Diadelphia Decandria, Nat. Ord. Papdionsce^
Linn. L<guminof<e, JwiT.

Gen. Ch. Col. Perianth of one leaf, inferior) bcll-fhaped,"
five-cleft half way down ; its two upper fegments diverging,
fpreading. Car. papilionaceous ; ilandard roundifh, emargi-
nate, flati reflexed ; w iugs equal to it in lengthy obtufc, con-
cave ; keel compreffed, the length and fliape of the wings.
Stam. Filaments In twofets (fingle and nine-cleft), the length
of the keel ; anthers roundilh. Pijl. Germfn fuperior, round-
ifh ; ftyle awl-fhaped ; lligma obtufe. Peric. Drupa nearly
ovate, large, with a longitudinal furrow at each edge.
Seed. Nut nearly ovate, fomewhat woody, a httle com-
prelTcd, wiih a furrow along each edge, acute, of two
valves.

EfT, Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Drupa ovate. Nut compreJed. .

I. G. /pincfa. Linn. Sp. PI. 1043. Swartz. Prod. 106.

(Uinari ;.

GEO

GEO

(Umavi ; Marcgr. Bras, 1 2 1 . ) — " Spinous. Leaflets oblonj;, tion or fyrup, three grains of the extrad, or thirty gr.-'ins

obtufe.'' — Native of Brafil, anil the countr/ about Cartha- of the powder for a dofe. The dofe mull be diminifliod

gcna, in woods on a fandy foil near the fea. Jacquin de- for younger pcrfons : and children two or three years of

fcribes it as an inelegant tree, twelve feet high, with a few age, may take a table-fpoonful of the decoftion or fyvup,

fpines on the trunk and largvr branches, which are awl- one grain of extrad, or ten grains of the powder ; and ch-l-

(haped, and generally"an inch long. Zmtcj pinnate, about dren of a year old, half the quantity. Cold v,',iter muft tiot

fcven pair, with an odd one, of oblong, obtufe, fniooth, be drank during the operation of the medicir.c, as it is apt

entire leaflets, on a ftalk four inches in length. Chijiert to occafion ficknefs, vomiting, fever, and dehrium. In this

Tiearly as long, axillary, fimple, deiife. f lores on fliort par- cafe the itomach muft be wafhedv/ith warm water, caftor oil

tial (lalks ; their colour a dirty orange, and their fcent ex- muft be admi-.iiftercd, and lime juice beverage ufed flenti-

tremely powerful and oflenfivc. /«>«;/ like that of an al- fully for common drink. The hark purges pretty britkly,

mond in its coat, flightly dovvnv, greenifli -yellow ; the pulp cfpecially in pov.der ; thirty or forty grains v.-orking as v.-ell

foft, fweet, but of a naufeous i'mcll, yelluwifli, ilaining the as jalap by ilool ; but in this mode of adminiftering it, it

hands with a rufty hue, very difficult to wafh off. This coat dees not feem to kill vi'orms fo vrell as in decodion. The

adheres firmly to the nut, whofe kernel is white, mealy and cabbage-bark is a v.aluable remedy when ulcd with proper

aftringent. Jacquin was juftly furprifed at meeting, for the
firft time, with a drupa to a papilionaceous flower, but
lie juftly fo named it, in fpite of any preconceived theory.

2. G. furina>m::ifL'. WiUd. n. 2. Bondt. Monogr. 13,
with a figure. — " Without fpines. Leaflets oklong, obtufe,
ernarginate." — Native of Surinam. IV'tlldenovJ.

3. G. inei-mis. Swartz. Prod. 106. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 112. (Cabbage-bark tree of Jamaica ; Wright in Phil.
Tranf. v. 67. 507.1. 10.) — "Without fpines. Leaflets lan-
ceolate."— Native of Jamaica and Martinico. A tall tree,
whofe wood is white, and fo tough as to be preferred be-
yond all others for the ftafts of carriages. The iii?-/: is a ce-
lebrated remedy for worms in the inleftines, adminiftered in

caution ; but fome fatal accidents have attended the im-
prudent ufe of it, chiefly frcci overdoling the m.edicine.
Phil. Tranf vol Ixvii. p. 597.

GEOFFREY of Monmouth, in ly/o^rap/.j, an early hif-
torian of our own country, wh.o flourilhed ;ibout the middle
of the 12th century, was tirft archdeacon of Monmouth, and
thenbifliop of St. Afaph. On account of tum.ulta in Wales
he quitted his diocefe, and obtained the abbacy of Abing-
don in commendam. His clergy applied to him to return,
which he refufed, thinkincr he might ftlU keep his abbacy ;
in this he was difappointed, and was left without any prefer-
ment. As an hiftorian he is known by his " Chronieon
five Hiftoria Britonum.'' This work has been cenfured

a decodion, fyrup, powder, or extract, and given in gradually for its fabidous narrations; the author is, however, entitled
increafed dofes, till a naufea is produced. The Z?«i)a conlift to much applaufe as a polite fcholar. His Latin ftyle rifes
of five or fix pair, with an odd one, of elliptic lanceolate, greatly above mediocrity. He was author of many other
pointed leaflets, about three inches long. Flowers light-red, pieces, among which is a poem on Merlin, which is mucii
in very large much-branched, terminal, downy panicles, commended by Leland. The Chronieon is fnppoled to be
Fruit the fize of a fmall plum. tranflated from an ancient hiftory in the Welfli language, and
GEOFFRyi-'.A, Or Geoffhoya, Inerm'is, calbnge-hark tree, or it contains a pretended genealogy of the kings of Britain,
nuorm-bark tree, in the Materia Medlca, is a native of Ja- from the time of Brutus the Trojan, and enumerates up-
maica. (See the preceding article.) The bark of this tree, wards of feventy illuftrious monarchs before the invafion of
which has a mucilaginous and fweetifli tafte, and a diiagrte- Julius Csfar. This work has been frequently reprinted,
able fmell, was fir/I: noticed as a vermifuge by Mr. Peter Dit- Bayle. Moreri. New Annual Reglfter, vol. iv.
cruid (Eft. and Obf. Phyfic. and Liter, vol. 2. page 264.) GEOFF1\.OY,Etif.nne FnAXC<)ls,a phyfician, was born
But the fullcft information concerning this tree, in refped at Paris on the 13th of February, 1672. His father wa-s
to both its medical and botanical charaders, has been com- an apothecary, and had held the offices of (heriffand conful.
municatcd by Dr. AVright, who refided a long time in Ja- While the young Geoffrey was purfuinghis ftudies under
maica. According to his account, the bark of this tree is his paternal roof, his father held regular feientilic meetings,
powerfully medicinal, and its anthelmintic eR"eds have been at «hich Caffini attended witli his planifpheres, Sebailien
eftablilhed in Jamaica by long experience. It may be with his machines, and Joblot with his magnets, and at wliich
given in difl'erent forms, as in decodion, fyrup, powder, Du Verney performed his dilTedions, and plomberg his clu -
and extrad ; and the manner of preparing, and exhibiting mical experiments. After an excellent foundation of general
thefe, are parliciilarly ftatcd by Dr. Wright. For the de- fcience was tluis laid, his father feut him, in 1692, to Mont-
coSion, take frcfli dried or well-prcferved cabbage-bark, one pellier, to ftudy his own profeliion of pharmacy under an
ounce : boil it in a quart of water, over a flow lire, till experienced apothecary. Here he attended the courfes of
the water is of an amber colour, or rather of a deep-co- the moft celebrated profeffors of the univerfity, and after-
loured Madeira wine ; ftrain it ofi", fweeten it with fugar, and wards travelled through the fouthcrn provinces before lie
let it be ufed immediately ; as it docs not keep many days, returned to Paris. Already he had acquired confiderable

In order to obtain the _/J7u/), add a double portion of fugar
to any quantity of the above decodion. This fyrup will
retain its virtues for years. The extraB is made by eva-
porating the ftrong decodion in balneo marlie to the

reputation j and, although not yet a phyfician, he was
appointed to accompany the duke de Tallard, as his medical
attendant, on his embafl'y to England, in 1698. In London
he was much efteemed by fir Hans Sloane, and other men

proper confifl:ence ; it muft be continually ftiiTcd, as of fcience, and was eleded a member of the Royal So-

otherwife the refinous part rifes to the top, and on this, ciety. From England he went to Holland ; and afterwards

probably, its efficacy depends. The poivdcr of well dried to Italy in 1700, with the abbe de Louvois. Natural hil.

bark is eafiiy made, and locks like jalap, though not of torv and the materia m.cdica were among the principal

equal fpecific gravity. As this anthelmintic has alfo a nar- objects of his enquiries ; for his father intended him ibr

cotic effed, it is proper to begin with imall do es, which may his fucceflbr in his eftab'ifliment at Paris; but he aimed

be gradually increafed till a naufea is excited, when the at the higher walk of the profeffion, and with the confent

dofe for that patient is afcertained. A ftrong healthy grown of his father at length took the degree of batchelor in

peribn may at firil lake four table-fpoonfuls of the decoc- 1702, and that of dcdor in 1704. His difpofition was

eiild

GEO

"^ild and kind to Kis patients, who, on his outfct in practice,
"'ere alarmed by the folemn air which his fympathy for their
fufTerings ocealioned him to afTiinic ; but his reputation foon
incrcafed, and he \vas called in confiiltation even by the
mofl diftintjuilhed members of the profeflion. In 1709, he
was appointed by Louis XIV. to the profefTorfhip of medi-
cine, vacant by the death of Tournefort. In his new
office he undertook to deliver to his papils a complete
hiilory of the materia medica, upon wliich fubjcci he had
been for a long time collefting information. He com-
pleted his account of the mineral fubftances employed in
medicine, of which he gave a moll correct and ample hiilory:
and was employed on the vegetable kingdom, n hich he treated
alphabetically, and carried no farther tlian the article
Melijfa : on the animal kingdom he had not touched ; but
the whole of what he had delivered in his leftures was found
amoncr his papers in good order, and afterwards publifiied.
In 17 12, he fucceeded Fagou as profeflbr of chemillry in
the king's garden. In 1726, he was clefted dean of the
faculty, in the exercife of the funftions of which he was
led into fome aftive and anxious difputes, which, together
with the duties of his profeffion, and of his otiier offices,
deftroyed his health, which was naturally very delicate.
He lingered from the beginning of the year 1730 till the
6th of January, i 731, when he died. Notwithltanding his
malady, however, he had the refoliition to complete a v.ork,
which had been deemed neceffary by preceding deans, but
never accompliflied ; namely, a pharmacopeia, containing a
colleftion of the compound medicines requifitc to be kept
by apothecaries, " Le Code Medicamentaire de la Faculte
de Paris,'' of which two editions, enlarged and corrected,
were afterwards publifhed. His papers on the materia
medica were publifhed under the following title : " Trafta-
tus de Materia Medica, five, de Medlcamentorum fimpli-
cium hiftoria, virtute, deleftu, et uGi," Paris 1741, 3 vols.
8vo. under the infpetlion of Antoine de Jufficu. Several
editions have been fubfequently publifiied. It was tranf-
lated into French by Ant. Bei-gier, who publifhed 7 vols.
l2mo. in 1743, and the remainder in 3 volst in 1750.
Arnault de Noblevillc, and Salerne, phyficians of Orleans,
publifhed a continuation of this work, under the title of
" Hlftoire Naturelle dcs Animaux," Paris 1756, 1757, in
6 vols, izmo, which is deemed not unworthy to be ranked
with the production of GeofTroy. Eloy. DiA. Hill.

GEOGLOSSUM, in Botany, from -/;k, the earth, and
y\:,i:;-', the toni;i:e, Pcrfoon Syn. Fung. 607. Clafs and order,
Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. — Sett, clavieformei.

Etr. Ch. Receptacle club-!haped, flefhy, generally com-
preffed, Ihort, with a prominent margin next to the llalk.

This genus of Fimgi is founded by Perfoon on the Cla-
varia ophicghjfoides of other authors, with fome different fpe-
cies which refemble it, and which have the appearance of a
little tongue, grov/ing out of the earth upon a ilalk. He
enumerates and defines feven fpecies. His G. hirfutum is
Cla-varia ophioglojoides of Sowerby's Fungi, t. 83 ; his G.
g'.alrum is a fmaller and fmooth fungus, very like the frufti-
fying fpike of the fern OphiogloJJum^ except in being neatly
black.

GEOGNOSY. See Geology and Miyi-nALOGY.

GEOGRAPHICAL Mile is a minute, or the fixtieth
part of a degree of a great circle. See DficnEE and Mile.

Geographical Tabh, See Map.

GEOGR.'^PHY, formed of -/)!, <?rra, earth, and yfai?!',
feribo, I 'write, I dcfcribc } the doftrine or knowledge of the
earth, both as in itfelf and as to its affedtions ; or a defcrip-
tion of the terreflrial globe, and particularly of the known

Vol. XVI.

GEO

habitable part thereof, v.-ith all its fubordinate divifions. Geo-
graphy cc^nflitutes a branch of mathematics, of ^ mixed kind ;
bccaule it confiders the earth, and its aff'-clions, as depcndin"-
on quantity; and confequcntly, as meafurable : wz. its figure,
place, magnitude, motion, ccloilial appearances, &c. with
the fevcrai circles imagined on its furfacc.

Geography is diflinguifhed from cofmography, as a part
from the whole ; this latter ccnfidering the whole vifible
world, both heaven and earth.

From topography and chorography, it is diflinguifhed, as
the who'e from a part.

Goliiitz confiders geography as cither exterior or interior:
but Varenius more jullly divides it into general znd/pecia/ ;
or univerfal and particular.

Gi-OOKAi-uy, general m univerfal,h that which confiders
the earth in general, without any regard to particular
countries, or the alledlions common to the whole, globe ; as
its figure-, magnitude, motion, land, fea, &c. And this mav
be fubdivided into alfolute geography, which refpeiSts the
body of the earth itfe-lf, its parts and pecuhir properties.&c;
relative, whicli accounts for the appearance and accidents
owing to celeftial caufes ; and cotnparali've, wliich explains
thofc properties that arife from comparing different paits of
the earth together.

Geocrapuv, Jpecial or particular, is that which confi-
ders the conilitution of the feveral particular regions, or
countries, their bounds, figure, &c. v.ith the mountains, fo-
refts, mines, waters, plants, and animals, &.c. therein ; as
alfo their climates, feafons, heat, weather, diftance from the
equator. Sec. and their inhabitants, arts, foods, commodities,
cuiloms, language, religion, policy, cities, &c.

Special geography may be fubdivided, with regard to the
feverul periods of its progvcfs, into ancient, including a
defcript'.on of the earth, conformably to the knowlcdTe
which the sncients had till the decline of the Roman em-
pire ; of this kind Cellarius's Ancient Geography is an
excellent fummary : the geograpliy of the mean age, which
extended from the fall of the Roman empire to the relto-
ration of learning ; and midem geography, comprehending
the aftual defcription of the earth fince that time. With
regard to its objetts and ufes, fpecial geography may be
divided into natural, which treats of the divifions and dif-
tinftions which nature has made in the furface of the globe,
and the complexion, language, 5:c. of its inliabilants ;
hjjlorical, comprehending the different revolutions which any
country or town has undergone ; ci-vil, ot political, including
the government cf any country ; facred, defcribing thofe
countries and places that are m.entioned in fcripture and
eccleliallical hiilory ; ecc'efiajlical, giving an account of the
ecclefiatlical jurifdiction eitablifheJ and exercifed in various
countries ; <mil phyjical, which confiders not only the fur-
face of the globe, but alfo its intrinfic nature and fub-
ilance. Geography is very ancient, at leafl the fpecial
part thereof ; for the ancient writers fcarcely went beyond
the defcription of countries. Of this kind is the geography
which we find in the books of More,";, written about
the year .1452 B. C. and that of Homer, in his Iliad and
OdyfTey, v>'ho ' flourifned, according to the Arimdclian
marbles, 907 years B. C. The geographical know ledge we
derive from Herodotus, who flcurifhcd about 445 years
B. C, is very partial and imperfed. It chiefly relates to cer-
tain parts of Afia, and divers oth.ers unknown, as well a^
the northern and v.ellern parts of Europe ; and alfo Africa,
Egypt and Lybia excepted.

It appears ^fee Ptol. Geog. I. i. c. 9.) that the
early geographers, being deflitute of matliematical in-

Q (Inunenis

GEOGRAPHY.

Oriiments and of aftronomical obfervations, began fiiil
to determine the fituation of places according to cli-
mates ; and they wer^' led to fix upon thcfe climates
from the 'form and colour of certain animals which were
to be found in thofc- difFtrent countries. The appearance
of negroes, or of thofe called by them Ethiopians, and of
animals of the larger fize, fiic!i as the rhinoceros and
elephant, fuggefted to them the liire of divifion, where the
limits of the Torrid Zone began towards the north, and ter-
minated towards the foutli. This grofler manner of di-
viding their climates muft be confidered as the firft rude
outline of geography in the more illiterate ages of the
•Avrld. However this be, the Chaldean" and Egyptians,
who were dillinguiflied by their itcill in geometry and
ailronomy, were of courfe the firlt perfons tiiat paid any
])articular attention to geography ; and it is faid that the
iirll: map was made by order of Sefoilris L who conquered

^!i>'P?- . . „ . . . .

This Egyptian king, fays Euuathius in his epif-

tle, prefixed to his con\mentary on Dicjuyfuis's Tn^ny-.-.Ti:,
having traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his
marcii in maps, and gave copies of his maps not only to
the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great afto-
niihment. The Jews alfo feem to have had furveyors
among them ; and hence ipme have_ imagined that they had
nale a map of the Holy Land, when they gave the dif-
ferent portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh. (Jolh. xviii.
4. 8. 9.) And Jofephus tells us (1. v. c. I.), that when
Jofhua fent out people from the different tribes to mcafure
the land, he gave them as companions perfons well in-
ftru<Sed in geometry, vvhofe fkill would prevent their de-
viating from the truth. We may therefore reafonablv pre-
funie that a geometrical furvey was then made of the Ho'y
Land; though we cannot abfolutely determine whether
their menfuvation was only taken down in numbers, or re-
gularlv projected and digefled into a map.

Betides the method of dividing countries by climates,
already mentioned, the Egyptians and Babylonians adopted
another, which was that of determining the fituation of
glaces, or their dillance from tlie equator, by obferving the
length of their longefl and fhortell days. This they pcr-
fonned by means of a gnomon, eretled upon a horizontal
plane, by which they were enabled to meafure the length or
fhortnefs of the fhadow in proportion to the height of
the gnomon. For an account of this invention, and
of the method of applying it, fee Gnomon.

From the days of Thales,and his immediate fuccefTors, who
flourifhed in the fixth century before Chrift, geography
feems to have received little improvement for 200 years,
tiir the efhibliftiracnt of the famous fchool of Alexandria ;
although Pythagoras and his difciples were rightly in-
formed with regard to the true fyftem of the world, as
they placed the fun in the centre, and aferibed to the earth
both its diurnal and annual revolutions. During this period
we have an aflronomical obfervation of confidcrable import-
ance to geography, and the firft Greek obfervation upon
record ; which is that of Meton and Euftemon, who ob-
ferved the fummer folilice at Athens on a day correfpond-
ing to the 27th of June, 432 years B. C. This fol-
ftitial obfervation niufl have given them an opportunity of
determining the latitude of Athens at the fame time, if tiiey
had knowa the fimple manner of deducing the conclufion :
for as the length of the fhadow of the gnomon was attentively
watched at the moment of the folilice, the proportion of
that to the gnonion's height was eallly known, by which
the an<>-le of the fun's altitude would be <riven ; and though
tLe lun's greatell declination was not then accurately known,

yet ftill the latitude of Athens might have been deter-
mined within the limitations of the error refpetling the
declination. We have reafon to believe that Timocharis
and Ariilillus, who began to obferve 295 years B. C , were
the firfl who introduced the manner of determining the
pofition of the ftars, according to their longitudes and
latitudes taken with refpecl to the equator. This we
know from Ptolemy, who has preferred many of their
obfervations in his " Almagetl ;'' and particularly one,
which gave rife to the famous difcovery of the Prccejftntt
of ihc Equinoxes : which fee. It was after the precetilon
of the equinoxes was fully etlablifhed by Ptolemy, that
the longitudes and latitudes of the ftars were uniformly
referred to the ecliptic inllead of tlie equator. It was
therefore, by an eafy tranfition, that Hippzrchus would
be led to adort and difpofe the difll^rent parts of the earth
according to latitude or longitude : this being only a new
application or traufpofition of that artinee, which had been
already fo iiappily introduced in the arrangement of ti;e
conllellations, and therefore equally proper to be adojJted
in tracing the meridians and parallels of the earth. Hip-
parchus muft be univerfally allowed to have firft fixed the
folid foundation of geography by uniting it to aftronomy,
and thus rendering its principles felf-evident and invariable.

Pliny (N. H. I. ii. c. 12.) confirms this, when, after
mentioning Thales and Sulpicius Gallus, who had both
predicted eclipfes, he adds, "that Hipparchus had foretold
the revolution (of the eclipfes) of the fun and moon for
600 years, comprehending the months, days, and hours of
different nations, and the fituation of places," by which it
would feem that the latitudes and longitudes of thefe places
were particularly given. But the fulleft and ftrorgefl au-
thority for appropriating this invention to Hipparchus,
is that of Ptolemy in his " Geography," (l.i c. 4.)
who fays, " that Hipparchus was the only author who had
given the elevall-.tis cf the- north pole of a feiu cities, in pro-
portion to the great number that were to be delineated,
and fuch too as lay under the fame parallels, &c. &c."
And yet it is fomewhat remarkable that though latitudes
and longitudes were in this manner introduced and
pointed out by Hipparchus, yet they were fo little at-
tended to till the days of Ptolemy, that none of the in-
termediate authors, fuch as Strabo, Vitravius and Plinv,
all of whom minutely deicribed the geographical fitua-
tion of places according to the lengtii and fhadows of the
gnomon, have ever given us the leaft hint of the latitude
or longitude of any one place whatever in the language-
of degrees and minutes.

When the true principles of geography i^-ere tlius-
pointed out by this new invention of latitude and longitude,
it was no wonder that maps were from thence made li>
afTume a new form of projeiilion cfTentially different from
thofe in ufe prior to this period. For the hiftory of thff
cofiftruftion cf maps, fee Map.

It was a conftant cuftom among tlie Romans, af-
ter they had conquered and fubdued any provir.ce,
to have a map, or painted reprefentation thereof, car-
ried in triumph, and expofed to the view of the fpeftators.
Thus the Romans, as they were the conquerors, became
the furveyors of the world. Every new war produced a new
furvey and itinerary of the countries where the fcencs of
aftion occurred ; fo that the ir.aterials of geography v.ere
accumulated by every additional coiiqueft. Polybius, (1. ^
p. 123. cd. Cafaub.) when he tells us, that at the beginning of
the feeond Punic war, Hannibal was prepai"ing liis expedition
againll Rome, by croffing from Africa into Spain, and fo
through Gaul into Italyj fays, '■• that all thefe places

were

GEOGRAPHY.

ajafurud or furTeyed with the utmoft care by the fervedly confidered as the great father of chronology, dif
IS." tinguifhed himfelf by the cultivation of the fcience of geo

were me

Romans." tmgu

Vegetins De Re Mil. (1. iii. c.6.) has well defcribcd the graphy. (See the article Ekato4THi:;.e.s.)
furveys of particular provinces, with which every Roman AVe (hall now recite the names of fome of the principal

general was regularly furr.i(hed before his march. iEthi- perfuns who have contributed to the improvement of geogra-

cus, in the preface to his " Cofmographia,'' further informs phy. Pylhcas, the famous geographer ci Marfeillcs, nourini-

us, that Julius Cxfar ordered a general furvey to be made ed in the time of Alexander; and Ariftotle feems to have be<'n

of the v.hole Roman empire by a decree of the fenate : no lefs converfant with geography than philofopliy : after

felc<5ling for this purpofe pcrfons well icllrufted in every Alexander, Selcucus Nicanor, Theophraflus the difciple of

branch of philofopliy. The three furveyors were Zeno- Ariftotle, Eratofther.es, who pubhnn.-d three books ofgeo-

do.xus, Theodotus, and Polyclitus, each of whom was graphical comnienlrrics, and corredtcd a chart of Anar.i-

appointed to fui-vey a different divifion of the empire. , inander, Hipparchi;-, who correfled the obfcrvations of

This liirvjy commenced in the confuUhip of Julias Ciefar Eratofthenes, and thus furniflied occafion for a difpute

and Mjrc Antony, ia the year 44 B. C , and continued which greatly contributed to the improvement ofpcogia-

fur twenty-five years one month and ten days, to the con- phy, Agatharcidcs of Cnidu.-., who lived under Ptolen-.v

fulfhip of o»ntiu5 Satuniiiius and Lucrotius Cinna, in the Pliiloir.etor, and Miic-.Gas, who, about fifty years afict

year 19 15. C. The Roman itineraries that are ftill ex- him, publirtied a defcr.ption of the who!e world, Arter.ii-

tant, evidently (hew with v.!. at accurrcy their furveys were dorus of Ephefus, v.ho gave a defcription of the earth in

ma-ie in every pror\ince ; and Pliny has filled the 3d, 4th, eleven books, often cited by Hlrabo and Pliny, and ma.Tf

and 5th books of his Natural Hillory with the geograpliical others, whofe names it would be tetiious to enumerate

diftinguillied themfeives by the cuKivation and improvemeut
of this fcience. Geography was tranfmitted, with the
other arts, from Greece to Rome, as we have already men-
tioned. V^arro's v.-orks contain many geographical re-
marks : Zenodoxuj, Theodorus and Polyclitus were em-
ployed under the co:iful(hip of Julius Crfar and Maic
Antony, in furveying and meaiurirg the glebe. (See the
preceding part of this article). The commentaries of Carfar
are well known. Ptolemy encouraged Poiidonius, who
made an im.perfeci raenfuration of the e^-lh by ccleftial
obfervations, in different places ur.der the fame meridian.
(See Degree). Auguflus was a diftinguilhed patron and
promoter of this fcience ; under whom Slrabo publifi-.ed
his geography. And the tafte for the ftudy and advance-
ment of geography was greatly encouraged under Tiberius,
Claudius, Yefpafian, Domitian, and Adrian. Ifidore of
Chnrax, v/ho lived to the commencement of the firft century
of the Chriflian era ; Pomponius Mela, who publi(hed a
book entitled « De Situ Orbis ;'' Melius Pomporianus,who,
baring depicted the eai-th on a parchment, fell a facrince to

diilances that were thus mcafured.

Before the Romans engaged in this bufincfs, Neco, king
of Egypt, ordered the Pha:nicians to make a furvey of
the whole coafl of Africa ; v.liich they accomplilhed ia
three years : Darius procured the Elhiopic fea, and the
mouth of the Indus, to be furveyed. Thales of Miletus,
Anaximander his difciple, who is faid to have conftrufted
the lirlt map ; Djmocritus, Eudoxus, &c. who made
the ufe of maps common i;i Greece ; Ariflagoras of Miletus,
who prefented to Cleomenes, king of Sparta, a table
of brafs, on which he had defcribed the known earth,
with its feas and rivers ; and other Greeks, availing them-
feives of the afTirtance derived from the Chaldeans and
Egyptians, profecuted the ftudy and enlarged the extent
of this fcience. It appears that in the time of Socrates
geographical maps were ufed at Athens ; for this philofo-
pher humbled the pride and boaft of Alcibiades, by dciiring
him to point out his territories in Attica in a map : and
Pliny relates, (1. vi. c. 17.) that Alexander, in his expedition
into Alia, took two geographers, Diognetus and Bceton,

to meafure and defcribe the roads, and that from their the jealoufy of Domitian, the emperor fufpeSing that he
itineraries the writers of the following ages took many aimed at the empire ; Pliny the naturalift, who has de-
particulars. Indeed, thii may be obferved, that whereas fcribed the countries known in his time in the liiird, fourth,
moft other arts are fufFerers by war, geography and forti- fifth and fixth books of his Natural Hillory ; Marinus
fication have been improved thereby. We alfo learn from the Tyrian, who corrected and enlarged the difcoveries of
Strabo, that a copy of Alexander's furvey was given by preceding geographers ; and tlie emperor Antoninus, de-
Xenocles, his treafurer, to Patrocles the geographer, who, as ferve particular mention. This abftraci of the hiftorj' of
Pliny informs us, v.-as admiral of the fleetsoiSeleucus and An- ancient geographers, notwithftaading wliofe fucceflive la-
tiochus. His book on geography is often quoted both by hours geography was ftill in a very inxierfecl ftate, brings us
Strabo and Pliny: and it appears that this author fur- to a period, about the 150th year of the Chriftian era, in
nifhed Eratofthenes with the principal materials and autho- which Ptolemv of Alexandria contributed crreatly to the
rities for conftructing the oriental part of his mr.p of the improvement of this fcience, by a more ample and accurate
then known world. For the voyages of Patrocles under defcription of the terrellrial globe than any had yet <riven
Seleucus, upon the Cafpian fea, and elfcwhere, were a kind of it. He availed himfelf of numerous obfervations and
of fupplement to thofe meaturements given by Bocton ancient charts ; he corrected the miftakes r.nd fupphed
and Diognetus already mentioned, and by Nearchus and many defects of others ; and by reducing the diftances of
Oneficritus, the two admirals who were employed under Alex- places on the eai-th to degrees and minutes, after the man-
ander, and therefore Pliny quotes them immediately after, ner of Poftdonius, making ufe of the degrees of longitude
It appears hkcwife from the fame palTage, that Megaf- and latitude, and fettling the Ctuation of places bv aftro-
thenes and Dionyfius were two furveyors lent into India nomical obfervations, he reduced geography into a regular
by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for the purpofes of geography : fyftem, and laid a foundation for thofe farther difcoverie*
and their authority was fometimes fet in oppoiition to and im.provements, which naturally refuited from the pro-
Patrocles by Hipparchus, in his criticiijn upon Eratof- greiuve, and at prefent advanced itate of geoinetrv, aftro-

uomy, navigation, and commerce.

In order to form a proper judgment of the benefits ac-
cruing to geograpliy from tiie labours of Ptolemy, we ought
to take into account die materials that were e.stajtt in hi.-;
O 2 tim^

thenes's geography. (Strabo, lib. ii. pafllm.) From the
memorable era of Alexander'.s expedition and conquei?, and
thofe of his immediate fuccefTors. geography begun to
alfume a r.ew face and form. For Eratofthenes, who is de-

GEOGRAPHY.

timp, and which he had aftunlly in his pcfTeffion. Thefe
conliilcd of various particulars, lome of greater and others
of a lofs degree of authenticity. Tiie principal were the
" proportions of the gnomon" toils fliadow, taken by dif-
ferent ntlronomers at tiie times of the equinoxes and lolllices ;
" calculations" founded upon the length of thelongeft days ;
"the meafurcs" or computed diflances of the principal
roads contained in their furvcys and itineraries, and the
various " reports of travellers and navigators," who often
determinec^ the intervals of places by hear-fay and guefs-
v.crk. All of thefe were to be compared together, and
digefted into one uniform body or fyilem, and after this, were
converted and tra:!l1atedby him into a new mathematical lan-
guage, expreffing their different degi-ees and minutes of
litltude and longitud-, according to the invention of Hippar-
chus, but which Ptolemy had the merit of carrying into
full prafticc and execution, after it had been neglefted for
upwards of 250 years. We have no reafon to fuppofe, that
Piolemy had in his poirelTion real aftronomical obfervations
fufficient to determine all the longitudes and latitudes which
he has given ; fo that we ought always to remember, that
their degrees of accuracy depended upon the vei-acity of the
faCl or fuggeftion communicated to him, from which they
were afterwards deduced. We have therefore no reafon to
be alloniflied at the multitude of errors that are to be found
in it, when his original materials were fo imperfeft for exe-
cuting fo large a work, as that of fixing the longitudes and
latitudes of all the places, coails, bays, and rivers of the then
knov/n world ; an undertaking which, even in our days,
has not hitherto been brought to any fufficient degree of ac-
curacy. The miftakes of Ptolemy ought to be regarded
with candour, as they arofe from th.e ignorance of the age
in which he lived, which could give him no better informa-
tion, and not from ignorance or inattention en his own part.
Nevcrthelefi, Ricciolus, Cellarius, Paul Merula, and Sal-
mafms have been too fevere in their criticifm and cenfures ;
:<s if they were difappointed in not feeing this fcience in its
full maturity in the writings of Ptolemy, at a time when it
was evidently but juft beginning to advance beyond the verge
of its earheil infancy. They might with equal juftice con-
demn the modern geographers for giving no better account
of Nova Zembla, or New Holland, or of thofe continents
and iflands that lie on the northern or foutliem extremities of
the great South fea towards the tvi'o Poles ; of which the
knowledge which they could obtain was very imperfeft.
The principal millakes in Ptolemy took their rife from cer-
tain aih-onomical obfervations and furveys, which were fup-
pofed to have been made with accuracy in a prior age, and
which v>'ere adopted by this great geographer as genuine ;
;ind they have been, for want of better information, copied
by fucceeding geographei'S and inferted ui their maps, as
being, in their opinion, of acknowledged and undoubted
authority. Thefe miftakes, thus introduced, maintained
tlieir places in all maps, by a kind of unqueftioned prefcrip-
tion, even to the commencement of the lail century, audit
unfortunately happened that thefe errors related to that part
of the world which was beil known to the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Thus, Ptolemy ftates the latitude of Byzantium
to be 43' 5' inftead of 41 l', the latitude according to mo-
dern obfervations. In this particular Ptolemy was milled
fiy Hipparchus, who is mentioned by Strabo (1. i.) as
luving vifited Byzantium, and made this obfervation in
perfon. Th-' latitude of Marfeilles, which was fuppofed to
be under the fame parallel witii Byzantium, was not, however,
fo much miftaken, as by modern obfervations it has been
found to be 43 ' 17' 45"; and allowance being made for the
now acknotilcdged diminution of the obliquity of the

ecliptic, (fee Ecliptic,) the refult will be nearer the truth.
Another error of Ptolemy relates to the latitude of ancient
Carthage, which he has placed in 32" 20' inftead of 36 52',
the true latitude according to the beft obfervations. This
erroneous latitude feems to have been copied or tranflated
from a pafiage in Strabo (1. ii.), in which it is ft^ited that
at Carthage the gnomon has the fame proportion to tke
equinoftial fnadow, which li has to 17, whence by plain
trigonometry v%e {liall have the latitude of 32- 2Sj', very
near that of Ptolemy. The third capital miftake of Ptolemy
relates to the length of the Mediterranean, which is generally
meafured from the ftraits of Gibraltar to the bottom of the
bay of Iftus, where Alexandretta, or Scanderoon, now
ftands, whole ancient name was Alexandria ad KFum. The
difference of longitude of Alexandria ad Ifliim and Gibraltar,
according to Ptolemy, is 62 o' ; whereas the difference of
longitude between thefe two places, according to the lateft
obfervations, is 41- 28, and Ptolemy's error is 20° 32'.
This error, which continued in all our maps, more or lefs,
till the beginning of the laft century, took its rife from the
fuppofed furveys of perfons of reputation, recorded by
Strabo. (See Degree, Earth, and Longitude.) But
to return from this digreffion : — many valuable geographical
works appeared under Dioclehan, Conilantius, and
Maximian, &c. Under the emperor Theodofius the pro-
vincial and itinerary chart or table, fince known under the
name of Peutinger, was digefted and formed ; and the laft
work, that ought to be claffed with thofe of the ancients^
was the Notitia Imperii, attributed to jEthicus, v.-ho lived
between the years 400 and 450 of the Chriftian era. The
ages of barbarifm fucceeded the fall of the Roman empire ;.
and the arts and fciences were obliged to feek refuge and pro-
tettion from the Arabians and Orientalifts in Aila ; tlie
principal of whom, diilinguifhed by their attention to geo-
graphy, were Almamom, cahph of Babylon, and AbuLfeda,.
a Syrian prince. (See Degree.) After the revival of
learning in Europe, and particularly during the two laft cen-
turies, geography has derived very confiderable accefiions
from travels, voyages, and a variety of nautical and aftro-
nomical obfervations.

The great misfortune of ancient geography, and which
indeed confined it to fuch a lingering ftate of infancy, \vas,.
that the true method of determining with accuracy the dif-
ference of longitudes was a matter of fuch difficulty, and
remained fo long unknown. One of the firft attempts to
reftify the length of the Mediterranean was made under the
aufpices of M. de Peirefli in 1635 ; and he alfo, with a di-
rect view of correfting the errors in the longitudes of dif-
ferent places, took particular pains to get obfervations made
at Marfeilles, Aleppo, and Grand Cairo, of an eclipfe of
the moon, which happened Auguft the 27th 1635. Before
that time the difference of longitude between Marfeilles and
Aleppo had been fuppofed to be 45 ', but by thefe obfer-
vations it was found only to amount to 30' (the real differ-
ence has been iince found to be 31^ 58 ) ; fo that by this a
very confiderable correftion was made in the length of the
Mediterranean, by taking off the difference of one whole
hour, or ij', at once. About this time eclipfes of the fun
and moon were thought fufficient to determine the longitudes
of all places with a tolerable accuracy. But, in the event,
the ableil aftronomers foon found that from thefe eclipfes,
however carefully obferved, no clear deduction could be
made of the longitude of any one place to any fuincient de-
gree of exaftnefs. Honce feveral eminent aftronomers,
inch as Fournier, Kircher, and even Ricciolus, who had
colleftcd the obfervations of no lefs than 56 eclipfes of the
fun and moon, between the years ij6o and 1658, gave up

the

GEO

the correftion of geography by the application of cclipfcG
of the fun and moon alone, as a fruitkfs and dcfperatc
undertaking. At length recourfe was had to the ech])fes of
the latelhtcs of Jupiler, and they were found effetlual for
the piirpofe. It was fome time, however, before the theory
Cif the fecondary phmets was regularly reduced to tables ;
and though Simon M.irius firil, and after him Baptitta Ho-
diema, compofed ephemerides of their motions, yet nothing
of that fort was found to be fufficicntly accurate for the pnr-
pofes of longitude, till M. Cafiirii publiflied his tables of the
revolutions and eclipfes of the fatellites in 1668. The firll
opportunity of eHcftually applying this theory to the
redifying of geography was fnggeited by M. Caffuii, and
taken by M. I'icard in 1671 and 1672, who, at the obferva-
tory of Tycho Rrahe at ITraniburgh, obferved two immcrfions
and three emerfions of the hrft fatellite of Jupiter, which
were afterwards compared witli the fame obferved by
M. CalTini at tlie obfervatory at Paris. This firll experi-
ment ^/X\e at once the difference of longitude in the clearelt
manner beyond the poiiibility of a doubt ; and it likewife
;'.:Torded the certain profpecl of reftifying the whole extent
of geography as to longitude, upon principles that were felf-
cvident, and not liable to any miltake whatever. In confe-
quence of this fuccefs, M. Pieard and M. De la Hire, were
immediately employed in correcting the map of France ; in
•..onig wliich they v.ere obliged to contract it every where
withm lefs boundaries than it was fuppofed, according to
their former maps, to have occupied; infomucli that
Lewis XIV. jocofcly faid, that he found by their journey he
li.id fufPered a lofs of part of his kingdom. Other academi-
cians determined by the fame method the longitude of the ifle
ci Gorce, near cape Verd, on the coall of Africa, and of
' luadaloupe and Martinico in the Weft Indies. And when
■- Caffini had corrected his tables of the fatelhtes of Jupiter,
id pubh'hed a new edition of them in 1693, M. CiiazeUes

• .ii lent up the Levant, to obferve the longitudes and
iitudes of Scanderoon, Alexandria, and Coaltantinople,

• ■• order to determine the length and breadth of the Medi-
,• iranean, which he executed with great abihty.

Since the correction of longitudes has been introduced by
r.^'cnns of the fatellites of Jupiter, other methiids have been
;ilfo adopted and devifed, which are proper and effectual for
lliat purpofe ; fuch as " the tranfits of Mercury and Venus"
over the body of the fun ; " occuitatioiis" of the fixed Itars
by the moon ; and flnce the lunar tables have been improved
t'V M. Mayer and others, another mode, equally applicable
1 this important objeft, has occurred, by meafuring from
time to time the exaft " distances of the moon from the
f-'.n," and "from a fixed itar" of the firll and fecond raag-

• .'ude. In this mode there is a limitation of error, wliich
i ' far gives a degree of falisfaction, and prepares the way
f T brhiging the point that is thus unfettled to a more fpeedy
'; :d certain determination. Ini'lr'jments of obfervation have
iii!o been improved ; and time -pieces have been conitrufted,
i-eein a great degree from the error and uncertainty of thofe
tiiat were formerly in ufe. See Ciir.ONOMETEli and Clock.
oce alfo Epiie.meris and Longitude.

For a fuller account of the hiitory of ancient geography

f-e the preface to Bertius's edition of Ptolemy's Theatrum

Gcographia; Vcteris, fol. For a brief hillory of the rife

'id progrefs of geography, fee Varenius's Geog. and the

' r.troduClion to Elair's Tables of Chronolog)'.

The art, however, rauft needs have been exceedingly de-
''5tive ; as a great part of the globe was then unknown :
J irticularly all America, the northern parts of Europe and
.'Vfia, with the Terra AullraliSj and Magellanica ; and as

GEO

they were ignorant of the eartii's being cajjr.ble of being
failed round, and of the toi-rid zones being habitable, &c.

The principal writings on this art, among the ancients,
arc Ptolemy's eigjit books ; among the moderns are, Johannes
De Sacrobofco De Spha;ra, with Clavius's comment ; Ric-
cioliis's Geograj)hia and Hydrographia ReformaU ;
Weigelius's Speculum Terra: ; Dechales's Geography, in
his Mundus Mathcmaticus ; and above all, Varenins's Geo-
grapliia gencrahs, with Jurin's additions ; to which may be
added, Leibiiecht's Elementa Geographice generalis ; Stur-
mius's Compendium Geographicum ; Wolhus's Gcographia,
in his Elementa Miilhefeos ; the preface to M. Robert's
Atlas ; tiie introduction to Bufching's Geograpiiy ; the
works of Duval, Bnet, Deliile, D'Anviile,°Bonne, Bi-
rache, Mentelle, the Sanfons, Homann Morvilliers, Marti-
niere ; Pinkerton's Geography, Gordon's, Salmon's and
Gathrie's Grammars, &c. Hornii Orb. ant. delineatio,
Chiverius, Cellarius, Pomp. Mela, &c. &c.

The reader will find under the appropriate terms in this
Cyclopedia, fuch information concernmg the fubjects wliich
they exprefs, as is confident with the nature and limits of
the work ; and it would be, therefore, ahogether fuper-
fluous to detail them in this place, and, in fo doing, to
tranfcribe articles that will be found in their proper places.
See Altitude, Amphiscii, Antipodes, Ant.?:ci, Cir-
cles, Climate, CoLuuEs, Degkee, Earth, Ecliptic,
Equator, Equinoctial, Globe, Heteroscii, Hokizon,
Latitude, Longitude, Map, Meuidian, Mountain,
OcKAN, Parallels, Peri.^ci, Periscii, Pole, Sphere,
Sphcft: Ojlique, Parallel, and Rig;it, Tropics, ZoNjei,
&c. &c. &c.

GEOLOGY, in a Uriel fenfe of the word, or Geog-
nosy, is the fcience which illuitrates the ilructure, relative
pofition, and mode of formation of the diiFerent mineral fub-
llances that compofc the cruil of the earth. This interelUng
part of raineraiogy principally owes the dillinguilhed ranit
it now holds among the fciences to the celebrated protefibr
of Freyberg, who has however feparated geognofy, or the
fcience to which tlie above-given definition applies, from
geology in the fenfe in which the word is taken by him ; con-
fidering the latter as a merely fpeculative branch of know-
ledge, and as having nearly the fame relation to the former
which altrology has to allrcnomy. While geognofy, lefs in-
tent upon enquiring into the primordial ilate of the globe,
is contented v.-ith tlie merit of obferving, of collecting and
arranging fimple faCts in order to afcertain what cj.i be known
refpecling the relative fituation and agcsof mineral fubliances.

Gcohgy (in the fenfe in which the word is taken by Wer-
ner) afpires to the higher merit of recording the events of
periods, when the planetary fyllem of v.-hich the earth forms
a part was yet uncreated, and of afligning caufes to effect<^,
and explaiwng phenomena, before it is afcertaincd whether
they really have exillence, or arc merely tlie offsprin'r of
fancy and ignorance. Tlie framers of moll of tho.'e tllTues
of extravagant notions, knoun by the appellation of iheorits
of the earth (fee Earth and Theories of the Earth,) haVi
been fatisfied v.-ith a very moderate fhare of ir.aterials for their
llruClures, not to mention th;:t moll of them were utterly-
unacquainted with the nature of the fubllances, the origin of
which they undertook to elucidate. Nothing is better cal-
culated to flatter felf-love than to be mentioned as the crea-
tor of a theory of the earth ; nothing eafier, with a moderate
(hare of imagination and hfs knowledge of facts, than to
frame a new theory fufficicntly dillinCt from all its } recurfors
to be noticed; and nothing fafer than to broach opinions
which, though they cannot be proved true by their authors,

7 are

GEOLOGY.

arc certain to be left unrefiitcd by others. And who
would be defirous to wsfte his time in refutins^, or even
remembering, all the theories of the earth now rxtnrt ? Their
number, amounting already to above half a hur.died, ap-
pears to be daily increafmg, and ftands ir need of clafliiica-
tion to afilft the memory ; which, it m.ull be allowed, might
be more profitably employed in retaining thofe general obier-
■v-ations which, nnconneftcd wth any theory of the earth,
or with the Mofaic account, have in latter times been prefented
to the world by a fcv/ unprejudiced gcognofians. Inftead or
prematurely endeavouring to accommodate the little geog-
roftic knowledge we poffef'S to the events hinted at in the ia-
cred hyn-.n of creation, which was by no moans intendod for
a fyllem of gcologv ; we ih.ould conim.ence our rciearches m
this field of knowledge with fubjecting to a careful exam.ina--
tion what nati;re produces as it were under our eyes, fuch as
the manifold alterations that have taken place in the phy-
f:ognomy cf trafts of country iilmoll within the memory of
man. How little arc we acquainted with the m.tans whuth
nature employs to form the very foil on which we tread, by
converting into m.ouid the various animal and vegetible
cxuvix ! How fcanty are the genuine oblervations we pof-
fefs on the proceCs of alluvial dcpofition ! on ths detritus ac-
cun-.ulated at the foot of mountains by means cf the decom-
pofitio!! of the various rocks ! how little do we know of the
procefs employed to produce petrifactions ! and how little of
the circumilaiices under which the latter occur ! And yet
many of thefe, and other phenomena with.in the fphere cf
human obfervation, will admit of confiderable elucidation,
and may lerd to very intereftingrefults, by applying to tlicm
found princij-lcs of logic and iiiduAion. But refcarches of
this nature require what few arc inclined to bellow upon them,
tl-.e patient obfervation of many years ; and, v. hat falls to
the lot of few obfervers, a facility of com.bining and Gene-
ralizing infulated k&s. As an inllance both of the difficul-
ty and utility of fuch refearches, if properly condudk-d,
and of the little attention that has hitherto been paid to con-
fiderations that {hould precede any attempt at fram.iiij^ a
fyRem of geology, wc advert only to the highly interefting
difcoveries made within the laft tvs-clve years, by Cuvier in
the neighbourhood of Paris. It is in the confined fpace of
the well known sryps-formation of that part of France that
this incomparabie'naturalitl has found the offeous remains of
no lefs than fifteen quadrupeds, unlike any fpecies novxr known
to exia. .-Have thefe organized beings, it may be afced,
lived in the places where their remains are found, or have
they been carried thither ? and are they ftill to be met with
hving, or to be confidered totally or partly dellroyed .' It
18 obvious that the caufes to be afligned for the occurrence of
thofe petrifactions muft be diametrically oppofite according
as thefe two fimple queftions are anlwered in the affirmative
or negative ; and yet fomebody has thought it worth while
to fatisfy himfelf refpecting this circuuulauce ; nor have any
of the authors of the ten or twelve hypothefes that profefs
to explain the formation of the bafin of Paris, besn av.-are
that in a folitary fmall corner of that bafin, namely, at Grig-
non, there have been difcovered by Lamarck, in the courie
of feveral years, about fix hundred unknown fpecies of
(hells, befides forty or fifty, of which the prototypes are
fuppofed to be ftill exilling.

We (hall not attempt in this article to give a hiftory of
o-eology, which v/ould be nothing more than a chronological
expofition of the different theories of the earth (fee
Eahth, and Theories of the Earth): nor is it to naturalif.s
of earlier periods than the latter end of the lad century,
that v,e are indebted for genuine obfervations in this depart-
ment of fcience. But mucli as we owe t-o the exertions of

a Lehmann, Deluc, Dolomieu, and particularly Sauffur?,
who, in his celebrated agenda, has proved how ^vell he knew
the dcfiderata of geology, and what remained to be done to
give this branch of knowledge all the perfeAion it is fuf-
ceptible of ; yet the merit of arranging, into a harmonious
whole, a multiplicity of materials furnifhed by an intimate
acquaintance v;ith the internal ftrutture of a confiderable
and highlv interefting traft of country, is entirely due to
Werner ; \vhd, being affifted by the moft profound know-
ledge of the various mineral fubftances, and gifted with a
happy facihty of generahzing facts, has produced a fyftefu
of geogaofy, at once iimple and pradical, and much more
free from gratuitous aftum.ption than all the reft. Profe'for
Jamefon is the firft in this country who has given an expofi-
tion of the Wernerian geognofv, conltitutii;g the third
volume of his "Mineralogy." The following is intended
only a-, a brief n<etch of that fyftem, fuller details of which
will be 'ound under the various articles referred to.

The furface of the globe, confidered relative to its in-
equalit'es, is divided into highland, lowland; and the bottom
oftliefea. The /^/j/r.'^znJ comprizes, i. Alpine land, core.-
pofed of m.ountain groups or feries of mountain chains;
2. Mountain chains, formed by a feries of thofe ftill ir.ore
fimple inequalities, called 3. Mountains : in the form.er
we confider their length, height, fonn, and conncttion ; the
parts of the latter are the foot, the acclivity, and the fummit.
See Mountain.^, and Mountain Groups.

Loivland we call thofe extenfive flat trafts which are
almoft entirely deftitute of fmall moimtain groups, which
latter, if they occur in them, generally occupy the middle
part of the lowland. The principal lowland in Europe is
the eaftern part of Great Britain, the north of France, th.e
cidevant Neth.erlands, the northern part of Germany and
Silefia, the whole of Poland, the N. W. part of Ruilia,
towards th.e Ural mountains, a very fmall part of Sweden,
namely, Gothland. The fecond extenfive lowland plain is
in the centre of Afia ; it is known by the name of tlie
Steppes, and includes almoft the whole N. E. part of Ruffia ;
fome fmaller ones are in Arabia. The extent of the low-
land of Africa is not known. America has two confiderable
lowland plains : the one, in its northern half, is traverfed by
the iMilftfippi and Mifouri, and borders towards the eaft
by the Apalachian m.oimtains, and the W^eft India ifiands ;
the fecond, in South America, borders on the Andes.
With thefe plains of the lowland are connected the rlver-
courjh, or river valleys, in which we have to confider the
bed of the river and the holm or hangh land, the high and
low bank of the river. (See ^i\F.\\-courfe.) The incon-
fiderablv rifing ground with which the lowland plains are
frequently marked, is, by German geogncfians, called
Land-h'ohtn wh.en they are nearly of equal length and
breadth, and Land-riicken when the)' have an elongated
form.

The bottom of the fea, or that part of the globe which is
ftill covered by water, may equally be confidered with a
view to its depreflions and elevations ; to tlie latter belong
ihe fiat, the rocky bottom, the flioals, reefs, and ifiands.
See Se-\ and Island. j

It is only after a diligent ftudy of the inequalities juft. I
pointed out, that we can with advantage undertake to
explore the means employed by nature to produce them ;
and the firft ftep is to proceed to the examination of the
phyfical caufes of the flow, but unccnllng changes of the
globe. Obfervation teaches us, that moll of the elevations ij
and hollows we meet with on the furface of the earth owe: \
their origin to the aftion of the atmofpherc, to that of the I
ocean, and to vgicanic fire. Thefe pov/erful agents may he "

confidered

GEOLOGY.

cwnfidcrcd \'.ith regard to thtir dejlroying, and, in confequence
'>f tin's dellruclioii, with regard to their forming effects.
The waters of the ocean potfefs the former of thefc powers
in a fuperior degree ; wliole maritime dillricls are known to
h;iv.- bpi-n overwhehned by their irregular action upon the
Ufid ; but alfo the regular motion of the fea, ebb and flood
tide, currents, &c. confiderably contribute to gradu-
lUv changing the face of tlie bottom of the fea, and of
the ihores on which they adl. The dellroying eftecls
of the atmoipheric waters are both mechanical and che-
mical ; the former are produced by long continued rain,
watcr-fpouts, ice, fnow, thaws, and confequent floods,
by which confiderable psrtions of rocks are detached and
carried, together with other loofe materials they meet,
t» more or lefs dillant places, according as the bulk of
thefe materials or tlie nature of the country, either
favours or impedes their progrefs. The chemically deftroying
effects of water are lefs rapid, and depend on the folubihty
of the different rocks over which they flow. T!ie forming
effefts of v.-ater, both mechanical and chemical, are the
nitural confequence of its delb-uCtive cfFecls ; examples of
tlv; former are fandbanks, changes of coafts, &c. Of the
latter, beds of fait, calcareous, and other depoiltions, &c.
See Waters, AtmofpL'ru; and OrEAx.

The effects of volcanic tire are deflroving by means of the
confumption of the inflammable materials, by deficcation
and fufion ; and forming by fublimation, and by the pro-
duftion of lavas and other volcanic ejections, by fublima-
tion, &c. See VoLCAMO.

From the defcription of the inequalities of the furface of
th? earth, and of the means employed in forming them, the
V/erncrian fcliool proceeds to tl.econfideration of the internal
ilruCture of the earth, the knowledge of which we derive
from a careful examination of the order which nature has
ftfUowe'l in the dcpofition of the mountain malfes, and which
is principally laid open to view in the chalms and fections
produced by floods, &c. in natural caverns and in the interior
of mines. By ihele nie.jis we may become acquainted with
four different llruc"lures, ber.des that of the iimple foffil,
which is the objeCl of Orydlognofy ; i. The flrutlure of
rocks or mounia'iii rods ; thefe are either fimple (fuch as lime-
lione, clay-flate, ferpentine), or aggregated, in which cafe
the principal kinds of texture of tlie component parts are
granular, fiaty, porphyritic, and amygdaloidal. (See RorKS. )
2. A more general llruclure is that of mountain mojfcs ; thefe
have either a Umply flra'ifisd llrufture, -jiz. when a moun-
tam, or movmtain mafles are compofcd of one fpeeies of
rock divided into parallel tabular maffes or flrata ; or they
confiil of alternating itrata of different rocks, v%-hich in this
cafe are called btds. Mount'.in maffes alfo difphy what is
termed yJ^.-'.-c-i/flrufture, in which diffinft concretions on a
.age fcale are obfervablc, fuch as the columnar, the large
.^lobular, and the club-fhapcd ftructure, feveral modifications
of which are obferved in bafalt. Another variety of this
lirufture is called tabular feameJ ftrufture, which is not
unlike flr.-.tificatioa. (See ^Icu^■T.'VI^^ Masses, and Stra-
ta.) A iliil '.T.ore general flructnre is ^. The Jiruliure of
/ rmjtions, wh'.ch term AVerner applies to a determinate
.i;i'cniblage of feveral fimilar and diJumilar rock maffes which
conflitute an independent whole. If the mafs -is uniform
tl roughout ; if, for inftance, it confil's entirely of fand-
li.>ne, granite, &c. it is ti rmed JimpU, whereas it is a com-
ponnd form.ation, if it exhibits diflimilar maffes, fuch as black
coal with fletz-trap, &c. Some formations ccnllitute the
principal mafs of a mountain in which they occur, (gnelfs,
clay-dale, porphyry, f<c.) while others occur only imbedded
(j.crphyry, lime-ftone, &t.) ; ar.d thefe b«is, if they occur

in different principal formations, and always under the fame
circumflances, notwithllanding the difference of the rocks in
which they are found, and if, moreover, they form members
of a lenes of formations, are confidered as, and deno-
minated /Wf^i'«(i'«/ybnna/;!;n/. If the reverfe of all this IB
obferved in fingle beds, they are called fulorj'inah- to the
formation in which they are imbedded, as is the cafe with
the beds of roe-Rone, in the fecond fand-flone, &c. For
fome further diftinctions, fee RF.HOsnOKn;.s, mUicial. The
mofl general of the flructurcs we know is, 4. That of tke
crujl of the earth, conipofed of rock formations, which cover
each other in certain directions, and in a regular manner. As
to the original extent of forroatii-ns in general, Werner terms
uni'verfal tormations thofe which, without great interruption,
furroand the whole globe, and thus conltitute the greater
part of its cruil ; to it belong almoft the whole of the pri-
mitive, tranfition, and ffet/.-formation. Pailial formations,
on the other hand, are thofe that appear only in detached
fpots, and exhibit cliarafters dilHnct from thofe of the
univerial formation : thus the depofition at Wehrau in Lu-
fatia (which Werner fufpecls to be the refuk of a fniall and
partial flood) is compofed of fand-ltone, lime-ftone, bitu-
minous fliale and iron-clay, which all re!l on loofe fand. The
prefent extent and continuity of farmations are fo far different.
from the original, that thofe called vmverfal often appear
broken into fmall detached portions, frequently refembling
partial formations, and they receive different names according
to their different fhapes, and the fituations in which they are
found. Other conliderations relative to the ftruclure of
the crufl of the globe are derived from the pofition and di-
racllon of the flrata in regard to the fundamental or fub-
jacent rock, from the diredtion of the flrata without reference
to the fundamental rock, and from the relation of the out-
goings (/'. e. the up])er extremiiics of the diflTcrent flrata as
they appear at the furface of the earth), to the exterior of
the mountain ; for vehlcli fee Stkata.

A comparifon of the different clalfes of rocks, and thcfr
fucceffion and Uratification, poijits out the following dif-
tinctions. The clafa of rocks on which all others reil, and
which, on that account, is confidered as the oldeft, is tlie
clafs of the primitive reds, whofe texture is often more
or lefs cryllalline, a quahty denoting preuous che-
mical foiuticn. They comprehend granite, gneifs, mica-
flate, talc-flate, hornblende flatc, fyenite, porphyry, ferpen-
tine, and lime-llone. Thefe rocks are moftly difpofcd in
conformable and unbroken ilratiiication, each newer flratum
with lov/er level, as is the cafe with gn.ifs, mica-flale, and
clay-flate, while the granite beneath will fometiaics appear
to rife up through thtm, cnconipafTed, in various manners,
by the other rocks. (See Rocks, Primitive.) Tlie rocks
next in fucceffion are fuch as are likewife principally ccin-
pofed of chemical prodadlions, but in which mechanical
depofition is obferved more abundantly the nearer tliey ap-
proach tht following clafs ; the rocks conftituting this in-
termediate clafs are called tranfition-rocks. I_ime-flone
occurs more frequently in this than in the preceding clafs ;
the other rocks it contains are principally grey-wacke,
grey-wacke flate, and clay-flale. (See TRANSlTiOX-iJc.'//).
To this fucceeds, as of ilill later origin, the clafs of fletz-
rocks, in which the mechanical depofits occur in greater
abundance, at the fame time that the chemical precipitation
difappears. (See YLHiz-Rods.) The next clafs which
bears the charaiSer of (lill more recent formation, is en-
tirely compofed of mechanical depofits, fuch as fand, clay,
&c. See Rocks, y^//h7'i<i/.) But, befides thefe formations,
the outgoings of which fhow gradually diminiihing levels
from the older to the newer, there are two others, the llrata
i of

GEO

of which, inftcad of having pnrallchfm with, are fuiierincum-
hcnt on, the outgoings of the other flrata : they are called
the iwx'ejl ficl':^-irap, and the r.eivtr porphyry fornirj'ion, and
are feen to reft both on flctz-llrata of very recent formation,
and on elevated primitive mountains. The former of thefe
formations is particularly interefting, as including rocks,^
^vhofe origin has been, and continues to be, a fubjed oi
controverfy between the Neptunifts and Volcanifts, I'uch as
bafalt, wacke, &;c. all of which, according to Werner, are
the refults of a deluge, or fudden rife of the water at a
more recent period than that in which the iletz-mountains
were formed. (See VLZTZ-Roch and TuAP-Formnlioii.)
The fecond of thefe great formations, occurring in the
lame unconformable Itratilication, confifts of porphyry,
fyenite, and pitch-ftone, and is fuppofed of much older
origin than the ncweil fletz-trap-formation, with which,
however, it agrees in many refpe-Ss. See Pokphvrv.

No geologill before Werner has pointed out the fuccef-
fion in which the different fuites of formations have been
depofited from the water at different periods ; a fucccfiion
which (hows the aherations that fluid has undergone with
regard to the fubftances it held, at different tmies, citlier
chemically diffolved, or mechanically floating. Thus the
oldeft of the primitive rocks contain metals almoft peculiar
to them, and which, therefore, were not again depofited m
fucceeding periods, fuch as tin, molybdena, and tunglleen ;
and in feveral cafes, one and the fame fubiiance, (luch as
lime-done,) though it be repeated at confiderable intervals,
ilill adopts in each of them a peculiar characler. Thele
fuites are, I. That of the liimjione formation, beginning
with tlie primitive crylfalline granular hme-llone,_ and
pafling, by infenfible gradations, through the tranlition,
and fletz-lime ftones, into the lowermoll links of the ferics,
i,iz. chalk and calcareous tuf. 2. That of the Jlate form-
ation : its central point is clay-flate (from whicii this

GEO

members, the lird or older occurring with primitive rock';,
efpccially pi-imitivc lime-Hone, in conformable ttratification ;
and the fecond or newer, found in an unconformable
and overlying pofition on the older rocks. See Seiipek-

TIME.

For further particulars relating to the Wernerian fyftcm
of geognofy, we refer to the articles Strata, Vein, and
WiVTERS, Diminution of.

GEOMANCY, Geo.maxtia, a kind of divination, per-
formed by means of a number of little points, or dots, made
on paper at random : and confidcring the various lines and
figures which thofe points prefent : and thence forming a
pretended judgment of futurity, and deciding any c^ueftioa
propoied.

The word is formed of the Greek yr,, terra, earth ; and
jxry.-.-^iij., divination ; it being the ancient cullom to call
little pebbles on the ground, and thence to form their
conjedlures ; inftead of the points afterwards made ule
of.

Polydore Virgil defines geomancy a kind of divination
performed by means of clefts, or chinks made in the ground ;
and takes the Perfian Mairi to have been the inventors
thereof.

GEOMETRICAL, fometliing that has a relation t>.
geometry.

Thus we fay, a geometrical method, a geom.etrical genius,
geometrical ftritlnefs, geometrical conitrucxion, geometrical
demonllration.

Geometry itfelf fcems to lead us into errors ; after once
reducing a thing to geometrical confideration, and finding
that it anfwers pretty exacftly, we purfue the view, are pleafed
with the certainty and agreeablenefs of the demonf^rationo,
and apply the geometry farther and farther, till we often out-
run nature.

Hence it is, that all machines do not faccced : that all

formation derives its name), paflmg, on one hand, through compofitions of mufic, wherein the concords are the mod ri

rnica-flate into gneifs, when the ilaty ftrudure gradually
difappears, and a pafTage is formed into the olded member,
namely granite ; and, on the other hand, tlirough tranlition.
flate, grey-wacke llate, and grey-wacke, into the feri'es of
fletz fand-!ioncs, and from thence into the alluvial feries,

gidly obferved, are not agreeable : that the mod exaft adro-
nomical computations do not alwjiys foretell the precife time
and quality of an eclipie, &c.

The reafon is, that nature is not a mere abdraft ; mecha-
nical levers and wheels are not geometrical lines and circles ;

confitting of (late clay, loam, fand, and gravel, 3 The trap- as they are often fuppofed to be : the talle for tunes is not
formation fuit.' pafTcs from the primitive horiiblende-ilate, the fame in all men ; nor at all times in the fame man: and
charatferized by its crvdHJlino nature, and from the pnmi- as to adronomy, as there is no perfcft regularity in the mo-
tive "■reen-done, and green-ilone flate, through the tranfition tions of the planets, tlicir orbits hardly feera reducible to
grcen-ftone, into the flctz-trap, formed ch'iefly of amygdaloid, any fixed, known figure.

and from thence into the neweil fletz-trap formation, con- The errors, therefore, we fall into in adronomy, mufic,
fidin? principally of bafalt and wacke, unconformably fuper- mechanics, and the other fciences tq which geometry is ap-
inctvmbent on rocks of various antiquity. 4. The porphyry plied, do not properly arife from geometry, which is an in-
formation fultc is equally chara6teriinc in its different mem- fallible fcience, but from the falfe ufcj or th.e mifappKcation
bers, from old primitive porphyry down to that mentioned of it.

" " " ■ ■ ■■' ■' "^ °^ '"'" ^ " Geometrical ConJlruHion of an equation, is the con-

triving and drawing of lines and figures, whereby
to demondrate the equation, theorem, or canon, to be
geometrically true. See CoNiTllUCTiON of Equations.

Geometrical Line or -Curve, called alfo algebraic line or
curve, is that wherein the relations of the abiciflas to the
femi-ordinates may be exprefhd by an algebraic equation.
See Curve.

Geometrical lines are didinguidied into claffes, orders, or
genera, according to the number of the dimenfions of the
equation that cxprclTes the relation between the ordinatcs
and tlie abfciflas : or, which amounts to the fame, accord-
ing to the number of points in which they may be cut by a
right line.

^_^^^_,^^ ,._ ^_ , , Thus aline of the fird order v.'ill be only a right line:

feriKH'-n formation fuite licom^ok^j^i: far as we know, of two thofc vf tlie fecond, or c^uadratic order, will 'be tne circle.

jftSove, as of fimilar origin vv^ith the newed fletz-trap form-
ation : the nature of the different members of this formation
fland, however, in need of further examination. (See
PoRPHvaY.) 5. The gyps formation comprifes three prin-
cipal memberc!, the ohlelt of which, or the primitive gyp-
fum, occurs in mica-flate and clay-flate ; the fecond and
third are fletz-gypfum, the form.er of them accompanying the
following, or 6, Saltformation, which conditutcs twoj.eries,
one of which occurs only^ with fletz-gypfum, (fee Fletz-
Rochs), while the other is dill forming on the bottom of
lakes, &c, (See liacK-Salt) 7. Thti coa'.formatirjn fate,
comprifing, belides the independent -coal formation, various
varieties of coal belonging to the fletz-trap formation, and
to alluvial d^'pofitions; the members of this fuite require
farther inveftigation. (See Yl^t/.-RocIs, and Coal.) 8._The

GEO

C E O

und the conic feclions; and thofe of flie tlinj, or cubic or-
der, will be the cubical and Neliaii parabolas, the ciffoid of
the ancients, &c.

But the curve of the firft gender (bccaufe a right line
cannot be reckoned among the curves) is the fame with a
line of the fecond order ; and a curve of the fxoiid gender,
the fame with a line of the tlirrd order ; and a line of an in-
finiteiimal order is that which a right line may cut in in-
finite points ; as the fpiral, cycloid, the quadratrix, and
every line generated by the infinite revolutions of a ra-
dius.

However, it is not the equation, but the defcription, that
makes the curve a geometrical one ; the circle is a geometri-
cal line, not becaiife it may be exprefled by an equation, but
bccaufe its defcription is a poftulate : and it is not the iimpli-
city of the equation, but the cafinefs of the defcription,
which is to determine tlie clioice of the lines for the con-
ftruclion of a problem. The equation that expreffes a
parabola is more fimple than that which expreffes a circle ;
and yet the circle, by reafon of its more iimple conllruC^ion,
is admitted before it.

The circle and the conic feftions, if you regard the di-
menfions of the equations, are of the fame order ; and yet
the circle is not numbered with them in the conRruftion of
problems ; but by reafon of its fimple defcription is de-
preffed to a lower order ; 11/2. that of a right line ;
fo that it is not improper to exprefs that by a circle,
which may be expreffcd by a riglit line, but it is a fault
to conftrucl that by the conic feclions, which may be
conftrufted by a circle.

Either, therefore, the law mufl be taken from thediaien-
fions of equations, as obferved in a circle, and fo the dirtiiic-
tion be taken away between plane and folid problems :
or the law mu!t be aU.owed not to be ftrictly obferved in lines
of fuperior kinds ; but that lome, by reaion of their more
fimple defcription may be preferred to otliers of the
fame order, and be numbered with lines of inferior or-
ders.

In conflruftions that are equally geometrical, the moft
fimple are always to be preferred : this Izw is fo univer-
fal as to be without exception. But algebraic exprcffions
add nothing to the fimplicity of the conttruttiou ; the
bare defcriptions of the lines here are only to be confider-
ed ; and thefe alone were confidered by thofe geometri-
cians, who joined a ci-cle with a right line. And as
tlK-fe are eafy or hard, the condruction becomes eafy or
hai'd : and therefore it is foreign to the nature of the
thing, from anything elfe to eibablilh laws about eon !l ructions.

Either, therefore, with the ancients, we muft exclude
all lines befide the circle, and perhaps the conic fections, out
of geometry ; or admit all according to tlie fimplicity of the
defcription : if the trochoid were admitted into geometry,
we might, by its means, divide an angle in any^-iven ratio ;
would you therefore blame thofe who wotild make ufe (jt
this fine to divide an angle in the ratio of one number to
another ; and contend, that this line was not defined by an
equation, but that you mull make life of fueh liiws as are de-
fined by equations ?

If, when an angle were to be divided, for inllance, into
looi parts, we (hould be obliged to bri^ig a curve defined by
an equation of above a hundred dimeiifions to do the bufinefs ;
which nobody could deferibe, much lefs underlland ; and
fliould prefer this to the trochoid, which is a line well known,
and defcribed eafily by the motion of a wheel, or circle :
who would not fee the abfurdity .?

Either, therefore, the trochoid is not to be admitted at
all in geometry; or elfe, in the conftrudlion of problems, it

Vol. XV]'.

is to be preferred to all lines of a more difficult defcription,
and the reafon is the fame for othrr curves. Hence, the tri-
fcttions of an angle by a Conchoid, which Archimedes, in
his Lemmas, and Pappus, in his CuUetlions, liavp preferred
to the invention of all others in this cafe, miift be allowed
to be good ; fince v.e mu(l either exclude all lines, befide
the circle and right line, out of geometry, or admit them
according to the fimplicity of their delcriptions ; in which
cafe the conchoid yields to none except the circle. Equa-
tions are expreflions of arithmetical computation, and pro-
perly have no place in geometr)', except fo far as quantities
truly geometrical (that is, lines, furfaces, folids, and pro-
portions) may be faid to be fome equal to others : multipli-
cations, divifions, and fuch fort of computations, are new-
ly received into geometry, and that apparently contrary to
the firft deiign of this fcicnce : for whoever confiders the
conttruftion of problems by a right line and a circle, found by
the firll geometricians, wiU eafily perceive that gcom.elry wa»
introduced that we might cxpeditioully avoid, by drawing
lilies, the tcdioufnefsof computation

It ihculd f -em, then fore, that the two fcicnces ought
not to be confounded together : the ancients fo induftrioufiy
dillinguifhed them, that they never introduced arithmetical
terms into geometry ; and the moderns, by confounding
both, have loft a great deal of that fimplicity, in \.hichthe
elegance cf geometry principally confifts. Upon the whole,
that is arithmetically more fimple, which is determined by
more fimple equations ; but that is geometrically more fim-
ple whicli is deter. lined by the more fimple drnwir.g of
lines ; and in geometry, that ought to be ivckoned bell
which is geometrically moft fimple.

Geometrical Zofuj, or P/nd; called alfo fimply locus.
See Locu.s.

Geomktkic.vl Me^Uum. See MKDif>r.
Glo^iktrical Met/j'oil of l/ie y/nc}inls. It is to be ob-
ferved that the ancients eftabliflied the higher parts of
their geometry on the fame principles as the elements of that
fcience, by dcmonftrations of the fame kind ; and that they
feem to have been careful not to fuppofe any thing done, till
by a previous problem they had ilieu'u how it vxas to be per-
formed. Far lefs did they fuppofe any thing to be done that
cannot be conceived, as a line or feries to be actually conti-
nued to infinity, or a magnitude to be diminifiied till it be-
comes infinitely lefs than what it was. The elements into
which they refolved magnitudes were finite, and fuch as might
be conceived to be real. Unbounded liberties have been
introduced of late, by which geometry, which ought to be
perfectly clear, is filled \\ ith myfteries. See Maclaurin's
Fluxior.s, Intr. p. 39, feq.

Geomeikk.\l Ojailum. .See Cl'U\ k, Evolute, and O."?-

CLLUM.

Gkomkthical Ptue, is a meafure confifling of five feet.
See Paci:, a^id Foot.

GHJ.METltlCAi. Plan, in Architecture. See Plan.

Gf.om ETHICAL Plane. See Plane.

Geo.methical Progrejftim. See G cornel r'lccl PnoGReK.^
siox.

Geo.mktiuc.vl ProporUon, called alio abfolntely, and fim-
ply, froporl'ion, is a (imiUtude or identity of ratios. Sec
Ratio.

Thus, if A be to Bj as C to D, they arc in geometrical
proportion : fo 8, 4, 30, and 15, are geometrical propor-
tionals. See Proi'oktion.

Geometrk-.vl Solution of a problem, is when the pro-
blem is directly folvcd according to the ilritl principles and
rules of geometry, and bv lines that are truly geometri-
cal.

P In

GEO

Tn tills feiife we fay, geometrical foliition in coiitra-
ctifliiidlion to a mechanical, or inftrumental fi)!ution,
ivhore the problem is only folvcd by ruler and com-
paffcs.

The fame term is likcwife ufed in oppofition to all indireft
and inadequate kinds of folutions, as by infinite fcriefes,
&c.

We have no geometrical way of finding the quadrature of
the circle, the dupHcature of the cube, or two mean pro-
portionals ; but mechanical ways, and others, by infinite fc-
riefes, we have.

The ancients, Pappus informs us, in vain endeavoured at
the trifeAion of an angle, and the finding out of two mean
proportionals by a right line, and a circle. Afterwards they
began to confider the properties of feveral other lines ; as
the conchoid, the ciffoid, and the conic fetlions ; and by
fome of thefe endeavoured to folve thofe problems. At
kngth, having more thoroughly examined the matter,
and the conic feftions being received into geometry,
they dillinguiflied geometrical problems into three kinds ;
viz.

I. PItvie ones, which, deriving their original from lines on
a plane, may be regularly folved by a right line, and a
circle.

z. SoFiJ ones., which are folved by lines deriving their
original from the confideratiofi of a folid ; that is, of a
cone.

3. L'lnear ones, to the folution of which are required lines
more compounded.

Accordingto this diftinftion we are not to folve folid pro-
blem.s by other lines than the conic feftions ; efpecially if no
other lines but right ones, a circle, and the conic feclions,
jnuft be received into geometry.

But the moderns, advancing much farther, have received
into geometry all lines that can be exprefled by equations ;
and have di'Hnguilhed, according to the dimenfions of the
equations, thofe lines into knids ; and have made it
a law, not to conftruft a problem by a line of fupe-
rior kind, that may be conllrufted by one of an inferior
kind.

Geometrical Square. See Square.
Gf.OMETRiCAL Tci/z/t". See Plain Talk.
GEOMETRICALLY PROPOKTioxAL.s,are quantities
in continual proportion ; or which proceed in the fame con-
ftantratio: as 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, &c.

They are thus called, in contradiftinclion to cqui-different
quantities ; whicli are called, though fomewhat improperly,
ar'ithnieticaHy proportionals.

GEOMETRY, the fcience, or doClrine of extenfion,
or extended things ; that is, of lines, furfaces, or fo-
lids.

The word is Greek y^iy-TTpi-^, formed of ■>rz or •>>■, earth,
and u!T|);i', meafure ; it being the neceility of meafuring the
earth, and the parts and places thereof, that gave the firfl
occafion to the invention of the principles and rules of this
art ; which has fincc been extended and applied to numerous
other things ; ir.fomuch that geometry, with arithmetic, is
now tlic general foundation of all mathematics.

Herodotus, lib. ii. p. 102. edit. WelTelingii, Diodorus,
lib. i. ^81, or vol. i. p. 91. edit. Amft. 1746. and Strabo,
lib. xvii. vol. ii. p. 1139. edit. Amft. 1707. affert, that the
Eg\'pt:ans were the firfl inventors of geometry ; and
that the annual inundations of the Nile were the occafion of
it ; for tliat river bearing away all the bounds and landmarks
of men's eftates, and covering the whole face of the country,
the people, fay they, were obliged to diftinguilh their lands
by the confidcratioiiof their figure and quantity ; and thus,

GEO

by experience and habit, formed themfelvcs a metacd, or
art, which was the origin of geometry. A farther con-
templation of the drauglits of figures, of fields thus laid
down, and plotted in proportion, might naturally enough
lead them to the difcovery of fome of their excellent and
wonderful properties ; which fpeculution contmually im-
proviiio-, the art became gradually improved, as it continues
to do to this day. Jofephus, however, feem.s to attribute
the invention to the Hebrews : and others, among the an-
cients, make Mercury the inventor. Polyd. Virgil, De In-
vent. Rer. lib. i. cap. i?.

From Egypt geometry pafled into Greece, being carried
thither, as fome fay, by Thalcs ; where it was much cul-
tivated and improved by himfilf, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras
ofClazomene, Hippocrates of Chios, and Plato, who tefti-
ficd his conviftion of the ncccfruy and importance of geome-
try in order to the fuccefsful lludy ot philolophy by the
following infcription on the door of his academy, tin:
a' xfj.:-7j tTTc; si7-=iTi', let no one ignorant of geometry enter here.
Plato, conceiving that geometry was too mean and relf ridted
an appellation for this fcience, fubftituted for it the more
exteniive name of " Menfuration ;'' and others have denomi-
nated it " Pantometry.'' Other more general and compre-
henfive appellations are more fuitable to its extent, more
efpeciallv in the prefcnt advanced ftate of the fcience ; and
accordinglv fome have defined it as the Science of inquiring,
inventing, and demonllrating all the affeftions of magnitude.
Proclus calls it the knowledge of magnitudes and figures,
with their limitations ; as alio of their ratios, affections,
pofitions, and motions of every kind. About fifty years
after Plato, lived Euclid, who coUefled together all thofe
theorems which had been invented by his predecefibrs in
Egypt and Greece, and digeiled them into fifteen books,
CHtitled the Elements of Geometry ; and thofe propofitions
which were not fatisfaftorily proved, he more accurateiv
demonftrated. (See Euclid.) The next to Euclid of
thofe ancient writers, whofe works are extant, is ApoFio-
nius Pergieus, who flouriflied in the time of Ptolemy Eue r-
getes, about two hundred and thirty years before Chrili:, and
about a hundred years after Euclid. (See his biographical
article. ) The third ancient geometer, whofe writings re-
main, is Archimedes of Syracufc, who was famous about
the fame time with Apollonius. (See AiiciiiMEnns.) V.'e
can only mention Eudoxus of Cnidus, Arcliytas of Taren-
tum, Philolaus, Eratofthenes, Arillarchus of Samos, Dino-
ftratus, the inventor of the quadratrix, Menechmus, his
brother and the difciple of Plato, the two Arilleufes, Conon,
Thrafideus, Nicoteles, Leon, Theudius, Hermotimus, and
Nicomedes, the inventor of the conchoid ; befides whom,
there are many other ancient geometers, to whom this fcience
is indebted.

The Greeks continued their attention to geometry even
after they were fubdued by the Romans. Whereas tlie
Romans themfelves were fo little acquainted with this
fcience, even in tlie niofl flourifhing time of their republic,
that they gave the name of mathtmaticians, as Tacitus in-
forms us, to thofe who purfued the chimeras of divination
and judiciary aftrology. Ner v.ere they more difpofed to
cultivate geometry-, as we may reafonably imagine, during
the decline, and after the fall of the Roman empire. The
cafe was different \vith the Greeks ; among whom we find
many excellent geometers finee the commencement of the
Chrillian era, and after the tranflation of the Roman
empire. Ptolemy lived under Marcus Aurelius ;' and we
have extant the works of Pappus of Alexandria, who lived in
the time of Theodofius ; t'le commentary of Eutocius, tiie
Afcalonite, who lived about th<? year of Chriil 540, on
3 Archimedes's

GEOMETRY.

Arcliiinedps's mcnrui-ation of a circle ; and tJi* commentary not to mi-ntion livinp^ writers, will aUrays be held in eft'eem
on Euclid, by I'rocliis, who lived under the empire of and veneration by thofL- that are devoted to the ftudy of

geometry and mathematics. " "

Anatlafius.

The confequent inundation of ignorance and barbarifm
was unfavourable to geometry as well as to the other fci-
eiices ; and thofe few who applied themfelvcs to this fcience,
&c. were calumniated as majficians. However, in thofe
times of European darknefs, the Arabians were diltinguilhed
as the guardians and promoters of fcience ; and from the
ninth to the fourteenth century they produced many ailrono-
mers, geometers, geograj)hers, &c. from whom the mathe-
matical fciences were again received into Spain, Italy, and

See Ei.EMKNTf;.

The province of geometry is alraoft infinite : few of our
ideas but may be reprefented to the imagination by lines,
upon which they become of geometrical coiifideration : it
being geometry alone that makes comparifons, and finds the
relations of !ines.

Ailronomy, mufic, mechanics, and, in a word, all the
fciences which confider things fufceptiblc of more and lefs,
/. e. all the prccife and accurate fciences, mar be referred to
geometry ; for all fpeculative truths confiding only in the

other parts of Europe, fomewhat before the beginning of relations of things, and in the relations between thofe rela
the 1 5tli century. Some of the earllell writers after this tions, they may be all referred to lines. Confequencea re.-.y
period are Leonardus Pifenus, Lucas Paciolus or de Burgo, be drawn from them ; and thefe confequenccs, again, behijr
and otliers between 1400 a'l J 1500. After this period rendered fenfible by lines, they become permanent obieds
appeared many editions of Euclid, or commentaries upon which may be conllantly cxpofed to a rigorous attention and
his Elements; e.g. Orontius Fineus, in 1530, publilhcd a examination: and thus we have infmite opportunities both
commentary on the fix firll books ; as did James Peletarius of enquiring into their certainty, and purfuing them farther.
in 1557 ; and about the fame time Nicholas Tartaglia pub- The realon, for inftance, why we know fo diftinftly, and
liflied a com;nentary on the whole 15 books. We might mark fo precifely, the concords called oSa-oe, fj'lh, fourth,
here menlinn other editions or commentaries ; fuch are thofe &c; is that we have learnt to cxprcfs founds by lines, /. e.
of Commandine, Clavius, Billingdy, Scheubehus, Harli- by chords accurately divided ; and that we know, that the
nus, Dafypodius, Ramus, Herigon, Stevinus, Saville, Bar- chord, which founds ottave, is double of that with which
row, Tucquet, Dechnles, Furnier, Scarborough, Keill, it makes octave ; that the fifth is the fefquialterate ratio, or
Cann, Stone, and many others. (See Elkments ) as three to two ; and fo of the reft. The ear itfelf cannot

At the revival of letters, there were few Europeans capable judge of founds with fuch a nice precifion ; its judgments
of tranllating and commenting on the works of the ancient are too faint, vague, and variable, to form a Icience. The
g-eomefrs; and geometry made little progrcfs till the time of fined beft-tutied ear cannot dillinguifh many of the differences
Des Cartes, who publilhed his Geometry in 1637. However, of founds; whence many muficians deny any fuch di.Terences •
not to mention all thofe wlio extended geometry beyond its as making this fenfe their judge. Some, forin'lance, admit
elementary parts, fuch as Theodofius in his Spherics, Se- no difference between an octave and three ditones: and
renus in his feftions of the cone and cylinder, Kepler in his others, none between the greater and leflertonc; the comma.
Nova Stereonietria, &c.; in 1635, Bonaventure Cavalerius, ^n which is the real difference, is infcnfible to them ; and much
Italian of the order of .lefuits, publilhed his " Geometry of more the fchifma, wliich is only half the comma.
Indivifiblcs ;" Torricelli his " Opei-a Geometrica ;" Viviani, It is only by reafon, then, that we learn, that the length
his "Divinationes Geometries," "ExercitatioMathematica," of the chord which makes the difference between certain
"De I^ocisSolidis," "De Maximi J et Minimis," &c.; Vieta, founds being divihble into feveral parts, there may be a
his "Effectio Geometrica," &c. ; Gregory St. Vincent, in great number of different founds contained therein, ufeful
1647, publilhed his treatife, entitled " Quadratura Circuli & in mufic, which yet the ear cannot dillinguilh. Whence it

Hyperbi:' " '" ' ^ " '' "''' '^ '" " .1 . ■ 1 ■

and para

could only have fucceeded'in that art by good luck, or force
of imagiivalion ; i.e. mufic would not ha-.e been any fcience
founded on incontellibie demonilrations : though we allow,
that the tunes compofed by force of genius and imagination,
are ufually more agreeable to the ear than thofe compofed
by rule. So, in mechanics, the htavinefs of a weight, and

erbola," a work aboundmg with excellent theorems follows, that had it not been for arithmetic and geometry, we
paralogifms; and Pafcal, about the fame time, pub- iliouldhavehadnofuchthingasregularfixedmufic ; andthatwe
lifiied his treatife of the cycloid. Geometry, as far as it 1 ■ > • -■ ....

was capable of deriving aid and improvement from the arith-
metic of infinites, was indebted to the labours of Fermiit,
Barrow, Waliia, Mercator, Brounker, .1. Gregory, Huy-
gens, and others, to whom we may add Newton and Leih-
(See Flu.xion's.)

mtz.

But fir ifaac Neu'ton contributed

to the progrefs of pure geometry by his two treatifes, " De the dillance of the centre of that weight from the fulcrum,

Quadratura Curvarum," and " Enumcratio Lincarum Tertii or point by which it is fuftained, being tufccptible of plus and

Ordinis" (fee Ccuvk): and ftill farther by his incompara- minus, they may both be expreffed by lines: whence geonirtrr

ble and immortal work, entitled " Philolopliiae Naturahs becomes applicable to this fcit nee; in virtue of which, infinite

Principia Mathemalica," which will always be confidered difcoveries have been made, of the utmoft ufe in life,

as the moft extenfive ar.d foccefsful application of geometry Geometrical lines and figures are not only proper to re-

to phyfics. ^Ve cannot forbear tranlcribing in this place prcfent to the imagination the relations between magnitudes,

the compliment paid to this author by the editors of the or between things fufceptiblc of more and lefs ; as fpaces.

Encyclopedic, «ho, confidoring the various monuments of times, weights, motions, &c. but they may even reprefcnt

the author's genius, and that he had made his principal thing.s which the mind can no otherwifc conceive, e. vr. the

difcovery before the age of twenty-four, are tempted, they relations of incommenfurable magnitudes,

fay, to fubfcribe to the words of Pope, that the fagacity of It muft be obferved, that this ufe of geometry amoijg the

Newton ailonilhes even celeilial intelligences, and that they ancients was not llric'Uy fcientifical, as anion.'- us ; but rather

contemplate him as a being occupying a kind of middle fymbolical : they did not argue, or deduce things and pro-

Itation between man and themlclvcs ; or at leall they cannot pcrties unknown, from lines ; but reprefented or dei'r.catcd

forbear exclaiming, homo hominl quid pi-iejlat ! what a dillance by them things that were known. In effccl, they were iKit

doe 1 there fubi.ll between one man and another ! ufed as means or inllruments of difcovering, but as ima-res

The modern geometers are innumerable ; and the names or characters, to preferve, or commiuiicate, tlie tiifcovcries

•fCule.i, Maclauriuj R.Simfon, T.Stewart, T.bimpfun, &c. thjit were already made,

Pz ••Tk«

GEOMETRY.

" The Egyptians," Gale obferves, " ufed geometrical

figures, not only to exprefs the generations, mutations, and
dcftriiftions of bodies ; but the manner, attributes, &c. of
the fpirit of the univerfe, who, diftufing himfelf from the
centre of his unity, through infinite concentric circles, per-
vades all bodies, and fills all fpacc. But of all other figures
they mo fl afFefted the circle and triangle; the firl\, as
being the moll perfeft, finiple, capacious, &e. of all figures :
whence Hermes borrowed it to reprefent the divine nature;
defining God to be an intelleftiral cii'cle or fphere, wliote
centre is everywhere, and circumftrence nowhere." See
Kirch. CEdip. ^Egyptiac. aixl Gale Phil. General, lib. ii.
cap. 2.

The ancient geometry was confined to very narrovv' bounds,
in comparifon of the modcrii. It only extended to right
lines- and curves of the firft order, or conic feftions ;
■whereas into the modern geometry new lines of infinitely
more, and higher orders are introduced.

Geometry is commonly divided into four parts, or
brandies ; planimetry, altimctry, longimetry, and itereome-
try ; which fee refpeitively.

Geometry, again, is dillinguiflied into thcorctii-al or fpccu-
lat'nv, and prdilical.

The firll contemplates the properties of continuity ; and
dcmonftrates the truth of general propofitions, called theo-
rems.

■ The fecond applies thofe fpeculations and theorems to par-
ticular ufes in the folution of problems.

Geometry, fpecuLlivc, again may be diftinguifhed into
tlcmentary and fui/inte.

Geometry, eL'tnentary or common, is that employed in the
eonfidcration of right lines, and plane furfaccs, and folids
generated from them.

Geometry, higher, or fublime, is that employed in the
confideration of curve lines, conic feftions, and bodies
fiormed of them.

The writers who have cultivated and improved geometry
may be diftinguifhed into elementary, prattical, and thole of
the fublimer geometry.

The principal writers of elements, fee enumerated under
Elements.

Thofe of the higher geometry are Archimedes, in his
books De Sphasra, Cylindro, and Circuli Dimenfione ; as
alfo De Spiralibus, Conoidibus, Sphaeroidibiis, De Quadra-
tura Parabols, and Arenarius : Kepler, in his Stercometria
Nova ; Cavalerius, in his Geometria IndivifibiUum ; and
Torricellius, De Solidis Sph;erahbus ; Pappus Alexan-
drinjis, in Colleftionibus Mathematicis ; Paulus Guldinus,
in his Mechanics and Statics ; Barrow, in his Lcdliones Geo-
metrica; ; Huygens, De Circuli Magnitudine ; Bullialdus,
De Lineis Spiralibus ; Schooten, in his Exercitationes Ma-
thematics ; De Billy, De Proportione Harmonica ; Lalo-
▼era, De Cycioide, For. Erneft. Com. ab Haibenflein, in
Diatonic Circulorum ; Vivjani, in Exercit. Mathcinat. de
Eorniutione & Menfura Fornicum ; Bap. Palma, in Geomet.
Exercitation. and Apoll. PergKus, De Seftionc Rationis.

For praftical geometry, the fulleft and completeft trea-
tifes are thofe of Mallet, written in French, but without the
demonftrations ; and thofe of Sehwentcr and Cantzlerus,
both in High Dutch. In this clafs are like wife to be
ranked Clavius's, Tacquet's, and Ozanam's Praitical Geo-
netries ; De la Hire's Ecole des Arpenteurs ; Reinholdus's
Gcodjctia ; Hartman Bcyers's Stereometria ; Voigtel's
Geometria Subterranea ; all in High Dutch : Hulfius, Ga-
llleus, Goldmannus, Scheffelt, and Ozanam, on the Scftor.
&c. &c. &c.

Xlw fcience of geometry is founded on certain axvoms, or

felf-evident truths (fee Axiom) ; it is introduced by defini-
tions of the various objefts which it contemplates, and the
properties of wliich it invelligates and demonitrates, fuch as
points, lines, angles, figures, furfaces, and folids : — lines
again are confidered as llraight or curved; and in their re-
lation to one another, either as inclined or parallel, or as per-
pendicular : — angles as riglit, obhqUe, acute, obtufe, external,
vertical, &c. : — figures, with regard to their various boun-
daries, as triangles, which are, in refpetl: of their fides,
equil ifertil, ifofceks, and Icalene, and in reference to their
an»'les, rio;ht-anglcd, obtule-angled, and acate-angled ; as
quadrilaterals, which comprcliend the panillelogram, in-
cluding the reftangle and Iquaie, the rliombus and rhom-
boid, and the trapezium and trapezoid ; as multilaterals or
polygons, comprehending the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon,
&c. ; and as circles : — and as folids, including a prifm,
parallckpipcdon, cube, pyramid, cylinder, cone, fphere, and
the frallum of either of the latter. We ihall not here at-
tempt to compile a complete fyilem of geometry, as it
would occupv too many of our pages, in a work from its
nature protracted and enlarged to a very great extent ; and
this is the lefs necefiary, becaufe the reader will find under
the titles above enumerated, and others naturally connected
witli and derived from them, the moil efiential and important
principles of geometry, together with the operations that
are founded upon them ; and becaufe any perfon who is de-
firous of acquainting himielf with the icience of geometry,
in its whole extent and application, wilUiave recourfe to one
or other of thofe numerous treatifes, in a more enlarged or
more compendious form, which may be eafily procured.
The Elements of Euclid by Dr. R. Simpfon occur firfl to
our recolleftion, and deferve particular recommendation ;
but the objeft of the geometrical iludent may be fatis-
fatlorily attained by T. Simpfon's Geometry, or by the trea-
tifes of Emerfon, Hutton, Bonnycaille, Leilie, Slc. &c.

But as the analytic method of treating geometrical quef-
tions is lefs generally known, and as complete treatifes on
this fubjeft are only to be found in fcu-cign works, we have
been induced to devote a confiderable fpace to this part of
the fcience ; the following treatife is chiefly comjiiled from
the " Feuilles d' Analyfe'' by Monge, wliieh were puMiflied in
feparate portions for the ufe of the polytechnic fchool, and
afterwards collected in a quarto volume. A more elemen-
tary work has lately been publidied by Garnier in oftavo,
to which the reader is referred.

Geomjjtry, Analytic. — Method of defining the pofition
cf a point in a plane.

A point M (y/n.2A;y7j, PlateMWl.fg. I.) is defined by re-
ferring its pofition to two lines, as A Y, A X, generally at
right angles to each other, but they may be inclined at any
given angle.

If M Q be drawn perpendicular to A Y, and M P per-
pendicular to A X, then O M, M P, are called the co-or-
dinates of the point M ; the diftance of the point from
A Y is ufually denoted by .t:, and its dillance from A X
by V.

The point of interfeftion of the two lines AY, AX \%
called the origin of the CK-ordinates, and the lines A Y,
A X, produced each way io Y' and X', are called axes.

If the diflance of the point M from tliefe axes is given,
■u/'s. M Q = <7, M P ^ ^, then x — a, y — l\% the equation
to the point M.

But if the point M be fituated in any other of the a'.ijles,
the fign of « and h will vary, and thefe variations are governed
by the fame rules, as tlie fines and cofines in in<orio-
metry.

For inftance, if the point M is fituated in the angle
J Y -A. X,

GEOMETRY.

Y A X, then x = -\- a, y = -{ b

The equation of M' is .v = — a, y =z -^ b

M" is .1 = — ,1, y = — b

M'" is J,- = + <7, ji = — i

If the point M is fituated on the line A X, then ji = o,

:r =; rt.

If it is fituatcj on A Y, then .v = o ; j' = b, and at the
point A, .V = o ; _y — o.

Tlie point M may likewife be defined by the length of
the line A M, and by the angle ?, which it makes with the axis
A X. If this length be cxprefled by z, and the angle by <f,

z - c ; ?) = A
A° being th.e number of degrees coii'.ained in the angle f, and
e the value of -z.

The pofition of a flraight line is determined in a plane by
the co-ordinates of two of its points, or by the co-ordinates
of a fingl ■ point, and the angle which it makes with one of
its axes : the latter is tlie metliod moll ufually employed.

If tlie line pafTcs through the origin of the axes, its pofi-
tion is determined by the angle which it makes with the
axis.

We fliall firll confider this cafe as being the mod fimple.
£.et it be propofed to determine the relation between the co-
ordinates of any point in fuch a llraight line.

Let us take, for example, a point M [Jg 2.) whofe
abfcifla is A P' =:: x\ P'M'=^': thefe co-ordinates, hke
thofe of the other points, making an angle S with each other,
which is that of the axes, we Ihall have this equation ;
y' fin. a.

and for the points M', M'", S:c. whofe co-ordinates would
be- x",y"; x'",y''', &c. we have

fin. * y"' fin

X

y

x"

&c.

fin. (o — a) x'" fin. (o — k)
If .V, ji reprefent the co-ordinates of any point in A L, the
general equation will be

I l"-_fL__. (,)

X fin.' (o — 7.)

thus .1- becoming fucceffively x', x'. Sec. y changes to the
correfpcnding ordinates y', y", &c. The formula ( I ) is
called the equation of a ilraight line ; it is the algebraic
enunciation of a property common to all its points, and is
thus written ;

fin. a. . .

y=^(ryi)-' (^-)

The abfcifTa .v being given, the ordinate y may be deduced.

When the angle ■« varies, the line changes its pofition,
turning roimd the point A; thus another ordinate _)■ cor-
refponds to the fanie abfcifTa .v, which alfo happens if b varies,
but it is effcntial to obferve that for all tlie values both of a
andi?, the equation (2) retains the fame form.

If it fhould be required to find the relation between the
co-ordinates of the point of a ftraight line R' L', fituated in
any manner whatever, then if A L be drawn parallel to
R' I^', paffing through the point A, we (hall obferve that
for the fame abftiflTr, .i' .every ordinate of A L, for example ;
P' M v.ill be augmented by the fame quantity A R ^= i ;
let^' -f b be reprefented by j, equation of R' L.' will be ac-
cording to ( 2 ) ;

fm. a

y = f 77, r X + b ...^ (3)

fm. (t — cj

Here a and b gife the pofition of the llraight line R'L' ;

whOTi thefe quantities are known it may be conftrufted, bu6
if the line is fubjedlto any particular conditions, as, to pafs
through a given point ; to be either parallel or perpendicular
to a given line ; to pafs through two points, &c. y. and b
become unknown quantities, as we fhall fee immediately.
Let us fuppofe the quantities a, o, and b given, and that

it is required to conftruft the ftraiffht line v = -^ — -j -r

' ° lin. (^ — a)

X + b •, the problem is reduced to finding two of thefe

points ; we endeavour to find the points in which the liae

cuts the two axes AX, AY, ifg. 3.) the interfeclion R

being the only point of the line in which x =^ O, and R'

the only point of the fame line in wliich y z= o ; we fup-

pofe, fuccedivclv; v = o, _y — O, and v/e (hall find y ■= b ■=

fin. (o -.V.)

AR,

fin.

^ = A R' J taking, then, A R'

on the other fide of the point A, if it is negative, and A R
on A Y if it is pofitive, the line drawn through thefe two
points will be that belonging to the equation.

If the equation to a flraight line ji = j.' -f- I be fuppofed
to refer to two axes, making an angle of 45 ' with each other,
and the inclination, a, which the hne makes with the axis X

be required ; fince _ = i> fm. a = — rzr cof. a

45 — « \' 2

fin.

fin, a ; confequently, tang, a r=

V 2 1 + a' 2

The value of b remaining conftant, the line takes every.
pofTible pofition round the point R ( /^. 2.) for every
pofiible angle from o to 360 ; for every angular value of
K, taken with every ordinate b, pofitive and negative, the.
line will pnfs through every point of the axis Y Y'. There
exills, therefiire, no line in the fame plane that cannot be
defined by equation (3), provided b and a are taken of a pro-
per value.

The angle /S has no influence on the pofition of the line ;'
the variations of this angle onlv affeft the inclination of the
ordinate upon the axis of the abfcifTa? ; fo that for the fame
abfcifTe, the ordinate corrcfponds with another point in the
line.

But, in general, the co-ordinates are fujipofed rectangular j
in which eafe, fm. p :=z fin. 00" =- I, and fin. (S — a^ =
cof. a ; and equation (3) becomes y =; x tang, .x -|- i =r
ax -'t-b, a being fuppofed the t.mg. . .

When the flraight line pafTes tln-ough the origin of the
co-ordinates, its equation becom s j' ^^ ax.

This equation is conflruclcd by taking A P = i =
radius, and then fetting oiT from a fcale of equal parts the
value of a on tiie perpendicular P M {^f.g. \.'^ ; PM being
equal to a, M will be a point in the required line.

We may now conftruft the equation ji = .i- -f \, y ■=:

— X — I.

Thefe two lines cut the axis A X in the fame point, and
are fituated fimilarly to it, one above, the other below ; they
are moreover perpendicular to each other.

The flraight lines y ^=. — .v — i,_y =: — -r -f 1, are pa-
rallel, bccaule they make the fame angle with the axis,,
having the fame tangent, — i.

The flraight line exprefTed by the equation _y =r .»• a^ — i.

— 1 is reduced to a point on the axis Y below the
origin, and diflant from it by a quantity equal to unity,
fince, for ever)' other vnlue than zero, the ordinate is imagi-
nary.

Tlie

GEOMETRY.

The problems relatiing to a ftraight line, in general, re- tangents are the fame, that is, « rr «' : introducing tliis

quire the unknown ([uantities a and l> to be determined, fo condition in equation (4), tliat of the line required will be

that the required line y — ax + b {\) may have the re- _,.—/ = a [x — x') (5).

quired pofition. If the given point be taken on the given line, then y' \i

Pkobi EM I. *■''*-' ^'^hie cf_y, wliich correiponds to x — x' ; and equation

, . , .■ ' r 1 1. . • • . (I) becomes

To make a ftraight Ime pals through two given points. ,. _ ^ ^.r , r

Let the co-ordinates of one point be A.-', J, and of the other ,-'',. '^ ,

.v", 1'" ; which fignifies that when the ordmate generally ex- Subllitutmg this value ot y m equation (5), we obtain
preffcd by y becomes y', the ordinate x becomes x' ; and_ y = a x 4- li

when .V = x'', y = f , «e have therefore two equations ot ^i^i^h (Irews that the required line and the given line are

condition : identical, which is, indeed, felf-evident.

(2) y'z= ax' + b, y" — ax" + B (3)

from whence we obtain _^ Problem IV.

— ^" ~ y = y ~ y . The equation of two ftraight lines being given to deter-

" " x" — x' x' — x" ' mine the angle which they make with each other, (^g. 6. )

and bv fubftitutimr for a its value, The angles C A X, C B X, are given, the angle to be found

and by lubitituting ^_ ^_^ j^^^^^ is A C B. Put CAX = a, CBX = «';ACB=V,

b = „ _ ., — tang, a z= a, tang. 04'= a' ; then «'=:»-)- V, and tang.

Or equation (2) may be fubtraftod from equation (l), then ^ _ _£_-^ j^ ^^^

y ^ yi — a (.V — x') ; and fubftituting fur a in this equation b ^ ' i -r aa' ^

its value, as found above, the equation of the line required ^^^ parallel, tang. V — o, and a' = a ; if they are per-

is I

„f ,,M pcndlciilar, tancr. V = oo , or ~- = o; tlierefore

y-y>=y^JL{x-x') (4) , ^^"g- V

•' •' x' — x" _ I -|- aa' =z o.

io which equation we may obferve that when x becomes x',
the fecond term becomes equal to zero, and_y = y'. Problem V.

If ji' =-y", thcnjr — y', or y = y", which denotes that the "p^ determine the equation of a ftraight hne that fliall
line is parallel to the axis A X. pafs through a given point, and make a given angle with a

v' — v" , , 1 • 1- ..I. V given ilraight line. Let the equation of the <riven line
If V = x", a = •^— ^ - = »=. tlie angle Avhich the bne |^ _b _ ^ ^ ^;^. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^

makes with the axis is in this cafe a right one. and that required - y=a-x^l' (2) _

a and 1/ are given ; rrom whence a and b are to be determined
Problem II. by the conditions of the problem. Since the required hne is

To determine the diftance between two given points in a to pafs through a point whofe co-ordinates are .y',jv', its equa-
1 tion muft iubhft vs hen .v := .\-', and y =x y' ; hence

The diftance M' M" (fg. 5.) is the hypothenufe of the y' = a' x' + l>' (3), and confequently

right-angled triangle M' M" m" : if it be reprcfented by D, y —y' = a' (x - x') (4) ;

then D = ^W'-^r + W^ = '^''(7^7^+ (■v"-*')^ ^"^f"S determined from one of the conditions, it remains

, , : , . . . J- I „ t ' k»„„.«. to determine a from the other. Now, m being the trifrono-

Tf the Doint M is at the oriffin, the co-ordinates .r' J become . r ,. 1 i • i .1 . r i " -.u

i.1 inc puuiu i>j IS aL L. J, , J , TVi metric tangent ot the angle which the two hues make with

nothing, and the preceding expreflion is reduced to i) — b 6 a' - a

V y'" 4- x' = x" V 1 + V, becaufe then the equation to each other (by Problem IV.), m = — , ; hence a' =

the ftraight line is y = ax; and as this alfo takes place ^ ^^^ i +aa

when X — x",y = y"} it gives ji" = ax". . Subftituting this value of a' in equation {4), we

I — ma
Problem III. have the equation required,

To determine the equation of a ftraight line that firall :_" + '" r

pafs through a given point, and be parallel to a given y-y —7^-— (■*• — •'') (5)-

ftraight line.

Thefe two conditions arc fufficicnt to determine the two Problem VI

elements of pofition for the required ftraight line. .j,^ determine the condition under which three lines, drawn

Let the equation of the given ftraight line be _y = ax from the angles of a triangle, will meet in a fingle point.

4_ I, (i ), and tliat of the line required _v = a x + b' Let x, y' ; .r", y" ; x'", y"' be the co-ordinates of the

(2): a and i are, in this cafe, given, and «' and ^' re- angles D, B, C {fg- I-) ; the equations to the , three

qu'ued. Lety,j/' denote the co-ordinates of the given point ; ftraight lines drawn from tliefe angles will be j/ — ^y' :^ a',
andfince this point is in the required line, we have y' — (V — x);j— jv'= a- {x — x") ; y ^ f' — «"■ (.v-.v'");
^' x' 4 b (3)- a, a', n'" being the trigonometrical tangents of the angles

From equation (l) take equation (3), and y — y' = a' which they make with the axis AX. "For thefe lines to
Ix — .■< ) (4)' meet in a point, it is reipiifite that the fame fyftem of values

The fame refult may be obtained by taking the value oib' of x,y, ftiould ftibfift for tlie three equations, which is cquiva-
in equation (3), and fubftituting it in equation (2). More- lent to finding the value of ,r and _v by means of any two of
over the two urai^ht lines being parallel, their trigonometric them, and making the refult of their fublUtiitiun in the

third

■GEOMETRY.

tliirJ equal to zero^ we thiie find the equation of condi- of the oppofite fides, tJie trigonometrical tangent will be

= —- — ;;, a'" = -r-^ r,i- Thefubftitutionofthcfe

tion

a'[y'-y'")+a"(y"-f) + a"{f-/) + a'a"(x'-x")=.o[l)

+ a"fl"'(x'-.f"')
+ a"'a'(x"'-x'}
Let us fiippofe the required ftraight linc^ lobe porpondi-

cular to the fides of the triangle, and then examine if, upon

tliis fuppofition, the equation ( I ) fubfills.

Values in equation (3) will give, after dividing by y,
, f y _ x" - x' 7

" l.v"'+ x' "^ x' - 2>J

The equation to B C is y — y" —

y - y

and that of the ftraight line drawn tlu-ough D is _)>

y'=a'

.v'" -f- X '

; +

y X"

x' + 2x"' (x"' + x'){x'-2x"')

; from whick

we deduce a' =

2/

; and as this is found to be the va-

lue of a', tliat is, of the trigonometrical tangent of the anr

Now as this latter ftraight line fliould be perpendicular to gie ^vliich tlie hue D M makes with A X, it may be con-

the other, the equation aa' + l — o, from whence a' = ,

ought to exirt between the trigonometrical tangents ; but

y'- y

-, therefore a' =

here a =

jc'' — X"' y — y"

The ftraight line drawn througl\ B being perpendicular to
D C, we conclude

y -y = 4;^y!i (■-■ - ■*■■). y-y" = "" (^ - =<")

and the ftraight line drawn through C being perpendicular
to D B, we have likewiie
v' — v" ,

Hence the values of a", a'", are
x'" - x'

'=«'" (.v-.v'")

eluded that this third line paftes tlu-ough the point of inter-

feftion of the two firft.

Let us confider the perpendiculars drawn from the centres

of the fides of the triangle ADC {Jij^. 9.), the equation

r'
of A D is V = -, -v

X

ofDC,;--y=-^— (x-y)

of AC, y= o
The equations of the perpendiculars to thefe fides are.

y-iy
y

{x - 1 *')

x' - x'" / ..-v' -I- ,v"'\

iy- Y-{^-——)

^in

and like wife

a'a"{x'-x")z=

a"d"{x"-x")=-

y'-y y'-r

W-y')yy"-y'")h'"-y') ^ ^ '

N

fl"«'(.v

.v') = -

D

N_

15"

-(/'-/')
</"-/)

..(2)

J

The equation of condition may be immediately formed by
determining .v from the two firft equations, and employing
this value in the third ; which ought to be fatisfied by this
fubftitution if there exifts a point of interfcction ; now x is

x'"
found =; — ; tlierefore thefe three lines interfedl in a
2

point.

N and D heuig the numerator and denommator of tlie frac- Meliod of ddermmwg the Pofithn of a Point m Space.—

tion winch multiplies^'- J-". By the fubftitution of ail Let A X, AY, A Z, be tlu-ee ftraight hues rtciproodly

tkfe values the equation of condition 13 fatished, fcr it be- perpendicular to each other (fg. ic.) at the point A ; each

*'5''^ss of them will be perpendicular to the two others, becaufe it

N,

• (x'<- .v"'+ .v"' -.f'+ .v'-.v'O + fs^J-'-jt'" -^f-y" +y'"

IS perpendicular to two ftraight lines which interfeft at it*
D "' "* ' ■' "' ' "" extremity in this plane. Therefore each of thefe planes will

_y' 1 = o ( /%•. 8 ). If the fide B C be placed on the axis of the ^•-' ="^ ''j^ fame time perpendicular to the two others. Thefe
Hbfcid'a;, which docs not alterthe general nature of the rcfults, ''""ee planes form then the three faces of a reftangular paral-
and alfo the point B be placed at A, then j." = o, x" := o, Wopipedon, and the fohd trihedral angle A. Let us fup-
y'"- o, and the equation of condition is fimplified, and be- P'-'''^ '"^^ planes Z A X and Z A Y vertical, and the p]an(

a" y' -(- a'" y' + a' a" x' — a" a'" x"' + a'" a' (x'"—x') Y A X horizontal. Let a point in fpace be reprefented by

= 0 (3). In this pofition of the triangle, a' - '- M, fituated out of the planes 7. AY., 7. A Y, Y A X in

,, _ .,„ real pofition, for example, before the firft plane, to the right

p = 00, and in fa£l the line D R is perpendicular to of the fecond, and above the third; and let us fuppofe

y' — y'" - ' _ perpendiculais M M', MM", MM", -Vom the point M to

AX. If in equation (3) the terms which do not include fl' thefe three planes ; thefe perpendiculars will meafure the
be fuppreffcd, to cxprefs that the tangent is infinite, the {horteft diftances from the point to each of thefe planes,
equation (3) will be fimpl'.-.ied, and exprefied, thus, The planes drawn through the perpendicular M M' and MM",

M M' and M M'", M M" and M M'" will enclofe the paral-
lelopipecon, and the point M v>-iil be the fummit of thcfolid
trihedral angle M oppofite to the angle A.
y i y ■ The diftanceM M' from the point M, to the plane Z A X

li^es the preceding equation is fatisfied. ■ is in real length equal to M' m' or A m" ; the diftance M M"

If from the points A and C lines be drawn to the middle from the fame point to the plane Z A Y is M" hi'' or A n:,

aad

«' a" x' + a' ' ii' (.r'" — .v") = o ; and dividing by a', a' x' ■(-
«■" {.■«'" — x') = o ; but in this pofition of the triangle,

x" - x' ... x'

■we have a" =

a'

'" = — — ; and by thefe va-

y

GEOMETRY.

and the diftancc fi-om this point to the horizontal plane
Y A X is M M"' or M' OT or A w'. Thus thefe diftanccs
may be found on the fixed hnes AY, AX, A Z.

The points M', M", M'", of the perpendiculars let fall
from the point M on the planes to which we refer tlie pofi-
tion of this point, are called the vertical and horit^ontal pro-
jeaions of the point M, vertical in confidering M' and M",
and horizontal when confidering M'".

Two of thefe projeftions are fufficient to determine the
point ; for if from each of them perpendiculars be drawn to
the plane which contains ft, they will interfeift in the point

M. , ^ ,

The third projeftion evidently refults from each of the
two others, as may be feen in tlie figure.

Since the poiition of a point is completely defined by its
diftance from three redangular planes of projeftion, if we
denote the diftance of the point from the plane Y A Z by .v,
the diftance of the fame point from the plane Z A X by y,
and its diftance from the plane Y A X by s, ai;d the linear
values of thefe diftances be denoted by a, b, c, its pofition
will be indicated hj x — a, y = b, -^ — c : the formula
X = a, z = c, denote the pofition of the pro]e6tion M :
the formulx y = b, z = c, denote the projeaicn M" ;
and thefe two projeftions are fufficient, as we have feen, to
find the pofition of the point ; and thefe two fyftems of
formula; comprife the data of the three diftances. When
the point is in the horizontal plane, z = O, and its pofition
IS fixed by .v = a, y =^ b : when it is in the plane Z A X,
V = o, and its pofition is determined by .v = a, % = c ;
and if in the plane Z A Y we have .v = o, and it is defined
by V = i, % — c.

For a point fituated on the axis A X, we have a = O,
y = o, X = a.

If on the axis AY, z = o, x = o, y = b ; and if on
AZ, X = o, y = o, z = c.

At A, the origin of thefe diftances, we have x =: o,
y =. O, z = O.

Every point in the plane, M M' mM'", and confequently
the plane itfelf, is denoted by .v = a, becaufe a is tlie com-
mon diftance of each of its points from the plane Y A Z.

The plane M M" m" M" is denoted by y ~ b, and the
plane M M' m' M ' is Jefcribed by z = c.

The pofition of thefe three planes gives that of the point M,
and confequently this point will be defined, as we have
already faid, by the formulae x = a, y — b, z = c.

Of the Equations to a Jlraight Line. — The equations of a
ftraight line, fituated in fpace, exprcfs the relation which
cxifts between the co-ordinates .v, y, s, of any point what-
ever of the ftraight line : let us fuppofe it projected on the
planes xz, and yz ; thefe projections will be other ftiaight
lines, which have for their equations

X — az -\- 'J. . . . . y = bz -\- P :
dimiaating z from thefe equations, the refulting- equation is
I) X a_y = ba — 01.15, which belongs to the plane xy.

The equations of thefe three projeftions, of which any

two imply the third, are the equations of tlie ftraight line,

whofe pofition in fpace depends on -the conftant quantities

ab, x0.

To obtain the eo-ordinates of the points in which this

■ftraight line cuts the three planes, we nuift make fuccefllvely

the three values x = o, y — O, z — O, which gives x = «,

y=§, for the point where the ftraight line interfects the plane

B « /3 , , . .

X ■= r- + « for ttie point where it

interfefts * a ; « = — — , y = — -|- ;3 for the point
a a

where it meets the plane y z.

The ftraight line, whofe equation is x ^ az + a, makes,
with the axis z, an angle, whofe tangent ha: it cuts tlie
axis X in a point, whofe diftance from the origin of the co-or-
dinates is equal y., fince, if in this equation s := o, a' = a.

If two ftraight lines are fituated in the fame plane ; fup-
pofe that of X, z, then let the equation to the firft be
X = az -\- X, and to the fecond x = a' z + a' ; for thefe
ftraight lines to be parallel, a' muft := a, and, if perpen-
dicular, I -)- a «' = o, or a' = .

a

The equation of two ftraight lines, fituated in fpace
beiag, for the firft,

X =^ a z + a, y z= b z + 13
X = a z + lyJ, y = b' z -f /3' ;
the equation, which exprefTcs that thefe lines meet each other,
is ('i' — a) (i — b) — ((S' — iS) {a' — a) =z o, which re-
fults from the elimination of .r, y, z, from the four equations
of the two ftraight lines.

Problems relating to a Jlraight Line. — Prob. I. To draw
a ftraight line through a point given in fpace parallel to a
given ftraight line. Let the three reftangular co-ordinates
be .V, y, z ; z being iuppofed vertical ; and let the equa-
tions of the projeftions of the ftraight line on the vertical
planes he .v ~ a z + b, y ^ a' z -j- b ; then the equation
of the horizontal projeftion will he ay — a .v = a i' — a' b'.

If k', y', z, reprefent the co-ordinates of the given point,
the equations of the required hne vrill be
X — X .= a (3 — z')
y — y' — a' (z — a')
a! {x — -v) = a{y — y)
of which any two imply the third.
Prob. II.
To determine the equation of a ftraight line draws
through two points given in fpace. Let x\ y', a', be the co
ordinates of the firft point ; x", y", z", thofe of the fecond,
the ftraight line pafling through the firft point, its equations
will be of the form

X — .v' =z a (z — e')
y - y' = b (z - z'}
(See Prob. I. of the plane.)

And fince it muil pafs through the fecond, its equations
muft alfo be

X — .v'' := a (z — 2")

a and i being eliminated from their four equations, the equa-
tions of the required ftraight hne v^ill be

.r (z' - z") = z («' — .r") + x"z' - x' z"

y{z' -z") = z{y'-y") +y'z'-y'z".

The cq-ordinates of the two extremities of a right line

being x', y', z", for the firft, and x'',y", z", for the fecond,

the diftance between the exremities, or length of the line

joining them, will be

V'(x' - x'Y + (y - y")' {z' - z") .
Pkob. III.
To determine the conditions requifite for two ftraight
lines to meet in fpace. Let the equations of one ftraight
line be

.\- = a 2 -f- a
y =^ bz + S

and of the other

*•.)'

i

X

a z -\- a.'
b'z +,0'

GEOMETRY.

To det^nnine the relation between th; elements of pofition
a, b, a, i ; <v, $, a', /3', eliminate r,j(, z, from the fourcquations,
ind (a' - a) {b' - b) - {l3' - 13) (x — a.) = o.

Of the Equation to a Plane. — A piano being given by its in-
terfeftioii with two co-ordinate planes, it may be conceived
ns generated by one of thefe lines moving parallel to itfelf in
the direclion of t'le other.

Let z = ax + c, and z := by + c, he the equations to
the two given interfcfting lines, tiie generating line being
parallel to itfelf, and to the inti-rfccling line on the plane
X z, its equations in any one pofition will be

z = ax + y, y — p.
But if it (lioiild niL-ut the fecond line, wliofe equations are
X — o

z ^ by + e;
hence this e<]uation of condition

ip + c = y;
from which it follows, that the equation of the generating
line of the plane, in any given pofition, depending on jS, are
z=ax-\-bi3-i-c
y = li.
Eliminating p from thefe two equations, that of tTie plane
is obtained,

2 = rt X + iji 4- f .
in which a and b are the tangents of the angles which the
interfcftiona of the j)lan£ make with the axes .v and y;c\% the
co-ordinate z, correfponding to the erigin of the ordinates ;
lince, if in the equation of the plane, x and_y are made =; o,
■z r= c. This equation may be more commodioudy exprelfed
by the following form :

A K + Bj- + C s + D = o,
in which, of the four conllant quantities A, B, C, D, three

\~r'

only are neceffary ; hence <( — 7^ ^^ ^

D

The equation of a plane has been determined from its inter-
feftions with the planes of the co-ordinates. Thefe interfec-
tions may llkewife be determinedby the equation to theplane.

Let ax -j- by ■{- c = z, make fuccelTively x =■ o, j/ = O,

z =. o, and there refult < , t i ~ ^ ,

\ax-\-by-\-c^:=^oiz = ax-\-c

■J ■' 3 . which equations belong to the interfeftions

of th? given plane with the three planes x y, x s, and xy.

The equation of a flraight line, iituated in one of the
co-ordinate planes, is likewife that of a plane paffing through
this line, and perpendicular to the plane of the co-ordinates
which contains it. "When the plane is perpendicular to one
of the axes, as x, its equation is .v ;= c (conilant) : _y =; /9,
i = y, are the equations of two other planes, one perpendi-
cular to the axis •/, and the other perpendicular to the axis z.

In the equation to the plane make fuccelfively -j ~ J- ,

•}^~f> •[■''ll'^f; values will then be obtained for

X, y, z; which are the dlflances of the origin of the co-or.
dinales from the points of interfeclion of the plane with the
axes of the co-ordinates : let the equation to the planes be

c c

%=^az-\-bf-Y c, thefe diftances will be — — , r ' ^*

a b

Two planes which are parallel have parallel intcrfcAions ;
therefore, if the equation to the firft plane be
Vox.. XVI.

t.r=aii:-\-ly^e
the fecond, % r=. a x -Y b' y ■\- c'
the condition of parallelifm will be exprcfled by die equar
tions a = a', b = i'.

Pkoblem L
Problems relating to a Jlraighl Line and a Plane. — To
draw a plane parallel to a given plane, let the equation to At
given plane be

z-=^ax-rby-\-d

and that of the plane required

2 = a' x -I- by -\- d

then the condition of parallelifm will be

n' = a, b =1 b.

PROnl.K.M H.

To determine the equation of a plane which (hall pafi

through three given points, let the co-ordinates of the

given points be i .v',_y', z',

2 •v",y,z".

1 r'" v'" •!■'"

The equation of the plane required being fnppofed
Ax + By + Cz + D^o

the three following conditions are obtained ;
A x' + By' + C 2' H- D = O
Ax" + By" + Cz" +D = o
A a"' -f B^'" 4- C ='" -1- D = o .

from which are deduced the following equations ;

A-y (a'-2"') +j,"(2'"_2') ^yU'-z")

B z= 2' (x" - x'") + z" {x'" - .v') + z'" {x' - x")

c ^ x' (/ -y") -t x'" {y"> -y) + X'" (y - y)

D =x'(y" z"'-y'" z") + x' (y a'-y' z'") + x'" {y z"-y"x')

The three co-efficients to determine are js > v, » ;7 from the

fame number of equations. If tlie triangle formed by the
flraight lines joining the given points be projected on the
three planes zy, x z,yx, the areas of thefe refpe£live pro-

A B C

jeftions will be — , — , -,and it will be (hewn that D is fix
•' 2 2 2

times the folidity of a pyramid whofe bafe is the triangle in

fpace, and whofe vertex is the origin of the co-ordinates.

Let a triangle, as z' 2" 2'", reprefent the projections of

the above three points on the plane of « 2, the area of the

tx"i x") z{x"' — m''\

trapezium z" Ji'' x'" z'" will be -^ -' -f- — ^^ :

2 2

the area of the trapezium x' 2' 2" x" will be
x" jx' - x') z[Jx"' - x")

+

2 2

»nd that of the trapezium x' 2' z'"
z"'{x"-x') , (z'a-

2

-- +■

*'" will be
■■■<')

From the fum of the two firft furfaces, take the laft, the

difference will be the area of the triangle projedled on the

ft

plane * 2, which will be /' := - . In the fame manner, t

2

and /'' reprefenting the projeflions of the fame triangle on
the planes y 2, xy, we have

t=\A,i-'= IC.
Problem III.
Given the co-ordinates of a point, and the equations
of a ftraight line, to find the equation of the plane which
pafl'es through the ftraight line and the given point, let
x',y', %' be the co-ordinates to the point ;
X =■ az -\- a '\

V =. bz + ^ > be the equations of the line.

'b=^[x-a) = a[y-5)S

Q Then

GEOMETRY.

Then fince the planf, whofe equation \s required, paffes Hence it follows that the perpendicular drawn from th^
through the given point, and likewife through the point where origin of the co-ordmates uj on a plane whofe equation u

the given line interfcfts the plane xy, the co-ordinates to
which points are 2 = o, * = k, > = i=. If the equation
to the plane be fuppofed

% = Ax + By + 1),
in- which A, B, D, are co-efficients to be determined, then

a'= Aa'+ By -I-D (i)

o = Aa + B£:-f-D (2)

Now the right lines being in the plane, fuppofe them both

-f i_y + E =i Cisexprefiedby — ;=

-¥i

I + a-
Having the equations of a (Iraight line -j "*

= a z -f a 1

the equation of a plane perpendicular to this line drawn
through the point x', y', a, is a {x — x ) + b [y — y')
-f z — a' ;= o.

To find the co-ordinates of the point of interfedlion of the

moved parallel to themfelves till the plane paffes through the . ^^^ equations of the ftraight'line may be put under the
origin of the co-ordinates, the equations there will be, tor r . . .-1

,ay

= bi

■'g
the llraight hne,

X ^ a X, y =■ b %:

and for the plane .r = A .v -)- B ^

In this pofition the line is Hill in the plane, fo that their

co-ordinates are ftill the fame ; therefore,

z = Aflz -I- B3z,andi = Aa -t- Bi (3)

The equations I, 2, 3, will give A, B, D in terms of

a, b, a, /S, and the equation of the plane will be

(x — x') (f — bz' -0) - (y—y')(x'-az-o,)
+ (z-2') (^(bx'-u)-aW-^)^=o.

Problem IV.

Given the equations of a ftraight line, and of a plane to
determine the conditions ; I ft, that the plane and ftraight
line may be reftangular ; 2d. The co-ordinates of the points
where they meet ; 3d. The diftance of this point from a given
point, either in the given line or given plane.

When a plane is perpendicular to a ftraight line, the inter-
feftion of the plane with the co-ordinate planes and the pro-
jeftion of the line with thefe fame planes are perpendicular
to each other.

Letx— az + a,y= la -(- ^, be the equations to the line ;
a = A .r + Bji -f C the equation to the plane ; the equations
to the interfeaions of this plane with the reftangular planes

of.f2,and.fjr, arez — A.r-|-C z = B_y + C, but the

plane being perpendicular to the line isA = — a>B= ~*'
therefore the equation of a plane perpendicular to the line,
ii ax + by + z=C: combining this equation with thofe of
the ftraight line x = a z + a, y — b z + ^ v.'e niay deduce
the values of x,y, z, the co-ordinates of the point in which
the ftraight line intcrfedts the plane. If the plane is given by
the equation ax + by + z = C, and the perpendicular to it
be required to be drawn tiirough a point whofe co-ordinates
are X, y, z, the equation to this perpendicular will be

X — x' = aiz - z') y — y' z= b {z — z') a.nd the

equation to the plane may be expreflied in this form
M (* -x) + b{y -y ) + z-z' = C-nx'- by' - z'

Let X, Y, Z, be the co-ordinates of the point of interfec-
tjon of the plame and perpendicular, then

Z = ,-+C-...'-*,-z'

Y=y +

X =

i+a' + b-
b{C — ax — by' -zf
I + a= -f *'
a{C - ax' — by' — z>

1 + a' + b-

The length of the perpendicular comprehended between
t}ke points X, Y, ^ and the points x',y', z'is =
Vi^-x-r+{\-fy + {Z-z'r

^r

_ C-ax'-by'-z'

V I

+ «° + i'

Z =

Y = -^"

X =

following form ;

X — x' = az -i- a — x'

y -y' =bz + e -y'

Let X', Y', Z', be the co-ordinates of the points of in-
terfedlion ; then

c W - «) + ^ (> '- <9) + g'

1 + a' + i-
I {a (x' -u) .^biy'-IS) + z'

I + a' + b'
a [a {x -c) + i (y - /3) + -'

1 -t- a + A-
Subftituting for X', Y', Z', their values in the radical

x/Tx' - *•)- + (Y -yy -r (Z - z'y

an expreffion is obtained for the perpendicular contained be-
tween the given point of the ftraight line, of which the co-
ordinates are X ,Y',Z'. When the ftraight line paffes through
the origin of the co-ordinates, its equations become x — a z,
y =^ b z

'X'^ + Y'^ TtJ-

the ftraight line, drawn from the origin of the co-ordinates
to its interfeftion with the perpendicular let fall from
on this fuppofuion, a = o, /3 =r o

and the radical ,t—-; —

expreffes tie length of

the point x',y', z', upon it :
„, a x' -{ by' -^ %

1 + a^

+ b-

Y' = bz'

fore ^/ X"

Y'= + Z" = '

. X' = ax:
ax -\- b y' -Y z

there-

\/ 1 + fl- + ^' *
This expreflion is ufed in finding the angle which two
ftraight lines make with each other.

4. The equation of two ftraight lines being given to find
the angle which they make with each other, and if they do
not interfeft each other to determine the angle which their
projeftions form on a plane that is parallel to them, let
the equations of the given lines be

r.ix-az f «

^'Mj- =iz + /S

1 f * = a' z + a.'

'''^iy^bz + fi'

If they interfeft, the angle which they make is equal to
the angle formed by their parallels which pafs through
the origin of the co-ordinates; the equations to their parallels

being < , z- ^ • If a point be taken on the

fecond parallel, whofe co-ordinates are x', v', z', and a per-
pendicular be let fall from this point to the firft parallel ;
then in the right-angled triangle formed by this perpendicu-
lar, and by the ftraight lines drawn from the origin of the
co-ordinates to the two extremities of this perpendicu-
lar, there are given the two fides which contain the re-
quired angle ; the expreffion for one of thefe fides is

\~x^T

GEOMETRY.

*/x*+ y" + b", the other, as found in the preceding

. a X-' -\- b y' + z'
problem, is — ' — ~ .

^^ 1 + a- + y-

Therefore the cofine of the required angle is equal
ax' + by' + x'

But x' =■ a' a', y = i' x' ; therefore the cofine of the
angle formed by the two given ilraight lines
I + aa' + 6 b'

co-ordinate planes, then * = i A, /' = i B, /'' = * C ; —

6
being the fohdity of a pyramid which has for its bafc the
triangle T, and whofe vertex is the origin of the co-ordinates.
Now the folidity of this pyramid is the produd of the bafe

T, by one third of its height ^ ; there-

fore V = T
6

D

VA'- + B" + C'

or fubfUtuting for

^^ I + a'- + i' X V 1 + a" + b'~
It appears from this expreffion, that when two ftraight
lines have for their equations

f I X =z a z, y z=i b T.

\2 X = a' z, ^ = i' z

if they are perpendicular to each other, the following equa-
tion of condition will be obtained, i f oa' -f i A' = o, which
equation mav be likewife obtained direftly as follows : the
plane perpendicular to the firft line drawn through the origin
of the co-ordinates has for its equation ax + by-rz=^0.
But the perpendicular to the firft ftraight line muft be con-
tained in the plane perpendicular to it ; therefore the equa-
tions to the perpendicular x =. a' z', y = &' z, and the
equation of the plane muil fubfift at the fame time ; there-
fore I -t- a a' + i i' = o. The angle of the two planes may
be thus determined. Let ax i- b y + :ii — C, a' x -\- b' y

3 ■/ A^ 4- B' + C
A, B, C their values 2 /, 2 /', 2 /", T' = /" + / -|- /'".

If S be the area of another triangle whofe projections arc
/, t', s"j and fituated in the fame plane as the triangle T ; theo
S' = S' -f S" -f- S'«

I

SinceT = i ^/A^-t. B'+C'-r=(-~=

' \ ^^ A-

like

T
manner — =

+ B= -l-C

0

(-

B

A-- + B--

s)

T
t"

%/ A^ + B-- + C

0

which fignifies that any triangle it

._-___ . to its projeftion on one of the co-ordinate planes, as radius

-f s = C be the equations of the "planes ; thefe make with '' "^^ the cofine of the angle which the plane of the triangU

each other the fame angle as the ftraight lines which are per-
pendicular to them, and which are drawn from the origin of
the co-ordinates; therefore the cofine of the angle formed
by the two given planes, is

bb'

1 + aa' +
+ b X V

makes with the plane on which it is projefted.

But the triangle S being in the fame plane with the triangle T

— ~±—-£. ^ _ '"

T~'S'T~S' T-T*'

therefore if the equation T' = /' -f- /" -|- ('" be put

i'

I + a'" + i'

If the angle be required between one ftraight line and one
plane, then iuppofe a parallel drawn to the given lines
through the origin of the ordinates, and a perpendicular to
the plane, the angle contained between tlicle two ftraight
lines will bethe complement of the required angle ; and conle-
quently, the cofine of the angle of the two lines is the fine of angle R, whofe projeftions on the reftangular planes

under this farm, T= = /+ =/'-)--— /", it will become
T S = ^ J -I- i',' A- t''s"; but (T' -f S)' = T' -f- 2 T S -t-

S' = /' + /'" -t- t'"- + Zts + 2 t'l' + 2 t"s" + J^ +

/' +s"'i therefore (T + S)' = (/ -f sY + (<' -|- t^ +
Taking in the fame manner in the fame plane a third tri»

the angle required.

The ftraight line, whofe equations are x = a z, y =: ix,
makes with the axes x, y, e, angles whofe cofines are

V x^ -f

y- + %
a

V .

+ y'
b

+ s'

-I- / + ^^

I

I + a

+ h'

■^ I ■\- a'- + b' ^'' I -I- a' f i"
The fame expreifions are the values of the cofines of the
angles which a plane perpendicular to the ftraight line, and
whole equation is a v -r- i_)' -f s = o, makes with the co-
ordinate planes xy, zy, x a. If the equ;\tioii of the plane
uAx+B_)' + Cz-|-D=C, th'' cofines of the angles
which it makes with the co-ordinate p\anes are

A B C

■/A'- + B -t- C= v' A^ + B' + C^' ^' A; + B + C
and the expreffion found above for the perpendicular, let fall
from the origin of the co-ordinates on the plane, becomes
D

V A- + B' + C

It has been already remarked, that if T be the tri-
angle formed by the three lines which join, two and two,
(be three given poiatt, and ;, t', f it« ptojedtione on

the

r, r, r', it may be (hewn that (R + S -f T)' =
[r + s -[- t)l + (r' + j' + t'Y + (r" + /' + i'T i hence
if any plane figure whatever be projefted on three reftangu-
lar planes, the fquare of the area of this figure will be equal
to the fum of the fquares ot the areas of its three projedlioni.

Problem V.

Two ftraight lines being given, ift, to determine the
equations to a ftraight line perpendicular to each of them
on which their fliorteft diftance is meafured ; 2d, to fini
a:n exprefTion for this (horteft diftance.

The direction of a plane parallel to two ftraio-ht line*
given in pofition may be determined: this plane being drawn
through any point in fpace, we may conceive a plane to
pafs tlu-ough each of the ftraight lines perpendicular to it ;
the interfeftion of thefe two planes is evidently the line
required, therefore the equations to thefe planes will be
thofe of the fine required.

I.ct .1- = az -)- a, ji = i K -f 5, be the equations to the
firft line, it will meet the plane xjr in a point P, of which
the co-ordinates a =:: o, _y := /S, .r := a.

The fccond ftraight line having for its equations .v ■= a' %
4- a', ^' = i' z 4- (5, it meets the plane xy iu a point P',
wliofe co-ordinates are c =r o, _y =: o, .v = at.

The equations of the planes drawn through the points P
and P' parallel to the two given ftraight lines are of the form

S^'

A (x -

GEOMETRY.

A {x ~ cc) + V, (y - r^) + a = o (e)

A {x - «') + B (.V -$') + z = o (f)

A and B being two conftant quantities determinable by the
following equations

I ^ Aa + Bi = ol
I + Aa'+ Bb' = oS

A - -T-. 7-r- U)

hence

B

ab' -
a' -

(2)

ab' — a'b

The perpendiculars to thefe parallel planes drawn through the
points P, P' have their equations

I II . - . X— A-z + a.; y=B% + li
2d . . - .V = A 2 + k' ; ^' = B a + o'
The plane drawn through the firll of thefe perpendiculars,
and the firfl given line, has for its equation

L (.V - «) + M (j - /3) + a = o (E)
L and M being given by the two equations
• I + L A + M B = o (3)
I+Lfl +Mi=:o(4)
The equation of the plane drav,-n through the fecond
perpendicular, and the fecond ftraight line is

L' (.V - :•) -f M' {y _ ,9') + z = o {£')
L' and M' being determinable by thefe equatiooe
I + L' A + M B = o
I + V a' +W b' = o
Now each of thefe kill planes contains the required Ime,
therefore the equations of their line of interfcition will be
thofe required.

The equations ( I ) (2) give the values of A and B, and
combining them with equations (3) (4) the following
values are obtained for L M, L' M' ;

a - a' + b {ab' - a'b)

L =

L' =

M =

M'=:

a [a' - a) + b' {b' - b)
a -a' + b' {ab' — a'b)

a (a' - a) + b' {b' - b)
b - b' - a (ab' — a'b)
a {a' -
b - b'

^)

1- b{b' -b)
' {af - ab)

b'

_: {a' -a) + b {b' - b)
Subflituting thefe values in equations (E) (E') we have

(*■-«) ^a-a' + b {ab'-a'l)j + (y-i£)h

- a (a b' - a' b)^ + z' |a {a' - a) + b {b' - b) I

= 0; (.V- a') ^a-a' + b' {ab' - a' b)\ + 0'-/3)

Sb - b' - a' {ab' - ab) | + z |a' («' - a) + b'

(i' — ^ ) f =0; where the fecond equation may be dedu-
ced from the firfl by changing a,b,a,^ into a, b', a', /? , and
a', b' into a, b-

Fionn thefe two equations which reprefent the required
line, its projeftions on the planes ^z, x z, may be found by
fiiccefrivcly ehminating x and ji.

It remains now to determine the abfolute length of the
fhortcft diilance between the two lines.

If from the origin of the co-ordinates a perpendicular be

let fall on each of the parallel planes, thefe, having the fame

direction, will become one and tlie fame ftraight line : their

difference, or the diftance between the two planes, will be the

fhortoft diftance required. The length of thefe perpendiculars

will, by the laft problem, be

A« + Bj3

r = r r^ ^j for the plan«

V U + A'- + B- ^

A (.» — a^ + B (j. — /S) -f z = o ; D being c= A cc
+ B^;

, „, A a' +■ B ,3'

and P ^ ^ , tor tlie plane

./ I + A- f B' '^

A {x — a') .f- B [y — p') + a — O, v.-herc D' = A a

+ B;3'.

1 he ditterence P — P = — j-; -frt

,/ ^1 + A- + B )

fubftituting for A and B their values

p, _ p ^ {-'--) jb' -b) - {^' -^) {-'-<-) _ _,
^/ { Cy - ay + {b' - by + {a'b - ab)j

When the ftraight lines meet each other, this diftance being
nothing, {■!' — a.) {b' — b) - {■^' — ,3) {u' — a) = r;
the fame equation, as has been already found, expreffing
two right lines which interfeit each other.

On the tra'isfonimlion of the Co-orilirintes — Given the co-
ordinates of a point in relation to three rectangular planes,
to determine the co-ordinates of this point, in rcfpect to
three other planes.

Thefe three new planes being given in pofition in refpeft
to three primitive planes, their equations are given.
Let thefe be, for the

ift, A .r -i- B J/ 4- C z + D = o
2d, A' X + W y +C' z -\r '^' = O
3d, A'' .V -i- B"^ + C" z -f- D" = o

Thefe three planes interlcft each other two by two ire
three ftraight lines which are tlie new axes. The new co-or-
dinates of the point are meafured on the lines drawn through
this point parallel to the new axis. The length of any one of
thefe co-ordinates is the part of one of thele lines contained
between the point, and the plane of the co-ordinates to
which this line is parallel.

Let .r,^,^, be the co-ordinates of the point in relation to the-
primitive planes, and u, v, -u.; its co-ordinates in relation to the
three new planes. I'or concifenefs let

(A(CB'' - C'B') + B (A'C- A"C') 4- C

(B'A"- B''A')»

~ {C'B"-C"B'/-f(A'C"-A' C')M-(BA"-B"AV-

(A'(C B" - C" B) 4- B' (A C - A" C) 4 C

(B"A"- B"A)"

" - ■(CB"-C'B)^4-(AC"-A"C)^4-(BA"-B''A>'

A" (C B' - C B) 4- B" (A C - A' C)' + C"

{BA'-B'A>'

T m i '

" (CB'-C'B)^ 4 (AC-AC) 4 (BA'-B'A)»
The values of the new co-ordinates will be

Ax+By+Cz-^B

L

A'

X

+

B'y + Cz

+

P'

L'

A'

X

4

B'y -f C"

z

4- D"'

L"

If the three new planes be fuppofed perpendicular to each
other, then A A' 4- B B' 4- C C = o' ; A A" -f B B"
4- C C" = o ; A' A" 4- B' B" 4- C C' = o.

Multiplying the firft of thefe three equations by B", the fe-
cond by B', and fublrafting, we have C {C B" — C ' B) -
A (B'A" — B"A) = O. Multiplying the firft by A",
the fecond by A', and fubtradling, we have,

B (B'A"- B'A') - C (A'C- A"C') = o.
Muhiplying the firft. by C", the fecond by C, and fub,-
traftiDff, we have

^ A (A'

GEOMETRY.

A (A' C" _ A" C) - B (C B" - C B) = o.
By means of thefe three equations the expreflion for L is

reduced to %'A' + B' + C'.
By a fimilar calculation.

r X f cof. 5 fin. 4- fin. ? + cof. 4- cof, ?)
C — 2 fin. 6 fin. (?.

B '■ + C" ;

v'A^

+ B- + C
+ B" + C-

L' = a' A'- + B" + C; L' = VA" +
nhich gives for the new co-ordinates u, v, iv,

■ a = A .T + B^' + C s + D -r

\. = A' ^ r B' V + C- a + D' -f-

-.i, = A" .t + B"j- + Cn + D"-^ a'A'" + B'-+_C^-
The values of u, i', -j.; mij^iit have been determined directly,
fincc thfv are the perpendiculars drawn from the points x,y,%,
upon three planes, whofe equations are known.

It it be required to transform one fyftem of reftangular
co-ordinates into another fyftem likewife rectangular, and
having the fame origin as the lirll, the three new axes may
be given by the equations of the three new rectangular planes.
Of the iix conllant quantities which enter thefe equations,
three are determined by the condition that the planes are
pei-pendicular to each other, and their values are to be calcu-
lated from that which is afligned to the tliree others ; but
this calculation may be avoided bv determining the polition
of the new axes by means of any three angles 4 , b, J. This
transformation is ufcful in the application of analyfis to me-
chanics. The following method is that ufed by La Place in
the " Mechanique celelle.''

Let the primitive planes be defignated by two of the
three co-ordinates x, y, z, which they contain, and the new
planes by tv.-o of the co-ordinates .t'", y'", z".

Let i be the angle of the two planes x y and x'" y'".

4- the angle whieh the axis x makes with the line of in-
terfeftion of the plane x"' y'" with the plane .r_>'.

vJ the angle which this line makes with the axis x'".
' It is now required to find the values of x'", y", %'", in terms
Oi X, y, «, and of the three angles 4-, ^, ?•

Let K',y', z', be the co-ordinates of a point referred to the
rectangular axes, reckoned upon the three following lines.
I. The i'lterfecting line of the plane x'" y"' with the plane
X y. 2. The projeiStion of the axis z'" on the plane xy.
?. The asis % ;

tlien x =■ x' cof I ■\- y' fin, 4-
V = y' cof. 4 = k' fin- 4-

Let x'', y", %", be the co-ordinatej of a point referred to
the rectangular axes, reckoned upon the three following
lines ; i. The interfering line of the plane x" y'" with that
2. The perpendicular to tliis line on the plane x''
The aiis z'" ; thea

of

3-

= y

the three axes a' ',y

x"-.

cof 9 -f- a" fin. «
cof. 5 — _y"Cn. 6:
being the co-ordinr.tes of tl^e point relative to
z'", we have
x'" cof. 3 — y"' fin. p
y'' =; y" cof. <f> -|- x" iln. P
z" = z".

x" (cof. 8 fin, 4 fin. p + cof. 4 cof. <p)
y'" (cof. S fin. -i cof. ^ — cof. 4 fin. ?>)
z" fin. 6 fin, 4

y (cof. 9 cof. 4 fin. 9 — fin. 4 cof. ;)
- y'" {cof. 9 cof. 4 cof. f -J- fin. 4 fin. {)
+ z ' fin. i cof. 4'
s = ="' cof. 9 - y fin. 9 cof. : - x" fin. 9 fin. ?.
Multiplying thefe values of x, y, z refpeftively by the co-
efficients oix'" in thefe values, we have

Hence x

-{t
= [

And by multiplying thtfe values of v,j', z refpeiEtively by
the co-efficients of y'" in thefe values, and afterwards by the
co-efficients of z'", we have

r X (cof. 5 fin. 4 cof. 5 — cof. 4 fin. 9)
y"< = J -t- j> (cof. 9 cof 4 cof. ? 4- fin 4 fin. f)

(^ — z lin. 9 cof ;.
z'" ;= X fin. 9 fin. 4 -(- J' fin. 9 cof. 4 + z cof. 9.

Another transformation is fometimes ufed ; a point being'
referred to three rcclangular planes by the co-ordinates
X, y, z, a ftraight line is drawn from this point to the origin
of the co-orduiates ; the length of this line is given, as like-
wife the angles which it makes with the three reftangular
axes. If )■ reprefent this line, and a,,i, >, the three angles,,
then X = 7Cof. ■/., y == r cof. Iz, z =: r cof. -, (i ).

Of thefe three angles two only are neceiTary ; becaufe
cof. a^ -1- cof. $'- + cof. -^ — I.

When the pofition of a point is thus determined by a lint
r and two angles, r is called the radius vef.'cr, and the ori-
gin of the co-ordinates becomes a pole, from which proceed*
the rat/ii -ve/lores of different points in fpace.

Sometimes the radius veftor is projected upon one of the-
reftangular planes, fuppofe on x y : the angle of the radius,
with its projection, is given, as likewife the angle of the pro-
jeftion with the axis of .r, tn y, if f reprefent the firlt, and 4'
the fecond of thefe angles,

z = r fin. p ; ji = ; !ln. ; fin. -\. ; x := r fin. ? cof. 4 . ( I )

If the point, referred to tlu-ee redtangular planes by the
co-ordinates x, y, z, belongs to a furface, we have between
thefe three co-ordinates an equation, F (.v,^', z,) = o. If
the co-ordinates are transformed, and the new ones become
u, V, w, we muft fublUtute in F = o for .r,^', z, their value!
in terms of u, v, iu, and the refulting equation will belong
to the nev.- furface referred to the new planes.

If in the equation F = o, for a-.j', z, we fubllitute the
values given in equations ( i ) and (2 ), it will become what iS'
termed the polar equation to this furface.

When a curve is given by two equationsy" (.i-,^', z) = o,-
f (.r, ^, z) := o, in fubftituting in thefe equations the values
given by equation F (x,y, z) — o, we obtain an equation to
the curve, relating citlier to three new planes by the co-ordi-
nates II, V, 'uj, or to a pole, by the rmlU veSores ,^TiA their angles..

Of the centres of furfaus, and of thar diametral planes. —
The centre of a furface is defined to be a point, in which-
all the chords paffing tlirougli this point are divided into two
equal parts.

A diametral plane is that which divides a fyftem of parallel
chords, each into equal parts.

Hence, if a furface has a centre, all the diametral planes
which it can have, neceflarily pafs through this centre.

Having given the algebraic equation of a furface, to deter-
mine, 1 ft, if it has a centre ; 2d. if it lias a diametral plane.

if the propofed iiirface has a centre, let it be referred to
three planes, the origin of wliofe co-ordinates is the centre
itlelf.

Any ftraight line drawn through the origin of thet? co-
ordinates will be a diimicter, and will cut the furface in two-
points, the co-ordinates oi the firft being x,y, z,and of the
fecond — .v, — y, ~ z. Therefore, the equation to the fur-
face mull fubfill iu taking .v, ji. z, pufitive or negative ; to
fatisfy this condition, the fum of the exponents of the three
co-ordinates in every form muft be the fame in every
parity as the number which expreflcs the degree of the
etyiatioD piopofrd, that is ; if tvco, even, if odd^cdd. Thuf,

if

GEOMETRY.

if 'P (r, !,f,) = o be the equation to the fiirface referred to,
any three planes, then, in this equation make

r = x + a, s = y -{- l>, t = a + e ;
and an equation of the furface will be obtained in terms
of X, V. z referred to three new planes parallel to the firft,
and paffing throiigh the point fuppofed to be the centre of
the furface : if, by the three particular values affigned to
a, b, c, the terms can be made to difappear, in which the
fum of the exponents of the three co-ordinates are of a dif-
ferent denomination as to even or odd, then the degree or
dimenfion of the equation p (r, j, /) = o, the propofed fur-
face will have a centre.

Of diametral Planes. — When, in all the terms of an equa-
tion of a furface, the exponent of one of the co-ordinates is
an even number, the plane of each of the other co-ordinates
divides the furface into two equal and fimilar parts.

The equation being ^ {x,y, z,) if in all its terms the expo-
nent of s is an even number, the plane of x andji will be
a diametral, for it will give for % a value a., funftion oi x,y,
and conllant quantities, and z = a will fatisfy this equation ;
therefore, to the fame values of x zn6. y, two values of a
will correfpond, differing only in the lign ; therefore the
plane of x,y will be diametral, and for the fame reafon the
two other planes of the co-ordinates will be diametral ; when
in each term the exponents of x, y are even numbers.

Let I? (r, s, t,) = o be the equation of the propofed fur-
face ; by the transformation of the ordinate, the furface may
be referred to three new planes, then Ar-)-Bj-i-C/ +
D = o; A'r -I- B'^ 4- C'< -h D' =o; A" r -f B"/ -(-
C ''< + D'" = o ; in which equation there are nine conftant
quantities.

The furface propofed has diametral planes, when, by af-
figning real and particular values to thefe conftant quantities,
the terms in which the exponents of the co-ordinates which
are odd numbers, may be made to difappear. The real
root of the equation, obtained by making the co-efhcients of
thefe terms equal zero, determine the number of diametral
planes.

In confidering furfaces of the fecond degree, great ufc
may be made of thefe principles, in determining the centres
and diametral planes of thefe furfaces.

Of Surfaces of the fecond Degree. — Let the general equa-
tion of the fecond degree, between three variable quantities
x,y, z, he a x' + b y' -{- c -z,^ + dxy + ey x + fxz -\- g x +
by\-k% + i — o. To determine if the furface to which
this equation belongs has a centre.

Making ji: = j;' -f a, ^ = _)r' -f- (?, a = z' -f- ">> ^i ^' "/be-
ing fuppofed the co-ordinates of the center, the equation
becomes a x"- + by'- + c'z'- + d x' y' + e' y' a' + /' a' z' +
g'x' -f A ^' + i' z' 4- I = o.

In this equation, which is likewife of the fecond degree,
there are only three terms in which the fum of the exjKiiients
of the co-ordinates is an odd number ; thefe terms may
be made to difappear, by making their co-efficients etjual to
2ero, which gives g' = o ; h' — o; k' = O, making this fub-
ftitution and taking only the terms multiplied by x',y'y %',
Zaa. + d^+fy + g = 0,2b^ + da + ey-\-h=o,

Thefe equations being linear in a, /9, y, thefe quantities
have real values ; therefore, furfaces of the fecond degree
have a centre.

If a certain relation be eftablilhed between the conftant
quantities a, b, c, d, &c. this centre may be placed at an infi-
nite dillance from the origin of the co-ordinates. In effeft,
the value of »,/?, y are fraftions whofe common denominator
k ac' -\- bf-t cd — xab c—def, therefore, when the flol-
lowing equation fubfilu between the conftant quantities of

the general equation of a furface of the fecond degree, tvs-
ae' -I- b f^ -f- c d -¥ \ ab c -\- d e f ; the co-ordinates
of the centre of this furface are inlinite. The lurface
of the fecond degree has likewife diametral planes, for by
tranfpofmg the ordinates it may be referred to three new
planes, containing nine conftant quantities; taking w, v, -jn for
the new co-ordinates, the general equation becomes A xi'
■\- B "a* -)- C tu' -\- Du'U-l-E'UTO-t-Fuw + GK + H'y +
K w -(- I =; o ; exterminating thofe terms in which the ex-
ponent of any one of the co-ordinates is odd, the iix follow-
ing equations are obtained ; D := o, E = o, F = o, G := o,
H = o, lv = o; (A). Of nine conftant quantities, fix
only are determined by thefe equations ; hence it follows,
that three planes may cut a furface of the fecond degree in
four equal and fimilar parts in an infinite number of ways ; it
has therefore an infinity of diametral and conjugate planes,
and of thefe three perpendicular ones, which intcrfeft each
other on the three ftraight hues on which are reckoned
the axes of the furface. This property is analogous to
that of curves of the fecond degree, which have an infinity
of conjugate diameters, and in thefe cunes there are two
conjugate diameters perpendicular to each other, called
axes. The three equations which exprefs that the new
planes of the co-ordinates are redlaMgular joined- to
the fix equ£(tions (A), determine the nine conftant
quantities which enter into the equations of thefe planes.

Taking for granted what however may be deinonftrated,
that thefe conftant quantities have always real values, we
may fuppofe, that referring the furface of the fecond degree
to its reftangular co-ordinates, its general equation will
always be of this form, Lx^ -|- Mjr' + Nz' — 1 = 0. We
/hall firft conlider the furfaces comprehended under the general
equation, and next the cafe where the centre is removed to
an infinite diftance from the origin of the co-ordinates.

Every furface of the fecond degree interfcfted by a
plane, has for its ieftion a curve of the fecond degree ;
for whatever be the planes, it may become, by the tranf-'
formation of its co-ordinates, one of the planes to
which the furface is referred, fo that after this transfor-
mation, the equatien to the furface is ftill of the fecond
degree ; moreover, the equations of the feftions made
on a furface by the planes of the co-ordinates cannot be
of a higher dimenfion than the equation of the furface,
therefore every furface of the fecond degree cut by a plane
has for its feftion a curve of the fecond degree likewife.

If the interfering plane moves parallel to itfelf, the
fcAion remains always fimilar to itfelf : its axes remain
always parallel, and its centre is always on the fame diame-
ter of the furface, wliich may be thus demonftrated.

The equation of a curve of the fecond degree may alway*
be reduced to this form,

I X' + my -f n x y -\-p =; o.

If in this equationy.v and Ai be fubftituted for x and y,
y" being a conftant quantity, the new equation which refults
from this fubftitution belongs- evidently to a curve fimilar to
the fiift, and Cmilarly fituated j it only differs from the firfl
in the conftant term, for after having divided all the terms by
y-', it becomes

/*' + my 4- »x_y -t- ---,

0.

Therefore all curves of the fecond degree, whofe equations
are of this form, differing only in the conftant term, will be
fimilar and fimilarly fituated.

The general equation to a furface of »he fecond degree
being «

• L *'' -}. M »■■' -I- N «' — 1 = o,

Let

■^>'}=o(

I)

GEO

Let the equation of any interfering plane be

z — Ax + By + C.
The projeftion of the iuterfeftion of the curve with the
fill face on the plane xy will have this equation,

x^.L +NA ) + v'(M + NB') + 2ABN
+ 2 A C N .V + 2 B C N^' + NC - I
• If the interfeiflirg^ plane he fuppofed to change its pofi-
tion by moving parallel to ilfclf, A and B will remain con-
ftant, and C only will change its value ; hence it follows that
the co-efficients of x',y', v y, in the equation of projection,
will remain the fame, whatever be the value of C. But bv
the transformation of the co-ordinates this equation may
be reduced to this form ;

/ u' + m' v' + n' II V -\- p' = o ;
in which equation the co-efficients I m n' only contain A and
B ; p' alone being forae funclion of C. If C be made to
var\-, the value of p' may be fuppoled to become p" , and the
preceding equation to become

/ u" + m' 'd' + n nv -\-p'' == O
which as it only dilL'rs from the former in the conilant quan-
tity, evidently belongs to a fimilar curve ; hence it may be
demon (Irated that all parallel feclions are fimilar, and limi-
larlv fituated. Moreover, the locus of the centres of thefe
feftions is in a diameter of the furface.

If in the equation L x' + M v' -+- N s' — i = o we
fubftitute for the co-efficients L, M, N, the conilant quan-
tities — , -r, — , a being greater than i, zndi > c ; it bc-

i rx^ + c'a'y' + d' h^ z^ = a K c"- (E)
The advantage of this fubftitution is to render the fign of each
term of the equation independent of the particular values of
the co-efficients, and to introduce as conilant quantities
<in the equations of the fections of the furface by the planes
of the co-ordinates) only the principal axes of thefe feftions.

From the dilTerent combinations of the fig;is three diftinci
cafes arife from equation E ; for a full inveftigation of which
we mud refer our reader to the original work from which this
article was principally extrafted. (Vide Application de
TAnalyfe a la Geometrie, par M. Monge.)

The three equations are
I' c' x"^ -^^ c a v' + a"-i s;- = «-*'r-,or L.v' -(- M/ — N2'= i
h c' x^ -\- 1 a y' — a b "z.- t::^ a h e iOtIj X -1- M^' — Nz"-=i
lrcx~- — c'ay -a"^'s' = a'iV ,or L.v — Mjr -Nc==i
The former belongs to the elhpfoid and the two other? to
two different fpccies of hyperboloids.

Geometry, CharaRers in. See Character.

Geometry, Spherical. See Spjiehical.

GEOMORI, fti'MOr'"' i" -/intiqiiity, the divifion or clafs
of the ancient Athenians employed in agriculture.

GEONOMA, in BoCany, from •jtjjc^o:, z fuller out, or
diftributor of land, alluding to the mode of growth of the
firft fpecies of the genus in queftion, as hereafter defcribcd.

Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 593. — Clafs and order, ALno.'cia Mo-

nadtlpiia. Nat. Ord. Pa/nut.

Gen. Ch

EflT. Ch. General Spatha double, of two valve;. Male,
Calyx in three deep fegments. Petals three. Filaments
fix, united into a cylinder.

- Female, Calyx and Corolla hke the male. Style one,
lateral. Sticcma of two lobes. Drupadry, with one feed.

1. G. pinnatifrons. " Fronds pinnate ; the pinnae ab-
luptly jagged.'' — Native of the Caracas, in Ihady woods on
the lofty mountain of Buenavifta. B,\:'tm.yer.^T\\e trunk
is fimple and llender, an uich in diameter, fmoolh, riiing to
i. 3

GEO

the height of fifteen feet, when, by the power of the wind
on its ample foliage, it is blown down, but foon produces
new fhoots and roots from the top, whence a Hew trunk
fprings up to the fame height of about fifteen feet, and in
its turn is quickly laid proftnte like the former. The
fronds (rather leaves) are pinnate, their pinnas irregular,
fomewhat folded, jagged abruptly at the fummit. Spatha
double, of two valves, wcdge-fliaped, fomewhat comprcfTed,
acute, three inches long. Spndix fifteen inches in length,
branched at the top, the branches round, bearing each from
feven to nine alternate, cylindrical fpikes, of the length ot
three inches each. Floivers conilantly three, funk in a little
hollow of the fpike, two of which are male, one female.
Drupa dry and fibrous, the fize of a pea. Kut globofe, black.

2. G. fimplieifrons. " Fronds fimple, wedge-fhapcd,
cloven.'' — Found at the Caracas with the fonmr. Brede-
meyer, — The trunk of this is permanently upright, ten feet
liigh, an inch thick. Fronds (or leaves) a foot long, fimple,
wedge-lhaped, taper at the bafe, cloven, and divaricated at
the fummit, fupported on very long ftalks. Spatha double,
of two valves. Spadix bearing at its extremity three or
four cylindrical fpikes. Floiuers inunerfed in little cavities,
like the former. Wdldenow.

GEOPONIC, fometliing defcribing or relating to agri-
culture. Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius, and Phny,
are fometimes called geoponic writers.

GEORG, St., in Geography, a town of Germany, at the
conflux of the rivers Teya and March, formerly a royal
city, but now much reduced ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Pref-
burg. — Alfo, a town of Hungary ; 7 miles N.N.E. of
Prefturg.

GEORGE, in Biography, furnamed the Cappadocian,
was made bilhop of Alexandria when Athanafius was driven
from that fee by the perfecutions of the emperor Conftan-
tius, about the year 355. (See Ath.-vxasius.) He was a
native of Epiphania, in Cilicia, where his father purfued the
bufinefs of a fuller. From this obfcure fituation the foa
raifed himfelf, it is faid, not by the moll honourable means,
to the flation of a prelate in the church. At firll he obtain-
ed a lucrative appointment as purveyor of bacon to the
army : not contented with the regular profits of his office,
he made ufe of every art, however bafe and corrupt, in the
accumulation of wealth ; fo as to render a mean employment
truly infamous. His depredations on the pubhc purfe be-
came fo notorious, that he felt it extremely dangerous to
wait the iffue of a fuit commenced againft him. He fled
from the purfuit of juftice, and contrived to take with hira
his ill-gotten wealth. The place of his retreat was Alex-
andria, where he profeffed great zeal for the Arian fyllem of
theology, and being a man of fuperior talents, he acquired
confiderable influence with his dileiples in that city. Here
he collcifted a large and very valuable colledlion of books,
which the emperor Julian afterwards made the foundation
of the noble library eftabliflied by him in the temple ereiled
in honour of the emperor Trajan, but which was burnt by
the connivance of the emperor Jovian. When Athanafius
was driven from Alexandria, George was elected bifhop by
tlie prevailing party. In this ilation his conduit was in the
highell degree cruel and oppreffive. He perfecuted the Ca-
tholics with an unrelenting hand, and the other inhabitrnts
of tliis vail diocele were objects of liis tyranny and avarice.
The merchants he impoverilhcd by unjuft monopolies and
cruel taxes ; the Pagans, who had been excited with the
hopes of freedom and toleration, did not efcape his rapacity,
and the rich temples of Alexandria were either pillaged or
infultcd by him, who exclaimed, in a liaughty and threaten,
jog. tone 01 voice, " How long will thcle fepulchres be per-
mitted

GEORGE.

mitted to ftand." The people endured all tlicfe afts of
opprciiion till their patience was exhaufted ; thoy then rofe
as one man, and expelled him the city. With much difficul-
ty iic regained his authority, which he held till the year 362,
when the acceffion of Julian to the empire was tlie fignal for
the downfal of the bifhop. He, and two other perfons,
who had been miiiillersof his atrocities, were ignominioully
dragged in chains to the public prifon. Here, after a con-
finement of a few days only, they were attackc'd by the Pagan
populace, who forced open the doors of the flungeons, and
with cruel infults maffacred the vile wretches. Tlieir lifelcfs
■bodies were carried in triumph through the ftreets on the
back of a camel, and after having fuffereJ every indignity,
thry were thrown into the fea, with the avowed intention of
flifappointing the devotion of Chrillians, who, thev fore-
faw, would gladly canonize the tyrant as a martyr and faint.
The fears of the Pagans were jutt, but their precautions
ineffeiSlual. Tiie meritorious death, as it was denominated, of
tlie prelate, oblit;'rated the memory of h:;i life, and the infa-
mous George 'of Cappadocia has been transformed into the re-
nownedSt Georgeof England, thepatronof arms, of chivalry,
■and of the garter. The laiuts of Cappadocia, Baill, and the
Gregories, did iiot acknowledge their companion, and pope
■Gelalius, about the year 494, is the firll Catholic who
acknowledges St. George, and who placed him among the
martyrs of the cluirchcs. He rejefts his aits as fpurious,
and as the compoiition of heretics. His fame and popularity
in Europe, and efpecially in England, proceeded from the
■crufades. Gibbon, volj, iii. and iv. Moreri.

GEOnoB ofiVclilond, a learned modern Greek, was born,
in 1395, in the ille of Crete, of a family originally from
Trebifond, from which he derives his name. He came to
Italy about 1420, and obtained the patronage of Francis
Barbaro, a noble of Venice, through whofe means he was
invited to a profeflbrHiip of Greek at Vicenza. Thence he
removed to Venice, where he acquired great reputation as
a grammarian and inflruftor in Grecian eloquence. After
this he obtained an invitation from pope Eugenius IV. to
fettle at Rome, and, during the life of the pontiff, he was
occupied in teaching rhetoric and philofophy, and in tranf-
lating feveral ancient Greek authors into Latin. He was
engaged in a fimilar manner by pope Nicholas V., under
whofe patronage George might have lived happily, had not
T^-is own temper involved him in many dilputes with the
learned men about the papal court. With Poggio he came
to blows, and it was necelTary to rcfort to the avithority of
the apoftolic fecretar;cs to part them. His own conduft at
length forced him from Rome, and he took retugc, in 1452,
at Najiles, where he was graciouHy receive^l by king Al-
phonfo, but he did not partake of his liberality, and had
great diScaltv, at this period, in maintaining his family. It
is fuppofed, tliat by the interference of his friend Filelfo,
he was reconciled to the pope, and that he returned to the
papal city : but in 1459 he was at Venice, where he pre-
It-ntcd to the doge his verfion of Plato's book on laws, and
was then engaged as a profeffor of belles lettres. In 1464
he went to Crete, and paffed thence to Conftantinople. On
his return he found his own Icholar Paul II. on the papal
throne, which led him to vifit Rome, but his treatment
there did not, prob:ibly, corivfpond with his expeftations ;
lie was, for fome offence not known, caft into prifon, where
he was kept during a fpace of four months. He died about
the year 1480. He lived to a good old age, and was
author of many works on rhetoric and fubjefti; connected
with polite literature ; and he trandatcd many others, par-
ticularly of the fathers, from the Greek into ^he Latin. He
is eileemed very highly for the fhare which he had in intro-

ducing Greek literature into tlie Weft. His Latin
ftyle was far from pure ; and in controverfy he dealt much
in inveftive. The comparifon which he inilituted between
Ariftotle and Plato gave great offence to the adherents of
the latter, particularly to cardinal Befiarion, who wrote an
anfwer to him. Gen. Biog.

George, called alfo ylmirn, flourifhed about the clofe of
the 16th century, and was at Rome under the pontificate of
Clement VIII. He publifhed " A Syriac and Chaldee
Grammar" in 4to. in 1596. He was, after this, elefted pa-
triarch of the Maronitrs, among whom he introduced the ufe,
and explained the principles, of the Gregorian calendar. He
died about the year 1641. Moreri.

George Lewis I., king of Great Britain, and eleftor of
Hanover, the fon of the eledlor Erneft-Auguilus, by
Sophia, daughter of Frederick eleftor-palatine, and grand-
daughter of James I., king of England, was born in
1660, and trained to the profefiion of arms under his
father. When he had arrived to the ftate of manhiod, he
engaged in the fervice of the emperor againft the Turks,'
and became illullrious as a warrior in three campaigns in
Hungary. He next diilinguifhed himfelf in the war be-
tween the empire and France, and in the year 1 700 he fuc-
ceeded, on the death of his father, to the eletlorate. In the
following year he marched to the afliftance of the duke of
Holllein, who was attacked by the king of Denmark, and
obliged the Danes to raife the fiege of Tonnino-en. He
joined the alliance againft France in the fuccelhon war, and
forced the princes of the houfe of Wolfenbuttle to quit
their alliance with the French. The command of the
army of the empire was conferred upon him in 1707, but
after the duties of three campaigns, in which he had been
able to aft only on tlie defenfive, he refigned his command,
and left his own troops in the fervice of the allies. At the
peace of Raftadt, Lewis XIV. recognized the electoral dig-
nity in the honfe of Lunenburg, as he liad before, at the
peace of Utrecht, the fucceflioii of the fame houfe to the
crown of Great Britain. This event happened on the
death of queen Anne in 17 14, when the prince, now
George L, was in the hfty-fourth year of his age. He
was already celebrated for the wifdom and juftice of his
government, and his perfonal qualities, though limited in
his views by the intereils of a German prince, and but little
acquainted with the charafter of the nation he was about
to rule. " It is evident,'' fays an hiftorian, " that the title
of this prince was founded folely on the choice of the
parliament, that is, of the people, and that the ufiial order
of fucccllion was entirely fuperfcded. For, admitting the
male line of the houfe of Stuart to have been extinguiihed
in the perfon of James II., the right of blood rcfted in the
houfe of Savoy, defcendedfrom Henrietta, duchefsof Orleans,
daughter of Charles I." Thus the rights of the people
were fully exercifed, and the family on the throne is in truth
an elecled family, though the general law of fuccelTion re-
mains unaltered. The king threw himfelf into the arms of
the Whig party, who, indeed, alone openly maintained thofe
principles upon which the right of his crown was founded.
Of thefe the fundamental one was the fuperiority of the
national will, in appointing a chief governor, to any claim
derived from htreditary right. Such a principle had been
already affumcd, and was the only one that could juftify the
nation in fetting afide the more immediate heirs to the
crown, on the plea of difference of religion. (See Whigs.)
As I'oon as this prince was fettled on his throne, the late
Tory miniftry were called to account for their conduft,
particularly with refpeft to the treaty of Utrecht, and
feveral of the heads of it were impeached, and either im-

prifonedj.

GEORGE.

prifoned, or driren inte exile. Tliefe meafures were the
caufe of great difTatisfaftion ; tumults were excited in
various parts of the kingdom, and at length, in September
1715, tlie earl of Marr let up the il uidard of rebellion, and
proclaimed, with due honours, th ; pretender. The plan
was ill concerted, and very weaklv Uipported, and early in the
following year it was entirely q,;:-llcd, but fevcral of the
leaders lolt their lis-es on the fcaffold. Still a large body of
the people were difafieiled to the new family, and the
power of the Tory party was fo formidable, that the miniftry,
to eftabliih their authority, had recourfe to feptennial par-
liaments, inftead of triennial ones, according to the law of
the land. It was agreed by men of all parties, who were
not perfonally interefted in the change, that this inno-
vation was a moll grofs violation of the principles of
the conftitution, which no temporary neceflity could
juftify. The king had, about this period, acquired by
purchafe the duchies of Bremen and Vcrden, in order to
extend his power aseieftor of Hanover. By the acquifiti'on
he was involved in a quarrel with Charles XII, of Sweden,
who threatened to invade Scotland in favour of the claims of
the pretender. The czar Peter alfo concurred in the fcheme.
T'o obviate the danger, the king entered into a triple alliance
with Holland and France, a fleet was fent up the Baltic to
awe the Swedes, and all commercial intercourle with that
. nation was fufpended : but the death of Charles XII. in
1717, and the fubfequent changes in the poUtics of Sweden,
put an end to the alarm in that quarter, and fecured George
in the quiet pofTefTiun of his newly acquired continental ac-
<}uiiltioiis. The ambition of the court of Spain, governed
by ^cardinal Alberoni, diilurbed the peace of Europe, and
occaiioned a quadruple alhance between the three powers
zljove-mentioned, with the accclTion of the emperor. The
feizure of Sardmia, and invafion ot Sicily by the Spaniards,
gave a pretext for fending a powerful Englifh fleet into the
Mediterranean under hr George Bvng, who fell in with, and
almoft totally dellroyed the Spaniih fleet. This fucceis was
followed by the recovery of Sicily and Sardinia, and Spain
was under the neceflity of acceding to a peace dictated by
the allied powers. A pacification of the north of Europe
was alfo cffefted by the mediation of England. The na-
tional delufion and calamity in the year 1720, (fee Bubble,)
recalled the king from a vifit to his German dominions, and
the prudent meafures of parliament produced the reiloration
of public credit. In 1722 a new conlpiracy againll the
government was difcovered, and fevcral pcrions were ap-
prehended in confequence of it, among whom was Dr. Atter-
bury, bifliop of Rocheiler, who was puniflicd with perpe-
tual bari'ifhment. The minlllers of France and England,
Fleury and Walpole, being friendly to peace, preferved a
good underitanding between the two countries tor many
years. Several treaties were negociated under the pretence
of maintaming the balance of jjower, but uiually other pri-
vate ends were to be anfv.-ercd by them. The leading
principle of George I. was the fafcty and profperity of his
German dominions, to the intereils of which, thofe of
Great Britain were, on various occalions, faid to be facri-
ficed. In 1725, a treaty between the emperor and the
king of Spain excited thejealoufy of king George fo much,
that he counteraAcd it by another at Hanover, compriflng
mofl; of the other European powers, and he fent a fleet to
the Weft Indies under admiral Hofier, in order to block up
the Spanifti galleoTis at Portobello. The death of the ad-
miral and moft of his crew from difeafe, was confidered as
cne of the moil inglorious difafters of the reign. The Spa-
niards then befieged Gibraltar, but all differences were finally
fettled by a negociation. The king of England fee;ne4 at
Vol. XVL

length to have furmounted all his political difficulties, and »
profpeft of permanent peace and tranquillity appeared to
open upon him. The toils, and dangers, and anxietira
which he had felt during his whole reign fecmed at laft to
be rewarded with glory, happinefs, and rcpofe. He thought
every circumftance was favourable to his vifiting liis elec-
toral dominions, and embarked for that jwrpole at Green-
wich, June 3, 1727. He landed in Holland 09-ll"C ?'•'•
but in his journey from thence to*Har:over hcTiifkrod a
paralytic feizure, and feeling that he was near the end of hi»
long journey, he exclaimed to his attendant, frC'ett fait de
moi." He reached the palace of his brother, the bi(hop of
Of^aburg, but could not advance farther. He died Juno 11,
1727, in the fixty-eighth year of his age, *and the 13th of
his reign. He has been charafterizcd as plain and fimpic in
his appearance, grave and fedate in his manner, but ea^ and
famihar among his intimates, in whofe fociety he was fond
of relaxing from tB? cares of the ilate. He pofleflcd ir.uch
natural prudence and good fenfe, and well underftood hit.
intercfts, at leall as far as the objeAs neareft his heart were-
concerned. Acceding to the crown of Great Britain when
far advanced in life, he feemcd ever to conlider himfelf rather
as eleflor than as king, and the influence and power of Great
Britain were of lit'.l ■ cltimation in his eyes when direfted
to any other end than the aggrandizement of his native
country. In the view of Europir at large, he iuftained th-^
charafter of a prudent, able, and fortunate prince. His
government was not witi'.cut defefts in the adminiflration,
but he wns unqueftionably a zealous friend to civil and
religious liberty. He had female favourites, but was not
governed by them. He had httle or no tafte for literature
and fcivnce, and was unable to appreciate their value, yet
he founded in each univerflty a profcfTorfliip of mocjjm
hillory. He was, however, a lover of mulic ; and foon
after his accefilon eflabliihed reguhtions for the conduft of
this part of the fervice in the royal chapel. He had married
in 1681, l:is coufin Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ■
of Zell, a match that was attended with little domeftic
happinefs. He left behind him one fon, who fucceeded
him in his crown.

Geokge Algu.stI/S II. king of Great Britain, <bn of
the preceding, was bt-rn in 1683, and came to England with
his father in I 714, where he received the rank and title of
Prince of Wales. In 1 7 16, he was appointed regent during
the king's abfence. After this, on account of fome privat*
difference between father and fon, th.e latter lived for fom«
time in a ftate of cftrangemcnt from the court. Hr-
fucceeded to the throne in 1 727, and adopted the fam»
minifters and meafures which had governed the nation during
tlie hfe of George I. He inherited alio, in full force, th«
attachment which his father fhewed to his German interefts,
which fwayed the -cbuncjls of his cabinet, though it was
frequently ' obliged to give way to other oonliderations.
Europe, for fome time, was i:i a llate of peac.-, through the
influence of the treatis of Seville and Vienna, the latter of
which guaranteed the Pragmatic fanction, or the law by
which the female heirs of the emperor Charles VI. were to
fucceed to the hereditary dominions of Auftria. In 1732
Walpole introduced into parliament the financi.il fcheme of
a great e.^enfion of the cxcife ; but the violent oppofition it
met with from the nation obliged him to rehnquifh tha
objed. What the people refufed to fubmit to at that
period has been iince adopted alinoll without a murmur. In
the year 1737, complaints were made againil the govern.
ment for abridging liberty, by a bill for limiting the number
of playhoules, and fubmitting dramatic writings to the
kfptcl'iou of the lord thambedain. Difputes had long pre.
P, vailed

GEORGE.

vailed between Spain and England, on account of the trade the (iifety of liis German dominions, was imputed tlic allianc*
earned on in the Well Indies by their refpeftive fubjedls. formed with tlie king of Pruffia, and the employment of a
In 17^9, the matters in debate were compromifcd by a con- large force in continental warfare. This was the lead
vention fettled by the refpeftive courts, but its terms were glorious part of the public tranfaii\ions : and during the
lo little fatisfaftory to the traders, tliat Walpole found him- early years of the conteft events were very unfavourable to
lelf obliged by their clamours to prepare for hoflilities. England; but when, at the demand of the people, the king
V\ ar was declarec^ and Portobello taken by admiral Vernon, fummoned to his councils the great William Pitt, after-
The war^ifowever, did'not turn out fo luccefsful as the ;xo- wards earl of Chatham, the tide of fuccefs fet full in upon
pie expefctfl.fo that a clamour was railed againft the minifter, the meafures of government. The French power in the
and fir R. Walpole was obliged to refign in the year 1742. Eail Indies was annihilated ; and in America the rednftion
At the fameflpriod France, and the other .powers in league of LouiRnirg was followed by that of Canada. The illand
with lier, feemed determined, on the death of the emperor of Guadabirpe, and the Britifli fettlement of Senegal, fell
Cliarles VI., to ftrip his daughter Maria Therefa of fcr under the Britith dominion, and th.e famous battle of Min-
inheritance, whicfl had been guaranteed to her by the Prag- den exalted the reputation of the Britilh foldiery. The
matic fanCtion. In defence of her juft rights, George fent navy of England reigned triumphant over the feas, while
an Eij^hni army to the continent, and alio a large body of that of France was reduced to infignificance, from which it
forces from his eleftorate, who were taken into Britilh pay. never after completely recovered. Notwithftanding all this
J. he king himfelf joined the army, wlfijh was under the fuccefs the German war was unpopular, and minitters were
commaed of tlie earl of Stair, and difpfayed great braver^', rep'foached for the facrifices wliich they had made, or were
Vidory declared itfelf in favour of the Britilh, bat they were fuppofed to have made, to the perfonal «ilhes of the king.
forced to leave their wounded to the care of tlie enemy. In this ftate of affairs George II. fuddenly died from a

ruptui-e of the right ventricle of the heart, which, without
any previous il'nefs or fuffering, terminated his life on the
251)1 of Ottober 1760, in his feventy-third year, and in the
thirty-third of his reign. During this long period he had
experienced many viciflitudes of fortune, but he lived to fee
himfelf the moll fuccefsful of all the Englifh monarchs. He

Soon after, the command of the allied army devolved on the
king's fecond fon, tlie duke of Cumberland, who was
reckoned very deficient in talents as general of a great
army. Und»;r him was loft 'ihe bloody battle of Fontenoi in
'74+> 3nd tlie French maintained an undoubted fuperiority

in Flanders during the remainder of the war. In the fol- ^ _..

lowing year the adherents of the pretender encouraged him was endowed by nature with an underftanding by no mean,^
to try his fortune by a defcent, in the northern past of the
kingdoni, where he njight expedl an immediate and decifive
declaration to be made in his favour. His Ion, accordingly,
under the protection of the court of France, landed on the
co^J of Scotland, in the month of July. He was received
with much relpeft and affeftion, and was immediately joined

by feveral of the clans, with whom he proceeded to the yet a natural goodnefs of heart, a love of juft ice, and an
fouth, enlarging his fmall army with all thofe who would ' " r r ,r -.■ -i- . 1 .1 n- n- r,-

join in his caufe. At Perth he proclaimed his father king,
and immediately after took polfeffion of Edinburgh, de-
feated a body of the royal troops at Prefton Pans,, and
m-rched into England, where he had the ftrongefl atfuranccs
of being powerful]^ reinforced. He proceeded to Deity,
but found the people no where zealoufly incHnedto fupport
his caufe ; at length th& duke of Cumberland arrived from

comprehenlive, and he had taken little pains to improve and
expand his original powers by intelleftual cultivation.
Equally a llranger to learning and the arts, he faw the rapid
increafe of both under his reign, without contributing in the
remotell degree to accelerate the prcgrefs by any mode of
encouragement. He was hally and obllinate in his temper.

honeft opennefs of difpontion, conciliated the affeftion of his
people, aTid have infpired refpeft and veneration for his
memory. He was a lirm friend to the ellabliilied laws aWd
liberties of the kingdom, and it mull be admitted, highly to
his lionour, that the general principles of his adminillration,
both civil and religious, vi-ere liberal and jull. Many of the
penal llatutass^ which Hill remain unrepeakd, were in the
reign of this prince meliorated, and virtually fufpended, '

Flanders, with fe%-eral Englilh regiments, engaged and de- by the mildnefs and equity of tlie executive government.

feated the rebels, and thus put an end to the hopes of the And he will long be remembered for his declaration, " that

pretender, who coidd no longer be confidered as an objeA during his reign, there fliould be no perfecution for con-

of terror or alarm. The government of the houfe of fcience fake." On various occalions he had given fignal

Brnnfwick was from this period more firmly ellablilhed ; demonllrations of perfonal bravery, nor did the general

and it appeared that the greater part of the nation had in- tcnour of his condntt afford proofs lefs linking of his retti-

diiTolubly connefted the interefls of religion and liberty with tude and integrity. If he cannot be ranked among the

the fupport of thofe principles which called the family of the greateil, he is certainly entitled to be claiTed with the moll

reigning prince to the throne. 10^174% peace was ncgo- refpeftable princes of the age in which he lived.

ciated, and eftablifhed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ;
this treaty did not correfpond with the expetlations of tlie
people, but it was welcomed as a relief from the burthens
neceflarily impofed by a ftate of warfare. In 1751, the
king !oil his eldell fon Frederic, who had lived a co!;fider-
able time at variance with his father, but whti had made his
peace with the court after the difmiHion of Walpole. This
prince, the father of our prefent lovereign, was amiable and
well difpoied, and the fondell hopes had been entertained of
the patriotifin which he would have exhibited on the throne
to which he was heir, and of which he was deprived by an
early death. In 17J5, a war broke out between Great

George, Si. a name whereby feveral ordeis, both military
and religious, are denominated. It took its rife from a faint
fa.-Bous through.out all the Eaft, called by the Greeks
MtvaA^fiajTvf, q. d. great marfyr.

On iome medals of the emperors John and Manuel Com-
neni, we have the figure of St. George armed, hold-
ing a fword or javelin in one hand, and in the other a
buckler, v.ith this infcription ; an O, and therein a httle

P
A, and If; — rior, making O AFIOS rEOPriOI, 0 Holy

O
George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback, as being

Britain and France, the events of which, thoiigii truly im- fuppofed to have frequently engaged in combats in that
portant to the kingdom, are in no great degree connedled manner.

with the charafter of the king. To his apprehcaiions for He is highly venerated throughout Armenia, Mufcdvy,

3 • and

GEORGE.

and all the countries which adhere to the Greek rite : from
the Greek, his worfliip has long a;To been received into tlie
Latin church ; and England and Portugal have both chofen
bim for their patron faint. See Geokc.k of Capparlocla.

Georgk, St. is particularly ufcd {or a* Englifli order of
knights, mc)re commonly now called the onkr of the Carter.
See Garter.

GsoRGK, knights of St. There have been various orders
tinder this denomination, moft of which are now extinft.

Tlie order of St. George, at firft called the order of the
«' Golden Angel," is faid to have been iiifcituted by Con-
ftantine the Great, in the year 312. The collar is compof-
ed of fifteen oval plates of gold, richly chafed on their edges,
and enauielh-d blue. On 14 of thcfe plates is the cypher of
tl»e name of Chrift, compofed of the Greek capital letters

George on horfeback, flaying a dragon ; the crofs is ena-
melled blue, and edged with white, and cantoned witha fmalier
crois, enamelled blue and white; which, pendent to a Iky-blue
Avatered ribband, edg^d with white, is worn fcarfwife. On
the left breaft. the knights alfo wear the fame ftar embroi-
dered, having on the centre a red crofs. On fcllivals they
wear a collar compofed of oblong plates with crowns at each
end, and columns furmounted with globes ; each column
fupportcd by two lions, holding in their anterior paws fey-
mitars, joined together with lozenge-chains enamelled blue
and white : on the oblong plates is the following motto :—
" In fide, juflitia, et fortitudine."

The military order of St. George in Ruflla, called alfo the
order of " Merit,"' was inilituted by the emprefs Catha-
rine II. in 1769, has the precedence over that of St.

X and I' between the two capitals A and H, fignifying that Anne of Holftein, and was divided into four clalTes. —

Jefus Chrili; is the beginning and end ; but on the centre oval. The badge is a crofs of gold, enamelled white, on the cen-

which is edged with laurel leaves, the cypher X P is placed on tre of which is a medalhon, with the figure of St. George

a. crofs patence gules, edged or, and having on- its points the flaying a dragon. This is worn pendent to a black ribband

letters I. H. S. V. ; and pendent from the bottom was the edged with orange colour, and two ftripes of orange on the

figure of St. George killing the dragon. The habit of the black. Thofe of the firft clafs weai' it under their coat,

knights was a long cloak of (ky blue velvet, lined with white pafling from right to left ; and on the left breaft of their coat

filk, tied at the neck with a cord of crinifon filk and gold inter- is a ftar wrought in gold, in the ftiape of a lozenge : on the

mixed, terminating at each extremity in a large taftel ; on the centre of the ftar are embroidered the figure of St. George

left breaft of the cloak was embroidered the crofs of the order, and the dragon. Thofe of the fecond clafs wear the badge

The order of St. George in Aufiria and Carinthia was infti-
tuted, as fome fay, by Rodolph, count of Habfourg, the
firft emperor of the hoafe of Auftria, about the year 1273
or T2^o ; or, as others fay, by the emperor Frederic III. in
order to guard the frontiers of Germa y, Hungary, Auftria,
Carinthia, and Styria, from the inroads of the Turks. The

pendent to a ribband palTuig round their neck, and a ftar
on their left breaft. Thofe of the third clafs wear tl;e badge
pendent to a narrow ribband which pafft;s round their neck;
but they have no ftar. Thofe of the fourth clafs wear the
badge pendent at the button-hole of their coats. Each
knight of the firft clafs receives an annual falary of 700

badge of the order was a plain purple crofs edged with green, roubles =: 140/ : each of the fecond clafs has 4C0 roubles

The order of St. George in Burgundy was founded, in the = 80/. per annum : each of the third clafs 200 roubles or

year 1400, by Philbert de Miolans, a gentleman of Bur- 40/. per annum; and each of the fourth clafs 100 roubles or

gundy, on account of his having brought from the Eaft fome 20L per annum. The fund of this order, afiigned by the

relics of St. George, which he depofited in a chapel erefted empreis for the payment of their falaries, and other expences.

for the purpofe, near to the parilh church of Rougamont
The badge of the order is a St. George on horfeback,
o-werthrowing a dragon, fimilar to that on the collar of the
order of the garter. It was worn pendent to a blue rib-
band tied to a button-hole. Women were admitted into
this order.

The order of -Sf: George in Auftria was refounded by the
laft emperor Maxi
the order (hould be

on the upper part with a ducal coronet or, and worn pendent
from three chains of gold.

The order of St. George at Genoa was inftituted in 1472.
The doge of Venice is perpetual grand mailer of the order.
The enlign of the order is a plain red crofs, worn round the
neck, pendent to a ribband

is 40,000 roubles = 8000/. per annum. Of this 1,680 is de-
ftiiied for the firft clafs ; and 20CO for each of the rem.ainin?
three. Tlie number of knights is unhmited. In 1778, the firll
clafs, which is confined to commanders in chief, contained
only four ; the fecond clafs comprized only eight knights ;
the third, forty-eight ; and the fourth two hundred and thirty,
four. No perfon can obtain this order without having
miUan, who direcled that the badge of performed fome gallant exploit, or having fcrved in the raak
e a crois croflet botonnee gules, encircled of an officer 25 years by land, or iS by fea.

The order of St. George of Alfama, or the order of Mcr-
ie/h, an order of knighthood in Spain. When tl:;; order of
knights-templars became extinct in Spain, an order was inili-
tuted, about the year 1317, to fupply their places, in confe-
quence of a permiftioii for that purpofe obtained from pope
'John XXII. at which time Montefa in Valencia was felec\ed

The order of St. George in Rome was founded by pope as a proper place for the refidence of the knights. In the fol.

Alexander VI. in the year 1492. The collar of the order lowing year, James, king of Arragon and Valencia, built at

was a gold chain, to which was pendent, in enamel, the figure Montefa a noble college for their habitation, and dedicated it

of St. George on horfeback, throwing down a dragon, and to St. George : and hence the order alTumed its appellation of

piercing it with a lance. The badge was a gold crofs within the order of St. George of Montefa. The habit of this order

a circle of gold, like an open crown. is a white mantle, on the left breaft of which is embroidered

The order of St. George at Ravenna is fuppofed to have a plain red crofs. The badge of the order is a plain red

been inftituted by pope Paul III in 1534. It was abolifhed crois, enamelled on gold, which is worn fcarfwife, pendent to

by pope Gregory in 1572. a broad red watered ribband. Tlie order of St. George

'the order ot St. George, defender of the immaculate con- of Alfama, was inftituted about the year I20l, at a town

caption of the blefted Virgin Mar)', was inftituted at Mu- of that name in the diocefe of Tortofa. In 1 399 tiiis order

nich by Albert, eledlor of Bavaria, in the year 1729, and con- was united to that of Montefa, by pope Benedidl XIII. and

firmed by the pope. The perfon admitted into this order that union was confirmed in the council of Conftance.

muft prove his gentility for five generations both on his mo- Geokoe, Religious of the order of St. Of thefe there are

ther's and father's fide. The badge of the order is a ftar of divers orders and congregations ; particularly canons regular

«ight points ; oa the centre is enaaielled the image of St, of St. George in Alga, at Venice, eftablilhcd bv authority

R 2 of

GEORGE.

of pope Boniface IX. in the year 1404. The foundation of
this order was laid by Bartholomew Colonna, who preached,
in I ^96, at Padua, and fomc other villages in the ftate of
Venice. Pope Pius V. in 1570, gavs thefe canons prece-
dence of all other religious. Another congregation of the
fame inftitute in Sicily, Sec.

St. Georo-e's Cro/s. See Cross.

George n:>i!e, a piece of gold, current at fix fhillings and
eight-pence in the reign of king Henry VIII.

Gi:oRGE Bani, in Geography, a rocky flioal, near the weft
coaft of Sumatra. N. lat. 3- 48'. E. long. 96' 12'.

George, Cape,?, cape on the S. coaft of Kerguelen's Land.
N. lat. 49 54'. E. long. 70^ 13'. — Alfo, a cape on the W.
coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 48' 28'. W. long. 59'

17' Alfo, a cape on the N. coaft of the ifland of South

Georgia. S. lat. 54^ 17'. VV. long. 36 32'. — Alfo, a
cape on the coaft of Peru. S. lat. 23 '50'. — Alfo, a cape
on the coaft of New Holland, dilcovered on St. George's
day by lieutenant Cook, and fo called by him. S. lat.
35' 10'. W. long. 208' 51'.

George, St., Caps, a cape on the W. coaft of Newfound-
land. N. lat. 49^ :^o'. W. long. 59^ Alfo, the fouthern

extremity of New Ireland. S. lat. 5-. E. long. 152 15'.

George Creek, a town of America, in Alleghany county,
Maryland; 152 miles from Wafr.ington. — Alfo, a river of
America, which runs into the Potowmack ; 12 i^iiles S.W.
of Fort Cumberland.

George IJlani, an ifland of America, lying between
lake Superior and lake Huron. N. lat. 46" 15'. W.
long. 84 ' 20'.

George's Jflands, two iiOands in the South Pacific occean,
difcovered by Commodore Byron in 1765, and fo called by
him in honour of his majefty. They were again obferved
by captain Cook in 1774, in the paflage from the Marque-
fas to Otaheite. One of thefe iflands, called by the inhabit-
ants " Tiookea'' was of an oval fliape, and about 10 leagues
in circuit, lying in the direttion of E.S.E. and W.N. W.,
and fituated in S. lat. 34' 27' 30", and W. long. 144' 56'.
The inhabitants of this, and probably of the other low ifles,
are of a much darker colour than thofe of the higher ifland.s,
and feem to be of a much more ferine difpofition ; which
captain Cook attributes to their fituation. Nature not
having beftowed her favours on thefe low iflands with that
profufion ftie has done to fome others, the inhabitants are
chietlv indebted to the fea for their fubfiftence ; confequently
they are much expofed to the fun and weather, and thus
become more dark in colour, and more hardy and robuft ;
for without doubt they are of the fame nation. They were
obferved to be ftout, well-made men, and on their Ijodies
Was marked the figure of a fifli ; — a very good emblem of
their profeftion. The other iiland was iimilar to the former,
extending N. E. and S.W.. near four leagues, and from five
to three miles broad. It lies S.W. by W. 'two leagues
dittant from the weft end of Tiookea ; and the middle is
fituated in S. lat. 14° 37'. W. long. 145' 10'. The natives
of thefe i.lands appeared to be armed with long fpears and
clubs ; their afpeft and movements were hoftile ; fome of
them, however, appeared to captain Cook tomanifeft a
friendly difpofition ; but they fecmed to have no inclination
to mnintain any intercourfe with him. They fupplied him
■with dogs, which were pTenriful, aid cocoa-nuts, which were
the only fruit they faw. Thefe furniilied them with almoft
all the necelfaries of life, particularly food, fails, cordage,
timber, and veffels to hold v/ater ; and v/ith a view to this
life of them, tlieir habitations, which were mean low hovels,
thatched with cocoa-nut branches, were fclected near
groves of thefe trees. Ecurvy-grafs was obtained in

great abundance. Their canoes, which they arc cfextrous
m navigating, are large and curioufly conftrufted. Com-
modore Byron obferved the ftiore to be covered with coi-al,
and the ftiells of very large pearl-oyfters ; and he conceived
that a very profitable pearl-fiftiery might be cftabiiihed on
thefe idands. The women had a piece of cloth, appearing
to be fabricated of the fame ftuff with their fails, which
hung from the waift as low as the knee ; but the men, were
ftark naked. Near the huts of thefe people were buildings,
that appeared to be burying-placcs, from the ftrufture of
which it was inferred that they had great veneration for tlie
dead. Freih water is icarce. Each of thefe iflands has in
it a lagoon, or large falt-water lake. The people are much
addicted to theft.

George Lake, a lake of Eaft Florida, which is an en-
largement of the river St. Juan, or St. .lohn. It is alio called
" Great Lake," being about 15 miles wide, and generally
about 15 or 20 feet deep, except at the entrance, which has
a bar with 8 or 9 feet of water. This lake is beautified
with two or three fertile ifland,<, the largeft of which is
about two miles broad, commanding an extenfive profpeft,
bearing evident marks of a large town of the Aborigines,
and appearing to have been the chofen refidencc of an In-
dian prince. — Alfo, a lake that lieS to the foulhward of
lake Champlain. Tlie portage between the two lakes is one
mile and a half. The water of this lake is verv- clear, and
was formerly uled by the French in Canada for facramental
purpoies, whence the lake was denominated lake " Sacra-
ment." This lake is about 36 miles long, and from one to
feven v.'ide. It embofoms more than two hundred iflands ;
or, as fome fay, three hundred and fixty-five ; moft of which,
are barren rocks, coversd only with heath and a few cedar,
fpruce, and hemlock trees and flirubs, and abounding with
rattle-fnakes. The remains of Fort George ftand at the
fouth end of the lake, about 14 miles N. by W. of Fort
Edward, on Kudfon river. The famous fort of Ticonde-
roga, which ftood on the north fide of the outlet of the
lake, where it difcharges its water into lake Champlain, is
now in ruins. — Alfo, a lake in Upper Canada, fituated be-
low the Falls of St. Mary, and N. of Muddy lake ; it ia
about 25 miles long, -,vith very ftiallow water.

George'j Sour.d. vSee Nootka.

George, St., the largeft of the Bermudas iflands, about
15 r.-.iles in length and three in breadth, containing about
500 houfes, furrounded and defended by a chain of rocks,
which extend fome way into the fea, fo that Ihips can ap-
proach it only in two places, and not without the afiiftance
of an experienced pilot. It is divided into nine parifties or
diftrifts. It has a town of the fame nam.e, containing a
town-houfe, where the governor, council and magiilrates
affemble, a handfome church, and a library. N. lat. 32 40'.
W. long. 64" 32'. (See Bermud.vs). — Alfo, a town, or
rather village, nearly in the centre of Newcaftle county, in
the ftate of Delaware, N. America ; fituated on a creek
of the fame name, which falls into the Delaware river four
miles below it, and a little above Reedy ifland ; 45 miles
S.W. of Philadelphia — Alfo, a town and capital of the
idaud of Grenada, and alfo one of its fix pariftiLS, formerly
called by the French •' Fort Royale." It is fituated in 3
fpacious bay, on the weft fide of the ifland, not far from
the fouth end, and pofieifes one of the fafeft and moft com-
modious harbours in the Englifti Weft Indies, which has
been lately fortified at a great cxpence, and being one of
the ports of entry belonging to the ifi;.nd was made a fea-
port by 27 Geo. HI. c. 27. The town of St. George is
built ehiefiy of brick, and makes a handfome appearance.
It is divided by a ridge, which, running into the fea, forms

II

GEO

GEO

On one fide the carenage, and on the other the bay. — Ac-
cordingly here is the " Bay-town,'' which has a handfome
fquare and market-place, and the " Carenage-town," in
which the priscipal merchants refide ; the fliips lying land-
locked, and in deep water clofe to the wharfs. On the
ridge between the two towns ftands the church, and on the
promontor)' above it is a large old fort, which was probably
conftrucled by the firil French inhabitants. It is built of
ftone, and is large enough to accommodate an entire regi-
ment. N. lat. 12° 4'. W. long. 6l^ 31'. Edwards's
Weft Indies, vol. ii. — Alfo, one of the Azores iflands,
about 10 leagues in length, and two in breadth. The foil
is generally le%'el, except towards the north, where it is rocky
and barren ; it is elfcwhere fertile in corn, and the
other neceflaries of life. It is chiefly remarkable for a
great number of lotty and full-grown cedars, with which
the natives carry on a confiderable trade. N. lat, 3S 39'.
W. long. 28 . — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, on the coall
of Malabar ; eight miles S. of Cochin. — Alfo, a fea-port
on the ifland of Sciro. N. lat. 38" 58'. E. long. 24-' 37'.
—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, three
miles E. of Milo. — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Grecian Ar-
chipelago, at the entrance of the gulf of Sandarlick. N.
lat. 38' 48'. E. long. 26"' 42'. — Alio, a fmall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, near the coalt of Hindooftan ; four miles
from Goa. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Angers.
— Alfo, a large and deep bay on the W. fide of Newfound-
land. N. lat. 48' 12' — Alfo, a river of America, or
rather an arm of the fea, in Lincoln county and ftate of
Maine, lying about two leagues S.W. of Penobfcot
bay. This river is naNngable for brigs and (hips of a large
burden up to the narrows ; and from thence about four
miles higher, to nearly the head of the tide, for floops and
fchooners of 80 or 90 tons. It is about half a league wide
up to the narrows. The navigation is in winter. This
river abounds with all kinds of fifli. — Alfo, a river of St.
Mary's county, in Maryland, which is a broad but fliort
creek, having its mouth between Piney point and St. Mary's
river on the north bank of the Potowmack ; oppofite to
ihe ifland of the fame name.

Si. George'j Bani, a Sftiing bank in the Atlantic
ocean, in the Mafl"achufetts, E. of cape Cod. It txttnds
from north to fouth between 41' 15' and 42 22' N. lat., and
between Oj" 50' and 68 40' W. long.

St. George'j Bay, a bay of the Pacific ocean, on the
S.E. coaft of New Ireland, between cape St. George and
cape Orford.

Si. Georgl'/ Channel, that part of the Atlantic ocean
which isCtuated between Ireland and AVales. — Alfo, a ftrait
of the Pacific ocean between New Britain and New Ireland,
300 miles in length. — Alfo, a ilrait between the little Nico-
bar and S.imbelong ifics, in the Eafl Indian fea.

St. GeorgeV JJland, ?i fmall ifland in the mouth of the
river Potowmack. N. lat. 38- 13'. W. long. 76 -34'.

St. Gkorge'j- IJlands, a clufter of fmall iilands near the
coaft of Eaft Florida, oppofite to the mouth of the Apala-
fhicola. — Alfo, fmall iflands in the AtUntic, near the coaft
of Maine in Amenca. N. lat. 43 50'. W. long 68"^ lo'.

St. Geohge'j Key, was one of the principal Britifh
f.'ttleraents in the bay of Honduras, taken by the Spaniards
during the American war, but retaken by the Britifli foon
alter. The Britilh fettlements on the Moftjaito Ihore, and
iii the bay of Honduras, were fiurrendered to the crown
of Spain at the Spuniih convention, figncd at London on
{he i4ih of July, 1786. N. lat. 17^ 35'. "W. long.
8S° 43'.

St. George d'Allora, an ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, about feven miles in circumference. N. lat. 37* 28'-
E. long. 23° 20'.

St. George di Comiers, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; nine miles S. of Grenoble.

St. George d Elmma. See Elmin.a.

St. C£ORGii.s-en-Cou/ans, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loire, and chief place of a canton in the
diftrict of Montbrifon, 9 miles N.W. of Montbrifon. The
place contains 1020, and the canton 7271 inhabitants, on a
territory of 207! kfliometres, in 8 communes.

6'/. George d' Efperanche, a town of France, in the de»
partment of the Ifere ; 18 miles S.E. of Lyons.

St. Georges de Levefac, a town of France, in the de»
partment of the Lozere, and chief place of a canton in the
diftria of Florae, 1 8 miles S.'W. of Mende. The place
contains icoo, and the canton 2600 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1374 kiliometres, in 5 communes.

St, Georges yJ/r Loire, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton
in the diftrid of Angers ; 9 miles S.W. of Angers. The
place contains 2,320, and tlie canton 9951 inhabitants, on a
territory of 205 kihometres, in 9 communes.

St. GF.onGYS-/es-Bai//argenu.\; a town of France, in the
department of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton in
the diftridt of Poitiers. The place contains 11 19, and the
canton 6027 inhabitants, on a territory of 190 kihcmetres,
in 7 communes.

6'/. George d'Orque, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Hcrault ; 4 niilss W. of Montpellier.

St. George de Rantambaut, a town of France, in the
department of the Ille and V;!aine ; 9 miles N. of Fou-
geres.

St. George in Reilb, a town of Auftria, 6 miles S.E.
of Waidhoven.

St. George am Sec, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach, feated t>n a lake, called the pond of
Brandenburg ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Bayreuth.

Si. Georges des Sept Vcies, a town of France, in the
department of the Maine and Loire ; 1 2 miles N.W. of
S:iumur.

St. Georges-i/i/- Vievre, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton in the dif-
tria of Pontaidtmer; 25 mfles N.W. of Evreux. The
place contains 830, and the canton j 1,733 in.'iabitants, o" ^
territory of 95^ kiliometres, in 14 communes.

GEORGENBERG, a town of Silefia, in the principa-
lity of Oppeln ; 40 miL-s E. of Oppeln. N. lat. 50 30'. E.
long. 18 52'.

GEORGENFELD, St., a town of Sa.xony, in the
circle of Erzgebirg ; 18 miles S. of Pirna. N. lat. 50" 40'.
E. long. 13^ 44.

GEORGENTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the princi-
pality of Gotha ; 6 miles S of Gotha

GEORGENZELLS, a town of Germany, in the coun-
ty of Henncberg ; 5 mi!e<; S S.E. of Salzungen.

GEORGE-TOWN, a townof America, being the chief
and poft-town of SufTox county, in the ftate of Delaware,
fituated IC3 miles S. of Philadelphia, containing about 30
houfes, and lately inadethe feat ofthe county-courtf. — Alio,a
poft-town in Maryland, in Kent county, on the eaft fide of
Chefapeak bay, c^^ntaining about ^o houfes ; 9 miles from
the mouth of the river Saft"afras, 65 miles S.W. of Phila-
delphia.—Alfo, a poft-town of Btaver county, Pennfylva-
nia, on the S.E. fide of Monongahela river, at the mouth
of George's creek ; 16 miles S.W. of Union. In this place
axe annually built many boat?^ for the trade and emigration
I " to

GEO

to the ■Breftern country. — Alfo, a poll-town and port of en-
try in Montgomery county, Maryland, and in the territory
of Columbia, plcifantly tituatcd on a number of fniall bills,
on tbe northern bank of Potowmack river, feparated eaiU
ward by Rock creek from Walliington city, and diilant 4
miles from tbe capital, and 8 N. from Alexandria. The
hollies, which are about 250, are elegant and commodious.
The Roman Catholics have eftabliflied a college in this place,
wliich is in a flourifhing (late. The town carries on a fmall
trade with Europe and the Well Indies ; 46 miles S.VV. by
W. from Baltimore, and 148 S.W. from Philadelphia. N.
lat. 38 55'. — Alfo, a town and townfhip of Lincoln county,
in the ilate of Maine, fituated on both fides of Kennebeck
river ; incorporated in 1716, and containing 1534 inhabitants.
It is entirely furrounded by navigable waters, excepting
about two miles of land, which divides the waters of Win-
nagance creek, apart of the Kennebeck, from an arm or influx
of Cafcobay, called Stephen's river. This townfliip con-
tains about 28,000 acres of land, and falt-marlh. Upon this
fpot the Europeans fii-fl attempted in 1607 to colonize New
England. It is a part of what was called " Sagadahock ;"
and the patentees of the Plymouth company began hereto
lay the foundation of a great ftate. They Jent over for
this purpofe a number of civil and military officers,
and about I GO people. Several misfortunes obliged
them tto give up the fettlement, and in 1608 the whole
number who furvived the winter returned to England.
George-town is 15 miles S. of Powr,alborough, and
170 N. by E. from Bofton. — Alfo, a poft-town of
Georgia, in the county of Oglethorpe, 50 miles S.W of
Augulta, in the midft of a poor country, but indicating pro-
fperity. — Alfo, a large maritime diftritt in the lower coun-
try of South Carolina, fituated in tlie N.E. corner of the
State. Horry and Marion dillrifts have lately been taken
from this territory, leaving 20,332 inhabitants, of whom
16,860 are flaves.— Alfo, a poft-town, and port of entry,
and capital of the laft-mentioned diftritt, fituated on a fpot
near wliich feveral ftreams unite their waters, and form a
broad vi.ater called " Winyaw" bay, 13 miles from the fea.
It contains 3 or 400 dwelling-houies, built chiefly of wood.
The public buildings are a court-houfe, gaol, and academy ;
four churches for epifcopalians, baptilts, prelbyterians, and
methodifts refpeftively. The place carries on a fmall trade
with the Weft Indies ; 60 miles N.E. by N. from Charlef-
tovvn, and 681 from Philadelphia. N. lat. 33 24'. W.

long. 79" 35' Alfo, a town of Kentucky, on the Eik-

horn ; 20 miles E. of Francfort. N. lat. 38 '7'. W. long.
84" 50'. — Alfo, a town of New Brunfwick, on the river
St. John. N. lat. 45° 48'. W. long. 66 12'. — Alfo, a
town on the eaft coall of the ifland of St. John, on the
gulf of St. Laurence. — Alfo, a town of the ftate of Geor-
gia J 20 miles N. of Wayneftjorough. — Alfo, a town of
Scotland, in Perthftiire, with fome barracks, at the end of
Loch Rannock ; 31 miles N.W. of Perth. N. lat. 56^
41'. W. long. 4'^ 25'.

GEORGIA, in Botany, Ehrhart Beitr. v. i. 176, fo
named by that author after his majcfty George III. king of
Great Britain, when he eftabliftied, as a new genus, the mofs
called by Linn;EU3 Minum pfHucidnm. All botanifts, never-
thelefs, have prei'erred the name Tetraphis, given by Hed-
wig. See F.HIN'GE o/"Mo.sSE.s, n. I. It feems, however,
that there ought to be a Georgia after Georgi the Rulfian
traveller and botanift. See Georgina.

Geohgia, in Geouraphy, a country of Afia, between the
Cafpian and Black fcas, and particularly appropriated to
the territory that lies between the Cafpian fea and Mingrelia,
anciently known by the name of " Iberia.'' The ancient

GEO

Iberia, which lies to the weft, is now cliieSy the " Imir.evs-
tia''of European Turkey, on the other fide of a branch of
the Caucafus. Georgia, cr more properly " Curguftan,"
including Dagheftan and Schirvan, may be confidcrcd as con-
ftituting the Albania of the ancients; a name, however,
that has been applied in different quarters to mountainous re-
gions.

The whole country, which is known by the name of Geor-
gia or Gruiinia, is divided into two confiderablc Chriftian
ftates. One of thefe, bounded by the Black fea, confiftsof
the kingdom of " Immeretia," and the principalities of
" Mingrelia" and " Guriel,'' (which fee rcfpectively,) and
is now governed by a common prince, who bears the title of
tzar or czar. Each of thefe countries had formerly its own
ruler, all acknowledging the fupremacyof the Grand Sultan,
till czar Solomon united them under his authority, and freed
them from the paramount Ottomans. Solomon, having
upon his acccfllon forbidden the fcandalous traffic praftifed
by the nobles of felling their peafants, grcatlv offended the
Turks, who gained by that fpecies of commerce. Being by
their intrigues driven trom his throne, and compelled to find
an aiylum in the woods and mountains, he lived like a wild
man for fixteen years, in caverns and holes, and frequently,
by his perfonal courage, efcaped affaflination, until he was
re-inllated in his dominions by the Ruffians. I'his prince, on
ordinary occafions, was diftinguilhed from his fubjefts by
riding on an afs, perhaps the only one in Immeretia, and by
wearing boots. He had no regular troops, but collefted a
defultory army of 6000 men, without artillery. Thefe
troops were drawn together by the found of the trumpet ;
in other refpcfts the prince's orders were iifued at the mar-
kets, which are held every Friday. One of his fervants
afccnded a tree near the place of meeting, and proclaimed
the editt with a loud voice. His fubjefts were of the Greek
religion. Solomon died of the plague in 1 7 84, and was
fucceeded by his nephew David, who threw himfelf under
the protcftion of Ruifia. In 17S4 his embaffadors were in-
troduced to the emprefs at Peterfburg, and, in the eaftcrn
ftyle of homage, threw themftlves on tlie ground at her
feet.

The fecond Georgian ftate confifts of the principalities of
" Kai-duelia" or " Carduelia," (Kartalinia) and " Kak-
hetty," which have been long governed by Chriftian princes,
ill fubmiihon to the Pcrfian' empire, but, fince the fliock
fuftained by the throne of the Sopliis, have rendered them-
felves independent. Each of tliefe two provinces formerly
compofed a diftinft ftate ; but they have both lately been re-
duced under the fole fovereignty of prince Heraclius of thi;
Kakhettian dynafly. The ilate of Karduelia and Kakhetty
borders northwards on the Kabarda, ealhvards on Dagheftan
and Schirvan, (which fee refpcttively, ) fouthwards on the
Perlian Armenia, and weft«ards on Immeretia. The capi-
tal is Tcffis (which fee). The czar, or prince Heraclius,
who is celebrated for his bravery and other great qualities, as
well as by the important part which he afted during the dif-
turbances that agitated Perfia after the death of Tamas Kuli-
Khan, iubmitted in the year 1783 to the Ruffian empire,
thus voluntarily facrilicing an independence w hich he feemed
to have fecured by his exploits ; but the advantages of which
were richly compenfatcd in the proteftion he procured by
this iubmiiTion. However, notwithftanding his clofc alliance
with Ruifia, he was compelled in 1787 to renounce his con-
nedtion with it, and to acknowledge himfelf tributary to
the Porte ; but he died foon afterwards. Within a few
years pall tli? Ruffian iutercft revived, and prevailed ; and
in February 1801, Georgia was by a public ukafe united to
that empire. The Georgians or Gruiinians, as they are fome-

tiraes

GEORGIA.

i.ttescallcd, avoided all commi}:ture with the Tartars, and
have diitinguilhed themfelvcs as the moil numerous and
T owerful body of the mountaineers of Caucafiis, now for
0 greatcft part fubjecl to the protecting authority of
ifiia. The inliabitants of Georgia, when it was one king-
.11, were Chrirtians, but fince the year 1639, they were
nded with Mahometans ; the king of Periia having con-
quered and divided the country into two provinces or king-
doms, and having obhged the people to embrace the Maho-
rrxtxii religion. But fmce they have been under the protcc-
*: in of Ruffia, they have again avowed themfelves Chrif-
ns, following in part the rights of the Armenian, and in
u t thofe of the CJreek church. They are reprefented as
_■ moil traftable Chriftians of the Eaft. The Georgians
eel in the ufe of the bow, and are reputed to be the bed
^diers in Afia. Tlie women are celebrated for their beauty,
;i though they are verj- handfome they love to adorn tliem-
I -Ives with paint, and are not in high eilimation for their mo-
liily. As the country produces ilrongwine, the Georgians
are addicted to intoxication, and the women, as well as the
men, indulge freely in the ufe of brandy. The men, it is
laid, have no virtue but courage ; fathers fell their children,
and fometimes their wives. According to the laws of war
in Turkev, any province which, revolts is given up to pillage,
and the inhabitants are reduced to flavery. In confequence
of this cuftom, which prevails throughout Afia, Georgia
r.nd Circaflia fupply the market of Conilantinople with
iiaves ; though it is faid, that the Circaffians alone have the
l.onour of being admitted into the bed of the fultan. This
; :pply of female flaves is continually furnilhed by the
\ -fgues Tartars, who, iituated between the Cafpian and
1 lack feas, between Georgia and Circaflia, are perpetually
^. war with thefe two provinces. They carry over to the
< ..lern coadof the Elack fea the flaves they have taken, and
\\ them to the Turkilh merchants, who come tliither at
.:ed times for this traillc. The inliabitants of this fame
all, likewife, lei/eon their countrymen in the neighbour-
- ^ villages, and iell them ; and children have been fome-
tinies fold by their parents. See CiRCASsiA.

The air of Georgia is dry, very warm in fummer, and
very cold in winter. Fine weather commences in the month
of May, and continues till tlie end of November. The
i oil is extremely fertile, provided the ground be watered.
The bread and fruits are excellent ; and the pallures feed
a great number of cattle, fat and lean. The game is of
excellent flavour, and the wild hogs are delicate. The in-
habitants make wine, which they fell into Armenia and Per-
iia, efpecially to Iipahan, for the king's table, bilk forms
.a confiderable brancli of trade to Erzerum ; though the in-
habitants are unacquainted with the bell method of winding
it. In this province there are only four confiderable towns ;
oi/z. Tefflis, Gori, SurenandAh. See Persia.

Georgi.a., one of the United States of America,
fitualed between 31 and 35" N. lat. and between 5" and 16
W. long. ; extending in k-ngth about 600 mile;"., and in
breadth 250; and bounded on the call by the Atlantic
ccean ; S. by Eall and Weft Floridas ; W. by the river
Miiliiippi ; N.E. and N. by South Carolina, the Tenneflee
itate, or by lands ceded to tlie United States by South Caro-
fina. Its population is eftimatcd, by the cenfus of 1790, at
82,548 perfons ; of whom 29,264 were flaves : but the num-
ber has fmce been much augmented. The fettlement of a
colony between the rivers Savannah and Alatamaha became
the fubjecl of contemplation in England in the year 1732,
» with a view to the accommodation of poor people in Great
Britain and Ireland, and for tlie farther fecurity of Carolina.
The benevolent and humane pre poftd to raife a fund for con-
veying indigent emigrants to this part of America, free of

expence. Their generous projeiS was encouraged by letters
patent obtained from his majefty George II. in June 1-32;
and, in honour of the king, the new province was called
" Georgia." A corporation was eftablillied for fettling the
colony, which was to be feparated from Carolina by the
Savannah ; and a large fum of money was raifed for the pur-
pofe of carrying the liberal and humane defign into execu-
tion. tJeneral Oglethorpe was felefted for condudlino- the
emigrants, about 116 in number, to their new abode ; and
foon after theii- arrival, in the commencement of the year
1733, they m.arked the fpot, on which Savannah now ftands,
as the molt proper for the foundation of their fettlement.
Accordingly they proceeded to ereft a fort, and a number
of fmall liuts, for their defence and accommodation. A
treaty of amity was concluded between the fettiers and their
neighbours, the Creek Indians ; and various regulations were
framed, for their future government. The number of new
fettiers from the Highlands of Scotland and from Germany
gradually increafed ; fo that in the courfe of three years,.
Georgia received above 400 Britifli fubjecls, and about 170
foreigners. Afterwards feveral adventurers from Scotland,
Germany, and Switzerland followed their countrymen, and
contributed to encourage the hopes of the truftees as to the
permanence and profperity of the colony. Several towns
were built, and, in 1739, more than 6co people were em-
ployed in trading with the Indians for furs and ikins. Never-
thelefs, in 174T, the Englifli government received informa-
tion that icarcely a fixth part remained of the number of per-
fons who had migrated to Georgia ; and thofe that continued
were fo much difcouraged, that they feemed to be defirous
of fixing in a more favourable fituation. It was thus found
that the fyftem of government, which had been formed for
this colony, was highly injudicious and altogether inconfiilent
with its profperity. The tirft ufe which the proprietors of
Georgia made of the unlimited powers with which they were
inverted, was to eftablifli a fyllem of legiflation that made
them abiolute mafters, not only of the police, juftice, and
finances of the country, but even of the lives and eftates of
the inhabitants. As great inconveniences had been found to
arife in other colonics from large pofTelFion?, it was thought
proper in Georgia to allow each family only 50 acres of
land ; which they were not permitted to mortgage, or to
difpofe of by will to their female ilTue. This lall regulation,
however, which made the males only capable of inheritance,
was foon abohlhed ; but other reilriclions of a difcouragiug
nature ftill remained. No man was permitted to leave the
province without a licence. If any of the lands granted bv
the truftees were not cultivated, cleared, and fenced round
with a wooden fence, or pales fix feet high, within 18 years
from the date of the grant, fuch part vas to revert to the
truftees for the benefit of the colony. It was forbidden to
ufe negroes, to import rum, and to trade with the Indians
without a fpecial licence obtained for this purpofe. Under
thefe reftraints the province languiihed, and the people
complained ; till at length the truftees, in the year 1752,
furrendered their charter to the king, and it was made a
royal government. From this time, till tlie peace of Paris
in 1763, the province ftrugg'ed under many difficulties;
arifing from the want of credit with friends, and from the
frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effects of this
peace were fenfibly felt, and its annual exports, which in
1752 amounted to no more than about ic.coc/. fterling,
were very much augmented ; and its population and agricul-
ture proportionally increafed ; though under fome checks and
interruptions from difputes and wars with the Creek Indians.
But fince a treaty of peace and friendftiip with the Creek
nation was concluded in 1790, theftateof Georgia has beeit.
ragidly advancing in everj- kind of improvement.

Since

GEORGIA.

Siace the revolution, Georgia lias been divided into coun-
ties, comprehended under two diltrifts, iiiz. the ITpper and the
Lower; the former includes 15 counties, viz. Montgomery,
Walhington, Hancock, Greene, Franklin, Oglethorpe,
Elbert, Wilkes, Lincoln, Warren, Jefferfon, Jackfon,
Bullock, Columbia, and Riclimond ; the latter contains nine
counties, vis. Camden, Glynn, Liberty, Chatham, Bryan,
M'Into(h, Ethngham, Scriven, and Burke. The principal
towns are Augulla, formerly the feat of government. Sa-
vannah, the former capital of the ilate, Sunbury, Brunfwick,
Fredcrlea, Walhington, and Louifville, which is the metro-
polis of the flute, and where its records are depofited. The
principal rivers which water Georgia, are Savannah, which
feparales it from South Carolina, Ogeechee, which runs
parallel with the former, and Alatamaha, which runs parallel
with the others. Befides thefe and their numerous branches, we
might mention Turtle river. Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla,
Crooked river, and St. Mary's, which forms a part of the
ibuthern boundary of the United States. The rivers in the
middle and weilern parts, belonging to the " Georgia Weil-
ern territory,'' will be noticed in another place. All thefe
rivers contain a plentiful fupply of various forts of fifh, as
rock, mullet, whiting, Ihad, trout, drum, bafs, cat fidi,
whiting, brim and ilurgeon ; and the bays and lagoons afford
oyilers, and other (hell fifh. The chief lake, or marfh, in
this Hate, is Ekanfanoka, called by fonie Ouaquaphenogaw,
which is -^00 miles in circumference. The eailern part of the
ftate, between the mountains and the ocean, and the rivers
Savannah and St. Mary's, compreliendiiig a trad of country
more than 120 miles from N. to S., and from 50 to 80 E.
and W., is level without a hill or ilone. At the dillance of
about 40 or 50 miles from the fea-board, or falt-niarlh, the
land gradually rifes to mountains. The vail chain of the
Alleo-hany or Appalachian mountains terminates in Georgia,
60 miles S. of its northern boundary. From the bale of this
mountain fpreads a widely extended plain, of the richefl
foil, and in a latitude and climate well adapted to the culture
of moll produclions either of the foiith of Europe or of the
Eafl Indies. In the low country, near the rice fwanips,
bilious complaints and fevers are very general during the
yiioulhs of July, Auguft, and September ; and at the ap-
proach of this iickly feafon, the rich planters, with their
families, remove either to the fea-iflands or to a more elevated
fituation, for the benefit of the air. In the winter and
fpring, pleurifies, peripneumonies, and other inflammatory
diforders, produced by colds, are common, and frequently
fetal. The winters in Georgia, however, are mild and plca-
fant ; Tnow is feldom feen, nor is vegetation interrupted by
fevere frolls. In the hilly country, commencing about 50
miles in fome parts, and in others about 100 miles from the
fea, the air is pure and falubrious, and the water good and
abundant. From Jure to September the mercury in Fahren-
heit's thermometer flutluates from 76° to 90 ; and in winter
from 40° to 60°. The moll prevailing winds are S.W. and E.;
and in winter N. W. The E. windj is warmell in winter and
coolefl in fummer ; the S. wind in fummer and autumn is
damp, fultry, and infalubrious. In the S.E. parts of the
Hate, the trade winds impart their agitation to the atmofphere,
and ferve to purify and meliorate it. In the lowlands rice is
cultivated ; and in the interior and hilly parts, wheat and
Indian corn, and the other productions common to the
northern ilates, are the objeAs of agricultural attention.
Rice is at prefent the ftaple comm.odity of this (late ; and
tbe other cliief articles of produce are tobacco, wheat and
indigo. Georgia alfo yields cotton, filk, corn, potatoes,
oranges, tigs, olives, pomegranates, &c. The forellsconfiil
•of oak, hickory, mulberry, pine, cedar, &c. The whole
cwall is bordered with iflands, of which the principal are Skid-

away, Waffaw, OfTabaw, St. Catherines, Sapelo, fredcrlea,
Jekyl, Cumberland, &c. Th?fe iflands are furrounded by-
navigable creeks, between which and the main land is a J
large extent of falt-marfli at a medium four or five ■
miles broad, fj-onting the whole flate, and interfefte'd with
creeks, which admit a general inland navigation, between
the iflands and the main land, from the N.E. to the S.E.
corners of tlie flate. The entrances of rivers flowing
between tliefe iflands, form capacious harbours from three to
eight miles broad ; coniinunicatuig with eacii other by
parallel fait civeks. The iflands in their natural 'flate are
covered v.ith pine, oak, hickory, live oak, and jed cedar.
Tile foil is grey, formed by a mixture of fand and black
mould ; and a confiderable part of it is very rich, ^nd yields,
by cultivation, good crops of indigo, corn, cotton, and po-
tatoes. The foil of the main laud, adjoining the marfhes and
creeks, referables that of the iflands ; except that, which ,
borders on tlie creeks and river that penetrate far into tha j
interior of the country, and which furniflies the valuable rice |
fwamps. 'I'he foil between the rivers, at a greater dillance,. '
clianges from a grey to red colour ; and flill more remotely,
into tiie mulatto kind, conflfting- of a black and red earth.
This fort of land is generally ilrong, and yields large crops of
wheat, tobacco, corn, &c. This foil is fucceeded by
another, nearly black, and very rich. This fucceffion of
different foils is uniform and regular, intermixed with occa-
llonal veins of different forts ; and ftrctches, in the order
above-mentioned, acrofs tliis flate nearly parallel with the
fea-coafl, and extends through the feveral ftates, nearly in
the fame diredlion, to the banks of Hudfon river. The cul-
ture of cotton is now fo much an objeft of attention in this
flate as to aflbrd a reafonablc expedlation, that the ftates of
South Carolina and Georgia may, in a few years, be able to
raife more than 10 millions of pour.da annually for exporta-
tion. With proper attention, moil of the tropical fruits would
flourifh in this flate. The fouth-weilern part of this flate,
and the adjoining parts of E. and W. Florida, will, it is
conjedlured, at fome future period, become the vineyard o£
America. The chief ai-ticles of export are rice, tobacco,
indigo, fago, lumber, naval {lores, leather, deer fkins,
fnake root, myrtle and bees wax, corn, and live flock.
The value, in flerling money, of the exports of Georgia, in
the year 1755, was 15,744/.; in 1772, 121,677/. > '" I79'»
value in dollars, 491,472; in 1792, 458,973; in 1793,
501,383; in 1794, 676,154; in 1796, 950,158; and in
1801, 1,854,951. In 1790, the tonnage employed in this
Hate was 28,540, and the number of American feamen was
11,225. ^" return for her exports, Georgia receives Wefl
India goods, teas, wines, clothing, and dry goods of all
kinds : from the northern ftates, cheefe, fifli, potatoes,
apples, cyder, and fhots. The imports and exports are
principally to and from Savannah, -which has a fine harbour,
and is the chief emporium of the flate.

The difpofition and cliarafter of the inhabitants, collefled
from various parts of the world, are very much diverfified ;
they are charged with indolence, whicli is attributed partly
to the relaxing heat of the climate, and partly to the want ol
motives, neceffary for exerting indiiflry ; they are praifed for
their friendlini'fs and hoipitality to llrangers. Their diver-
fions are dancing, horfc-racing, cock-fighting, and chiefly
hunting. They are reproached with an addiftednefs to
gaming.

The diflx^rent religious fefls of this flate are Baptitl^,
Methodifls, Prefbyterians, Epifcopahans, Roman Catholics,
Quakers, and Jews. The two firtl are the mofl numerous,-
and inhabit the upper part of the flate. The Epifcopalians
and Prefbyterians arc about equal in number ; and the Ca-
tholics and Jews have each of them one church. The civil

con-

GEORGIA.

tonftitution of Georgia was adopted and ratified by a con-
vention of delegates from the people, on the 6th of May,
1789, and is formed upon a plan fimilar to the federal con-
llitution of the United States. All legiflative power is
veiled in two dillinft branches, a fenate and lioufe of repre-
fentativcs, both chofen by the people at large, and llyled
the General AfTembly. Tlvc members of the ftnate are
chofen for the term of three years, and thofe of the houfe
of reprefentatives are chofen annually. The fenate coifills of
one member from each county, and the houfe of reprefentatives
of thirty-four members. The executive power is veiled in the
hands of a governor, who holds his office during two years.
Freedom of the prels and trial by jury fliall remain inviolate,
and all perfons ihall be entitled to the writ of " habeas cor-
pus." All perfons Ihall have the free exercife of their
religion, without being obliged to contriliute to the fupport
of.any religious profeliion but their own. In each county
a fuperior court is holden twice in every year, in which all
caufes, civil and criminal, (liuU be tried, thofe excepted, which
may be fubjeCl to the federal court, or fnch as may by law-
be referred to inferior jurifdidlions. The judges of the fupreme
court, and the attorney-general, (hall have a falary ellablilh-
ed by law ; and iiold their comsiiffion for three years. In
the adniiniilration of jullice, this ftate is divided into two
diltricts, called tlie upper and lower circuit ; and there are
only two judges appointed to fit in the fuperior court ; each
of thefe judges being appointed to try caufes in each circuit.
Befidej the iuperior court, there is an inferior court, a
court of common pleas eftabhftied in each county, which
iits twice in a year, with five judges, appointed by the le-
giflators. The county courts have a jurifdiftion of crimi-
nal cauies, which can be tried only in the fuperior court.
Befides thefe there are the fheriff 's court, and courts held by
the juftices of the peace, in every part of the ftate. The
literature of this ftate, which is yet in its infancy, is gra-
dually advancing towards higher degrees of improvement.
For this purpofe a college is inftituted at Louifville, with
liberal endowments ; and in fubordination to this it is propo-
pofed to found academies in every county of the ftate.
This inftitution is denominated the " Univerfity of Georgia."
The funds for its fupport confift of about 50,000 acres of
valuable land, together with nearly 6000/. fterling in bondr?,
houfes, and town lots in Augufta. Other property alio, to
the amount of 1000/., has been fet apart in each county for
erefting and furniftiing their refpetlive academies. The fund
originally defigncd to fupport the literary orphan fchool,
founded by the Rev. George Whitfield, a few miles S. of
Savannah, confift chiefly of rice plantations and negroes.
On the death of the countefs of Huntingdon, to wlujm Mr.
Whitfield bequeathed this property as trullce, the legiliature,
in the year 1792, paftcd a law, vefting it in thirteen com-
miflioners, witli power to carry Mr. Whitfield's original de-
fign into execution ; and in compliment to tlie counteff, the
feminary is denominated " Huntingdon college.''

The middle parts of this ftate are inhabited by the Miif-
kogee or Creek. Indians, the moil numerous tribe of Indians
within tlie United States. See Creek.s.

Tile " Georgia Wcftern Territory" confifts of an ex-
tenfive tradl of land, a principal part of which belongs to,
and is inhabited by the Creek, Chaftaw, Chickafaw, and
Cherokee nations of Indians. It is waflied by the Miflifippi
river on the weft, and may be confidered as extending eail-
ward as far as the Appalachicola and Flint rivers. It is
interfecled by a great number of ftreams, which run in
every diredlion ; the principal are the Yazoo, and I^oofa
Chitto, which difcliarge thcmfelvos into the Miflifippi,
Pearl, Pafcagoula, Mobillc, Alibama,Tombeekkee, Efcam-
bia, and Chatta Hatcha, which fall iiito the gulf of Mexico ;

Vol.. XVI.

and the Tenneffce Bend, with Chuccamaga river, which fails
into it from the fouth-eaft, water its northern part. Twenty
millions of acres of this territory was fold in confequencc of
an aft of the legiflaturc, pafTed in 1 795, to certain companies ;
and the purchafe money, amountnig to 500,000 dollars,
was paid into the ftate treafury. This land was afterwards
fold at an advanced price, by the original purchafers, to
various perfons, principally of the middle and eaftern ftate*
This tranfadlion produced a great degree of difcoatent :
but the ferment has fince fubiided ; and the termination of
the dlfpute has been a generrl fatisfaftion on the part of
the purchafers, that the difcordant proceedings of the legif-
lature cannot affc6t their title, which they conceive to b&
good againlt all claims on the part of Georgia. Morfe.

Georgia, New, or Soiilh Geoi'.oia, an ifland in the
South Atlantic ocean, difcovered by La Roche in 1675,
feenbyMr.Guyot, in the fliip Lion, in 1756, and more parti-
cularly defcribed by captain Cook, who explored it with atten-
tion in 1775, defcribed its extent and true pofition, and named
it Georgia, in honour of his majefty. It is fituated between
53' 57' and 54* 57' S. Iat.,and between 38 13' and 35" 34'
W. long. It extends S. E. by E. and N. W. by W., and
in that direction is 3 i leagues long, and its greateft breadth
is about 10 leagues. It feems to abound with bays and har-
bours, efpccially on the N.E. coaft ; but they arc rendered
inacccftible for the greateft part of the year bv the vait
quantity of ice ; or, at leaft, it mnft be dangerous lying
in them, on account of the breaking up of tlie ice-clifls,
by which the coall is bounded, and whieli rife up perpen-
dicularly in mafles of very confiderable elevation. When
thefe fall they float about in the fea like detached iflands,
and in falling make a noife like tliat of a difcharged can-
non. The inner parts of the country exhibit an appear-
ance no lefs favage and horrible than the coaft. The
rocks raifed th-ir lofty fummits, till they were loft in the
clouds, and the vaUies lay covered with cverlafting fnow.
The lands, or rather rocks, bordering on the fea coail, were
not covered with fnow like the inland parts. Tl-.e rocke
fecmcdto contain iron. They arc of blackiHi horizontal Hale,
probably approsehing to hornblende. Not a tree w;;» to be
feen,nor a (linib even big enough to make a tooth-pick.
The only vegetation that could be fecn was that cf a coarfe
iirong-biaded grrifs-growing in tufts, wild bni-net, and a plant
like mofs, whicli fprung fiom the rocks. SeaU cr fea-bcars
were num.eroua, but i'maller than thofe at Staten Land. Seve-
ral flocks of penguins of a large fi/.e were obferved, and be-
fides thefe, the oceanic birds were albatnjffes, coir.mon gulls,
and that fort called by Cook Port Egmont hens, tern;;,
fhags, divei-3, the new white Ijird, and a imall bird like
tliofe of the Cape of Good Hope, called yellow Ini-ds,
which were found to !>e moil delicious food. All the land
birds that were feen confitled of a few fmall larks; but our
navigators found no quadrupeds. Tlie dui;o- of one was
feen, fuppofjd to have belonged to a fox or an aniir.sl of that
kind. On the whele coaft our voyagers obfervcd neitl;er a
river nor a Oream uf frefti water. They lhoi;g*;t it I'.ighly
probable, t!;at liie country has no perennial iprings ; and
that the interior pans, as being much elevated, never enjoy
heat enough to melt tlie fiiow in fucii quantities as to pro-
duce a river or ft ream of water. The coaft alcnc receives
varmth fufTicient to melt the fnow, and this only on tlie
N. E. fide; for the other, befides being expofed to the cold
fouth winds, is in a great degree deprived of the fun's ravs
by tlie uncommon height of the mountains. On tl;e ap-
proach of our navigators to Georgia, they firfl difcovered
an ifland in S. lat. 54^ and W. long. 38^^ 23', which was
called " Willis's ifland," which was a high rock of no great
extent : caft of this, between it and the main^ thcr obferv-

GEO

GEO

ed another idand, to which, on account of the number of birds
they faw upon it, they gave the name of "Bird Ifland."
This ifland is of larger extent than the former, lies clofe to
the N. E. point of the main land, which was called " Cape
North." After having cleared the padagc between thefe
two iflands, they purfucd their coafting voyage to " Cape
Bvdler," and at Length arrived at a bay, which they deno-
minated " Pofrcffioii bay," fttuated in S. lat. 54 5'. W.
long. 37" 18, II leagues E. of Cape North. The land in
Tihich this bay lies, was at firft judged to be part of a
great continent ; but upon coailing round the whole coun-
try, it was found to be an ifland, about 70 leagues in cir-
cuit. Between this bay and Cape Buller lies the " Bay of
Ifles,'" fo named on account of fevcral fmall illes lying in and
before it. The next projefting point was called " Cape
•Siiunders,'' and beyond this is a large bay, which was
named "Cumberland Bay." The next projecling land, which
was an ifland appearing to be the extremity of the coaft
to the eaft, was called " Cape Charlotte," and on the weft
fide of it lay a bay, which was named the '' Royal Bay,'
the W. point of it being called " Cape George." Thefe
two capes are diftant from each other fix leagues. The
ifland above mentioned, diltant in the direction of S. by E.
eight leagues from Cape Charlotte, was denominated
•'Cooper's Ifle," which is a rock of confiderable height,
about five miles in circuit, and one mile from the main.
The coaft between them forms a large bay, named " Sand-
wich Bay. ' At Cooper's Ifle the main coaft takes a S. W.
direftion for the fpace of four or five leagues to a point
which Capt. Cook called Cape Difappointment. Off this
are three fmall ifles, the fouthernmoft of which is green, low,
and flat, and lying one league from the Cape. Advancing
towards the S. W., land opened beyond the Cape, which
proved to be an ifland, and was called " Pickerfgill ifland."
In failing round this ifland, our navigators were almoft con-
tinually involved in a thick mift, which led them to appre-
hend that they might be furrounded with dangerous rocks

Cook's Second Voyage, vol. ii.

Georgi-4, a townfliip of America, in the ftate of Ver-
mont and county of Franklin, containing ic68 inhabitants.
It isfituated on' lake Champlain, oppofite to the north end
of South Hero ifland, and joins Milton on the fouth and St.
Alban's on the north. The river La Moille travcrfes the
S. E. corner of this townfliip.

Georgi.a, Gulf of, a large gulf of the North Pacific
<>cean, between the continent of North America and Quadra
and Vancouver's ifland; about 120 miles in length from
north to fouth ; the breadth varying from 6 to 20 miles. It
contains feveral clufters of iflands, and branches off into a

great number of canals, mod or all which were examiircd hj
Capt. Vancouver and his officers

GEORGIAN Planet, or Georgium Sidtis, in
AJironomyy the name given by Dr. Herfchel, the dif-
coverer, to the feventh primary planet of the folar fyfteni.
It is now generally known, particulaidy on the continent,
by the name of Uranus.

This planet was difcovered by Dr. Herfchel on the 13th
March, 1 78 I. It is fuppofed that other aflronomers have
obfcrved it, and inferted it in their catalogues as a fixed
ftar. But Dr. Herfchel, when he firft faw it, was ftruck with
its appearance, which feemcd to differ from that of the
neighbouring fmall ftars. He happened to be accidentally en-
gaged in examining 'he fmall flars near the feet of Gemini,
and he obferved one confiderably larger than the reft, but
it not being quite fo brilliant, he fufpefted that it might
be a comet ; in confequence of which he obferved it with
different magnifying powers, from 227, with which he dif-
covered it, to 2010, and found that its apparent magnitude
increafed in proportion, contrary to what takes place in
the fixed liars. He tlierefore meafured its diflance from
fome of the neighbouring fixed flars, and comparing its dif-
tance for feveral nights he found that it moved at the
rate of about 2|'' in an hour. Dr. Herfchel wrote im-
mediately to the Royal Society, that other ailronomers
might join in obferving it ; upon which it was found and
obferved by Dr. Mafkelyne, who almoft immediately de-
clared that he fufpefted it to be a planet ; and on April 1,
he wrote an account of this difcovery to the aflronomers at
Paris, fo that it was foon obferved by all the aftronomers
in Europe. Mr. Lexell was then in England, and applied
himfelf to compute the orbit upon the fuppofition that it was
a comet ; he therefore, according to the ufual manner in
fuch a cafe, fuppofed the orbit to be a parabola, and af-
fwined feveral pcriiielion diftances, 6, 8, 10, II, 12, 14, 16,
and 18 times the earth's diflance from the fun, and found
that any perihelion diftance between 14 and 18, would
anfwcr very well to the obfervations. Bofcovich printed
a memoir on the fubjeft, in which he Ihewed that there
were four different parabolas in which a body miglit move,
and yet the computed places would agree with the obfer-
vations which had then been made. Other aftronomers,
however, found that a circular orbit, whofe radius was
about 18 times the diflance of the fun from the earthy
would agree better with the obfervations ; and con-
firmed Dr. Mafliclyne's opinion that it was a pfanet.
Upon the fuppofition, therefore, of a circular orbit, M. de la
Lande proceeded to inveftlgate its magnitude from the
following obfervations. Mem. de l'Acad.-Roy. des Sci. 1 779.

Time of obfervation

Right afcenfion obferved

April 25, 1 78 1,
at 9" 47'

z 25 15' 27"

July 31, 1 78 1,
at 15'- 33'

3' 1° 7' 49"

Dec. 12, 1 78 1,
at lo'' 10'

3' 1° 23' 31"

North decUnation obferved .

23 35 34

23 40 25

23 42 47

Longitude

2 25 39 17

1 2 7

3 1 16 28

Latitude, north

II 36

24

>4 54

Nutation in longitude

+ 10

+

Aberration in Iwngitude

'9

+ 21

- 18

Sim's longitude from the mean equinox

I 5 58 53

4 9 7 13

21 21 50

Log. of the fun's diftance

0.003196

0.006272

9-992993_

Frem

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Trom thefe data, M. de la Lande calculated the elements
of a circular orbit ; but it having been found that the
motion did not agree with any poflible circle, it became
ncceflary to calculate the elements of an elliptic orbit.
When a fufficient number of oppofitions had been obferved
for this purpofe, profefior Robifon of Edinburgh undertook
this invelligation, a full accoimt of wliich is given in
Edinb. Tranf. vol. i. 1788. The obfer\'ations on which
this invelligation is founded are as follows :

True Time at

Edinburgh.

Longitude.

N.Iat.

Dec. 21, 1781,

'?■ 44' 33'

3' 0" 52' 11"

'5' 7"

26, 17S2,

8 56 56

3 5 20 29

18 56

3i> 1783.

0 46 24

3 9 S° S^

22 lO

Jan. 3,1785,

17 28 56

3 14 23 2

25 40

8, 1786,

10 39 31

3 '8 57 5

28 52

■ {■ 0.046683
'{■ —0.000026228

From which the following elements were obtained :
Mean dilbance - . . . 19.08247

Eccentricity ----- 0.9006

.Periodic time ----- 83.359 years
Mean anomaly at the Jth oppofition 4' 0^32' 51"
Long, of aphelion! forepoch Dec. J II 23 9 51
Long, of tlie node j 31, 1783. | 2 12 46 14
Inclination of die orbit - - O 46 25

Equation of the centre - - 5 26 56 6

The elements, as given by La Place, are as follows :

Yrais. Days. Hours. Min. Scfon !s.
Sidereal revol. - - 84 29 o o 0.0
Semi maj. axis or mean diftance - 19.183620

Proportion of eccentricity of feini maj. ^

axis for beginning of 1750 -
Secular variation ( — indicates diminu-
tion) .....

Dcg. Min. Sec.

Mean longitude at beginning of 1750 - 228 33 53.6

Long, of perihelion 1750 - - 166 36 48.8

Sidereal and fecular motion of perihe-l ^

I- ^ }• o 4. 6.1

lion . - - - - J"t-

Inclination of orbit to ecliptic 1 750 - o 46 26.O

Secular variation of inclination of orbit 1

V • }■ O O ^.O

to true ecliptic " " " J

Loner, of afcendin;j node on ecliptic 7 a

'=• ° '^ f 72 ^7 ?2.8

1750 J/ 0/0

Sidereal and fecular motion of node on 7 ^

r .• f O 57 16.2

true ecliptic - - - - J -"

The diameter of this planet is about 4I times that of the
earth, or ^5,1 12 Englifh miles nearly. When feen from the
earth, its apparent diameter, or the angle which it fub-
tends at the eye, is 3". 5, and its mean diameter, as feen from
the fun, is 4". As the diftance of the Georgian from the
fun is twice as great as that of Saturn, it can fcarcely be
diftinguilhed bv the naked eve. When the fky however is
ferene, it appears like a fi.xed liar of the fixth magnitude with
a blueilh white light, and a brilliancy between that of Venus
aid the Moon ; but with a power of 200 or 300, its difc is
vifible and well defined. Its arc of retrogradation is 3^ 36',
and the duration of its retrograde motion 151 days.

This planet is accompanied by fix fatellites, all of them
difcovered likewlfe by Dr. Hertchel. The two firft, which
he faw for the firft time in the month of Jan 1787, proved
afterwards to b? the fecond and fourth, the others were dif-
covered fomc few years later.

The 1110ft remarkable circumftance attending thcfe fatel-
lites is, that they move in a retrograde direftion, and revolve

in orbits nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic, contrary to tlie
analogy of the other fatcUites, which phenomenon i.^ extreme-
ly dilcouraging when we attempt to form any iiypothefes
relative to the original caufc of the planetary motions.

According to La Place, if we take for unity the femidia-
meterof the planet, equal to t".9, fuppofed feeii at t);e mean
diftance of the planet from the fun, the diftance of its fatcl-
lites will be as follows :

I. 13.120

II. 17.022

III. 19-845

IV. 22.752

V. 45.507

VI. . 91.C08

And the duration of their fidereal revolutions

D. Days. hrs. min. fee.

I.

5.8926

5

21

25

20

IL

8.7068

8

16

57

47

III.

ro.961 1

10

2^

2

47

IV.

"3-4559

13

10

56

29

V.

38.0750

3«

I

48

0

VI.

107.6944

IC7

16

39

56

La Place conceives that the firft five fatellites of the Gcor.
gian may be retained in their orbits by the aftion of its
equator, and the fixth by the aftion of the interior fatellites ;
hence he concludes that the pLinet revolves scout an axis
very little inchned to the ecliptic, and that the time of its
diurnal rotation cannot be much lefs than that of Jupiter
and Saturn.

U/e of the Tails. — The general conftruftion of this
kind of tables will be explained under Pl.\net. The man-
ner of calculating the mean longitude of the planet u as fol-
lows. Vjnce's Ailronoiny, vol. iii.

From Table I. take out the mean longitude, the aphelion,
and node, together with the arguments II., III., IV, V,
VI., VII., VIII., and place them in an horizontal line.
But if the given year be not found in that table, take the
neareft year preceding the given year as an epoch, and talce
out as before.

Under wliich, from Table II. place the mean motion in
longitude of the aphelion and node, with the arguments pn-
fwering to the number of years elapfed fince the epoch, to
the given year.

Under thefe write down (Table III.) the mean motions
of the fame, for the given month.

Under thefe write down (Table IV.) the mean \jiptionsof
the fame, for the given day of the month.

Under thefe write down (Table V.) the mean motions of
the fame, for hours and minutes.

Add together the numbers in the feveral columns, rejeifl-
ing twelve figns, or any multiples thereof, if they occur ;
and in the arguments, rejedling 10,000 in the arguments IV.,
VI., and looo in the arguments II., III., V., VII., VIII.,
or any multiples thereof, and you get the mean longitude,
the aphelion, and node, and the arguments for the given
time.

From the mean longitude of the Georgian fubtraiil tlie
longitude of the aphelion, and you have argument I., or
mean anomaly.

With argument I. take out the equation of the orbit in
Table VI., together with the fecular v.iriation, with their
proper figns, except the time be Liforc 1780, in which cafe
the lecular variation is to be taken out witli a contrary fign,
making a proportion for the minutes and feconds of the ar-
gument, and you firft get the equation ; and doing the fame
for the fecular variation, you get the fecular variation ; then
fay, 100 : the number of years from 1 7S0 to the given time

S 2 :: fecii-

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

: : fecular variiition above foond : fccular varialjion required.
Before I'Sovhe fccular variation mull be taken with a lign
eontrary to that found in th,- table. With argument II.
take out the equation in Table VII., makirtg a proportion in
»his and in the following equations, for the intermediate
Bumbcrsof the arguments. With argument III., take out
theequation in Tal.ie VIII. With argument IV. take out
the equation in Table IX. With argument V. takeout tlie
rquation in Table X. With argument VI. take out the
equation in Table XI. With argument VII. take out the
equation in Table XII. With argument VIII. takeont the
equation in Table XIII. Tab^'Uic fum of all thefc equa-
tions, regard being had to the ligns of the firfl equation, and
of the fec'.ilar variation, the fi_:;ns of tlie others being pofitive ;
and from it fubtraft 7' 20", and you get the value of tliefe
eight equations ; and tills ap])lied with its proper iign to
the mean longitude already found gives the longitude of
the Georgian in his orbit.

From the longitude thus found, fubtraci the longitude
of the node, and you have argument IX.

With argument IX. enter Table XVII. and take out the
rcdudtion to the ecliptic, with its proper fign, making a
proportion for the minutes and feconds of the argument : and
this applied to the longitude of the Georgian in his orbit,
gives his true heliocentric longitude on the ecliptic, reckoned
from the mean equinox.

With argument IX. enter Table XVI., and takeout th?
latitude, making a proportion for the minutes and fecond";
of the argument, and you have the true heliocentric latitude
of the planet.

With the mean anomaly ent<?r Table XIV., and take out
the radius vei£lor,'and correct it by tiie following Table XV,
and you have the true diitancc of the planet from the fuu,
that of the earth being unity.

Example. — To find the heliocentric Latitude and Longitude of the Georgian, on Nov.

Time at Greenwich.

789, at 16'' 14', meau

Epoch for 17S9
Nuvt nibcr
26'
16'
«4'

Sum - - -
Sum of eiglit equation.^

Longitude in orbit
Rcdnftion

Heliocentric longitude

I,ongitude. ! Aphehon.

!-voJe.

Argnmnits.

S. D.

4 6
3

M. S. 'S.
12 41.4'! I

34 .V>«;

18 21.61
28.2}

1). iM. S.

:7 11 8

44

4

S. 1). M. S.

2 12 4S 5

13

I

II.
618
. 18
2

IILJ IV.
232 0139

8 85

I 7

V.

885

27

2

VI.

0825

15

I

VII. vni

949 563

60 50

5 4

4 10

- 3

6 1 1.4 1 1

21 45.5 4

17 11 56
10 611

2 12 48 19
4 6 44 26

638; 241' 023* i 914 0S4I

1 1 1

)4 617

Arg. I.

Secular variation +
Arg. II.

Arg. in.

Arg. IV.
Arg. V.
Arg. VI.
Arg. Vil.
Arg. VIII.

+

S'.im of equations —

D.M. S.

3 22 545

7 20

4 6

44 25-9' 4

- «-9

1

22 54 15

Arg. I.

I 23 56 7
Arg. IX.

4 6

44 17 '

3 30 14-5

Heliocentric latitude

37' 2''.9

c 0 0.7
4.1

5-9
2 51.7

2-3
4 12.2

I 4.6
7-5

0 8 29.0

3 21 45-5

-„-,»— -,-^.^

This is the true heliocentric longitude from the rai'im equi-
nox ; and if we want it from the true equinox, we mull ap-
ply theequation of the equinoxes.

In t'-.'s operation the firft five lines are taken out imme-
diately from the tables, and the fums of all the columns give
tlie mean longitude of the aphelion, the node, and the ar-
guments for the given time. Argument I. is immediately
found according to the rule, the equation to which is thus
found. Theequation (Table VI.) for422''is — 3 26 59'.6,
anithe vari-itiouor 6o'is4'3i".l ; lience 6o': 54' I5"::4 31".!
: 4' 5". !, which (as the equation is decreafing) fubtrafled from

— 3"i6'50 '•6gives— 3"22'54".5, theequation required. And
to find the fecular variation, that variation is -f- 7 '.44 for
422, and it deoreafes o". 16 for 60' ; hence 60': 54' 15 ' : :
o'. 16 : o'. 15, whicli taken from + 7"-44 leaves + 7 29", the
f cular variation correfponding to the given argument. Now
this feciiLir variation is reckoned from 1780, and from tlience
to November 26, 1789, there has elapfed 9 9 years ; hence,
100 : 9 9 : : 4- 7' 29 ' : + o".7 the fccular variation for 9 9
years. V\'ith argument II, 638, take the equation from
Table VII. Now the equation for 630 is 4' .7, and it changes
o".7 for 10; hence to ; 8 : : o",7 : o''.6, which asthcequa-

4 tiica

GEORGIUM S/DUS.

tion Jecreafes, fubtraAed fi-<Dm4".7 leaves4".i, the equation
required. By proceeding thus to argument VIII. we get
all ihe equations, and by taking the difference of the poli-
tive and negative parts, we get 3''2l'45".5 fur the value
of the firft eight equations ; which applied to 4' 10" 6' 1 1 ".4
gives 4 6 47' 25 '.9 the longitude of the Georgian in his
orbit. From this longitude fubtraft 2' 12 48*19' the
longitude of the node, and we get i' 23' 5:6' 7 ", which is

argument IX.; with which enter Table XVII. and take out
thereduftion, which is— 8".9,andthisappliedt04 6 44'25''.9
gives 4 6 44' 17', the heliocentric longitude of the Geor-
giun on the ecliptic from the mean equinox. Alfo with ar-
gument IX. enter Table XVI. andtakeoutthe latitude. Now
for I' 23 ' the latitude is 36' 57'', and it increafes 28".8 for 60';
hence 60' : S^"-7 '• '• 28'. 8 : 26". 9, which added to 36 ^7"
gives 37' 2 3 ".9, the heliocentric latitude of the Georgian.

Table I.
Epochs of the mean Longitude of the Planet, with the Arguments of the Equations.

Years.

MeanLongitnde
of the Georgian.

Aphelion.

Node.

Years.

Arg.
II.

Arg.
III.

Arg.

IV.

Arg.
V.

Arg.

VI.

Arg.

VU.

Arg.

VIU.

S. D. M. S.

S.

D. M.

S.

S.

D.

M. S.

B. 1680

0 17 41 1.4

1 1

>5 35

n

2

12

19 34

B.

1680

215

126

9068

376

8907

057

969

1690

2 0 39 48.2

1 1

15 44

I

2

12

22 II

1

1690

435

228

0085

698

9084

781

574

C. 1700

3 13 3^ 34-9

II

'5 52

49

2

12

24 48

C.

1700

656

329

I ICO

020

9200

505

179

1720

6 9 36 50.9

1 1

16 10

25

2

12

30 2

b.

1720

C96

532

3132

664

9612

953

389

1740

9 5 35 ^-8

II

16 28

I

2

12

35 10

B.

1740

537

735

5162

308

9963

401

597

1756

II 14 21 43.5

1 1

16 42

6

2

12

39 27

B.

1756

S90

898

6788

«23

0245

560

567

B. 1760

0 I 33 22.7

II

16 45

37

2

12

40 30 1

,^-

1760

978

938

7194

951

0315

849

809

1769

I 10 14 242

II

"5 53

32

2

12

42 51 '

1769

177

029

8108

241

0473

501

353

B. 1780

2 27 31 38.6

II

17 3

13

2

12

45 44

B.

1780

419

141

9225

595

0666

297

019

1790

4 10 30 2J 3

II

17 12

I

2

12

48 21

1 ,

1790

640

242

0241

9«7

0842

021

624

C. 1800

5 23 29 121

II

17 20

49

2

12

50 58

1800

860

344

1256

239

1018

745

229

1810

7 6 27 58.7

1 1

17 29

37

2

12

53 35

1810

080

445

2272

561

1194

468

834

1811

7 10 45 42 9

II

17 30

30

2

12

53 31

1811

103

456

2373

593

1211

541

894

B. 1812

7 15 4 9-5

1 1

n 31

23

2

12

54 6

B.

1812

125

466

2475

625

1229

614

955

1813

7 19 21 53-7

1 1

17 32

16

a

12

54 22

1813

347

476

2577

657

1247

6S6

1015

1814

7 23 39 37-9

1 1

17 33

9

2

12

54 37

1814

169

486

2678

689

1264

759

1076

1815

7 27 57 22.1

II

17 34

I

2

12

54 53

1

1815

191

496

2780

721

1272

S3'

1136

B. 1816

7 32 15 48-7

II

17 34 54

2

12

55 9

B.

1816

213

507

2881

754

1299

904

1 197

1817

7 36 33 32-9

II

17 35

47

^

12

55 14

1817

235

517

2983

786

1317

976

1257

1818

7 40 51 17.0

II

17 36

40

2

12

55 40

i8i8

257

527

3084

718

1334

1048

1318

1819

8 15 9 1.3

1 1

17 37

^3

2

12

55 5(5

1819

279

537

3186

750

1352

1121

1378

B. 1820

8 19 27 27.6

1 1

•7 3S

25

2

12

56 12

B.

1820

301

547

3287

7a3

1370

1193

1439

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Tabie II. — Mean Motion of the Planet for complete Julian Years.

Years.

MeanLongitude.

Aphelion.

Node.

Years. ^^^S

Arg.
III.

Arg.
IV.

Arg.

V.

Arg.

VI.

Arg.

VII.

Arg.
VIII.

I
3

S. D. M. S.

0 4 17 44-2
0 8 35 28.4
0 12 53 12.6

S.

0
0
0

D. M. S.
0 0 53
0 I 46

0 2 38

S. D. M. S.
00 0 16
0 0 0 31

00 0 47

I

2 '

3i

D22
C44

066

010
020

030

041

061

0102
0203

0305

032

064
097

0018
0035
0053

072 1

2.7J

290
362
434

507

579
652

724
796
869

060
121
181

242
302
363

B.

4

5
6

0 17 II 39.2
0 21 29 23.4
0 25 47 7 5

0
0
0

0 3 31
0 4 24

0 5 17

0013
00 1 18
00 I 34

00 I 50
0026
00 2 21

B,

1
4 i
5
6

088

no

132

0406
0508
0609

129
i6i
193

225
258
290

C070
0088
0105

B.

7
8

9

I 0 4 51.8
I 4 23 18 1
I 8 41 2.6

0
0
0

0 6 10

0 7 2
0 7 55

B.

7
8

9

>54
176
198

071
081
091

,01
112
122

-
132

142
152

162

172

'83

193
203
406

0711
0812
0914

1016

III7
1219

0123
0141
0158

423
484

544

605

665
726

B.

10
11
12

I 12 58 468
1 17 16 31.0
I 21 54 57-5

0
0
0

0 8 48
0 9 41
0 10 34

0 0 2 37
0 0 2 53
0038

3.

10
II
12

220

243
265

322 0176

354 0193
386 0211

13
15

1 2j 52 41.7

2 0 10 26.0
2 4 28 10.2

0

0

0

0 II 26
0 12 19
0 13 12

0 0 3 24
00 3 40
0 0 3 55

13 287
'4 1 309
15 1 33'

1320
1422

1523

1625

1727
1828

1930
2031
4062

418
45 «

483

0229
0246
0264

941

014
086

158
231
303

376

448
896

786
847
907

968

C28'

089
150

210

420

630

840

050

1 100
1 150

[ 2CO

250
3CO

: 350

16
18

2 8 46 36.7
2 13 4 20.9
2 17 22 5.1

0
0

0

0 14 5
0 14 58
0 15 so

00 411
0 0 4 27
0 0 4 43

B.

16

17
18

353
375
397

5'5

547
579

612

644
288

0281
0299
0316

B.
B.

19
20
40

2 21 39 49-3
2 25 58 15.9
5 21 56 31.8

0
0
0

0 16 43
0 17 36
0 35 12

00 4 58
0 0 5 14
0 0 10 28

B,
B.

(

19
20
40

419

44!
882

°334
0352
07C3

B.
B.
B.

60

80

100

8 17 54 47-7
II 13 53 3.6

2 9 51 19.5

0
0
0

0
0
0

0 52 48

1 10 24

1 28 0

2 56 0

4 24 0

5 52 °

0 0 15 42
0 0 20 56
0 0 26 10

|B.
B.
B.

60

80

100

323
764
205

410

820

025
230
435

609
812
015

030
045
060

075
090
105

6094
8125
0156

931

575
219

1055
1406
1758

344
792
240

B.
B.
B.

200
300
400

4 19 42 391
6 29 33 58.6
9 9 25 18. 1

0 0 52 20
0 I 18 30
0 I 44 40

B.
B.
B.

200

300
400 '

0312
} 0468
1 0624

438
657
876

095
3H
533

752
971

I<,0

35"5

! 5274

t 7032

8790
0548
2306

1 480
j 720
i 960

200

440
680

B.
B.

B.

B.
B.

B.

500

600

700

800
900

1000

11 19 16 37.7
I 29 7 57.2
4 8 59 16.7

0
0
0

7 20 0

8 48 0
10 16 0

02 10 50
0 2 37- 0

03 3 10

B.
B.
B.

1

500
600
700

0780
0936
1092

6 18 50 36.3

8 28 41 55.8

n 8 33 15.4

0
0

0

1 1 44 0

13 12 0

14 40 0

0 3 29 20

0 3 55 30
0 4 21 40

B.
B.
B.

800
900

1000

640

845

1 050

120

135

150

1248
1404
1560

4C64

5S22

1 7580

920
i 160

; 400

! 400

' 450

500

Table III. — Mean Motion for Months.

Months.

Mean Lor

gitude.

Aphel.

Node.

Arg.
11.

Arg.
III.

Arg.
IV.

Arg.

V.

Arg.

Arg.
VII.

Arg.

VIII.

D.

M.

S.

S.

January.

0

0

0.0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

February.

21

53-4

4

I

2

I

9

3

I

6

5

March.

41

3 -7

9

2
4

4
6

2
2

25

5

3

12
18

10
'5

April.

I

3

33-'

13

8

4

May.

1

24

4^.2

17

5

7

3

33

11

6

24

20

June.

1

46

37-5
48.6

22

6

9

4
5

50

13
16

7
9

30
36

25

30

July.

2

7

26

8

1 1

Auguft.

2

29

42.0

31

9

13

6

59

19

10

42

35

September.

2

5'

35-4

39

10
12

J5

17

7
"8

68
76"

22

12

48

54

40

45

Ot^ober.

3

12

46.4

24

13

November.

3

34

39-8

44

J3

18

8

«5

27

•5

60

50

December.

3

Jj

VC.8

48

>5

20

9

9?

30

16

66

., -"^i-

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table IV. — Mean motion for Hours and Minutes,

1

Hours.

Long.

Hours.

Long.

Minutes.

Long.

Minutes.

Long.

S.

S.

S.

S.

I

1.8

13

22.9

I

0.0

27

8.8

2

3J

14

24.7

2

0.0

30

0.9

3
4

5-3

7-1

'5

26.5

3

' O.I

0.1

33

I.O

16

28.2

4

36

I.I

5

8.8

17

30.0

5

0.1

39

I.I

6

7

10.6
12.4

18
19

31.8
33-5

6

0.2

42

1.2

9

0-3

45

1-3

&

14.1

20

35-3

12

0.4

48

1-4

9

lO

15.9

17-7

21

37-1

'5

0.4

5»

1-5

22

38.8

i3

0.5

54

1.6

II

iy.4

23

40.6

21

0.6

57

1-7

12

21.2

24

42.4

24

0.7 !

60

1.8

Table V. — Mean motion for the Days of the Month.

Days.

Long.

Aphel.

Node.

Arg.
II.

Arg.
III.

Arg.

IV.

Arg.
V.

Arg.

VI.

Arg.
Vil.

Arg.
VIII.

I
2
3

D. M. S.
0 0 42.4
0 I 24.7
0 2 7.1

S.

0
0
0

S.
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
I

0
0
0

0

0
0

0
0
1

0
0

0

4
5
6

0 2 49.5

0 3 3i-«
0 4 14.2

I
I
I

0
0

0

0
0
0

0
0
0

I
I

2

0
0
I

0
0
0

I

I
1

I
I
I

7
8

9

0 4 56.6
0 5 38.9
0 6 21.3

I

I
I

0
0

0

0
0

0

0
0
0

2
2

2

0
0

0

I

1
2

I

I
I

10
II
12

0 7 3-7
0 7 46.0
0 8 28.4

I
2
2

0
0

I

0

0
0
0

3
3
3

0

2
2

2

2
2

2

'3
•5

0 9 10.8

0 9 53-1
0 10 35.5

2
2
2

0
0
0

4
4

4

2
3
3

2
2

2

16

17
18

0 II 17.9
0 12 0.2
0 12 42.6

2
2
3

0
0
0

4
5
5

2

3
3
3

3
3
3

19
20
21

0 13 25.0
0 14 7.4
0 14 49.7

3
3

3

J
5
6

2

2
2

4

4
4

3
3
0

22

23
24

25
26

27

0 15 32.1
0 16 14.5
0 16 56.8

3 ■

3

3

■

6
6
6

2
2
2

4
4
5

4
4

4

0 17 39.2
0 18 21.6
0 19 3.9

4
4
4

2
2
2

7
7
7

2
2

2

5
5
5

4
4
4

28
29
■30
3'

0 19 46.3
0 20 28.7
0 21 II. 0

0 21 53.4

4
4
4

4

2
2
2

2

8
8
8
9

2
3
3
3

5
6
6
6

5
5

5
5

In the jB

ifcxtiks a

day mull \

3e fubtraft

ed for the

months of

January a

nd Fcbrua

>■)'•

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table VI.

Equation of tlic Orbit for 1780, with the fecular variation to be applied to the longitude. — Before 1780, thit
fccular variation muil be applied with a contrary fign.

Dcgr

9
10
1 1

12
13

'4

'5
16

17

18

19

20

21
22
23

24

25
26

27

2fl
29

30

Aro. I = (Mean long. — aphelion) or mean anomaly.

O'

Equation.

D. M.

o
o
o

o

5

10

o 15

O 21

o 26

o 31

o 36
o 42

Difference. ' Sec. Var.

S.

0.0
17-5
34 9

52-3
9 +

26.1

42.4
58.2
135

o 47
o 52
o 57

28.1
42.0
55.0

3
8

'3

7-2
18.4
28.6

18

23
28

33
39
44

49
54

5«

2 3

2 8

2 13

37-6

45-4
51.9

57.0
0.7
2.8

3-3
2. 1

59.2

54-4
47-7
3«-9

2 18

2 23

2 27

2 32

28.0
15.0
59.8

42-3

4-
XP.

4

4

M. S.

4 55-2

53-3
51.2

4 49-1

4-

7-S
7-4

7-4

7.1

6.7

(5-3

5.8
5-3
4.6

3-9
3-0
2.2

1.2

0.2

9.0

7.8
6.5

5-J

3-7
2.1

0.5

58.8
57-'

47.0
44.8

5^-5

0.00 i
0.17 I
0-34 I

0,51 :
0.68 '

0.85 ;

1.02
1. 19
1.36

'■53

1.70
1.87

2.04
2.21

yl.

2-55

2.71
2.88

3-05

3-21

3-3«

3-54
3-70
3.86

4.02
4.18
4-34

4.8 i
4 97

I'.

Equation.

D. M. S.

J'
37
4'

42-3
22.3
59.8

46
51
55

34-»

7-2
36-9

3
3
3

0

4
8

3-9
279
49.0

3
3

3

13

'7

21

7-1
22.2

34-0

3

3
3

25
29

33

42.7
48..
50.1

3

37

48.8

3

4'

43-8

3

45
49

35-3

3

23.2

3

?3

7-3

3

56

47-6

o

3

7

10
14

'7

24.1

56.7

49.9
10.3
26.6

20 38.6

23 4^-3
26 49.6
29 4S5

4-
X'.

DifFe!

4
4

4

4

4
4

M. S.

40.0
37-5

4 35-0

32-4

28.7

4 27.0

24.0

21. 1

4 18.I

I5.I

II. 8

8-7

5-4

2.0

3 58-7

3 55-0

3 51-5

3 47-9

3 44-1

3 40-3

3 3^-5

3 32-6

3 28.6

3 24.6

20.4
16.3

12.0

7-7

3-3

58.9

Sec. Var.

4-97
5-13
5.28

5-43
5.58

5-73

5.88
6.02
6.17

6.31
6.46
6.60

6.74
6.87

7-'5

7.28
7.41

7-54
7.67

7-79

7.92
8.04
8.16

8.28
8.40
8.5.

8.63

8.74
8.K4
8.95

Degr.

30
29
28

27
26

25

24
23
22

21
20
19

17
16

15
14

'3

12

1 1
10

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table VI. — ConlimieJ.

Arg. I =: Mean Anomaly.

II'.

iir.

Degr.

Equation.

DIfFerence.

Sec. Var.

Equation.

Difference.

Sec. Var.

Degr.

—

+

—

4-

D. M. S.

M. S.

S.

D. M. S.

M. S.

S.

o

I

2

4 29 48.5
4 32 49-9

4 35 32-8

2 54-4
2 49.9

2 45-2
2 40.6
2 35-9
2 31. 1

2 26.2
2 21.3

2 16.4

2 II.;
2 6.4

2 1.2

I 56.2
I 50.8

I 45.8

I 40.4

I 35-1

I 29.8

I 24.2
I 18.9

I 13-4

I 7-8
I 2.3

0 56.6

0 51. 1

0 45-3

0 39-7

0 34.0
0 28.2
0 22.4

8-95
9.06
9.16

j 5 20 30.6

5 20 46.9

i 5 20 57.9

0 16.3

0 I I.O

0 4.8

0 1.0

0 6.7

0 12.7

0 18.7
0 24.5

0 30.5

0 36.6
0 42.0

0 48.5

0 54-3

1 0.2

I 6.2

I 12.2

I 18.2

1 24.0

I 30.0
I 36.0

I 41.8

1 47-8
' 53-6

» 59-5

2 5-3
2 II. 2

2 16.9

2 22.7

2 28.5

2 34-1

10.95
10.97
10.99

11.00
11.02
11.02

30
29
28

3
4
S

4 38 18.0
4 40 58.6
4 43 34-5

9.26
9-35
9-45

9-54
9.63
9.72

9.81
9.89
9-97

10.04

lO.II

10.19

10.26
10.33
10.39

10.45
10.51
10.56

5 21 2.7
5 21 1.7
5 20 55.0

27
26

25

6

7
8

4 46 5.6
4 48 31-8
4 50 53-1

5 20 42.3

; 5 20 23.6

5 19 59-1

11.03
1 1.03
11.03

24
23
22

9

lO

II

4 53 9-5
4 55 210

4 57 27.4

1 5 19 28.6
5 18 52.0

5 18 lO.O

11.02
II. 01
11.00

21

20
19

12

'3
14

4 59 2S.6

5 I 24-8
5 3 15-6

! 5 17 21.5

( 5 i6 27.2
5 15 27.0

10.98
10.96
10.94

18

17
16

15 5 5 1-4

16 5 6 41.8

17 5 8 16.9

5 14 20.8
5 '3 8-6
5 II 50-4

10.91
10.88

10.85

15
14
13

18

19

20

5 9 46-7
5 II 10.9
5 12 29.8

5 10 26.4
5 8 56.4
5 7 20.4

10.81
10.77
10.73

10.68
10.63

10.57

12
II
10

9
8

7

21
22
23

5 13 43-2
5 14 51-0
5 - 15 53-3

10.61
10.66

10.71

5 5 38-6
5 3 50.8

5 I 57-2

24
25
26

5 i'^ 49.9

5 17 4'-='
5 18 26.3

10.76
10.80
10.83

10.87
10.90
10-93
10.95

' 4 59 57-7
4 57 52-4
4 SI 41-2

10.51
10.45
10.38

10.31
10.24
10.16
10.08

6
5

4

3

2
I

0

27
28

29

3°

5 19 6.0
5 19 40.0
5 20 8.2

5 20 30.6

4 53 24-3
4 51 1.6

4 48 33-1
! 4 45 59-0

+
IX'.

4-

viir.

—

Vol.

XVI.

T

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table VI. — Continued.

Arg. I = Mean Anomaly

IV'.

v.

Degr.

Equation,

DifF

erence.

Sec. Var.

+

Equation.

Difference.

Sec. Var.

Degr.

—

—

* 1 i

D.

M.

S.

M.

S.

S.

D.

M.

S.

M.

S.

i

o

4

45

59.6

2

39-8
45-5
51.4

56.5
2.1

10.08

2

48

56.7

5
5

5

5
5

5

5

5

5

5
5

5

5
5

5

5

25
6.1

95
12.7
15.9

18.9

21.9
24.9

275
50.0

6.10

30

I

2

4
4

45
40

19.1
330

2

10.00
9.91

2
2

43

38

54.2
48.1

592

5-74

29

28

3

4

37

42.6

2

9.82

1
1 2

33

38.6

S-S'i

27

4

4

34

46.1

3

3

3
3

■2

9.72

2

28

25.9

5-37

26

5

4

3'

44.0

7.6

13.0
18.3

23.6

28.9

34-1

39-1

44-3
49-3

54-3
59.0

963

2

23

10.0

5.19

25

6

4

28

36-5

9-53

2

17

51,1

4-99

24

7
8

4
4

25

22

23-?
5,2

9.42
9-31

2
2

12

7

29.2
43

4.80
4,6.

23
22

9

4

18

41.6

3
3

3

3
3

3

3

9.20

2

2

36,8

441

21

10

4
4

15
1 1

12.7
38.6

9.08
8.96

I

5(5
50

6.8
34-2

32.6
349

374
394

415

434

4.21
4,01

20
19

12

'3

4
4
4

7
4
0

59-5
15.2
25.9

8.84
8.72
8.58

I

44
39
33

593
21.9
42.5

3.61

340

18

17
16

1^6

3
3

56
52

31.6
32.6

8.45
8.32

28

22

1.0
17.6

3.20
2.99

•5
14

'7

3

48

28.6

4

4

4
4

4

4
4

4

4
4

4

4

4
4

4.0
8.6

'3-3
17.9

22.4

26.8
3>.i

35-4

39 5
43-6

47.6

515
55-3
58.9

8.18

8.03
7.89
7-74

16

325

5
5

5

5

5

5
5

5

5

5

5

5

5
5

45'
46.8

48.4
49.8

51 I

522
532

543

54 9
556

56.1

565
56.7
56.9

2.78

13

12
11
10

i8

19

20

3
3
3

44

40

35

2C.O

6.7

48.8

0

10

4
59

457

57-3

7-5

2.57
2.36
2.15

21

22
23

3
3

3

31
26

22

26.4
59.6
285

7-59
7-44

7.28

0
0
0

53

47
41

16.4

242
31 0

I 94

I 73
1.51

7

24
26

3
3
3

17

•3

8

53-1
,3.6
30.0

7 12
696
679

0
0
0

35
29

23

367
41 8
46 2

1.30
1.08
0.86

6
5

4

27
28
29

30

' 3
2

2

2

3
58
53
48

42.4
50.9
55.6
56.7

662

645
627
€.10

i 0

! °

e
0

'7
11

5
0

50.1
53-6
56.9

0,0

0.65

043
0.21

0 CO

3
2
I
0

'+

+

•

vir.

VP.

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table VII. Equation II.

Tablh VIII. Equation III.

Argument II.

Ar

gument III

.

Ars

' Equation

Arg

Equation

Arg. Equation

1
Arcr. 1 Equation

Arcr

. 1 Equation

il

Arg.

Equation

II

II.

II.

II.

1 II. II.

1

Hi

. ! III.

|Illi.

1 III.

, HI.

III.

S.

S.

S.

i S-

S.

1

S.

°

384

340

47-7

670

33

0

50.0

" 340

12.7

! 670

88.7

lO

390

350

46.5

680

3-4

10

i 47-3

1; 3 JO

14-3

680

90.0

20

39-6

360

45-2

690

700

3-5
38

20
33

1 44-5

'1 360

16.0

, ^90

91. 1

1

30

40.1

370

439

! 41.7

370

■ .7.8

:' 700

92.0

4= ; 40-7

, 3-80
390

42.5

710

42

40

39-0

380

29.S

710

92.8

5- , 41-3

41.0

: 720

4.8

SO

36-4

390

21.8

720

93-4

■; 41.9

) 400

394

730

5 5

60

' 33-7

i 400

24.0

i: 730

93-8

70 , 42-5

410

37-8

740

6.3

70 1 31-2

410

26.3

740

94.1

bo 1 43.2

420

36.1

! 750

7-2

80

28.7

1 420

28.7

750

94.2

90 1 43.9

430

344

i 760 83

90

! 26.3

'430

31.2

, 760

94.1

i:: 44.7

440

327

770 9-4

ICO

1 24.0

; 440

1 33-7

1; 770

93-8

120

45-4
46.2

450
460

30.8

780 10.7

no

] 21.7

: 450

1 36-4

1: 780

93-4

29.0 1

790 12. 1

120

i 198

i 460

39-0

790

• 92.8

■30

47.0

470

27.1

800 13.5

130

i 17.8

1 470

41.7

800

92.0

143

47-8

480

25.2

810 15.0

140

16.0

1

1 480

44-5

810

91. 1

liO

48.5 1

490

23-4

820

16.6

150

I 14-3

i 490

47-3

, S20

90.0

I ■" r

49.2 1

500

21.6

830

18. 1

160

j 12.7

500

50.0

i 830

88. 7

49.9 i

510

19.8

S40

19.7

170

II. 3

510

52.7

1 840

87-3

180 !

50.5

520

18. 1 '•

850 1 21.3

180

ICO

^0

55-5

! 850

85.7

190 '

51. 1

5,So

16.3

860 ] 22.9

190

8.9

530

58.3

i 860

84.0

2 00 I

51-7 .

540

14.8

8-0 ! 24.5

2 CO
210

j 8.0

1 7.2

540

61.0

870

82.2

210

52.1

J?o

^3-3

880 26.0

f,-o

63.6

880

8c 2

220

534

560

"•7 ,

890 27.5

220

1 6.6

560

66.3

890

78.2

-30 527

570

10.4 '

900 1 28.9

230
240

6.2

570

68.8

900

76.0

240 , 52.S

580

9-2 ;

910

30.1

5-9

580

71-3 '

910

73 7

250 1 52.8

,-90

8.0 '

920

314

2 JO

5.8

590

73-7 I

920

71-3

260 52.7

600

■ 7-0 '

930

32.6

260

5-9

6co

76.0 1

930

68.8 ■

2-0 52.4

610

6.1 ;

940

33<5

270

6.2

610

78.2 1

940

66.3

2- 53.1

620

5-3 1

950

34-6

280

6.6

620

80.2. 1

950

63.6

290 , 51.6

630

4-7 i

960

35-4

290

7.2

630

82.2

960

61.0

300 j 51 0

640'
650

4.0 ,

970

36.3

3 CO

8.0

640

84.0

970

5S.3

3'o

53-3

3-5 ,

980

370

qio

8.9

650

85.7

980 ;

55-5

320

49-5

660

3-4 i;

990

37-7

320

ICO

660

87.3

990

52-7

330

48.6

670

3-3 j'

1000

38.4

330

11.3

670

88.7 1

lOCO

50.0

340

47-7

i

340

12.7

'■

T2

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

TablbIX. Equation IV.

Table X. Equation V.

Table XI. Equation VI.

Arg.
IV.

Argument IV.

2500
2600
2700

Arg.
IV.

2500
2400
2300

2800
2900

3000

2100
2000

3100
3200
3300

3400

3500
3600

Equation
IV.

M.

Diff.

19004
18004
i7oo]4

0.0

59-7

58.8

~57-3
55-3
52.6

49.4

45-7
41.4

16004

15004
H£ol4_
37ooji3oo,4
3800 12004
3900 1 1004
4000 10003
4100
4200

9003

Soo's

36.6
31

i9-3i

12.7:

j8.2

50.4!

42-31

4300 7003
4400 6003

4500; 5003

4600 4003
4700 3002
4800 200 2

4900
5000
5100

33-9
25.2
16.4

1002

I
02

99002

520098002
530097002
5400 9600 I

7-3
58.,

39^-'
30.01
20.6 9-4
9.4

0-3
0.9

'•5

2.0

2-7

3-2
3-7
4-3
4.8
5-2
5-9
6.2
6.6
7-1

7-4
7.8
8.1
8.4

8.7
8.8

9.1
9.2
9-3

9.4
9.4

5500|95oo
56009400
57009300'

II. 2

1.9

52-7

43

34-8

26.1

58ooJ920o|i
59009100 I
60009000.1
610089000
620o'88oo'o
63co|870o;o

17.7
9.6
1.8

640086000
650O185000
6600:84000

670083000
680082000
690081000

r 000 80000

7100 79000

200178000

73co!770o[o
7400,76000
J75co'75oo_o

54-4
47-3
^■J

34-5
28.6

23-4

18.6

J4-3
10.6

7-4

4-7

±2
1.2

o-i

0.0

8.7
8.4
8.1
7.8

7-4
7-1
6.6

6.2

5-9
5-2

4-S
4-3
3-7
3-2

2-7

2.0

1-5

0.9

0-3

Argument V.

Arg. 1
V. !

Equ.

V. 11
S. Ij

n\

3.8 1

Arg.
V.

Equ.
V.

s. 1

0
10

20

510
520

530 i

6.4
6.2

6.0

30 1 4.0 i
40 4.2 1
50 4-4 !

540

550
560

5.8
5.6
55

60

70
80

4-5 i

4-7 ^i

4-9 ;

570
580
590

5-3

4-9

90
100
no

5-1
5-3

5-5

600
610
620

4-7
4-5
4-3

120
130

140

5-7
5-9
6.1

630
640
650

41
3-9

3-7

150
160
170

6-3
6.4
6.6

660
670
680

3-6
3-4
3-2

180
190

200

6.8

7-1
7-5

690 2.9
700 2.5

710 2.4

210

220
230

7.6
7.6
7.6

1 720 . 2.4
730 1 2-3

! 740 ^ 2.3

240
250
260

7-7
7-7
7-7

750 2.3
1 760 2.3
1 770 2.2

270
280
290
300
310
320

7.8
7-9
7-9

1 780 1 2.1
790 2.1

800 [ 2.0

8.0
8.0
8.1

I 810
820
830

2.0
2.0
1.9

330
340
350

8.1
8.1
8.1

840
850
860

1.9
1.9

2.0

360

370
380

8.0
8.0
7-9

870
880
890

2.1
21
2.1

390
400
410

7-9
7.8

7-7

900
910
920

2.2

2-3

2.4

420

430
440

7-7
7-5
7-4

1 930 ' 2.5
1 940 I 2.6

; 950 ' 2.7

450

460
470

7-3
7-2
7.0

1 960 1 2.8
970 i 3.0
9S0 i 3.1

480
490
5CO

6.9
6.7

I6.5

990 1 3.2
1000 1 3.5

Argument VI.

Arg. Equation ljjjjj._

VI

VI.

iM. S.

.1-

o 4

ioo| 4
200! 4

33- 1

32s
3 '-4

3°°! 4
400, 4
500; 4

29.7
27.6
249

600'

700
8oO|

900
1000'
1 100!

21.8
18.2
14,0

09.5

04.5
59.1

1200: 3

13001 3
1400; 3

53-3

47.2
40.7

1500 3
1 600, 3
1700, 3

33-9
26.8
19.4

1800 3
1900 3
2000 2

II. 8

4.0
56.0

2100! 2
2200 2
2300I 2

47-9
396

31-3

2400
2500
2600

2700
2800
2900

22.9

14.6

6.2

I 57-9
I 49 7
I 41.6

0.6
i.i

1-7
2.1

2-7

3-6
42

4-5
5-0
5-4

5-8
6.1

65
6.8

7-'
7-4

7-^
7.8

8.0

8.1

8-3
8-3
8.4

8-3
8.4

"•3
.2
.1

3000
3100
3200

3300
3400
3500

1 33-7
I 26.0
I 18.4

I I I.I

I 4.1
o 57-4

3600
37001
■18001

o 51.0
o 44:9
9 39-2

3900
4000!

o 34.0
o 29.1
o 24.7

4200

4300
44COJ

4500J

4600,

4700J

o 20.7
o 17.2
o 14.2

o 11.7

o 9.7

O 8.2

48001

4900I

50CO

7.2

6.8

O

o
0*69

Arg.
VI.

■Equation
i VI.

Diff.

1 M. S.

5100
52C0
^300 _
5400
5500
5600

o
o
o 10.3

7-5
8.6

o 12.4
o 15.1

o 18.2

5700,

5800.

5900'

O 21,8

o 26.0
o 30.5

s.

60CO

61 CO

6200'

° 35-5
o 40.9

o 46-7

6300J

64001
6500:

o 52.8

o 59-3
I

6.1

66001

6700
6800

I 13.2
I 20.6
I 28.2

6960!
7000
7100

I 36.0
I 44.0
I 52.1

7-3
7.0
6,7

6.4

6.1

5-7

5.2

49

44

40

3-5

30

2-5
2.0

1-5
i.o
04
0.1

7200
7300
7400J

2 0.4
2 8.7
2 17. 1

7500
7600
7700!

2

2?4

2

33-8

2

42.1

8100
8200

8300

2 50.3

2 58.4

3 6.3

3 140

3 21.6

3 28.9

3 35-9
3 42.6

3 490

3 55-1

4 0.8
4 6.0

9900
I coco

4 10-9
4 '5-3
4 193

4 22.8
4 25-8
4 28.3

4 303
4 31-8
4 32-8

4 33-2
4 331

0.6
I.I

1-7
2.1

2-7

3>
3-6
4.2

4-5

5.0

5-4
5,8
6.1
6-5
6.8
71
7-4
7.6
7.8
8.0
8.1

8-3
8-3
8.4

8-3

8.A

8.1
I _
;7-9

17-7
j7-6

!7-3

7-0

I 6.7

16.4

16.1

!5-7

i5-2

49

;4-4
4.0

35

■3.0

2-5

' 2.0

I 1-5

! 1.0

• 0.4

0.1

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table XII.

Table XIII.

Argument VII.

Arff.

Equation

Arg.

Equation

Arg.

Equation

VII.

VII.

VII.

1

VII.

VII.

VII.

1 M. S.

1

'

M

S.

M

. S.

o

I 0.0

340

44-5

670

0

.3.8

10

I 3-3

3?o

42.7

680

0

12.4

20

I 6.6

360

40.7

690

0

II. I

30

I 9.7

370

38-5

700

0

1 0.0

40

I 12.9

380

36.1

710

0

9.0

50

I 16.1

390

33-6

720

0

»-3

60

I 19.2

400

31.0

730

0

7-9

70

I 22.3

410

28.3

740

0

7.6

80

1 25.1

420

^S-S

750

0

7-5

90

I 27.9

430

22.5

760

0

7.6

100

I 30.6

440

19.4

770

0

7-9

no

I 33.2

450

16.3

780

0

8.5

120

I 35-7

460

13.2

790

0

9.2

130

1 38.1

470

9.9

800

0

10.2

140

I 40 2

480

6.6.

810

0

II-3

150

. 4M i

490

3-3

820

0

12.6

160

I 44.1

500

0.0

830

0

14.2

170

I 45.8 ;

510

0

56.7

840

0

15.9

iSo

I 47-+ 1

520

0

53-4

850

0

17.7

190

I 48.7 I

S?,o

0

50.1

860

0

29.7

200

I 49.8 j

540

0

468

870

0

21.9

2ro

I 50.8 I

J JO

0

43-7

880

0

24-3

220

I 5^-5 \

560

0

40.6

890

0

26.8

230

I 52.1 ;

51°

0

37-5

900

0

29.4

240

I 52.4 1

580

0

34-5

910

0

32.1

250

I 52.5

590

0

31-7

920

0

34-9

260

I 52.4

600

0

29.0

930 0

37-7

270

I 52. 1

610

0

26.4

940 0

40.8

280

I 51.7

620

0

23-9

950 0

43-9

290

1 51.0

630

0

21.5

960 0

47.0

300

I 51.0

640

0

19.4

970 0

50-3

310

I 48.9

650

0

17-3

980

0

53-4

320

I 47-6 :

660

0

iS-5

990

0

56.7

330

1 46.2

670

0

13.8

1000

I

0.0

340

I 44.5 i

Argument

VIII.

• Arg. Arg.

Eq.

1 Arg.

Eq.

VIII. VIII

Via

VIII

VIII.

s.

S.

250

2yo

1-3

590 7.0 1

260

240

'•3

600

7-2

270

230

'•3

610

7-4

280

220

1.4

620

7-5

290

210

1.4

630

7-7

300

200

i-J

640

7.8

310

190

1.6

650

8.0

320

180

1-7

660

8.1

330

170

1.8

670

8.2

340

160

1.9

680

8-3

i5°

150

2.0

690

8.4

360

140 2.2

700

8.5

370

130

2-3

710

8.6

380

120

2-S

720

8.6

390

no

2.6

730

8.7

400

100

2.8

740

8.7

410

90

3-0

750

8.7

420

80

3-2

760

8.7

430

70

3-4

770

8.7

440

60

.3-6

780

8.6

450

50

3-9

790

8.6

460

40

4.1

800

8.5

470

30

4-3

810

8.4

480

20

4-5

820

8-3

490

10

4.8

830

8.2

500

0

y.o

840

8.1

510

990

5-2

850

8.0

520

980

5-5

860

7.8

530

970

J-7

870

7-7

540

960

5-9

880

7-J

550

950

6.1

890

7-4

560

940

6.4

900

7-2

570

930

6.6

910

7.0

580

920

6.8

590 910 1

7.0

____,

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Tabi.k XIV. — Radius Veftor for 1780, with the Secular Variation,

Argument I.

Mean Anomaly.

M

s

O'.

I:

II*.

0

-I
an

Rad. Vea.

Diff.

Sec.Var.

Rad. Vea.

DifF.

Sec Var.

Rad. Vea.

DifF.

Sec. Var

0.0

0 © !

0.0

0

I

2

20.0722
20.0721
20.0717

I

4
6

9

1 1

14

16

18

21

24
26

29

31
33

36

39

40
43

45

48

50

53
56

57

59
62

64
67
69
7»

005.2
005.2
005.2

19.9620
19.9547
19.9472

73
75

78

80
82

84

86
89

91
92
94

97

98

101

102

105
106

108

110
1 12

114

115

117

118

121
122

124

125
126
128

0045
0045
0045

19.6547
19.6417
19.6286

130
'31
133

'34
•35
136

138

140

140

141
142

"43

'45
146

146

148
.48

149

150
150

152

152
152

'53

'54
^55

154

155
155
156

002^
002.9
002.8

30
29
28

3
4
5

20.0711
20.0702
20x691

005,2
005.2
005 I 1

199394
I993H
19.9232

0044 i

0044

0043

19.6153
19.6019
19.5884

002.7
002 6
002 5

27
26

25

6

7
8

20.0677
20.0661
20.0643

005.1
005.1
005.1

19.9148
19.9062
19.8973

004.3
004,3
004 2

19.5748 ■

19.5610

19.5470

002.5
002,4

002,4

24
23
22

9
10
II

20.0622
20.0598
20.0572

005.1
005 0
005.0

19.8882
19.8790
19.8696

004,2 1

004,1

004.1

19-5330
195189
19.5047

002,3

OQ2 2
002,2

21
20
'9

12
•3
14

20 0543
20 0512
20,0479

0050 ;

0050

005.0

198599
19.8501
19.8400

004,0
0040
0039

19.4904
19.4759
19.4613

002,1
002 0
001.9

18

'7
16

15
16

17

200443
20.0404
20 0364

0050
005,0
005.0

19.8298
19.8193
19.8087

003 8
003 8 ,
003 8

19.4467

I9-43I9
19.4171

001.8

001,7

001,6

15
'4
'3

18

19

20

20.0321
20.0276
20.0228

0050
005 0
004 9

19.7979
19.7869
19.7757

003 7
003,6

0035 :

19.4022
19.3872
19.3722

001.5
001.4
001.3

12
1 1
10

21
22
23

20.0178
20.0125
20.0069

0049

004 8
0048

19.7643
19.7528
19.7411

0035
0034 1
C03 3 i

19.3570
19.3418
19.3266

001.3
001 2
001,1

9

8

7

24
26

20.0012

19-9953
19.9891

004.8
004.7
0047

19.7293
19.7172
19.7050

003 2
003,1
003 1

i9-3"3
19.2959

19.2804

001,0
0009
0009

6
5

4

27
28
29
30

19.9827
19 9760
19.9691
19.9620

004 6
004 6
0046
0045

19.6926
19.6801
19.6675
19.6547

003.1
0030
003 0
002 9

19 2650
19 2495
19.2340
19.2184

000 8
coo. 7
coo 6
000,5

3
2
I
0

XI-.

-

X'.

1 -

IX'

- 1 1

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table XIV, — Continued.

Argument I.

Mean

Anomaly

•

IIP.

IV.

V.

U

Rad. Ved.

DifF.

Sec.Var.

Rad. Veft.

Diff.

Sec.Var.

^Rad. Veft.

Diff.

Sec.Var.

+
0.0

4-
00

-f
0.0

o
I

2

19.2184
19.2028
19.1872

156
156

157
156

IJ7

156
156

157
156
^SS
156

155
155

154

155
153

153
152
151
152

150
149

148

,48
147
146

144

143
142

000.5
000.3
000.1

18.7613
18.7472
18-7332

141

140

138

137
136

134
132
131
130

128
126

124

123
121

119

117
115

113
1 1 1

109

107

104
103

100

98
96

93

9'

88

86

• 002 2
002 2
002 3

18.4121

18.4038

i 18-3957

83

81

78
76
74
70
68
65

63
60

57

54

52
48

45

44
40

37

34
3'
29

25

23

19
16
14
n

7
4
2

004.3
0043

004 4

30

29

28

3

4
5

19.1716
19.1559
19.1403

000.0
000.0
000. 1

18.7194
18.7057
18.6921

002 4
002.5
002.6

' 183879
I 1S3S03

: 183729

0044
0044
0045

27
26

25

6

7
8

19.1246
19.1090
19.0934

00c 2

000. 2
000.3

18.6787
18.6655
18.6524

002.6

002.7

002 8

, 18.3659
1 18 3591

i8 3526

0045
0045
004 6

24
23

22

21
20
19

9

lO

II

19.0777
19.0621
19.0466

coo. 3
0004
000.5

18.6394
18.6266
18.6140

002 9

003 0
003 0

18 3463

[ 183403

I S 3346

004.6
0047
004.7

12
14

19.0310
19.0155

1 9.0000

000. 6
000.7
000.8

18.6016
18.5893

18.5772

003.1
003,2
0033

: 18.3292
183240
18.3192

004,7
0048
004,8

18

17
16

15
16

17

18.9846
18.9691
18.9538

000 9
000.9
00 1.0

18.5653
18.5536
18.5421

0034
003.5
003.5

: 18.3147
18 3103
18.3063

C049
C04.9
0049

'3

18

'9

20

21

22
23

18.9385
18.9233
18.9082

18.8930

18.8780
18.8631

001 I
001 2

001 3

18.5308
18.5197
18.5088

003,6
003.6
003.7

18.3026

182992

j 182961

004.9

0049
005 0

12
11
10

9
8

7

001.4
001 5
001.6

18.4981

18.4877
18.4774

0037
0038
003.9

! 182932

1 18 2907
1 18 2884

005 0
C050
005 0

24
25
26

18.8483
18.8335
18.8188

001 7
001 7
001 8

18.4674
18.4576
18.4480

0039
004 0
0040

004 I
004 I
004 2
004.3

00

4-

1 18.2865
18.2849
18.2835

C05 0
005 I
005 1

6

5
4

27
28
29

30

18.8042
18.7898

18-7755
18.7613

001 9

002 0
002 I

OC2.2

18.43S7
18.4296
18.4208
18.4122

1 18 2824

■ 1S2817

18.2813

18.2811

0C5 t
CC5.1

CO 9 I

005.1

3

I
0

VIII'.

00

4- '

VII'.

f -

00
4-

iitnaccn ^.^uiaranr £;jrur-

03-
zc

4C-

9tt
TO-

ifo-

scc^^ ~-cc«r

90-

IQSJ-
tiO

-.--c-jc

t5cr

3i3cr-j 430-

I-lfTTT

mwr. 'nr.. TEL ■^'^■♦t-,

190

2ao

j.c-

^O* I (tfiD'^y: f- " I " I icac

2a«-
agtr

■3-.C-- ■■.

3--3Q3,6

■ate-- ,

a_3c6i -90

T^Tma Tanrrrd 'tic

Zftet

2&t

27tt

Q^: - ■

QiOSriiV I Qa3u5* isjo*** T^cr

4ca < o^^-.

T.iTBiT-

a.-,-^i-; j.j-jNj^

ct-aaut *.Q66>^ j Q-X!934. ■ "^^^

1.5=^

QU3QQ91

CM3Qg$

^^Gr ' 'i;QBn-?r cux»z: r^c

Q-.C-.

^ ^f--7 t

acaoo: acnoa i;co

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Tabie XVI. HelJoceatric Latitude for lySo, with the Secular Varialion.

Argument IX.

Long, c

»f the Planet — long, of Node.

OS

Latitude.

3

Variat.
for
10".

Latitude.

0

i

tl

1
Vaiiat.!

for

10"

Latitude.

f

n
u

Variat.
for
10"

3

0-. N.

I.

N.

ir. N.

VI-. S.

VII

•. S.

viir. s.

M. S.

'I

M.

s.

1
1

" 1

M. S.

u

0

I

2

0 0.0

0 48.4

1 36.9

48.4
48.5

48.4

48.4
48.2

48.2

48.2
48.0

47-9
47.3
47-7

47.5

47-3
47.1

46.8

46.7
46.5

46.2

46.0
45.6

45-4
45.1
44-8

44.4

44-1
43-7

43-4

43-0
42.6

42.1

CO
0.2
C.3

23
23
24

8.0

49-7
311

41.7
41.4

40.8

404

40.0

39-4

389
38.5

37-9

37-4
36.8

36-3

35-7
35.2

34-5

34-0
33-3
32.8
32.1
31-4
30.8
30.2
29-5
28.8
28.2
27-4
26.7
26.1

25-3

24.6

5.0
5-2
5-3

40 4.1
40 27.9
40 51.1

23.8
23.2

22.3

21.6
20. 9

20.1

'9-3
18.6

'7-7

17.0
16.2

15-3
14.6
13-8
12.9

12. 1
II. 3

10.8

9-7
8.8

8.0

6-3

5-5
4.6
3.8

3.0
2.1
"•3

1

8.7

8.7
8.8

3&
29
28

3
4

5

2 25.3

3 13-7

4 1-9

C.5
0.7
0.9

] '5
[ 26

II. 9

52-3
323

5-4
5.6

5-7

41 3-4
41 5.0

41 55-9

8.9
9.0
9.1

27
26

25

6

7
8

4 50-1

5 38.3

6 26.3

1.0
1.2
1.4

27

II. 7
5c. 6
19.1

6.0
6.2

42 160
42 35-3
42 53-9

9.1
9.2
93

24
23
22

9

lO

II

7 14-2

8 2.0
8 49.7

1.6

1-7
1.9

29
29

30

7.0
44.4
21.2

6.3
6.4
6.6

43 1 1.6
43 28.6
43 44-8

9-3
94
9-5

21
20
19

12

1-4

9 37-2

10 24.5

11 II. 6

2.1
2.2

2.4

1 30
1 3^

57-5

33-2

8.4

6.7
6.8
6.9

44 0.1
44 14-7
44 28.5

9-5
9.6
9.6

18

17
16

15
16

17

11 58.4

12 45.1

13 31.6

2.6
2.8
2.9

1

! 32

j 33

33

42.9
16.9

50.2

7-1
7.2

7-3

44 41-4

44 53-5

45 4.8

9-7
9-7
9-7

15
14
'3

18

19

20

14 17.8

15 3-8
15 49.4

3-1

3-3
3-4

34

34

i 35

23.0

55-1
26.5

7-4

7-5
7-7

45 15-3
45 25.0
45 33-8

■

9.8
9.8
9.8

12
II
10

21

22
23

16 34.8

17 19.9

18 4.7

3-6

3-7
3-9

35
: 36

57-3
27.5

57.0

7.8

7-9
8.0

45 41-8
45 49-0
45 55-3

9.9
9.9
9.9

9

8

' 7

24
25
26

i3 49.1

19 33-2

20 16.9

4.1
4.2
4.4

37

; 37
1 38

25.8

54.0
21.4

8.1
8.2
8-3

j 46 0.8
46 5.4
46 9.2

9.9
10.0
1 0.0

6

5
4

27
28
29

30

21 0.3

21 43-3

22 25.9

23 8.0

4-5
4-7
4-8
5.0

38

1 39
40

48.1
14.2

39-5
4.1

8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

46 12.2
46 14.3
46 15.6
46 16.0

lO.O
lO.O

1 0.0

1 0.0

3

2
1
0

xr. s.

t
1

1

I, X

. S.

IX'. S.

1

1

V. N.

' IV

•. N.

III. N.

Vet. XVI.

GEORGIUM SIDUS,

Tablk XV. Equations of the Radius Veftor.

Argument.

Argu-
ment.

Equation
II.

Equation
III.

Equation
IV.

Equation
VII.

Argu-
ment.

Argu-
ment.

Equation
II.

Equation.
III.

Argu-
ment.

o

10
20

0.C070
0.0070
0.0070

0.0032
0.0032
0.0032

o.cooo
0.0c 00
c.oooo

0.0098
0.0098
0.0098

1000
990
980

350
360

370

0.0009
0.0007
0.0006

0.0005
0.0005
0.0004

650
640

630

30
40

50

0.0069
0.0069
0.0068

0.0032
0.0032
0.0032

0.000 1
0.0002
0.0003

0.0097
0.0096
0.0096

970
960
950

380

390

400

0.0005
0.0004
0.0003

0.0003
0.0003
0.0002

620
610

600

60

70
80

0.0067
0.0066
0.0065

0.003 1
0.0031
0.003 1

0.0004
0.0006
O.OC07

0.0095
0.0093
0.OC92

940

930
920

410
420
430

9.0002
0.000 1
O.OOOI

0.0002
O.OCOI
O.OOOI

590

580

570

90
100
IIO

0.0063
0.006 1
0.0060

0.0030
0.0030
0.0029

0.0009

O.OOI I

0.0014

0.0090
0.0089
0.0087

910

900
890

440
450
460

0.000 1
0.0000
0.0000

O.OOOI

O.cooo
0.0000

560
550
540

:2o
130

140

0.0058
0.0056
0.0053

0.0029
0.0028
0.0027

0.0017
0.0019

0.0022

0.0085
0.0082
0.0080

880
870
860

470
480
490
500

o.ooco
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

1

0.0000

o.ocoo
0.0000
0.0000

530
520

510
500

150
160
170

0.0051
0.0049
0.0046

0.0027
0.0026
0.0025

0.0025
0.0028
0.0032

0.0078
0.0075
0.0073

850
840
830

Argu-
ment.

Equation.
IV.

Equation.
VII.

Argu-
ment.

180
190

200

0.0044
0.0042
0.0039

0.0024
0.0023
0.0022

0.0035
0.0039
0.0043

0.0070
0.0067
0.0064

820
810
800

350
360

0.0025
0.0022

0.0020
0.0018

650
640

210
220
230

C.0037
0.0034
0.0030

0.0021
0.0020
0.0019

0.0046
0.0050
0.0054

0.006 1
0.0058
0.0054

790
780
770

370
380

390

O.C019

0.0017
0.0014

0.0016
0.0013

O.OOI I

630
620
610

240
250
260

0.0028
0.0026
0.0024

0.0018
0.0016
0.0014

0.0058
0.0062
0.0058

0.0052
0.0049
0.0046

760
750
740

400
410
420

O.OOI I

0.0009
0.0007

0.0009
0.0008
0.0006

600
590
580

270
280
290
300

0.0022
0.0020
0.0018
0.C016

0.0013
0.0012

O.OOI I
C.COIO

0.0054
0.0050
0.0046
0.0043

0.0043
0.0040
0.0037
0.0034

730
720
710
700

430
440
450
460

0.C006

0.C004

O.C003

■ 0.0002

0.0005
0.0004
0.0003

C.0002

570
560
550
540

530
520
510
500

310
320

330
340

0.0015
0.0013
0.C012
0.00 10

0.0009
0.0008
0.0007
0.0006

0.0039
0.0035
0.0032
0.0028

0.0031
0.0028
0.0025
0.0023

690

680
670
660

470
480
490
500

O.OOOI

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

O.OOOI

0,0000

O.COOO

0.0000

«

II

II

GEORGIUM SIDU3.

TABtE XVI. Heliocentric Latitude for 1780, with the Secular Variation.

Argument

IX. Long, c

)f the Planet — long, of Node.

Degrees.

Latitude.

3

-1

r>

CO

't

Variat.
for
10''.

Latitude.

r.
II

Vaiiat.
for

10"

Latitude.

-:

n
0

Variat.
for
10"

n

en

O', N.

I. N.

ir. N.

vr. s.

VIP. S.

viir. S.

M. s.

'(

M. S.

H

M. S.

II

0
I

2

0 0.0

0 48.4

1 36.9

48.4
48.5

48.4

48.4
48.2

48.2

48.2
48.0

47-9
47.8
47-7

47.5

47-3
47.x

46.8

46.7
46.5

46.2

46.0
4J.6

45-4
45.1
44.8

44.4
44.1
43-7

43-4

43-0
42.6

42.1

CO

0.2
c-3

23 8.0

23 49-7

24 3I-1

41.7
41.4

40.8

404
40.0

39-4

389
38-5

37-9

37-4
36.8

36.3

35-7
35'2

34-5

34-0
33-3
32.8
32.1
31-4
30.8

30.2
29.5

28.8

28.2
27.4

26.7

26.1

25-3
24.6

5.0
5.2

5-3

40 4.1
40 27.9
40 51. 1

23.8
23.2

22.3

21.6

20-9

20.1

19-3
18.6

17.7

17.0
16.2

15-3
14.6
13.8

12.9

12. 1
II. 3

10.8

9-7
8.8

8.0

7-2

6-3
5-5

4.6
3-8

3-0
2.1

1-3

0.4

8.7
8.7
8.8

30
20
28

3
4
5

2 25.3

3 13-7

4 1-9

0.5
0.7
0.9

25 1 1-9

25 52-3

26 32.3

5-4
5.6

5-7

41 3-4
41 5.0

41 55-9

8.9
9.0
9.1

27
26

25

6

7
8

4 50-1

5 58-3

6 26.3

1.0
1.2
1.4

27 11.7

27 50.6

28 19.1

5-9
6.0

6.2

42 16 0
42 35-3
42 53-9

9.1
9.2
9.3

24

23

22

9
10
1 1

7 14-2

8 2.0
8 49.7

1.6

1-7
1.9

29 7.0

29 44.4

30 21.2

6-3
6.4

6.6

43 '1-6
43 28.6

43 44-8

9-3
94
9'5

21
20
19

12
13
14

9 37-2

10 24.5

11 II. 6

2.1
2.2
2.4

30 57-5

31 33-2

32 8.4

6.7
6.8
6.9

44 0.1
44 I4-7
44 28.5

9-5
9.6
9.6

18

17
16

15
16

17

11 58.4

12 45.1

13 31.6

2.6
2.8
2.9

32 42-9

33 16.9

33 50-2

7-1
7.2

7-3

44 41-4

44 53-5

45 4.8

9-7
9-7
9-7

15
14
13

18

19
20

14 17.8

15 3-8
15 49.4

3-1
3-3

3-4

34 23.0

34 55-1

35 26.5

7-4
7-5

7-7

45 '5-3
45 25.0
45 33-8

9.8
9.8
9.8

12
II

10

21
22
23

16 34.8

17 19.9

18 4.7

3-6

3-7
3-9

35 57-3

36 27.5
36 57.0

7.8

7-9
8.0

45 41-8
45 49-0
45 55-3

9.9
9.9
9.9

9
8

7

24
25

1 26

18 49.1

19 33-2

20 16.9

4-1
4.2
4.4

37 25-8

37 54-0

38 21.4

8.1
8.2
8.3

46 0.8
46 5.4
46 9.2

1
9.9

10.0
1 0.0

6
5

4

J?

29
30

21 0.3

21 43-3

22 25.9

23 8.0

4-5
4-7
4.8
5.0

38 48.1

39 14-2

39 39-5

40 4.1

8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

46 12.2
46 14.3
46 15.6
46 16.0

lO.O
JO.O

lo.o
10.0

3

2

i

0

xr. s.

1

X'. S.

IX% S.

v. N.

IV'. N.

Ill, N.

V©i..XVL

u

GEORGIUM SIDUS.

Table XVII.

Reduftion to the Ecliptic and Logarithm of the Cofinc of the heliocentric Latitude.

Arg. IX., or Argument of Latitude.

Deg.

Reduft.

to the
Ecliptic.

Log.cofm.

of

H?iIocen. lat.

Rcdiift.

to the

Ecliptic.

Log. cofin.

of

Helioccn. lat.

Reduft.

to the

Ecliptic.

Log. coiin.

of

Heliocentric lat.

Deg.

30
29
28

0'.

r.

II.

VI '.

vir.

VIII.

s.

s.

s.

o
1

2

0.0

0.4
0.7

lO.OCOOOO
lO.OOCOOO
lO.OOOCOO

8.1

8-3
8.4

9.999990
9-999990
9.999^89

8.1
8.0
7.8

9.999971
9.999970
9.999969

3

4
5

I.O

1.6

10.000000
1 0.000000
10.000000

8.6

8.7
8.8

9.999988
9.9999S8
9.999987

7.6

7-4

7.2

9.999969
9.9999^9
9.9999615

27
26

25

24
23
22

6

7
8

J-9

2-3

2.6

9.999999
9.999999
9.999999

8.9
9.0
9.1

9.999986
9.999985
9.999984

6.9

6.7
6-5

9.999967
9.999967
9.999966

9

JO

2.9

3-2
3-5

9.999999
9.999999
9.999999

9.2
9.2
9-3

9.999984
9.999983
9.999982

9.9999S2
9.999981
9.999980

9.999980
9.999979
9.99997 S

6.3
6.0
5.8

9.999966
9.999965
9.999965

21
20
19

12

J3
14

3-«
4.1
4.4

9.999998
9.999998
9.999998

9-3
9-3
9-3

5-5
5-2
4-9

9.999965
9.999964
9.999964

iB

17
16

15

i6

17

4-7
4.9

5-2

9.999998
9.999997
9.999997

9-3
9-3
9-3

4-7
4-4
4-1

9.999963
9.999963
9.999963

15
14
>3

18

20

6.0

9.999997
9.999996
9.999996

9-3
9-3
9.2

9.999978
9.999977
9.999976

3-8
3-5
3-^

9.999962

r.999962
9.999962

11
1 1
10

21

22
23

6-3
6.5

6.7

9.999995
9.999995
9.999964

9.2
9.1
9.0

9.999976

9-999975
9.999974

2.9
2.6

2-3

9.999962
9.999961

9-91.9961

9

8

7

24
25
26

6.9

7-2
7-4

9-999993
9-999993
9-999992

8.9

8.8

8.7

9.999974

9-999973
9.999972

1.9
i.r,

1-3

9.999961
9.999961
9.999961

6

5
4

'.

27
28
29
3°

7.6
7.8
8.0
8.1

9.999992
9.999991
9.999991
9.999990

j 8.6
8.4

8-3
8.1

9.999972
9-999972
9.999971
9.999971

1.0
0.5
0.4
0.0

9.999961
9.99996 r
9.999961
9.999961

3
2
I

0

+ XI-.

+ X'.

+ IX'.

I

4- V'.

+ IV.

+ IIP.

G E P

G E R

Georgiak BMc.

GeoRCJIAN" Mcni.
Afia, who follow the rule of vSt. Bafil

gained a complete viaory over the Burg^indians about the
GEORGIANA, in Geography, a name originally given year 245 ; and Faftida, dated with this vidory, laid wafti
a tra£l of country in the province of Maine, in North the territories of the Gotl-.s, whofc fovertiTn Oftrogoth'

See BiRi.K. but perhaps not one From the Lombards, who were after-

and A'^«/!x, are religious of Georgia, in ward; mailers of Italy. Under their king Faftida, ther

" '"" " ff-:^" j' '

afte

, 5.. Oftrogotha

rehired to grant them land for their accommodation. Being
defeated by the Goths, they afterwards joined them, and
other northern nations, in the in-uption which they made
with their united forces into the <;mpire in the fecond year
of the reign of Claudius ; but they were defeated by that
pnnce with great daughter. In ' the year 279 Probus

to

America.

GEORGIC, fomething that relates to the culture or
tilling of the ground.

yiie word is borrowed from tlie Latin gcoigicus ; and that
of the Greek '/Fi-jfixo , of yr,, terra, earth; and fjya^oacti,
opcro, I •work, labour, of f^yv;, opus, ivork.

The ~

Georgics of Virgil are four books compofed by that granted them lands in Thrace, upon promife of their quiet

poet on tlie fubjea of agriculture. fubm-fTton ; but whilR the emperor was engaged in war in

GEORGIEV, in G^ogrdphy, a town of Ruflla, in the go- the Eaft, they feized the neighbouring provinces, and were

vernment of Caucafus ; 32 miles W.N.W. of Ekaterinograd. cut off in great numbers by Probus after his return. St.

GEORGINA, in Botiuiy, fo named by Willdenow in Jerom mentions tiie Gepidx among the other nations of

honour of Profeffor Georgi ; fee Georgia and Dahlia.
We have retained the latter name, given by Cavanllles, for
this fine genus, becaiife it has been unlverfally adopted in
this country, where the various fpecies feem likely to come
into general cultivation. A change in fuch a cale not only
fhocks vulgar prejudices and illiterate indolence, but is ma-
terially inconvenient

Barbarians, who, in 407, invaded Gaul, and overran its
provinces. Attila afterwards fubdued them, and in 451
they ferved under him in his famous expedition into Gaul.
Upon the death of Attila, the Gepidx fnook off the yoke
under the conduft of tlieir king Ardaric, who obtained a
complete victory over the Hunns ; in confequence of wiiich
the Gepidie not only recovered their ancient liberty, but

GEORGITZ, m Geography, a town of Walachia ; 18 gained poffefnon of ancient Dacia, N. of U'.e Danube

miles N.N.E. of Buchareft

GEOSCOPY, a kind of knowledge of the nature and
qualities of the ground or foil, gained by viewing and con-
fidcring it.

The word is formed of the Greek yr,, earth, and o-xorei',
I fee, view.

from which they had been driven by Attila. They then
entered into an alliance with the Romans, who agreed to
pay them an annua! penfiu:i. Having obtained poflefiion of
part of Illyricum, with the city of Sirmium, thty con-
Unued quiet till the year 537, when, on account of their
joining tlie Heruli, and plundering the neighbouring pro-

Geofcopy is only conjeftrtral ; but its conjedures are vinces, they were compelled by°Juftinian', after te\-eral
very well grounded.^ encounters, to abandon Illyricum, and to content themfelves

GEOSTATICS. See Statics. with Dacia beyond the Danube. In the year 5 50, a quarrel

GEPHRUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, arofe between the Gepidje and the Lombards- but the

according to Polybius, which furrendered to Antiochus. latter, having obtained a reinforcement from Ju'linian at-

GEPHYRA, a town of Syria, in tlie Seleucide terri- tacked the former, and gave them a total overthrow. This

tory, according to Ptolemy; 22 miles from Antioch. — defeat was followed by a peace between the two natiors

Alfo, a town of Africa, according to Polybius, in the which was brought about by the mediation of Juftinian

yi:inity of Carthage, fituated on the bank of the river The peace, however, was of ihort duration. Under their

Macros. _ refpedive fovercigns, tos. Cunimandus, king of the Gepidx,

GEPHYRjEI, a people mentioned by Herodotus, who and Alboiiius, king of the Lombards, thev commenced

were probably natives of Gephyra in Syria ; they migrated mutual hollilities ; and determined to abide br the ifliie of

with Cadmus into Birotia, where they occupied the territory
of Tanagra ; but on being driven from thence by the Btco-
tians, they took refuge in Attica.

GEPIDjE, a people of Scandinavian origin, of whofe
Gothic extradion Joraandes gives tlie following account :
the Goths, leaving Scandinavia under the condud of king
Barith, put to fea with only three (hips. One of thefc,
failing flower than the other two, was thence called " Ge-
panta," fignifying in the Gothic tongue How: and hence
the name of Gepantx and Gepid;e, which was at firft

a fmgle battle. The contefi was very fevere, and remained
for fome time very doubtful ; but at'lall, tiie Gepidx were
put to flight, and purfucd by the vidorioua Lombards v/ith
fuch (laughter, tliat fearcely one was left alive of the nu-
merous multitude that had eng iged. After this vidory th«
Lombards feized the whole o: Dacia, and obliged the Ge-
pida: either to fubmit, or to retire. Henceforth they had
no king of their ov.-n, but lived in fubjedion either to the
I.aimbard3, who were mafters of their country, or to the
princes of the neighbouring nations, efpecially the Hunns,
given them as an <ippelI«tion of reproach. Procopius like- fettled in Pannonia. Thus their kimi-doin tcri^iinated in the

wife c.Kprefslv affirms, that the Goths, the Vandals, the
Vifigoths, and the Gepidie, were originally the fame
nation ; that they had the fame culloms, manners, rehgion,
and language; and that they onl\- differed in names, borrowed,
perhaps, he favs, from their difterent leaders. They entered
Scythia with the other Goths, and fettled in the neighbour-
hood of the Tanai.s and Palus Miifotis. There they con-
tinued till the reign of Arcadius and Honorius, when, their
number being greatly increafed, they approached the

year 572, .lullin, the fuccelTor of Jullinian, being then em-
pet;or.

GEPPE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which rifes
neai- Neuflat in the county of Mark, and runs into the
Bigge, two miles N. of Olpe, in Wellphaha.

GER, Cape. SeeAcuEn.

GERA, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtiand, on the.
Elfter ; 30 miles S.S.W. of Lcipfic. N. lat. 50° 49'. E.

Ion

g. 12' 6'. — Alio, a town of Italy, in the department of

Danube, and having afterwards crofTed that river, dwelt in the Upper Po. — Alfo, a river of Germany, "whicJi run*

the neighbourhood of Siiigidunum and Sirmium, about the into the Unflrull, fix miles N. of Erfurt,

year 4C0, where they ftill were when Procopius wrote his Gkka, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia,

liiftory. They had kings of their own, and formed a diftind Ptoleinv.

nation, fepai-ate frona buth the Oilrogoths and Villgoths ;

GERiEA. a town of Lufitania.
\J Z

Ptoh

GER.ES*

G E R

OERjESTIUM, a country of the Ptloponncfus, in
Arcadia.

GERjIiSTUS, a town and port of the idand of Eii-
baa, upon tlie S.W. coall, about 15 miles from Caryftus ;
nuvv Gerefto.

GEllALFINGEN, in Geography, a town of Swiizcr-
laiid ; four miles S.E. of Soleure.

GE RAN DRUM, in Jm-ient Geography, a town of the
ifiand of Cyprus.

GERANGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the diocefe ofDronlheim; 22 miles S.S.W. of RomI'dal.

GERANIA, m Bolany, the 73d natural order in Juf-
iieu's fyftem, or the 13th of his 13111 clafs. The foUowinc;
is liis definition of this, one of his mofl important and
extenfive claffes. Cotyledons two. Petals many. Sta-
mens inferted below the germen. — The Calyx is of one or
many leaves, very rarely deficient. Petals hypogynous, or
inferted below the piUil, definite in number, very rarely in-
definite, for the moft part diftinft, but fometimes conneftcd
at the Ijafe, into a fort of falfe monopetalous corolla ; they
are rarely wanting. Stamens inferted below the pillil, de-
finite or indefinite, the filaments often diftinft, fometimes
united all together into one tube, more rarely coUefted into
fcveral bundles ; anthers dilUndl, or united only in Viola
and Impat'iens (called Balfamhm by JnOleu). Germen fupe-
rior, in many fimple, in foine multiplied ; (lyle fuigle, or
ftigma

multiplied, or deficient ; ftigma one, or feveral. Fruit fu
perior, fometimes fimple, of one or many cells ; fometimes,
but more rarely, multiplied, each pericarp of one cell.

The order of Gcranta is thus defined by JufTieu. Calyx
fimple, either of five leaves, or of one deeply five-cleft,
permanent. Petals five. Stamens definite, their filaments
united at the bafe, fometimes all fertile, fometimes part of
them abortive. Germen fimple ; llyle one ; ftlgmas five,
oblong. Fruit either of five cells, or of five capfules,
each cell or capfule containing one or two feeds. Corciilum
without a perifperm, (or albumen). Stem either fomewhat
{hrubb)^ or herbaceous. Leaves with ftipulas, oppofite or
alternate. Floxuers, in the former cafe, oppofite to each
leaf ; in the latter, axillary.

Juffieu enumerates only two genera as properly belonging
to this order, Geranium, which includes Erodium and Pelar-
gonium julUy feparated from that genus by the late M.
L'Heriticr; fee Erodium : and Monfonia, which is but
too nearly akin to Geranium. He fubjoins three genera as
related to this order ; Tropxolum, whofe affinity is very ob-
fcure ; Jmpaliens (his Balfamina), which is perhaps ftill lefs
akin to it ; and Oxalis, which laft we would rather refer to '
the Rulctcem, an order which Juffieu feems but imperfeftly
to have ftudied. He indeed, like Einnsus, hints fome re-
lationdiip between Oxalis and Trihuliis or Zygnphyllum, both
which lall he ilations in the firft feftion of his Rutace<e ; but
we prefume to think they are there mifplaced, and that
Oxalis is not fo much allied to them as to the real Rutaeex,
fo many of whicli are found in New Holland. In all fuch
doubtful cafes however, which form the difficulty and the
pedantry of the ftudy of natural orders, and in which our
chief guide being conjefture, humility and candour are moil
becoming, we merely aim at collecting obfervations. The
unnatural combinations complained of in a fyftem profefledly
artificial, cannot be half fo hurtful as error mafiied in au-
thority in the details of a pretended natural one. The
doubts and hints of the excellent Juffieu are in themfelves
inftrnftive, but how few are content like him to confefs their
doubts ! He has at length acquired a pupil worthy of
himfelf in this country, Mr. R. Brown, whofe opportuni-
ties of obfervation, among the paradoxical novelties of

G E R

New Holland, have given ample fcope t« his inteTligeine
and afiiJuity.

Gkbakia, in Andent Geography, a town of Thrace.— »
Alfo, a town of Phrygia. — AUb, an ancient town of thePelo.
ponnofus, in Laconia, on the confines of MelTenia.- — Alfo, a
mountain of Greece, in the territory of Megaris, towards
the illhmus of the Peloponnefus.

GERA'NIS, or Geranium, in Surgery, a bandage for-
merly applied to fraftured coUar-boijes, and diflocated (boul-
ders. The word is derived from yr^avo.-, a crane, becaufe the
fnape of the bandage was thought to refcmble an extended
crane.

GERANITES, y^vMr, a crane, in Natural Hijlory, a
name given by fome authors to fuch pieces of agate, or any
other of the femi-pellucid gems, as have round fpots in them,
refembling in colour the eye of a crane.

GERANIUM, in Botany, yr^avr/; of the ancient Greeks,
admirably named from ytnmr, a crane, the germen and ftyle
refembling the head and beak of that bird. Crane's-bill.—
Linn. Gen. 350. Schreb. 458. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. G()Ci.
L'Herit. in Ait. Hort. Kew'. v. 2. 432. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 2. Sm. El Brit. 729. Jufl". 268. Lamarck lUuftr. t. J73.
f. I. Gsrtn. t. 79, pratenfe. Clafs and order, Alonadelphia
Dccandria. Nat. Ord. Gruinales, Linn. Gerania, i\iR.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, acute,
concave, permanent leaves. Cor. regular, of five large,
obovate or obcordate, equal, fpreading petals. Neftary five
glands at the bafe of the germen, alternate with the petals.
Stam. Filaments 10, awl-fiiaped, recurved, united at the bafe
into a fmall cup, five alternate ones longeft, all fhorter than
the petals ; anthers oblong, verfatile, five of them occa-
fionally abortive. Pifl. Germen fuperior, with five furrows,
beaked ; ftyle central, awl-diapcd, longer than the ftamens,
permanent ; ftigmas five, oblong, reflexed. Peric. Capfules
five, aggregate, membranous, globofe, lateral, feparating at

their nifide, each attached upwards to a long, linear, flat,
pointed, rigid, fmooth awn, at length elaftically recurved,
adhering by its point to the fummit of the ilyle. Seeds foli-
tary, lateral, roundifii, their furface fmooth or dotted.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Neftariferous
glands five. Fruit beaked, of five aggregate capfules, each
tipped with a long, recurved, naked avvn.

Obf. This genus, as above defined, contains only the
Gerania columbina of Linnjeus^ or what are commonly called
European Geraniums, or Crane's-bills, bearing but one or
two flowers on a ftalk. (See Eroditjm.) Thus it is adopted
by Willdenow, who has 39 fpecies, 13 of which are natives
of Britain. They are tolerably naturally diilributed into
three feftions.

* Flowcr-ftalks fingle-fiowered ; 4 fpecies.
G.fanguineum, Engl. Bot. t. 272, a handfome inhabitant of
rocky woods and abrupt gravelly ground, is an example of
this feftion, though the late Mr. Davall once found in Swit-
zerland an occafionally two-flowered variety. See Fl. Brit.
739. A variety found on the Lancafhire coaft, of humble
deprefied growth, with white red-veined petals, is frequent
in gardens.

G. filiricum, Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. i.t. 19, an inconfpf.
cuous fpecies, is, we believe, conftantly fingle-flowered.

** Flower-ftalks two-flowered. Root perennial, 24 fpe-
cies. Moft of the Crane's-bills ufually cultivated for orna-
meat are of this divifion, as

G. anemonifolium of L'Hcritier. Curt. Mag. t. 206. This
ftiowy fpecies, difcovered by Mr. Maffon in Madeira, was, as,
Mr. Curtis records, long known in our gardens by the name
hivigatvm, admirably exprcflive of its fmoothnefs, and the
French botanift changed it for the worfe. We could, have

BO

G E R

G E R

no reclrefs, as t!ie original name had not been printi^d. It is
a hardy greenhoufe pknt, throwing out, from its fliort knotty
Jlcm, a profuiion of fpreading, long-flalked, (liining, palmate,
prinnatifid leaves, and many fpreading, leafy tranches, forked
upwards. The Jlozi'crs are large, of a fine crimfon, broader
than a half-crown.

G. nijcrorrhizrim, Linn. Sp. PI. 953. Jacq. Ic. Rar, t.
134, native of Italy, is a very common hardy pcreiniial in our
gardens, remarkable for the roundnefs of its red petals, and
the ftrong, but aromatic, cedar-like, fcent of its herbage.
The plant is of humble growth, with a Ihort knotty J/em,
Lke the laft. Leaves foft and downy.

G. p!.\t:w;, Linn. Sp. PI. 953. Engl. Bot. t. 322 ; and
■ G. fufcum, Linn. Mant. 97, two fpecies very nearly akin,
are remarkable for the dark brown colour of their floivers ;
as G. rejlexum, ibid. 257. Cavan DiiT. t. Si. f. I, is for its
reflexed petals, and O. iividum, Ij'Herit. Geran. t. 39, firlt;
well determined by Haller at his No. 935, though he was not
for fome time attended to, for its flat, round, ferrated petals,
of a pale livid dove-colour. Tlicfe four laft are often fcen iu
gardens about London.

G. nodofum, Linn. Sp. PL 953. Engl. Bot. t. 1091, is
the moft rare BritiHi fpecies, and Icarcely found ellewhere
but on the mountains of Provence and Dauphiny, in fliady
places.

G.jlnafum, Linn. Sp. PI. 953. Curt. Mag. t. 55, a native
of Italy, very hardy with us, is generally admired for its
delicately pencilled blolfoms.

G. angulalitm. Curt. Mag. t. 203, now frequent in gar-
dens about London, but from wliat country imported is not
known, was firft afcertained as a diilinft fpecies by the late
T-ir. Curtis, llsjloiuers are prettily veined with reddilh pur-
ple on a pale ground.

G. pra'cnfe, Linn. Sp. PI. 954. Engl. Bot. t. 404, a very
handfomc blue-flov.-ered fpecies, common m paftures in the
north, is extremely remarkable, and almoll fingular in this
natural order, for having fometimes double flowers, iu which
llate it was found near Athol houfe, Scotland, by lady
Charlotte Murray in 1793. It is often feen with white petals.

G. argenteum, Linn. Sp. PI. 954. Curt. Mag. t. 504, a
native of Mount Baldus, was introduced into England by
the indefatigable and intelligent Mr. Lodiige, whofe zeal and
liberality as a cidtivator are above all praife. Its leaves are
beautifully filvery, the plant dwarf, but the _;?0TOi7V pecu-
liarly large, blulh-coloured, veined with red.

G. pyrena'icum, Linn. Mant. 97. Sin. Fl. Brit. 735. Engl.
Bot. t. 405. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 42, common about Lon-
don and Edinburgh, has not been well underilood, even by
Mr. Curtis, who undertook to illnftrate it. Linnseus ori-
. ginally confounded it with moUe hereafter mentioned, from
which iis even capiules, perennial root, and greater magni-
tude, keep it very diftintt.

*** Flower-il;alks two-flowered. Root annual; II fpecies.

G. hohemlcum, Linn. Sp. PI. 955, placed firft in this fee-
lion, well drawn m Diilenius's Hort. Elth. t. 133. f. i6o, is
remarkable for its very black hairy feed-veifels, and viicid
herbage.

G. molle, Engl. Bot. t. 778, ought to follow immediately ;
with d'tlpdum, t. 753; rotutuUfot'iiwi, t. 157; TmA pufllum,
t. 385. Tliefefour, long confounded, and fcarcely underilood
by any botanift, are beautifully diilinguifhed, in every degree
of luxuriance, by their cap/ides, which are corrugated and
naked in the f.rll ; more flightly corrugated, but hairy, with
reticulated feeds, inthe fecond ; carinated, even and haij-y, with
reticulated feeds in the third, with much more entire leaves ;
even and hairy, with fmooth feeds, in the la!t, whofe hairs on
the part in quellion are, moreover, clofe-preiTed; not fpread'ng

a.? in the preceding. We were obliged to thelate Mr. Davall
for firll calling our attention to this part, and tiiu.s Ic; ding to
one of the moll fatisfaclory difcoveries in European botany.

Gr carolin'uumm, Linn. Sp. PI. 956. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr.
v. 2. t. 140, where it is miftaken for a new plant, and called
lanugimfum ! follows thefe ; with cnlumhtnnm, Engl. Bot.
t. 259. To which fliouldfucceed luctdum, t. 75 ; then, if it be
a diftinft fpecies, which we much Aouhx, puipureum of Will,
denow, n. 39, and Villars Dauph. t. 40; and finally rcbcr-
tiariuni, Engl. Bot. t. I4«6. Curt. Lond. fafc. i.t. 52. This
purpureum has been a weed in Chelfea garden ever fnice the
tune of Miller, but though Ray mentions it as a native, fee
Fl. Brit. 732, G. rolertianum ,3, we never gathered it elfc-
where.

Geuaxil'.m, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the her-
baceous perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are,
the dark flowered crane's-bill (G. phoeum) ; the knotty
crane's-bill (G. nodofum); the ftreakcd crane's-bill (G.
Itriatum) ; the Siberian crane's-biU (G. fibiricum) ; the
bloody crane's-bill (G. fanguineunT) ; and the long-rooted
crane's-bill (G. macrorhizum) ; but there are other forts
that may be cultivated with propriety.

Tiie fifth fpecies has feveral varieties, as with ihort fpread-
ing ftenis and fmall le:;ves and flowers ; w ith large leaves
deeply divided, and with variegated or ftriped flowers.

hiethod of Culture. — Each of thefe fpecies of plants is
capable of being increafed in two ways, either by fowing the
feeds or parting the roots. Where the firlt methtd is
adopted, the feeds (hould be fown in the autumn as focn as-
they have become perfectly ripened, eitlier in pots or a fliady
border in the garden ground where the mould is light and fine.
As foon as the plants have acquired a few inches in growth,
thcylhould be pricked out into other pots, or beds of fimilar
earth, at the diftance of hss: or fix inches in the latter cafe ;
but where this cannot be done, they may be permitted to re-
main until the following autumn or fprintr, and be then put
out into other pots or borders, where they are to continue,.
being occafionally watered in a moderate manner.

In cafes where the parting of the roots is prac^ifed, care
fliculd be taken not to divide them too much ; planting
them out in the early part of the autumn, either in pots or'
where they are to continue.

Moft of thefe forts of plants are of rather hardv orowth,
and fucceed in moft kinds of ground, demanding but little at-
tention in their cultivation, befide that of tlieir being kept
clear from all forts of weeds and rubbifti.

All of them are capable of aff'ording variety in the borders,
clumps, and other parts of pleafure gardens, and the potted
kinds produce a fine effeCl in fituations about the houfes ir.
mixture with thofe of otlier forts.

GERANOS, Ttfavo-, in Ar.fiqiiity, a remarkable dance
performed in the feftival called Delia.

GERANZAGO, in Geography, s. town of Italy; nine
miles E.N.E. of Pavia.

GERAR, or Ger.\SAR, or G.zaraL, in Serlpturc Geo-
gruphy, a city of the Phililtines, S. of .ludah.- The Abi^
melechs were kings of this city in the time of Abraham
and Ifaac. At this time it was the boundiiry of the Ca-
naanites, fituated on the river Be/or, about feven miles S.W..
of Debir, and fix E. of Beerftieba. It aLerwards be-
longed to the tribe of Simeon. Geiar ext.nded far into-
Arabia Petrsa, being 25 miles from Eleutlieropolis, be-
yond Daroma, the ioiith of Gudah. Moles Jays, tliat it
lay between Kadclh and Shur; and he mentions the brook
or valley of Gerai\ (Gen. xxvi. 26.) Sozomen fpeaks
of a little tov^iij called Cera, 50 furlongs from Pelulium.

7 G*i"ai"-

G E R

Gerar is confoundod with Bcerflicba, Afhkelon, AUufh,
and Arad.

GERARD, HKnn, m Boimiy. See iEcoPomuM.
Geuakd, in Biograhhy, who flourifhcd about the end of
the eleventh, and cnmniencement of the twelfth centuries,
founder and firll grand-mafter ol the order of St. John of
Jerufalem, was a native of the ifle of Martigucs, on the
coall of Provence. While Jerufalem was in the Irands of
the Saracens, fome Neapolitan merchants obtained per-
miffion from tlie fultan of Egypt and Syria, in the year
1050, to ereft a Benedidine monaftery, near the holy ftpul-
chre, for the convenience of the pilgrims who came to vifit
it. Among others Gerard came to pay his devotions at
the holy city, where he obtained a hiyh character for piety
and prudence. The monailery foon became rich, and in
conformity with the fpirit of tlie times the abbot built,
with the wealth poured in by the rich d-^votees, an hofpital
for the reception of the poorer clafs, and with proper ac-
commodation for the aged and the lick. The management
of this he gave to G'M-ard. A part of the building was fe-
parated for a chapel dedicated to St. John, becaufe it was
faid that Zacharias, the father of St. John, had lived on the
fpot where it v/as built. Gerard, after the conquefl of
.■Jerufalem, by Godfrey of Bouillon, projeftc-d the founda-
tion of a new religious order, in which the ecclefiaftical and
military churafter (honld be blended. He began, about
the vear iioo, to carry his dehgn into execution, when
: numbers of p^M-fons afl'ociated with liiiu under the denomina-
tion of the «' Hofpitalers of St. John of Jeruf.dem," who,
befides the three ufual vows of challity, poverty, and obe-
dience, took a parlicular vow to devote themfelves to the
relief of all C'u-i!lij.ns in diltrefs. The order was recog-
nized, and privileges granted to it bv pope Paical II.
■ Gerard was the hr!l gr.md-maftcr, and fuch was the com-
mencement of that order which has been io frequently and
■fo long celebrated in hiftory : the members of it were hrft
, denominated knights of llhodes, and afterwards knights of
Malta. Moreri.

Gkrard, Joiik, a learned German Lutheran divine,
war. born at .Tena in the year 1 621, where he was educated,
but at the age of nineteen he went to Altdorf for the lake
of greater progrefs in the oriental languages, and in 1(143
tlie univerlity conferred on liim the degree of M.A. He
was appointed profeffor of philotophy at Witteniberg in
1646, and in 1652 ho was nominated pi ofeffor of iiiftory at
Jena. After this he was created dortor of divinity, and
made profelTor in that faculty, having devoted much of his
time to bibhcal and theological learning. He was likewife
.appointed rector of the univcrfity of Jena. He died in the
yuar 1688, and left behind him, as memorials of his great
learning, mfny works of very deep erudition : among thefe
were " Harmonia LingHarnm Orientalium ;'' '•' Difputatio-
iivim theologicarum Fafciculus ;'' "Do Ecclefise Coptica:
Ortu, Progreffu, etJDoctrina.''

Gkk.vrd, Ai,i.\.\nde:!, was born at Garioch, in the
county of Aberdeen, in tlie year 1728 : he was educated at
the grammar-fchoql at Aberdeen, and fo great was his pro-
gref:', that he was entered ;i Undent in Marifchal college
when he was but twelve years of age. Here he devoted
his firll foiu- 3'ears to the Ihulv of Greek, Latin, the ma-
th :matics, and philofophv, and was, at tlie clofe of the
courl'e, admitted to the degree of M.A. He now com-
menced his theological iludies, which he proiecutcd at the
univerfities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Immediately on
the completion of his twentieth year, he' was hcenfed to
preach in the church of Scot! nd, and in the year 1750 was
cliofen ainitant to Mr. David Fordyce, prof .Tor of piiilolo-

G E R

phy in the Marifchal college at Aberdeen, and In two years
aftci wards, upon the death of the profeffor, Gerard was ap-
pointed to fuccced him. Hero, after a fliort time, the de-
partment adigned to Mr- Gerard was conilncd to moral phi-
lolophy and logic, the duties of which he difcharged with
confcientio-us and unwearied diligence, and with equal fuc-
cefs and reputation. He was a member of a literary focicty
at Aberdeen, which met very regularly every fortnight
during the winter, when the members communicated their
fentiments with the utmoll freedom, and received mutual
improvement from their literary difcuflions. In 1759 Mr.
Gerard was ordained a minifter of the church of Scotland,
and in the following year he was appointed profeffor of
divinity in the Marifchal college, and about the lame period
he took his degree of dottor of divinity. He continued
to perform the feverul duties attached to liis offices till
I 77 I, when he refigned the profelforlhip, togetlier with the
church living, and was preferred to the theological chair
in the univerlity of King's college, a fituation which he
held till his death in 179J. Dr. Gerard's attainments were
folid rather than brilhaut, th.e effedl of clofe and almoft iii-
celfant ftudy, and a fine judgment. He had improved his
memory to fuch a degree, that he could, in little more than
an hour, get by heart a fermon of ordinary length. He was
author of " An EITay on Tallc,'' which was publiflied in
1759, and which obtained for him the prize of a gold
medal, from the Society of Edinburgh. This work was
afterwards much enlarged and reprinted in 1780. His
" Dilfertatioiis on the Genius and evidences of Chriilianity,"
publilhed in 1 766, are well known and highly appreciated :
fo alfo are his " Elfay on Genius," and his fermons in two
volumes. In the year 1799 his fons gave the world a
pollhumous work of much merit, which had been left among
the papers of his father, entitled " The Pallor's Care,"
which made a part of his theological courfe of lectures.
As a clergyman the conduCl of Dr. Gerard was marked
with prudence, exemplary manners, and the moll pundlual
and diligent dlfcharge of his miniilerial duties ; his fermons
were fimple and plain, adapted to the common clafs of
hearers, but io accurate as to fecure the approbation of the
ablell judges. As a profeffor of divinity, his great aim was
not to impofe by his authority upon his pupils any favourite
fyftem of opinions ; but to imprefs them with a fenfe of
the isiportance of the miniilerial office ; to teach them the
proper manner of difcharging all its duties ; and to
enable them, by tlie knowledge of the fcripturcs, to form
a jull and impartial judgment on controverted fubjcfts.
Poflefling large itores of theological knowledge, he was ju-
dicious in felecling his iubjects, happy and fuccefshil in his
mannei- of communicating inllruCT;lon. He had the merit
of introducing a new, and in many refpefts abetter, plan of
theological education, than thofc on which it had formerly
been conducted. Having a conftant regard to whatever
was pradt-lcallv ufeful, rather than to unedifying fpecula-
tions, he enjoined no duty which he was unwilling to excm-
plity in his own conduCl. In domefi.ic life he was amiable
and exemplary : in his friendlhips Heady and difinterefted,
and in his intercourfe with fociety hofpltable, benevolent,
and unaffuming ; uniting to the decorum of the Chridiaji
pallor, the good breeding of a gentleman, and the cheer-
fulnefs, all'abilitv, and cafe of an agreeable companion.

GERARDE, Joii.v, a furgeon and famous hcrbalill of
the time of queen Elizabeth, was born at Namptwich, '
Chefhire, in 1545. He praClifed furgery in London, and,
role to eminence in that profeliion. Mr. Granger fays " he
was many ycors retained as chief gardener to lord Burleigh,
who was himfelf a great lover of plants, and had the bell col.

leClioB

G E R

G E R

Lffion of any nobleman in the kingdom : arr.ong theft vcte
I .-.ny exotics, introduced by Gerarde.'' Tliis is confirmed
h\' the dedication of the tirfl edition of his Herbal, in
I ,'97, to that ili^flrious nobleman, in which he fays he liad
' that way employed his principal ftudy, and aimoil all his
t.ir.e'' then for 20 jears. It appears therefore that he had
j;^:ven up his original profeffion. Johnfon, the editor of his
r oond edition, fays " he lived fome ten years after the pub-
i ^.ing of this work, and died about 1607 ;" fo that he fur-
\ v.'d his noble patron nine years. See Cecil, William.
Gerarde lived in Holborn, and Iiad there a large botanic
■Jen of his own, of which he publillied a catalogue in
y6 and again in 1599. Of this work fcarccly an im-
prcfTion is known to exill, except one in the Britifh Muieum,
\\;iich proved of great flie in preparing the Hortus Ke-werjis
of Ml. Alton, as ferving to afcertain the time v.-hen many
old plints were firil cultivated. Holborn was then in the out-
flvirts of the tow:i on that fide. The reader of Englifh
hii^ory will recoUeft that the hypocritical Richard HI.
alked the bifhop of Ely to fend for " fome cf the good
ftrawberries which he heard the bifliop had in his garden in
Holbourn," by way of (hewing hjmlelf in good humour at
the council, while he was in fadt meditating the feizure of
lord Mailings. The catalogue of Grarde's garden con-
tains, according to Dr. Pakeney, ic^3 fpecies, or at leall
fuppofed fuch, "though many doubtlcis were varieties, and
'' ij is an atteftation of Lobel fubjoinrd, aCTerting his
ng feen nearly all of them growing and flowering.
i ins was one of the earlieft botanic gardens in Europe.

The c^reat work of our author is his Herbal, or General
Hillory of Plants, printed in folio in 1597, by John Norton,
■who procured the wooden cu s from Frankfort, originally
done fir the German herbal of Tabernasmontanus. The
bafis of the text was the work of Dodonasus entitled Pemp-
t::d:s, for which alfo we believe the fame cuts had been
ufej ; fee DoDOX-i:i;s. Lobel afferts that a trartflation of
the Pc.T.ptades had been made by a Dr. Priell, at the ex-
pence of Mr. Norton, but the tranflator dying foon after,
the manufcript was ufed by Gerarde, indeed without ac-
knowledgment. The intelligent reader of the Herbal will
obferve that moft of the remarks relative to the places in
which certain plants are found, their common ufes, &c.,
belong to the original work, and refer to the country in
which Dodomus wrote, not to England. Gerarde is alfo
accufed of having been no Latin Icholar, and of having
made many miilakes in the additional matter which he tranf-
kted from the works of Clufius, Lobel, &c. He alfo cer-
tainly mifapplicd many of the cuts. Notwithftandlng fuch
faults, Gerarde had the great merit of a practical know-
ledge of plants, with unbounded zeal, and indefatigable
perfeverance. Dr. Pidteney juftly obferves that notwith-
ftanding. his manifeft inferiority to Lobel in point of learn-
ing, it mnft yet be O'lVncd that Gerarde contributed greatly
to bring for.vard the knowledge of plants in England. His
conneftion with the great, and his fituation in London, fa-
voured an extcnfive correfpondence, both with foreigners
and his own countrynnen ; and his fuccefs in procuring new
exotics, as well as fcarce indigenous plants, was equal to
his diligence and afliduity. In faft, we owe to Gerarde
and his friends the difcovery of many new Englilh plants ;
and his name will be remembered by botanifts with elteem,
when the utility of his Herbal is fuperfeded." Among
the perfons to whom he was indebted for the comnmnication
of exotic plants and feeds, are recorded fir Walter Ra-
leigri, Edwa.'i'h.rd Zouch, and lord Huafdon, with many
of Jefs elevited rank.

A fecond edition of Gerarde's Herbal was publirtied by

I

Dr. Tliomas Johnfon in 1636, which has ever fmcc been
a very popular book, and ind.ed, as Haller remarks, Ge-
rarde was the clafiical author of the Engli.li, alraoil to the
time of Ray. Johnfon, like many other editors, cenfurcd
his author with great freedom, and undoubtedly in-jde
many cfTential corrections. He has prefixed a iii of his
additions, which are very numerous, and a learned hiftorical
preface. He was a man of far more learning than Gerarde,
but by no means fo good a botanid. Among the moft valu-
able of his additions are the co nmunications of Mr John
Goodyer of Maple-Durham, Hampiliire, a man of fingular
penetration and accuracy in practical boluKy. Ji.;hnfon '
added many excellent figures, tkher of new p'ap.ts, or in
the place of fuch as were badly executed in tlie firil edition.
Among the latter is Grat'iola htifoHa, which HaUer
complains he could make nothing of. It proves to be
SculeHar'ia m'./ior, and is well reprofented in Juhnfou's edition,
P- 581.

Mr. Granger, in his Biograpiiical Hiitory of England,
ed. 4. V. I. 275, mentions only two engraved portraits of
Gerarde.

" John' Gerarde ; engraved by V\'JIiur:i Rog?rs, for the
firft edition of his Herbal.

Ditto engraved by Paine, for Johnfon's edition of the
fame book.''

The latter, dated 1636, is a final! copy of the former.
The-e is a fprig of the potatoe plant in the left hand.

The writer of the prefent article is pofTed'cd of the cop-
per-plate itfilf, very much worn, of an odtavo portrait of
Geraide, without age or date, holding a fprig of Ci/?iis,
with his arms and the Italian motto, jO'iiJlnfi, lu;r^. In
one corner below is a branch of Jafmine, in the other the
Buglofs. The name of the engraver feems to be Hall.
Pulteney''s Sketches of t!ie Progrefs of Botany in England.
Granger's Biographical Hillorv of England. Haller's
Bibl. Bot. S.

GERARDIA, in Botany, named by Plumier in memory
of the Engliili herbalift John Gerai-de ; fee tliat article. (It
may alio ferve t« commemorate a botaniil of our own time,
Louis Gerard, M. D. author of the excellent Flora Gal-
loprovincialis, publilhed in 1 761, with a few exquilitely
engraved plates, and who, we believe, is Hill living, at a
very ad\^auced age, at Cottignac in Provence, where the
writer of this vifitcd him in 17S6. (See Tour on the Conti-
nent, cd. 2. V. I. 204.) — Plum. Nov. Gen. 30. t. .12. Linn.
Gen. 307. Schreb. 403. V/iild. 8p. PI. v. 3. 221.
Mart. Mi'l. Dift v. 2. Juff. 1 19. Lamarck. Idultr.
t. 529. (Nigrinii ; Linn. Mant. 42 and 512. Melafma ;
B'jrg. Cap. 162. Gjsrtn. t. 55.)— Clafs and order, DiJy-
rinm'ui Angicfpernn.i. Ni!t. Ord. PirfoniUtr, Linn. S^rophu-
luriiT, Jiiff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent,
with five upright, fharp fegmciils. Co/-, of one petal, ringent,
tube round, longer than the calyx ; upper lip erett, ob-
tufo, flat, broaciell, emargiuatp ; lower refltxed, deeply
three-cleft, its lateral fegments cmargiiiate, the middle o.ie
(horter, deeply divided. Stam. FiLiments foiir, fcarcely fo
long -as the tube, tv.-o of them rather jhorter tiian the reft ;
anthers fniall. Pifi. Germtn fuperior, ovate, fnull ; ilyle fim-
ple, fhort ; iligma obtufe. Perk Capfule ovate, of twa cells
and two valves, opening at the bale, the partifioa contrary to
the valves. Seeds ovate; acco.ding to Linnaeus folitary,
which does not appear from plumiT's works.

Ed". Ch. Calyx live-cleft. Corolla two-lipped ; the lower
lip in ti'iree diep t-margiuate lobes, the middlemoil deeply di-
vided. Capfule of two cells, opening at the bafc.

This

G E R

pany with fix other pcrfons, members of the fame focicty.
On liis arrival he remained at Pekin, ftudying the language,
and during tliis jierlod, being admitted frequently into the
prefence of the cmpi ror, he lo ingratiated himfelf with him,
as to obtain an appointment to join an cmbafTy fejit to regu-
late the boimdarirs with the court of Mufcovy. He con-
tributed much to the fuccefs of this bufmefs, and on his re-
turn to China was treated wnth great honour by the empe-
ror, who chofc him his inftruftor in mathematics and philo-
fophy. Gcrbillon is fuppofed to have enjoyed more advan-
tages than ahnoft any other perfon, for ftudying the man-
ners of the Chincfe court, and for making obfcrvations on
the neighbouring country. He obtained pcrmifTion to preach
the Chriftian religion in China, and had the direftion of the
French college in Pekin, and was in the end made fupcrior-
{Tcncral of all the miflionavies fent from France. He died at
Pekin in the year 1707, leaving behind him curious accounts
nf his eight journeys into Tartary, which have been prmted
in Du Halde's Deicription de la Chine. He was the author
iif the " Elen-vents of Geometry," and of a work on Per-
fpeftive, botli printed in a very handfome manner at Pekin.
Moreri.

GERBOA, in Zoology. See Dipus.

GERBSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
llie county of Mansfcid ; 30 miles S.W. of DefTau. N. lat.
ji" 40'. E. long. 1 1'' 47'.

GERDAU, a river of Luneberg, which runs into the
llmenau, at Oldenftadt.

GERDAVEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
>latangen, fituated on the Omet, near a confiderable lake,
which'is called the " Calendar of Gerdavcn," from its prog-
Bofticating the weather ; 30 miles S.E. of Konigiberg.
N. lat. 54" 16'. E. long. 21° 27'.

GERDEN, a town of Germany, in thebifhopric of Pa-
ierborn ; 14 miles E. of Paderborn.

GER.DES, Daniel, in Biography, was born at Bremen
in I 6g8, where his father was engaged in a commercial lite.
Great care was taken of the education of Daniel, who made
a rapid progrefs in the claflics. At firft it was intended he
Ihould purfue the law as a profeffion, but the plan vs-as
(hanged, and he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of theology.
In 1722 he was admitted into holy orders, and immediately
afterwards made a tour on the continent, and formed an ac-
quaintance v.ith the moil learned men of that period. In
1726 he was admitted to the degree of doftor, aijd in 1735
he was chofen profefTor of theology at Groningen, and upon
his entrance on the office he delivered an oration " De unc-
tione qus Fideles omnia docet." The fame year he was
flefted a metnber of the royal academy of fciences at Ber-
lin. He died in the year 1765, leaving behind him many
works ttiat bear ample teftiraony to his learning and zeal in
the cauie of literature. His writings are moftly theological,
and tend to the elucidation of the difficult parts of the Old
and New Teilament. Gen. Biog.

GERDIN. in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in the go-
vernment of Perm, fituated on the Colva ; 152 miles N. of
Perm. N. la?. 59 ' 40'. E. long. 56 r4'.

GERDOBA, a irioimtain of Africa ; 80 miles E. of
Angela.

GEREEK, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 12 miles
S. of Bahar.

GEREM, a town of Grand Bucliaria ; 15 miles S S.W.;
of Badaklhan.

GEREMSCHANGKAIA, a town of Ruffin, in the
gcvcrnment of Upha f 36 miles W. N.W. of Bugul-

G E R

GEREN, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia, on tbff
Vilhila ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Marienburg.

GERENIAjOrGERi xiL'M,in^naVn/Gfo/r(7^/>V, atownot"
Italy. — Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in Laconia. Ptole-
my.— Alfo, a town of Meffenia, on an eminence, S.W. of Ala->
goiiia. Paufanias fays that this town was the fame with the
" Enope" of Homer. It was confecrated to Machaon, aii
ingenious phyfician, flain by Eryphilus, whofe bones were
collefted by Neftor, and depofited at Rhodon, near this-
town. It had a temple dedicated to Machaon. Eaft of it
was a mountain called " Calatheon,' on which was a temple
confecrated to Calathea, with a grotto, having a ftrait en-
trance, and containing in its interior many ciiriofities.

GEPv^ENNA, or Jerexna, in Gi-ogmphy, a town of
Spain, in the province of Seville, furrounded by large ftones,
fuppofed to have been the efFctl of an earthquake ; 12 miles
N.N.W. of Seville.

GERENSCHANSKOI, a fortrcfs of Ruffian Siberia,
in the government of Kolivan ; 240 miles S. S.W. of Koli-
van. N. lat. 50° 45'. E. long. 79 14'.

GERESHEIM, a town of the duchy of Berg ; 5 miles
E. of DuOcldorf.

GE RE SOL, in MnJc, one of the clefs.

GERESPA, in y'ncietit Geography, a town of Afia, in
the interior of Media, fometiuies called Gerepa, and Ge-
refa.

GERESTADT, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
thebifliopric of Aggcrhuus ; 32 miles S.W of Tonfberg.

GERESTO, a town of tha ifland of Negropont ; i^
miles S.of Carillo.

GEREUTH, a town of tlie princip-ality of Wurzburg ;.
J miles N. of Ebern.

GERFALCON, GyufALCOn, or Jerfalcon, (feepALCO^.
This is naturally a very bold, wild and tierce bird, and is
therefore very difficult to be reclaimed ; but when that is done
it proves one of the very bed kinds, and will fly at almoft any
thing. The beak of the gerfalcon is always blue, and the
claws are remarkably long and ilrong.

In goiag up to the gate, as the fportfmen exprefs it, thefe
bird.-i do not hold the fame fort of courfe that othej-s do, but
immediately climb up upon the train on fight of tiie bird,
and as foon as they have reached her, they immediately make
the attack, and generally pull her down at the firft encounter;
but if not, always at the fecond or third.

This fort of hawk is to be fed Aid rewarded like the others^
It is of a very fly and crafty nature, and is fo flothful, that
it loves to keep the cafting a long time ; therefore, inftcad of.
cotton, it is proper to give them fometimcs a cafting of tow,
and to keep them fharp f.t. As to the reclaiming this fort
of hawk, it is only to be done by gtntlenefs and kindntfs;
and when flie has been taught to be turned loofe, fhe is not
to be taught to come to the pelts of hens or otlicr fowl. But
(he muft never be fuffered to tafte any living fiefti, for that
\\ ill be apt to draw away her love from the hand and voice.
Whenever file eats, the falconer muft be clofe to her, and
muft make her eat the choiceft pieces out of his hand. There
is great care to be taken in the making of theft birds, for as
they are made at firft, fo they are for ever ; and it is a nccef-
fary caution, with birds of this bold and fierce nature, not to
hurry over the bufinefs, but to ix'peat the fame thing very
often till it is perfetlly fixed. See Falconry.

GERGAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro.
vlncc of Gi'enada ; 10 miles S! W. of Purchena.

GERGEFALVA, atown of Tranfilvania; 16 miles W.
N. W. of Hcrmenftadt.
GERGESA. See Gerasa.

CEIU

G E R

GERGESENES, orGiRCASwiTEs, mJnc'untGeogfapJ'y,
aiiancii-nt people, who inhabited the land of Canaan, before th^
Ifraelites took pofleffion of it. Thcirterritory h>- next above
that of tiic Amorites, on the call fide of the fea of Tibe-
rias ; and it was afterwards poffeffed by tlie half-tribe of
ManafTeh. See Gehesa.

GERGETHA, or Gergitiia, a town fituated in the
Troade, E. of Rhaetium, Ophrynium, and Dardanus, in the
Ticinity of the fcite of Troy or Ilium, near mount Ida. Thia
town appears to have been inland at fome dillance from the
fea.

GERGINA, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, at the foot of
mount Ida, feemingto be the fame with Gergetha.

GERGIS, the name given by Steph. Byz. to the Gergciha
of Strabo.

Geroi.s, in Geography, a town of Africa ; 80 miles W.
ofTripoh.

GERGOVIA, in Jnclent Geogrnphy, a ftrongly fortified
place of Gaul, belonging to the Arverni. According to
Csfar (1. vii. 36.) it was fituated on a very high mountain,
and every accei's to it was extremely difficult. At length it
■was obliged to fubmit to the victorious arms of Rome, and it
was probably fo coinpletely deftroyed, that no trace remains
from which we may afcertain its fituation. It has been conjec-
tured, however, that its fituation was iu the vicinity of
Clermont.

GERHARDSBRON, mGeogrnphy, atown of Germany,
in the principality of Anfpach ; 28 miles W. of Anfpach. N.
Jat. 49°. 17'. E. long. lo'. — Alio, a town af Wurtemberg ;
a8 miles E. of Hailbron.

GERINES, a fea-port of the ifland of Cyprus, anciently
■called " Ceryaia.'' The walls, which are about half a mile in
circumference, appear to be ereCled on the foundation of the
ancient walls. This place has one entire church, and two or
three in ruins. Its chief trade is with Caraniania, wliither it
exports rice and coffee brought from Egypt, and whence it
brings back ftorax, and a great number of paflengers. Ge-
rines is therefidence of an Aga and Cadi : 16 miles N.N.W.
of Nicofia.

GERINGSW ALDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Leipuc. N. lat. 51 5'. E. long.
12 46'.

GERIS, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile ;
8 miles N. of Afhmunein.

GERISA, in yfndt-nt Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, fituated between the two Syrtes. Ptolemy.
GERIS AU. See Gersau.

GERKOW, JoRKOw, or Bor:Ii, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Saatz ; 22 miles N. E. of Saatz.

GE REACH, Stephen, in Biographv, was born at a
village in Swabia in the year 1546. He laid the foundation
of alearned education at Stutgard, and became dillingwifhtd
for his diligence at the univerfity of Tubingen, where, iu
1566, he took his degree of B. A. with great ajjplaufe.
Shortly after this he withdrew from the luiiverfity on account
of the plague. He was admitted to the degree of doctor in
philofophy in 1567 at Ellingen, and in 1573 he accooipa-
jnied an embalTy from the emperor jMaximilian II. to tlie
Turkifh court. He continued at Conllaiitinople about five
i years, acquainting himfelf with the manners and religion of
I the Turks and Greeks, and cultivating an acquaintance witli
the moft eminent men in the latter communion. Upon his
j return to Tubingen he obtained otlicr preferment, and en-
gaged in the duties of his profeffion with fo much zeal and
wFiduity, as to injure his health. He died in 161 2 in the
66th year of hi« age. He was autht^r oi " An Epitome of

G E R

Ecclefiaftical Hiftory;" of " A Journal of the embafTy fent
to the Porte by thecmperors Maximilian II. and Rodolf II.''
abounding in curious and interefting particulars, hiftorical,
ecclcfiaftical, and theological: and numerous theological
"Diffcrtations," &c. Moreri.

GERLATZKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruflla, on
the E. fide of the Irtifch, in the government of Kolyvan; Z12
miles W. of Kolyvan. N. lat. 54'. 20'. E. long. 75'' 24'.,

GERM, in Vegetable Philcifjphy. See Emuryo.

Germ, in Navigation and Commerce, the name given in
Egypt to fmall veiiels which feive to carry European mer-
chandife from Alexandria to Kofetta, and to bring back ta
Alexandria the cornmodltiesof Egyptund Arabia. Thefe vef-
felsarea kindof ilrong barks, tolerably conliruftcd ; without
decks, drawing little water; and, according to tlieir fize, hav-
ing two or tluce mafts with very large latine fails, the yards
of which are fixed to the heads of the malls, and cannot be
lowered, fo that, however bad tile weatlier may be, tlie failors
are obliged to climb up the whole length of them, in order to
furlthe fails. They are, in general, of about five or fix tons
burden. Goods are often damaged in thefe uncovered veffels,
and the navigation of them is dangerous in a rough fea.
Although tlie diitanee which they have to fail is fcarcely more
than 12 leagues, and though the bay of Aboukir, which is
in the middle of their paffage, affords them fate flielter, this
coafting trade is not free from danger, efpecially at the mouth
of the weftern branch of the Nile, formerly called the " Bol-
bitic," now "the branch of Rofetta;'' where is a bar form.ed
by the fand, upon which the ^vave.s, driven by the wind from
the offing, and oppofed by the itream of the river, break witii
great fury. A fmall illand, dividing the entrance of this
branch, leaves on each hand a narrow paffage, called in the
language of the country " Boghafs," a canal or ftrait. But
there is only a narrow channel of this paffage which is fecurel^y
navigable ; for it is continually (liifting, on account of the
inft-ability of the bottom and the agitation of the fea. Apilot,
"Reis," or mailer of the "Boghafs," iscontinually employed
in founding this changeable paffage, and indicating it to the
" germs.'' Infpite oi all thefe precautions, they often get on
fhore ; and, being foon overwhelmed with w»ter and fand,
perifh with their crews and cargoes.

GERMA, or GEiniE, in ^Indent Geography, a town of
Afia, upon the Helk-fpont ; which, according to Ptolemy,
was a colony founded by the Gauls, named Tohfloboiims,
in Galatia.

GERMAIN, Cou^T St., in Biography, a confpicuous
perio.T of a mylierious character, who rcfided in England a
coiiilderable time, and of whom nothing was certainly known,
but that he was a fine performer on tlie violin, and an elegant,
though not a learned or original, compofcr. Being here at
the lame time as prince Lobkowitz, they were infeparable.
He printed a book of violin folos to prelent to his friends
and admirers, which he called " La Mufique raifonnce,'' in
which there v.-ere elegant paffages, fingular movements, and
amufmg concetti. In his fongs, the melody was Italian, and
in good tafte ; but the accompaniments were thin, and with-
out carrying on any ingenious defign. It was reported, that
when examined before the privy council, during the rebel,
lion, lie was obliged to difclofe, " fub figiilo confefilonis,'
that he was originally a mufician by profeilion ; but that by
play, and his Lonnes fortunes, he had realized an independent
tortunc; but this, like newfpapcr report.s, merits confirmation.

Germain-, St. in Geography. See St. Germans.

Ger.maix, St. a town of France, in the department of the

Creufe, 15 miles N. W. of Gueret. — Alio, a town of France,

in ll»e departjr.ent of the Aube ; tJiree jailcs S. W.of Troves,

X 3 — Alfo,

G E R

G E R

— Alfo, a town of France, in the doiiaitmcnt uf the Oinr ; I'lJC
miles S. of BellefmL- — Alfo, a rivrr of America, which runs
iiiti) the Wabafli, N. hit. 39 20'. W. Umg. 87 58'.

Gkrmaik d' Aicc, St. a town of France, in the department
of the Sailhe; fix miles ,S. E.of I.e Lnite.

{'.EiiMAiiVc/cA-.'rt/r, St. atown of France, in the department
of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in tlie diilrift of
Goni-don ; fix miles S of Clonrdon. The place contains
171 1, and the canton 7478 inhabitants, on a territory of 15 j
kiliometres, in i2comnumcs.

GKR>iAiS-tcs-Bil/cs-Fi//fs, St. a town of France, in the
department of the Up crViennc, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitrict of St Yrinix ; 16 miles S. S. E. of Limoges.
The place contains 201 J, and the canton 12,541 inhabitants,
on .1 territory of 3 1 2 ' kiliometrcs, in 8 communes.

GKiiMi\is-Jii-B'yis, St a town of France, in the department
of the Saoiic and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift ofLouhaas. The place contains 1684, and the canton
1 1,316 inhabitants, on a territory of 2 .27 J- kiliometres, in 13
communes.

CrKR\tM'^-tfe-Cn!l/cr/t; St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lozcre, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tridl: of Florae ; I 2 miles S.E, of Florae. Tlie place contains
1730, and the canton I 2, 2 73, inhabitants, on a territory of 332 ^
kiliometrcs, in 14 communes.

Gi'iiMAik lies Fq/fa, St. atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Allicr; iz miles N.E. ofGannat.

• G ERM. MS-/' Hcrm, S.'. a town of France, in the department
of the Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Ambert ; 10 miles S.W. of Ambcrt. Theplnce con-
tains 1735', and the cunton 10,510 inhabitants, on a territory
of 232 kiliometrcs, in 10 communes.

Gi-:KMAiN-Z.rt»/iroH, Si. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy-dc-D6mc,and chief place of a canton, in the
dillriftof IIToire ; fix miles S of Illoire. The place contains
1706, aiid the canton 8348 inhabitants, on ti territory of 130
kiliometres, in 16 communes.

Germ .\ts-J.,avii/, St a town of France, in the department
of the Loire, «nd chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of
Roanne; 12 miles S. ofRoanne. The place contains 1 125, and
the canton 8443 inhabitants, on aterritory of 220 kiliometrcs,
in 16 communes.

GiiRM ws-cn-Lnye, St. a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tridl of Verfailles, feated on the Seine. A palace was built
here bv Robert, king of France, which was deftroycd by
the Englilh in the year 1 346 ; and another palace was eretted
by Francis I., which has been enlarged by fevernlfucceeding
kings, and particularly by Louis XIV. ; 2^ polls W. of
Paris. The jilacecontainstjcco, and the canton 14,355 '"li^i-
bitants, on a territory of 107-^ kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.
N. lat. 48" 54'. E. h)ng. 2'^ 10'.

Germain-^/«-/'/(7/h, Si. atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriftof Chalons-fur-Saone; fix miles S. E. of it. The
place contains 1229, and the canton 6676 inhabitants, on a
territory of 130 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

Gr.RM \ls'Je- Prinj^iiy, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vendee, 18 miles S.S.W. of Mortagne.

Gv.RMAl'S-i/e-Tiiil, St. a town of France, in the department
of the Lozere ; 13 miles W. of Mende.

Geumais-ch- f^^try, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nicvre ; 15 miles S. S. E. of Ncvers.

GERMAm-fiir-Ficmi!', St. a town of F'rance, in the depart-
ment of the Charente ; four miles N. of Confolens.

GERMAINMONT.St., atown ofFrance, in the depart-
ment of the Ardennes ; five miles S. W. of Rethel.

GERMAN, in Matters 0/ Genealogy, R'^niCicswhdlc, entire",
Qt own.

" Gcrmani, qnafi eadem (lirpc gcniti.'' Fell. Hence,

Geii.\i.\n, Brother, denotes a brother both by the father's
and mother's fide, in contradiftinftion to uterine brothers,'
&c. who are only fo by the mother's fide.

Gekman", Coiijiiis, are thofc in the firft or ncareft degree,'
being the children of brothers or fillers.

Among the Romans we have no inllance of marriage be-
tween coufins german before the time of the emperor Clau-
dius, when they were very frequent.

Theodofins prohibited them under very fevere penalties,,
even fine and profcription. Sec Consanguinity.

GiiK.M AN acacia, Ivzoar, bible, black, coins, compajfcs, empernr,
empire, Jliite, language, meafures, monies. See the feveral fub-
llantives.

Gehmax School of Engraving. Germany was probably
the birth-place, and Italy the cradle, of that art of engraving
which is performed with a view to its being afterward,
printed on paper. Engraving itfelf, as performed on me-
tals, and with the inllrument which is ftiU in ufe for that_
purpofe, which in the Englilh language is termed a graver,.
and in French la burin, is of very remote anli([uity ; the
Greeks of the early ages having employed it in the decora-
tions of their fliields, pateras, and other implements of war
and facrifice ; and the Hebrews, and perhaps the Chaldeans
and Egyptians, at a ftill earlier period ; but nnlefs we fup.
pofe (wliich is by no means improbable) that the art of en-
graving and printing from tablets of wood travelled from
China to Europe, it was referved for the artills ofGern-.any
or Italy, and moll probably the former, firll to perceive that
ink might be delivered, and impreflions thus multiplied to
an undefineable amount, both from the incifions and fur-
faces, of engraved plates of metal, and blocks of wood.

The prccifc time of the difcovei-y has not been afcertain-
ed. The baron Heinnekin, who had excellent opportunities
of acquiring information, and purftied his enquiries with
zeal and accuracy, has clearly Ihewn that the fabrication of .
cards for games of chance was firll praftifed in Germany,
by means of the art of engraving, and was in ufe fo early as '
the year 1376. Not long afterward, the fame art that had
been fnbfervient to amufement, was employed to gratify
and dilTeminate fuperftition, and extremely rude outlines of
faints and legendary tales, which were cut on tablets of wood,
and were printed in the cities of Ment/, Straftourg, and
Haerlem, toward the clofe of the fourteenth, and begin-
ning of the fifteenth, centuries, are not uncommon in
the port-folios and bibliographical coUcftions of the-
curious.

Of thefe engravings, the earlieft that is known, whofe in-
fcription contains a tlate, and which may therefore be elleemed
a o-reat curiofity, is now in the library of earl Spencer. It
was difcovered by Heinnekin in the library of a cwnvent at
Buxheim, near Menimingen : its fiibjedl is the legendary
tale of St. Clu-illopher carrying the infant .Tefus acrofs the
fea ; it bears the date of 1423, and is infcribed " Chrillo-
feri faciara, die quacunque tneris. Ilia ncmpe die morte
mala non morieris.'' This rude but curious engraving is of
the folio fi/e, and was found carefidly palled witliinfide the
cover of an old book, with a view, no doubt, to its prefer-
vation.

The fame magnificent colleftion of earl Spencer con-
tains alfo one of the original engraved blocks which were
ufed in the very infancy of printing, before moveable types
were invented. It appears to be oi the wood of the pear
tree, and in the courfe of the three centuries and a half linee

it

GERMAN SCPIOOL OF ENGRAVING.

it was engraven, is Tiere and there perforated by worms.
It may be neceflary to obferve, that the earliell printed
books were impreHed from engraved blacks or tablets of
this kind. To the rude reprefeutations of faints and mira-
cles, their names and legends, cut in the Gothic character, or
German text, on a fcroll or label, were added, for the better
information of the unlearned fpettator, and in aid of the la-
bours of the artift, if fuch he might be termed; and from
thefe explanatory fcrulls, the id'-a was firll caught of printing
book«, to which the works of imitative art became in their
turn merely illuftrative. Soinc of thefe prints are limply
outlines, and in others, which were produced fomew hat later,
fhadowing, with a fingle courl'.- of lines, is feebly attempted.
The tablet in the coUecllon of earl Spencer, is of the former
kind, and originally conltituted the fecond leaf of the fecond
edition (of which there is a complete copy in his majefty's
library) of the hiflory and vifions of St. John the Divine.
It is, probably, therefore, one of the earlieft engravings on
wood that was ever performed, excepting the prototypes for
the playing cards, which have been before-mentioned, and
perhaps the oldeft of which the original tablet itfelf is ftill
extant. Hence it appears that the art of engraving is the
parent of that of printing, and that at leafl; that branch
of printing which delivers the ink from the furface of the
engraving, and wliich is now termed letter-prefs printing,
originated in Germany.

The prefent writer conceives that a great deal too much
of fpurious importance has been attaclied to the invention,
as it has been termed, of printing; that the traffickers in
its productions, by diverting tlie attention of thofe wlio
might elle have become men of tafte, from its true mark,
have i\ifled or intercepted much of the pleafure which the
engravers' art is capable of imparting ; and that the philo-
fophy of engraving lies buried ahve under a heap of rarity
and early rubbiih v.-hirh has been piled, and is ftill piling,
on it without mercy, from the fnovel:; of de ilers, collectors,
and thofe who have, unfortunately for fociety, nothing bet-
ter to do than to labour under them.

A knowledge of the era, and of the author of a great
work, or an ufeful invention, is certainly delirable. Befide
tbut it is nccelTary to the truth of liiftory, it feems to afiift:
ns in indulging the amiable fentiment of gratitude. It would
call forth our fmcere regret, if the name of the author of
Paradife I^oll, or the Cartoons, or Principia, had funk in
oblivion. But at the time which we are confidering, paper
ai]d ink were in conflant and daily uie ; and impreflions
from dios and from feals had for ages been taken, and were
under hourly obfervation; it therefore required no protracted
train of thought ; no long connefted chain of caufes and ef-
fects ; no mighty genius, like that of Homer, Michael An-
gelo, or Newton, to perceive that impreflions might alio
be taken either from the furfaces or incifions of engraved
blocks or plates. The art of printing, as I conceive, origi-
nated in a concurrence of circumftances entirely independ-
ent of the minds or ftudies of its reputed inventors. We
have feen that at fu-(l, when it was coarfely performed,
and (like the tops of ballads, and the dying fpeeches of
criminals at prefent) grofsly addrefTed itfelf to the lower
elafies of the community, it was regarded as of \ery
little confequence ; and though Kofter, Guttemburg, and
Fauft, cannot be ranked in the clafs of inventors, the in-
ferior merit of perceiving that the arts of engraving and
printing might be applied to purpofes of greater magnitude
and imporlanc; than had hitherto been obferved, may be
jiiftly claimed for them. It is the important confequences
gradually refulting from the difcovery, that have made us
attach a degree of credit to the name, and entertain an un-
7

merited refpcft for the fuppofed refearchcs, of the difcovcrcr,
to which, in point of real ingenuity, the maker of thclirft
pair of ipedacles or (lockings, or tlie firft flicet of paper,
would be far more juftly entitled.

In tracing effefts to their true caufes, it onglit not to be
forgotten that the great benefits v.c have derived, and con.
tinuc to derive, from engraving and printing, ought, in fair-
nefs, to be partly afcribed to the difcovery of the means of
converting rags into paper : this probably helped to fuggeil
the idea of printing, and perhaps two centuries and a half had
fearcelymore than brought this invention to the degree of per-
feftion neceflary for the reception of impreflions from printing
types and engravings. Had the modern art of making pajicr
been known to the ancients, we had probably never he.ird the
names of Fauft and Finiguerra, for with the fame kind of
ftamps which the Roman tradefmen ufed for their potterv and
packages, books might alfo have been printed ; and the
fame engraving whic'i adorned the fliields and pateras
of the remote ages, with the addition of paper, min-ht
have fpread the rays of Greek and Etrurian intelligence
over the world of antiquity. The procefs of printing is in-
deed fo Ample in itfelf, and was fo nearly obvious in the Hate
of things we have juft attended to, that a child at play, who
wanted to multiply a given form, might almolt be aftiamcd
not to have perceived it : and we ought rather to wonder it
was not difcovered fooner, than that it was difcovered fo foon.
The art of engraving and printing from tablets of wood,
then, may be faid to have been rather difcovered than invent-
ed in Germany, and rather feen than difcovered. That it
was little thought of at the time, may be inferred from the
number of wood cuts, the production of this period, which
appear without either dales or the names of their authors,
who were at once the deilgners, engravtrs, and printers of
their own works, but who deemed thofe works of too little
importance to claim for themfelves diilinclion on account of
having performed them.

For the accommodation of thofe perfons who cou'd not
afford to purchafe manufcript copies of the Old and New
Teftaments, befide the apocalyptical vifions of St. John the
Divine, which has been already mentioned, a fmaJI folio vo-
lume, entitled "Hiftori-a: Veteris et Novi Teftamenti," (com-
monly known by the name of " The Poor Man's Bible,")
was publilhed about this time, or foon after. In the fame
manner as the former, each leaf, printed from a fingle en-
graved block of wood, confilled of a mixture of reading
with pictorial reprefentation, fuch as it was ; to which cclour
was in lome inftances afterwards added with the hair ]-,cncil,.
or fome iuch implement. The printing was perffjrmed only
on one iide the paper, and two of thefe leaves bein^ pafled
together have the appearance of a fingle leaf printed on both
fides. Copies of tlirfe early wood cms, fufiicientlv falthfid,
maybe feen in Strutt's Biographical Dictionary of Engravers.
As the title of this anonymous and undated book (xXv: Poof
Man's Bible) imports, its publication was regarded merely
as a cheap contrivance for diffeminating tlie knowledge of
holy fcripture. Other books of engravings, printed in the
fame manner, were foon afterward produced, among which
are " Hiftorlabeatx Marite Virginis," " Ars Memorandi,"
" Ars Moriendi,'' and " Speculum Humana; Sulvationis;"
but wepafs over, as of minor importance, all particular men-
tion of thefe and various other engravings on wood by un-
known workmen, which were apparently executed in Ger-
many, about the time now under our obfervation. The next
work which bears a date after the print of St. Chiiftopher
and the infant Jcfus, and the firll engraved book wliich bears
date at all, is called " the Chiromancy of Doctor Hartlieb."..
It confifts of twenty-four fmall folio leaves, piinte«i on loth

lid«e.

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Tides. *' At fhe beginning-oftliis curious book,'' fays Strutt,
*• is a large vignette, rcprefenting' Dr. Hartleib kneeling and
prefcnting it to the prinecfs Anne, who is featcd upon lier
throne ; and the names of thefc two perlonagrs arc engraven
at the bottom of their portraits. The prints in this book
are exceedingly rude ; but have not, as far as one can judge
from the copy of one of them, given in the "Idee generale
d'une Collection complete d'ellampcs," the appearance of
being fo ancient as thof? in the Apocalvple, or Poor Man's
Bible. This curious compilation is dated 1448, and the
Jiame of Jorg Schapff, the artill, who is fuppofed to have
pei-fonned the eugravings, appears upon the fourth page.''

Of Hans Sporer and Johan vou Padcrborn, who are men-
tioned among the earlicll German engravers on wood, we
know nothing more than their names. They may perliapa
be the autbors of forae of the works we have enumerated.

Johan Schnitzcr executed the geographical charts for the
edition of Ptolemy, printed at Ulm ir. i486. His map of
the world is ornamented with ten rude heads, which are
intended to rcprcfentthe winds, and is infcribed, " Initulp-
tum ell per .lohannem Schnitzcr dc Arnflieim.''

Sandrart indeed mentions and copies a jJriiit, wWch he
believes to bear the date of 1455, and which is marked with
a cypher, fuch as the reader wili find in our iirit: plate of the
monograms, &c. of the German fchool of engravers. As
"kliis cypher is compofed of the initials of plans Sporer, it
may pollibly be from his graver ; yet neither Sandrart, nor
the author of " The little clu-onological Scries of Engra-
vers,'' which was printed at Cambridge, afcribe it to him ;
tlie latter afferts in his preface, that the two fives in the date,
er what Sandrart fuppofes to be fuch, are intended for
fevens ; which makes a difference of twenty-two years in
the age of the print, and brings it down to the time when
the elder Schauflcin is believed to have flouriflicd.

The fnbjeft of the above print is a young woman
careffing an elderly man while flie fteals his purfe ; a fnbjccl
which lias been often repeated by other mailers, both on
copper and on wood.

In what part of Germany, Hans or John Schauflcin \vas
born does not appear. Strutt fays, " his prints are exe-
cuted in a bold Ipirited ftyle, and the compofitions fliew him
to have been a man of genius, though the ftiff manner which
characterized the early German mailers obfcures much of
their merit. Befidcs which they are incorretlly drawn; the
extremities of the figures, in particular, art very defective.
Schauflcin ufually marked his prints with an H and an S ;
rtr an I and an S joined together in various ways." To
thefe he fometimes added a baker's peel, whicli formed a
pun upon his name, a peel, in the German language, being
called Schajifcl, and the word Srhaeujlein fignifying a little
peel. At other times we find prints of this early period,
marked with two little peels crofling each other, which
perhaps may mean the two Schaufleins, if they ever
worked in conjunttion.

The works of the elder Schauflcin are chiefly very fmall,
and he is t'heretore clafled among " the little mailers.''
The moil remarkable of them are, " A Crucifixion, with
St John, the Virgin, and two Soldiers ;" "The Virgin and
Child ;" " St Chrillopher,'' and " St. Laurence in Con-
verfation with St. Auguilin :'' thefe are all of the circular
form, and each about two inches and a quarter in dia-
meter.

The principal wood cuts by the younger Schauflcin are
as follow, " Adam and Eve," a fmall upright ; " Lot and
bis Daughters,'' a middling-fized print, length-ways ;
" Cliriil preaching to the Multitude from the Ship ;" a
loiddiing-uzed prmt, length-ways, marked with an I aad

an S joined together, without the peel ; " Tlie Life of
Chrill ;" a fet of middling-fizcd upright prints, in quarto;
another fet of " The Life of Chriil ;' ' in an oftavo volume,
confining of 37 prints, entitled " Vite et palfo Jefu Chriili,"
&c. pnbliflied at Fraiicfort by Clirillian Egoluphus, A. D.
1537. To thefe are ad.led, " Hiilorin[' Evangelio ;'' con-
taining the miracles, parables, &c. of Chriil, in thirty-fix
prints, the fame fize as the above, and printed on both fides.
Thefe are marked with the I and S joined together upon
the peel.

This artid is prefiimed by Strutt to have alfo engraved
on copper: but perhaps " the very free etching of a land-
fcape,'' if not tlie plate executed with the graver, of
" Soldiers converfing," of which this autlior treats, may be
the work of a third engraver of the fame firname. The date
of the latter is l J51, and Strutt has previoufly recorded of
the tliird Schauflcin, that he has fci.^n by him a print of two
men fighting, cut on wood, in a cuarfo but fpirited manner,
and a very fine mallerly etching in the ilyle of a painter,
reprefenting a large company at an entertainment in a
garden ; which prints prove him to liave been a man of
great abilities. He was probably of the fame family with
the former two.

Ill the year 1493, appeared the celebrated Chronicle of
Nuremberg, which was compiled by Hermann Schcdel.
a folio work, ornamented with a conCdcrablc number of
engravings on wood by Wilhelm Pleydenwcrft" and Michael
Wolgemut. Thefe engravings are greatly fuperior to all
that had previoufly appeared in Europe, and conlift, for the
moll part, of figures 01 various kinds, and landfcapes which,
though profefiTcdly views of certain cities, towns, &c. bear
fo little refcmblance to thofe places refpeftivcly, that they
are probably altogether tlie work of f;uicy. They are, how-
ever, cut in a bold and fpirited ftyle, and the charafters of
the heads are in fome inllances far from being badly de-
lineated, though that meagre ilifi"ncfs is every where pre-
valent, which fo fl.rongly marks the early art of Ger-
many.

Pleydenwerff was a native of Germany, and perhaps of
Nuremberg, but it does not appear that he ever engraved
on copper, or ufed any monugram or other mark by which
to dillinguidi his engravings from thofe of his afTociate.

Michael Wolgemut, or Wolgemuth, was born at Nurem-
berg in the year 1434. He is faid to have been inftructcd
in engraving by a certain Jacob Walch, but both Strutt
and plubcr doubt this fail, grounding tlieir doubt on the
want of refcmblance between the ftyles of dcfign and engrav.
ing of thefc two mafters. Walch does not appear to have
engraved at all upon wood, whereas V/olgemut did little
elfe. The engravings on copper attributed to Wolgemut do
not bear even a diilant refcmblance to thofe of Walch. The
latter v.as a tame artill, or ratlier workman, and his work
charafterized by labour and care, which is generally ill
bellowed ; whereas Wolgemut may even be termed an artid
of genius, a word, by the bye, which feems to batter down
the argument of Strutt and Huber, fince if a man of genius
lludy under a mere manual workman, as by chance ke may,
he will certainly emerge from the ilyle, or want of ll)'le of
his mailer.

Wolgemut did cccafionally engrave on copper, but his
works on wood are far more numerous, and more generally
known. In Strutt's account of this artill, he fays, " we
have fome fev.- excellent engravnigs on copper, executed
about this time : thefe have much of that fpirited ilyle in
them whicli appears in the' wooden cuts of Wolgemut ; they
are marked with a W furmounted by a fmall o, and thefe
prints, I verily believe, are the produdlion of iiis graver."
4 He

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Jiff yifoeecds to defcrlbe one of the rareft and bed of thefe
prints which he found in the collection of the late Dr. Monro.
It is ten inches and a half high, by feven and a half in width,
and reprefcnts an old man feated in a praying pofture. He
has a ftandard refting upon his left fhoulder, and a book
before him. Behind liim is an armorial fhield, with three
different bearings ; and, at the bottom, a cave with a gate
before it. Above the figure is a fcroll, upon which is
written, " fee Wilhclnne Dvx Aqvitaine et Comes Picla-
tienfis." The head of this figure is well drawn ; the hands
are marked in a fpiritcd manner, the folds of the drapery
are broad, and boldly exprefled, and the whole is compofed
in a (lyle which does much honour to the artift. With
refpeft to the mechanical part, it is executed with the graver
only, in a dark, clear ftyle, yet without formality, fo as to
have the effett of a neat etching.

It is no fmall addition to the honour of Wolgemut, that
he was the tutor of Albert Durer, a name fo greatly cele-
brated in the annals of engraving.

Arrived at the period when engraving both on wood and
on copper began to (hine forth with fuperior luftre in
Germany, it is neceffary to look back a few years in order
to note the introduftion of the latter branch of the art, into
that part of Europe.

The reader wiU find under the article Italian' fchool of
Engraving, tlie popular and perhaps the true accoimt of the
difcovery of the mode of printing from the incifions of the
graver, which, foon after the middle of the fifteenth century,
was introduced into Germany. As the firft engravers on
wood were the manufacturers of plaving-cards, (called
Formfchricuhrs and Br'iefmaLrs in Germany and in France,)
fo the eai"!iell modern engravers on metal, both in Germany
aiid Italy, were goldfmiths, and the firfl artift who emi-
nently dillinguifjied himlelf in the former country was
Martin Scho'jn.

Yet having ;drcacly mentioned Jacob Walch of doubtful
chronolog)', it may not be improper in this place to add,
that this engraver was particularly fond of introducing.
Gothic architefture into his prints, in the delineation of
Avhich he took no fmall pains ; but, from a want of know-
ledge in perfpeftive, his deUgns of this kind are fadly con-
fufed. He drew ver^- incorreftly, and his compofitions are
in the extreme of that ftifF and meagre tafte which charae-
terizes the early produttions of the German Ichoo!. His
mark, confifting of the initial letter of his firname and a
kind of lozenge crofs, may be feeu in our firft plate of mono-
grams, &c. of the German fchool of engravers ; but it is to
be obferved, that there are fome few prints marked with the
crofs only, which have the appearance of beina; more ancient
than thofe wliich are marked with the W and crofs.

Of the former kind are, " a hairy, wild, Man fighting with
a Bear,'' and " a Woman feated, careffinga Unicorn," both
finall, and of tlie upright form.

Of the latter kind (marked with the W and crofs,) a
Gothic ornament for a crozier, a large upright ; " The
infide of a Gothic Edifice,'' a middling-lized circular plate,
" A Ship ftriking againil a Rock," with the infcription,
" Haerdze" in German text, a fmall plate; a fet of mili-
tary fubiefts, fmall, and another of faints Handing in Gothic
inches, fmall uprights ; " Three Skulls in an Arch, orna-
mented with Gothic work ;'' and " The Genealogy of Jefus
Chrift," wherein faint Elizabeth appears on a throne,
reading, with the Virgin Marj' and infant Chrift below.
On the right hand is David with his harp, and on the left
Aaron. Behind the throne arifes a genealogical ftem of
the lir^age of Chrift from David to Joieph, reprefentcd (as .

ufual) by half figures. This Jaft is a large uprigFit
print.

Martin vSchoen, or Schcin, or Sclioengauer, called by the
foreign writers on art, Le Beau Martin, or Hiibfe Martin,
and miftakenly called by Vafari Martin of Antwerp, was
born at Culmbach, a fmall city in the circle of Franconia,
in the year 1420. He was educated a goldfmith, and a-
certain Luprecht Ruft, and Francis Van Stofs, or Stohlzirs,;
have been mentioned as his tutors. At the age of forty,,
and probably before, he diftinguidied himfclf bj- his extra-
ordinary powers in the arts of paintmg and engraving, par-
ticularly tlie latter, and died at Colmar in 1486. His
prints are without dates, but he, rather than any other man,
may claim the honour of having been the firft to praftife the
art of engraving on plates of metal, with a view to their
being afterward printed on paper.

Schoen engraved from his own compofitions r his plate*
are numerous, and (hew that his mind was fertile and vigo-
rous. If it was not fnfficiently vigorous to burft the Gothic
fetters which at that time manacled the tafte of Germany,
his admirers may folace therafclves by doubting whether the
unaffifted powers of any individual whatever would have-
been found adequate to fo difficult an occafion. The-
tyranny of eftabhihed cuftom is probably not lefs ftern and
unrelenting in the arts of defign than in tliofe of education.

How the ftifF and meagre manner, — the angular draperies-
and emaciated forms which cliarafterize the early produc-
tions of the Germans, came to prevail among the Gothic-
and Celtic nations, from whom they derived them, is a
curious, and perhaps not an unimportant, queftion. By com-
paring the early efforts in art of all nations of which we have-
any memorials, we may be led to infer, that man Las gra-
dually learned to fee objefts as they really exift in natur<; j:
tlie images pictured on the retina of the eye appear to be-
refracled in their tranfmiffion to the intelleftual retina, and-
in every country continue be fo refracted, until, as the
fun of fcienee fiowly afcends, the morning dcnfity of the
mental medium is gradually rarefied : it is not lefs ebfervable,.
nor a lefs curious faCf, that a fimilar haggard lanknefs in the
attempts of man in an uncivilized ftate, to imitate the
human form, has almoft univerfally prevailed, even in ages-
and climates, the raoft diftant from each other. The early art.
of Eg^-pt, Perfia, and Hindooftan, agrees in meagrenefs witli
the rude efforts of the Mexicans and South-fea iflanders,
and with the German art, derived from the Gothic and".
Celtic nations, which is now under our ohfervation.

In the time of Martin Schoen, ar.d Albeit Durer,.
German art was much in the fame ftate with European
ethics : theory was feparated from praftice; and both art
and philoiophy remained perplexed with falfe analogies,
metaphyfical jargon, and occult nonfenfe ; till Bacon, and.
the refiu-reclion of the antique, referred them to the rcfultg;
of experience, as a criterion of principle.

Neither lord Orford then, nor any otlier man, Ihould have
difpraifed either Schoen or Durer, for not having done, what
no artift of any other fchool has of himfelf been .iblet>> per-
form : for, not only neither of thefe founders of the Ger-
man fchool, but none of the early Italian mailers, has fhewn;
that he pofTeffed the penetration to fee beytind this gloomy
exhalation from the barbaric ages, till the great examjilcs o£
clafiic art began to re-appear, andrcfledt bauk on Nature the:
light they had received from her.

The woiks of Schoen evince a ftrong mifLd operating on-:
the co-exifting ftate of things, brooding o\cr the abyis from-
whence the future elements of liis art were to be created ;
and uling with confiderable fuccefs the material by which it.
was fun;ounded : and ih may be regarded as fortunate for

hia

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

his claims, that in tlie inilance of his St. Anthony he has
adopted a fubjccl that in itsnatuie fct !iim free, or nearly fo,
from the Gothic bondage witli which, on other occalions,
his genius was (liackled : he has been the firil boldly to
venture into the regions of Chimera, and by the potency
of his art has compelled thence the dxmons that Cailot and
Teniers were aftcru-avd lolicitous to invoke and proud to
employ ; wlulethe expreflion of uiidifturbcd faith and pious
refignation is the countenance of the holy man wliom they
are hurrying into the air, fhewa that he faw and copied that
portion of Nature which flie did vouchfafc to unveil to him,
with a clear vilion, and delicate, though determined, hand. If
his ditmons are more fantaftic and lefs terrible than modern
art would deem it proper to introduce, we fliould recollect
that the age of Schoen was that of Ariofto, and that two
centuries elapfed between the grotefque mongers of Ariofto,
and the fublime djsmonology of Milton.

It is confonant to the progrcfiive improvement of critical
obfcrvation, that more lliould be known of the human counte-
nance at an early period, (or indeed at any period,) than of
the rcll of thefigure,becaufeit is the kind of ftudy and obferva-
tion in which men are moft interefted. Accordingly, Schoen's
heads are in general by far the beil parts of his performances.
Thofe of his iingle figures of St. Martin and St. John
have conliderable merit ; the divine character and expreffion
of that of his Chrill bearing his crofs, as it appears in the
good impreffions, have rarely been furpafTed ; and feveral
other heads in this extenfive compofition poflefs a propor-
tional fliare of excellence.

In this, as well as in feveral other of Schoen's prints, may
be traced a latent feeling exiiling in the mind of their
author, that tlic engraver's art might be rendered fubfervient
to the expreffion of the various textures of fubftances. Nay
more ; this elementary principle (Irongly diicovers itlelf in
. the manner in which he has treated the grain of the wooden
crofs ; in tlie various modes he has invented of defcribing the
different materials of drefs in which the figures are habited,
and in the fterihty of the ground ; perhaps the latter is as
much the refult of the neceflaiy operation of the unedu-
cated graver, as of lludy. Yet, is it in"iuchtu!l concord with
the barrennels ot the fcene, and tiie barbarifm of the fubject,
as to be not unworthy of favourable notice ; while the
whole together feems to fliew that a fentimcnt has fubfilled
from the very commencement of engraving, that it was
fufccptible of this particular merit, and which may there-
fore be fairly prefumed to be not founded in the fallacious
reiinements of modern fathion, (though perhaps fometimes
run after with too much of fafhionable avidity,) but one of
the primary elements of the art.

The mark which Martin Schoen affixed to his works may
.be feen in our firft plate of the monograms, &c. of the German
fchoolof engravers. Heinneken has enumerated an hundred
and fiftv of his engravings, moft of which are much and de-
fervedly fought alter by connoifleurs. We ftiall begin our
felett lift with the mention of thofe of which the fubjetts
are taken from facred hiftory.

A Nativitv, where the Virgin Mary is in thea&of ador-
ing the infant Saviour, who is lying on a ftraw pallet ; behind
the Virgin appears a bull and an afs ; and in the diftance
St. Jofeph. Three angels appear m the air, holding a
fcrolL . -

Another Nativity, where Jofeph is feen in profile, holding
8 lantern. The bull and afs are here lookitig at the infant
Chrift ; the fcene m a vaulted ftable, where, tlu-ough an
opening, are feen three fliepherds in convcrfation, and three
angels hymning hallelujahs above.

Oa the fame plute of copper, vrhick is ftiU kept as a cu-

tiofity, and may be feen in the chapel of die hofpital at Col-
mar, is likewife engraven " The Adoration of the'eaftern
Kings." The fcene here is alfo in a ftable, where the kings
are kneeling and offering prefents to the infant Saviour, who
is held by the Virgin Mary. This plate is very fkilfully exe-
cuted, and is of a Imall folio fize.

" The Flight into Egypt,'' in which angels are reprefent-
cd affifting St. Jofeph to gather dates, and lizards are in-
troduced with both local and allegorical propriety, one on
the ground, and two others climbing up a tree. This allu
is in fmall folio.

A fet of ten plates of " The wife Virgins," and " The
foolifli V^irgins," fmall uprights. The former bear their
lighted lamps in their hands, and are crowned with garlands
of flowers ; the latter are trampling on their garlands, while
their lamps alfo are on the ground.

A fet of twelve fmall quartos from the life of'Chi'ifl.
In the firft he is reprefented in prayer on the mount of Olives ;
in the fecond, arrefted by the government ; in the thii-d, be-
fore the high prieft ; in the fourth, foldiers are fcourging him ;
in the fifth, he is crowned with thorns ; in the fixth, Pila!
is wafhing his hands ; in the feventh, he is exhibited to th
multitude ; in the eighth, bearing the crofs ; the ninth is the
crucifixion ; the tenth the holy fepulchre ; the eleventh the
defcent into hell, and the twelfth the Refurreclion.

A large folio of " Chrift bearing his Crofs," one of the
moft celebrated of the engravings of Schoen, and on whicli
we have commented above.

A Crucifixion, alfo in folio, and which has been copied by
Ifrael von Mecheln. The Virgin Mary and St. Jolm are
in this print reprefented at the foot of the crofs, and angels
in great affliction ; "The laft Judgment;" a fet of twelve
middle-fized uprights, of which the fubjedls are taken front
the life of the Virgin ; " The Death of the Virgin,"
ditto, which has alfo been copied by Von Mecheln and
other contemporary artifts, and is a compofition of confi-
derable merit, and one of the moft carefully finilhed en-
gravings of the mafter ; " St. Anthony hurried into the
Air by Daemons," a very capital work, of which we have
already fpoken, an upright folio, but not very large. A fet
of the apoftles, very fmall.

Of mifcellaneous fulvjecfs, Schoen has engraved " The
Alchemifts fighting ; ' " A Biihop's Crozier,"' in foho, in ,
the fpiral volute of which is the Virgin Mary with the infant
Chrift, and an angel playing on a hite ; an incenfe-cup
or cenfer with a chain, ditto. Twelve fmall plates of '
goldfmiths' ornaments, confifting of avmorinl bearings
with their appropriate fupporters, &c. clofing with, au
efcutcheon, bearing the cypher of the artift hirvjfelf, fup-
ported by a female ; and " The Battle again ft the Saracen?,"
in which St. James appears on the part of the ChriHians ; a
large folio plate, prefumed to have been the laft of Schijen's
engravings, from the circumftance of certain diftant figures
toward the left hand corner being left in an unfiuilhed
ftate.

Bartholomew Schoen is faid, by profcfTor Chrift, to liave
been the brother of Martin, but of the dates of his birth
and death we find no account. His apparently very an-
cient engravings are known by his initials, having between
them a mark of feparation exaftly relembling that which fe-
parates the initials of Martin Schoen, which confirms the
probability of their having been brothers.

The engravings of Biu-tlioloinew bear that fort of refem-
blance to thofe of Martin, that a bad copy does to a good
original, and in neatnefs and feehng are exceedingly defettive.
They are partly original, but the greater number are copies
from the very fuperior prints of his brother.

His

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

His eriprmal works confift cliieny of grotefque figures,
of which fomeare brno means deilitutc of luimour. It msy
fiunceto mention the few follawincr, which are all en;rraved
ou fmall plates.

A beggar man, with an old woman in a wheelbarrow ; a
man plaving on a lute, with an old woman liolding a ladle
and jar ; two grotefque heads of an old man and woman,
marked in a better llyle than the former ; and a lo\-cr and
his miilrefs, a fmall circle.

He copied the fet from the life of Chrlil, the large folio
of Chrill bearing tne crofs, and various other of the prints
of Martin, but tiic copies may be known from the originals,
iby their inferiority as well as by the difference between the
two fiTnatures.

When a man of original genius, or one who may claim that
nobleft of human diitinftions, the title of invsntor, (bines
forth on the world, a fwnrm of bufy fluttcrers round Isis
glory are kindled into exiftence, buzz in his rays, and think
to fiiarj his fame. S.ich was Bartholomew S^hben, when
confidered with reference to his brotlier ; fuch probably
were Paul a!ul G-orge Schoen, who have been mentioned as
goidimiths and engravers of this early period, and fuch
were thcfe ot!-.er contemporary imitators and immediate
fuccelTors of Martin, who now claim fome fmall portion of
our notice.

Of talents far inferior to thofe of Martin Schoen, yet en-
gravers to whofe works the \-irtuofi are by no means inatten-
tive, were the Ifrael von Mechelns, father and fon, whom
Strutt hasmiilakenly inclined to identify, as having been one
and the fame individual. Both were natives of Mecheln or
Mekenin, a village near Bocholt, in the biihopric of Munfter,
in Wcilphalia.

The elder Ifrael von Mecheln (or Mekenin) was born in
the year 1424, and, like Schoen, he was by trade a gold-
fmith.

The year of the nativity of the younger Ifrael lias not
been mentioned. The lateil of his engravings is dated in
the year 1522, and he died in 1523. It has been conjccti;r.
ed, that he iludied under Martin Schoen, from the number
he has copied of that mailer's works, but this feems very in-
fufficient evidence of the fad. It rather feems to (hew
that the barrennefs of his invention corrc.fpondcd \v\l\\ the
drynels and iniipidity of his ftyle as an engraver.

Tlie works of the Von Mechelns [if the fiither en-
graved) are numerous. That he did engrave, is inferred by
the baron Heinnekin from the following circuniftance.
" An attentive examination (he fays) will make it appear
that all thefe prints are not by the fame hand. I am aLnoll
certain that Ifrael, the father, engraved feveral, thofe cfpe-
cJaUy v.hich have the greateft marks of antiquitv, and are
executed in a rude ftyle, approaching neareft to the work of
the goldfmith. Nor, do I deny, that the foil may have com-
menced oyginally as a goldfmith, by engraving armorial
bearings, flowers, foliage, erodes, and other ornaments : but
he was a painter as well as an engraver, and a man of tolera-
ble ability, coiilidering the time in which he lived."

Strutt, on the other hand, can fee no reafon for dividing
the works which pafs under this name, nor can he find any
other diiference in the prints than might reafonablv be ex-
pected in tlie works of an individual artift, who performed
fo many : his moil early productions being of courfe tlie
rudeil, but all equally defective where he has attempted to
exprefs the naked parts of tlie human figure.

The difficulty, and the importance alfo, of the queftion,
ceafes, when we refiecl that it was part of Uie profeffional
bufinefs of the goldfmiths of tkat dav, ih which everv ap-

VOL. XVI.

prentice was inftrufled, to ornament theL' produflions witli
engraving.

Of thcfe engravings, fo little worthy of learned conlra-
Terfy, the princip.)l arc ; the portrait of the fenior NTckcnen,
an elderly man wi;!i a long beard, his Lead drefTed with a
turban. The plate is in quarto, and bears the infcriptiosi
" Ifrael von Meckenen, Goldfchmit." Ditto of Mekenen,
junior, and his '.viio, infcribcd " Figuracio facicrum Ifraliciik
et Ide Uxoris, I. V. M."' in 8vo.

" The Defccnt of the Holy Ghofl ;" « St. Luke Painting
the Virgin and Child,'' and a fet of prints from " The Lile
of Ciiriil ;" fmall upright folios, though varying a little froDi
each other in dimenfions.

Thefe are among the prints which Heinnekin fupjjofcs So
be the work of Mekenen the father, and Strutt, the early
produclioiis of the fon. They bear the evident marks of beinw
the attempt of a novice, being wretchedly engraved and quit.-
as ill drawn.

" Judith and Holofernes,'' of the folio fize. In l!ie back
ground is an army, wK^re cinnon and other modem i.mple-
ments of war are ignorantly introduced. " The Banquet of
Herodias." Tliis alfo is a folio plate, twelve inches in length,
and marked Ifraiiel V. M. At one end is feen the decolla-
tion of St. John the baptiit ; ai.d at the o:her, Herodias and
her father appear feated at table. " Herod's C.utlty," is a
middle-fized upright.

Of holy famihes, the Ifracls engraved feveral, tlie chief
of which may be known from each other by the followino-
peculiarities. In one, the Virgin Mary, habited in a long
robe, is (ilting with the infant Chrift, while beyond an en-
clofure appears St. Jcfepli repofmg. Toward the bottom,
at the right hand corner, is a fmall grafbhop.pcr, from which
it has obtained the name t-f the Virgin t>f the Grafshoppcr.
It is in quarto, and infcribed Ifrael V. M. (This pkte has
b»en copied, with i.mprovements, bt.th by Albert Durer and
Mark Antonio.) In another, the Virgin Mary, feated in a
landfcapc, is about to kifs the ir.'"ant Savio'jr ; the Deity ap-
pears in the clouds above ; and St. Jofeph ileeping. .(This
is a middling-fized upright, and is partly f niihcd by means of
fcratclie?, v-hich ars apparently made wiih *he point of tiic
graver, fomcwhat in the manner of Rembrar;dt. ) In an-
other, w'-.ich is dated 1480, the Virgin aiid Child are fur-
rounded by four angeh. This is alfo a isiddlinr-fijcd
upright.

Of other facred fubjefls, we fiiall r-.er.tion " The Anntir;-
cialion," in 8vo., where an angel appears holding a fcroil, oa
which is tiie motto " Ave. Gra,'" and the Virgin ].■; ki!e<^in^-
before a praj-ing defic, on which is infcribcd I. V. M. " Tire
Death of the Virgin Wary,'' copiid from .Schcen. « Tl :;
Virgin crowned by Angels, and iia^iriingon a Crcfcent, wisil.t
the (all of Satan is rcprefcuted belov.'," an upright f j!!>.
" The Scourging of Chrill,'* ditto. " The Bearing of the
Crofs,'' a large folio, copied from Schoen, and tv. ■., lavgf-
folios ot the " Cruciirxion of our Saviour," which are d;f-
tingnilliable from each other by the following peculiarities :
in tlie one, angels are receiving the blood from the wourjdi
of the dying Saviour, while the Madonna a.-d St. John ap-
pear below : in the other, which is efteen.ed tne fuperior
v.ork, St. John holds a book in one iiand, wiiile the other
is lifted, and tlie hands of the Madonna are ciafped ; and the
ground in tlie latter is almoft left wiiitejT.hereas in tlie former
it is nearly covered with engir.viijg.

From the legends of tl;e Roras-n Catliolic rubrics, thf
younger Ifrael has engiT.ven, «' St. George ai.d the Dia-
gon," in 4to. infcribed I. V. M. Schben's " St. An-
thony tormented by Demons ;" and "St. Jero;:ie," in
which the faiat appears feated u» a room ir.d pointinti to a

5r 'ficuU.

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

I

A ill. On the riglit Inn J corner is the lion's head. The lat-
ter has been copieil by Lucas of Leyden, and in the opinion
of Striitt is Ifrael's inaller-piecc, though perhaps that dif-
tinilion ouj^ht ratlii-r to be granted to his moral print of " A
Cavalier and Lady, walking in amorous talk, wlulc Death
from behind a Tree is (baking an Ilour-glafs," a dcfign which,
whoever was its original author, had prcvioully been engra-
ven by Sporer or Schauflein, and has been fubfequently co-
pied by Albert Durer and feveral others.'

Of the lingular dcfign confilling of three naked women,
with a globe hanging above, which is infcribcd© 215. 31. there
is alfo an engraving by Ifrael.

A folio plate of " The Death of Liicretia ;" a pair in
quarto, of " A Woman i'mgiiig, whiL- a Man accompanies her
en theLute," and "AMan playing theOrgau.whileaWoman
blows the Bellows," both marked L M. ; Schoen's richly
ornamented incenfc cup ; and feveral plates of grotefque
foliage and other goldfmiths' ornaments, »re all that we fliall
mention of the two liundred and fifty engravings by the
Ifraels which are enumerated by Heinnekin. Neither of them
appears to have hvid any fettled monogram, but marked his en-
gravings varioufly, as we have ttated in the courfe of our lift,
ometimes adding to his name and refideuce the word " Gold-
fchmit,'' and at , others " Tzu Bnckholdt,'' iu the German
character. The beft of their works, as lias been before inti-
mated, are copies from the fuperior produiftions of Martin
Schijen.

Matthew, or Martin Zagel, Zafinger, or Zinck, goldfmith
and engraver, was born in the year 1430, but in what part
of Germany is not known, though, from the fubjefts of two
of his engravings, it may be gueifcd that he was of Munich:
neither is the year of his death certain, though, that lie lived
to the beginning of the fixtecnth century, and engraved till
the age of feventy-five, may be inferred from the circuin-
ilance of one of his prints being dated in the year 1505.

The extreme of Gothic ftifl'nefs appears in his works. His
coniDofition is bad, and his drav.'ing ftill worfe : the mecha-
nical part of his engraving, indeed, pofleffes a certain degree
of neatnefs, but is without the faintei.1 ray of tafte. It is
proper, however, to obl'erve, that from the df!i«-acy, or ra-
ther faintnefs of Zagel's manner of engraving, his plates
would not Hand many good imprcffions ; that many of the
retouched prints, which are exceedingly bad, are abroad in
the worlJ, and that tlierefore, to do jullice to the flender
fliarc of merit which he poffefled, it is necelfary to fee the
early irapreflions of his plates ; nor (liould be left unmen-
tioned, that in his latter engravings he diiplays a more intimate
knowledge of peripective ilian we find among his predecef-
fors in Germany. Zagt 1 marked forae of his prints fim-
ply with the initials M. Z. ; and others, as will be found in our
lirft plate of the monograms, &c of the engravers of Ger-
many. Among his bell engravings may be reckoned
" Solomon's Idolatry," a middling-fized upright, dated
1501. " A Holy Family,'' in which the Virgin Mary is
receiving water from a fountain, in a cup of the fame date
with the preceding. " The legendary Story of St. Chrif-
topher bringing the Infant Jefus acrofs an Arm of tlie Sea,"
a fmall upright. " A Lover leated in a Landfcape, enter-
taining his Miftrefj," and " Two Lovers Embracing,'' ditto.
Two large and very rare folio engravings of " The Grand
Ball and Tournament at Munich :" in the former of which
is reprefented a dance and card party, in whicli the duke of
Bavaria is engaged at play, and in the latter a tournament,
at whieh the duke is prefent. " The Martyrs St. Cathe-
rine and St. Urfula," both in 8vo, " The Martyrdom of
St. Sebaftian," in 4to. " The March to War," ditto, and
•* Ariitotle the Philofopher," a fubjcd often j-epeated, and

called by fome Socrates and Xantippe. The lall is a very
rare print, in 410.

Albert Glockenton was a native of Nuremberg, born in
the year 1432, and who flourilhed as an engraver at the com-
mencement of the fixteenth century ; but the time and place
of his death are uncertain. Strutt fays of him, that if he did
learn his art from Schiien, he not only imitated his manner,
but copied a great number of his prints : which copies con-
ftitute the greater part of the works of Glockenton. He
executed his plates with the graver in a neat but fcrvile man-
ner, by no means improving the drawing of his original?.
He marked his engravings with a fort of hali Gothic initials
of his name, as may be feen in our firft plate of tlie monograms
of the German engravers, and fometimes added the date.

The principal works of Glockenton, after the original?
of Martin Schocn, are " Chriil bearing his Crofs,'' and
" Chrift crucified;" both rare and of the folio fize ;
" Tlie deatli of the 'Virgin." The fet of the wife and
foolifli virgins, ten plates ; the pailion of our Saviour, a fet
of ten others, both of which are more particularly men-
tioned in our account of Schoen, and the " Virgin and
Child at an Altar ;'' in 4to. The latter is fuperior, in point
of compofition, to theGerman art of that period, is marked
with only a Gothic G, and bears the very early date of
1466 ; which is perhaps the moil ancient that is to be found
on any copper-plate print whatever. Of this engraving
particular mention is made under the article Glockenton,
in the " Catalogue Raifonnee du Cabinet d'ellampes de
Brandes ''

Contemporary and co-equal with Zagel and Glockenton,
was an engraver for whom Strutt claims a fort of doubtful
exillence, by the name of Wcnceflaus of Olmut/,, in Bohe-
mia He found a copy of Manin Schoen's " Death of
the Virgin" in the Monro collection, which had not only
the name of this artiil infcribed upon it, but the date of the
year in which it was engraved, namely 1481. He adds,
•' there is no doubt of its being a copy from Schocn, becaufe
it bears the evident marks of a fervile imitation. It
is highly probable that Wcnceflaus was the difciple of
Schoen,'' — "another obfervation arifes from a llrift exami-
nation of this print, upon comparing it with the ancient
German engravings marked -with the W onlv ; which is,
that thev ;u-e evidently the work of the fame artift as the
preceding, though they have ufually been attributed to
Michael Wolgemut, die mafter of Durer. The name is
perfeclly plain,'' but the words that follow are far lefs
legible, and in the opinion of the prefent writer are much
more like Olomuce Ibidem than Olmutz in Bohemia.

Of thefe prints marked with the letter W only, Strutt
mentions the following ;

The " Annunciation,'' where the Deity appears above and
a pot of flowers is introduced on the fore-ground ; a fmall up-
right ; " The Cavalier and Lady hecdlefs of Death ;" " The
Laft Supper;'' "The Crucifixion of St. Anthony ;" fmall and
nearly fquare ; and the fet of fmall uprightsfrom the "Life and
Paffion of Chrift."

The above are all from Schoen ; thofe which follow are
from the Ifraels of Mekenin.

" An old Man leading a little Boy, with a Woman fol-
lowing carrying a Girl at her back ;" and " A Lover en-
tertaining his Millrefs ;'' two fmall uprights; and "The
naked Women with a Globe fufpendcd from above."

We are now again arrived at the time when the Nurem-
berg Chronicle was publiflied, and thofe extraordinary
works both on copper and on wood began to appear,
which are known to the world under the highly refpedled.
name of Albert Durer..

Of

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Of the various powers of Albert ; his reputation as the qiiainted ; and though we do not behold the f\Tnmctrv and
father of the Gerinan fchool of painting ; and liis general fiiperlative grace of Greek beauty, \vc prcbablv fee the fr't
merits as an artiit, we have already treated pretty much at and acknowledged biaiity of Nurcrr.bcrg. It will alfo h-
large; (fee Durer, A/.p.ert.) It remains to add ourlillof allowed, that the Paradife they mud fiiortly quit, dois not
his principal engravings, and to comment more particularly feem very defirabie to inhabit : here is no genial light, no
on fomcof thofe\vhichare,anddefcrTe tobe,mo(t confpicuous. luxuriance of vegetation, and no Jibundance of animal lif?.
Though the dcfefts of the artift are point-.d out in the To ufe more of the words of Milton, nature is fo far from
critical remarks wliich follow, and which are chiefly ex- wantoning as in her prin-.r-, — fo very far frcm iilaving at will
traftod from leftarcs delivered at the Royal Inflitution in her virgin fancies, that (he appears,' in thofe of Shakfpeare,
the years 1805 and 1806, yet are they calculated to lead "bald with dry antiquity:' yet if Raphael has violated
the attentive obferver to a more intimate acquaintance with this cardinal principle of proprictv, by erectiiif a church, and
the merits of this extraordinary engraver, and to confirm houfes two floric^ high in his Paradife, who rtiall tlirow
the general and juftly merited praife which has now, for the firft ftone at Albert Durer ? The boles of his trees,
three centuries, been beftowed on Albert Durer. though among the tirfl, if not the very fu-ft that were c>er

Tl'.e refemblances between the feveral objcfts which this engraven, have much of the truth of indiiidual nature, and
mafter has introduced into his engravings, and their arche- their foliage, and the fiu- of the cat, are exprelled with a
types in nature, proceed, for the moll part, too much upon degree of freedom that mull furprife thofe who reflect that
fac-limile principles for the gcner^ized dignity of his fub- no etching has been employed, and how companitivcly ill
jec^s ; and his powers of imitation are too prodigally lavilhed calculated are the deck and fliff lines of the i:nalTilled gra-
upon fubordinate and unelTential parts. ver to the exprcffio-.i of fi'.ch objefts. The introduction of

Theexpreffion of his figureof" Melancholy,'' which v.ould the cat and nioufe in Paradife could not fail to btf undcr-
elfc have approached fublimity, is confiderably injured by Hood, from its famili;u-ity ; but though ingenious, this very
the introduction of a mulcitude of objetls, mod of which familiarity rendered it unfit for the occalion. The prophet
the mind does not readily aflimilate with the fentiment of Ifaiah has far more nobly exprefTed tl'.e priir.csval harmony
melancholy. It mull firil be perceived or difcovered, that and happinefs of the brute creation.

thefe objefts are allufions to allrology, alchemy, and the The Eve of Albert Durer is apparently of the fame

occult fciences, as they are called. The piTformance ad- family that Otho Veiiius, and Rubens, afterwards adopted
drelTcs itfelf, therefore, to the curious and inquifitive part for tiieir models ; and in the engraving which collectors
of mankind, and not to man : and as neither tlic eye nor the call " The Death's Head,'' is a female fio-ure, which Hill
niind can at once dilate with greatnefs and defcend to little- more evidently fhews the efteem in which Rubens mud
iicfs, it is evident that the refearch it requires mud be the have held the works, or at lead tlie women, of Albert
deilruftion of fuKlimity. Durer. It is not eafy to conceive the occafion that could

Though there is nothing of the " holy calm,'' with which have given birth to this myderious print of Death's head.
Collins has furrounded his figure of melancholy, this com- It prefents us either the ordinary routine of human life in
polition may dill be thought intcreding on another account, allegory, or perhaps a fort of poetic armorial bearintr. The
namely, as a true picture of the times in which it was en- cred is a winged helmet, richly ornamented, and beautifullv
graven ; for precifely thus was attention perplexed and dif- executed ; and though a |]<ull, which one diould think could
trailed on mod philofophical fubjcdls inthe age of Albert not fail to be an awful monitor, is highly en^.bodcd on the
Durer ; and as he is author of fevcn treatifes, moll of which fliield, tiie female fupporter, hecdlefs of her charge, heedlcf*
are on the metaphyfics of art, he had probably experienced of the moral Icflbn, and of the moral characier Ihe has to
much of that fpecies of melancholy which proceeds from fuftain, is obvioufly lidening to the very fufpicious fug-
the mental exhaudion and diflatisfaftion in which fuch gedions of a fort of lavage man. It appears to be one of
ftudies often terminate. Regarded in this view, it is no the night thoughts of Albert Durer, and perhaps, like thofe
inapt verification of the old adage, " The painter paints of Dr. Young, may be intended to mark the lamentable
himfelf " It might have aflidcd to reconcile us to the de- influeiice of the groder pafTions. Whatever its author may
feels of this performance, if Albert Durer had named it have intended to mculcate by this print, its execution as an
Study ; or, if we could fancy the figure out of the picture, engraving is admirable. The helmet, with all its pomp of
we might be content to let our attention dwell awhile on the heraldic appendage, and the acluid and reflex lights on it*
(kill with which he has rcprefented mod of the other objedls, polilhed furface, are charackeridicnlly, though minutely, ex-
when abftraftedly and feverally confidered. This talent, pa'ded ; the (Itull is accurately drawn, and its bony fub-
howes-er, of reprefenting the iharatlcrs and textures of in- fiance is dcfcribed with a malierly hand; the author has
dividual objefls, is dill more confpicuous, and fomewhat lefs even feduloufly attended to the finer enamel of its two re-
objeftionable,iiitheprintof "St. Jerome in the Room, "where- maining teeth. The head of the favage, with its beard
ill all the objects are rendered with a fidelity little ftiort of the and wild redundance of fnaky tangled hair, has conf.derable
camera oblcura. Regarding the art as in its infancy, we and well-managed breadth of light and fhade, though it*
may look at this engraving with the fame kind of pleafure, characier is far lefs favage than Ihould feem to belong to
( and we diould at all the works of art of this period, with the red of the figure : its exprefllon is, doubtlefs, meant to
the fame candid indulgence) with which Reynolds contcm- be afTumed and infinuating. The countenance of the female
plated " The Virgin and Child" by Van Eyck, in the cathe- has feldom been furpaded for that fuccelsful n-.ixture of
dral church of Bruges — "the artid,'' fays fir Jofiiua, characler and expredion that lends a willing ear to a delufive
" having accomplidied the purpofe he had in view.'' promile ; and the hands of both figures are far better

Another of the mod celebrated, though not the bed, drawn than we have hitherto feen among the produclions of
of Durer's engravings, is his " Adam and Eve." He has, the German fchool : tiie drapery alfo, which we have been
in this inllance, had recourfe to nature for his models, but accuftomed to fee iliff, daiched, and complicated, is here
his Eve is not "the faired of her daughters," nor his relaxed into freedom and fimplicity, and is fo remarkable
"Adam the goodlied of men fince born:" yet we may for filky texture ; approaches fo near to what is now termed
perceive that he feledled from thenature with which he was ac- pictureiquc compcfilion of forms and light phJ friadc ; and

Y 2 !S,

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

i"!, on tho whole, fo fiiperiur to that of \m Melancholy, and
fo:no other of his fubfoqucut works, as leaves us either to
wonder that Albert Durer, having once attained, fhould
ever lo.l: fight of tlie excellence of its principles ; or to
infer that he did not perceive their excellence, or tliat
the fcience he dedi:red from his own obfervation of
nature prevailed but occafionally over the prejudices of his
tdiication.

In his fmall prin's of the life of Chrill, of which Marc
Antor.io is faid to have pirnled the copy-right, other in-
llances occur of this Ityle of fuperior fimphcity in the dra-
peries, and fomc of broad and captivating effefts of light
and (liade. His Jefus Ciiriil fuffcrs greatly, or beams with
God-like benevolence ; his Magdalens and Madonnas are
fom-.-times divinely pathetic ; and many other of the heads
in thefe iiiterefling and often grand compofitions, are exqui-
fitely finiflied miniatures, remarkable for that fort of accord-
ance and confillency of parts which we d'.-em the internal
evidence of truth and nature. The principal portraits of
Durer, engraved on copper, arc thofe ot the eleftor
Trederic of Saxony, dated MDXXIIII. Albert, eleftor
of Mayence, dated 1523. Biiibald Pirkheimer, dated
1524. Mclanfthon, dated 1525. Thefe are all of the
quarto C\zs.

In folio he has engraven his friend Erafnun, good inn-
prefTions of which are now become very rare, dated 1526, and
two figures of liimfelf, on the fame plale, ov.e being his
portrait in the year 1509, and the other in 151 7. Tliey
fland on cither fido of a piece of architefture.

Of the portraits of Durer, it may with truth be faid, that,
in point of drawing, they pofFefs tlio fame internal evidence of
correclnefs wliichdiftingniihes the belt of his hiitorical heads :
in rtyle they arc laboured ; but the labour is not ill-bellowed ;
and the chiarofcuro is frequently comprehenfive and clear.
His compofitions from holy writ, and thofe legends which
in his day were thought to be nearly of equal authority, are
numerous. The principal of thofe on copper are " The
Adam and Eve in Paradife, or Sin of our fird Parents,''
which has already been the fubjeA of detailed ccmm->nt, a
rerv elaborate work in folio, dated 1 504. Another " Adam
and Eve," which reprefents them after their expulfion from
Paradife. " Adam crawling, and Eve fitting v.itli an In-
fant at the Entrance of a Cavern,'" in quarto. " A Man
with a Beard, feated on the Ground (liis Horfe fallened to a
Tree) carcffing a Yming Woman,'' a fmall quarto plate,
known. Ijy the name of " .ludah and Tamar," and believed
to be the earlicft of Albert Dnrer's engravings. " Tlie
Nativity," where the Virgi:a Mary is adoring the Infant
Chrift, while St. Jofeph is drawing water from a well.
" A Holy Family,'" known, among connoiffeurs, by the
title of " Tiie 'Virgin of the Butterfly,'" where the Madonna
is feated in a iandfcape, with the infant in her arms, and
St. Jofeph adeep near her. Another, known by the tit'e
«»f " Tiie 'Virgin of the Ape," where the Infant Chril!,
kneeling, is plaving with a bird, and an ape is tied near the
group. Another, known by the title of " The Virgin of
the Pear,"' which is dated 151 1, where the Infant Chrift,
holding a pear, is fitting with his mother at the foot of a
tree. Another, known by the name of " The Virgin of
the Apple,'" which is dated 1514. All of them are of the
4to. dimenfions. An etching of the " Holy Family," in
folio, wherein the Virgin Mary is Handing and holding the
Infant Chri!l in her arms, and a girl is introduced at prayers,
tb.ted in the year 15 19. A fet of fifteen, inelnding the
fronti.rpiece, entitled " The fmall Paffion,"' very rare, and
dated fro.m 1507 to i;i2. " Chrill Crucified, with the
Holy "Women at tl;e Foot of tke Crofs," a fmall circle^

without tlie artill's mark, and faid to have been done for the
fword-beU of Charles V. " The Saviour prollrate in the
Garden of Olives," very rare, and dated 15 15. "A
Group of Angels bearing the InllrKinents of Crucifixion,
&c." engraved on tin, or iron tinned over, and dated 11J16.
" The grand Ecce Homo," in large 410. with a Latin
infciiption, and dated in 1512,3 very rare print, much fought
after by connoilYeurs. " Tiie Entombing of Chrift by the
Holy 'Women," in fmall folio, a print dated 1507, and in
which feveral cats are ftrangely introduced, but which
fome think is not by Albert Durer. " The Infant Pro-
digy," a kneeling figure, in folio : fome pretend that this
is a portrait of Diircr liimf-If. " St. Hubert at the Chafe,"
a folio print, in which the faint is reprefented kneeling
before a crucifix, which appears upon the head of a Hag !
the fcene is a wood, with a callle at fome dillance.

Al'r-'ert Durer has been analogically compared with our
poet Spenfcr, and it has been remarked, that " if any one
of his performances were to be pointed out as more [jarti-
cularly rcfembling Spenfer, it Ihould be that of the Legen-
dary Tale of St. Hubert. Tiiey arc characterized by the
romantic heights of extravagance ; the fame abundance of
ideas ; the fame unremitted and fucceisful attention to
minute excellence ; the fame general air of incredibility
rendered credible, and, as we fhould fay now, if the works
of the poet and engraver were now produced fpr the firll
time ; the fame want of concentration, brevity, aftd gencnJ
effedl ; but a temporary adoption of the fympathies of
the fi.steenth century, as far as art is concerned, reconciles
us to thefe."

Of the ful-ijeft cf St. Jerome, Durer has cn9;raven two
plates in fmall folio, on one of which, where the faint \i
litting ill a chamber, we have already commented ; in the
other he is kneeling before a crucifix, in a rocky defiu't,
and the engraving is far lefs elaborately finifhed that) tlio
former.

" A naked winged Woman ftandiiig on a fmall Globe
fufpended in the Clouds, holding in one Hand an elabo-
rately wrought Cup, and in the other a Bridle," a folio print,
known among de;uers by the name of the Larger Fortune,
According to Vafari, it fhould be called Temperance, ac-
cording to others, Prudence : but, perhaps, Albert Durer
meant it for the Guardian Genius ot Nuremberg, of which
city a bird's eve view appears beneath.

Anotiicr " Naked Woman on a Globe,'' in l2mo., calif d
the LelTer Fortune. She holds a long flick and a thiille.
Tlie figure of " Melancholy,'' on which we have already
commented. She is fitting, her head reiling on her hand^
furrounded by various emblems, a folio plate, of exquifite
workmanlhip, dated 15 14. " The Dream of M. Wol-
gemut," w'here he is reprefented aileep near a frying pan :
the devil is behind with a large pair of bellows, and on tlie
fide Venus, with Cupid walking on flilts. " The g-.-eat
Satyr," who is attacked by a fawn w'nilil repofing with a
nymph, a fmall folio, the work of the graver, and performed
with admirable fkiU. " The Sorccreifes," four naked
women in a room : a globe, with the letters O. G. H. is
fufpended from above, and in an adjoining chamber appears
the devil furrounded by flames : it is dated 1497. Baldi*
nucci thinks it is the earliell of Dm-er's engravings. It is
copied from Wolgemut, and is a rare print. " A Cheva-
lier on Horfeback, and in cr.mplete Armour, purfued bv
Deatli on Horfeback, ( wlio is holding forth an Hour-Glafs,)
and another Speftre:" this is a verv hghly finiflied andexciui-
fite engraving, in fmall folio, of which good impresTions are
rare. It is by fome term.ed " Death's Horfe," and bv
others, w ith more propriety, " The Worldly Man :" it is
8 d.ited

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

d.itcJ 5513, and tlic imprefficns ^\IucIl were taken before
this date was iKlcribed, are much valued. " The Death's
Head," of which we liuve already given a particular defcrip-
tion, ill fmall folio, dated 1503. Anotlier heraldic fubjccl
of the fame dimerfions, difplayir.g a lion rampant on a
fhield, and a helmet fnrmounted by a cock, fpreading his
wings. " A large Horfe," behind which marches an armed
man with boot's, bearing a haibert, and another horfe of
more beautiful form, behind which marches another armed
man with a haibert, having a griffin on his helmet :
both in ^to., and dattd 1505. " A didievelled Sorcerefs,
mounted on a Ke-Goat, and Hying ih.rougli the Air, with a
DitlafF in her Right-Hand. " The Prodigal Son," a
finall upright folio, of which the impreilions, before the
date 1513 was added, are held in moll efteem.

Under the article Etching we have afcribed the inven-
tioT> of this mode of art to Albert Durer. The carlieil
of his etchings, v.'hich bears a date, is called " The Rape of
IVoferpine,'' a folio print, dated 1516, and in two years
afterwards appeared his more celebrated etching of the
march of an army, which has been called " The Cannon,"
from a large piece of ordnance forming the principal objeil
on the fore-gronnd : the fcene reprefented is the entrance
of a village, v. ills a bird's eye view over an extenfive country,
and three Turks are introduced near the fore-ground.
Bot'n thefe etchings are reported to have been performed on
plates of iron or ttcel ; and the latter, wl;ich is nov.' bccon-.e
rare, is among the largeil of the wori;s of Albert Durer.

The principal of thofe works of our artift wliich are com-
monly fuppoied to have been engraven on wood, are as fel-
low : — The portraits, in folio, of Albert Durer, iafcribtd
" AlbreCt Durer connterfcyt in feinem alter des LVI."
without the engraver's cypher ; another v.ith his cypher ;
the emperor Maximilian I. ; a buft with numerous orna-
ments, infcribed " Imperator Cxfar Divus Maximilianus
Pius Felix Augulhis 15 19;" Ulrichus Varnbuler, a rare
print, with the ioUowing infcription on a (hield, " Albertus
Durer Noricus reddere que conatur 15:2.''

From the numerous hillorieal works which Durer per-
formed in this manner, «'e fcleft the following : A fet of
thirteen folio prints, including the frontifpicce, from the
life and pafTion of Jefus Chrill, infcribed " Paffio Domini,
&e.'' dated 1510, 1511. A fet of twer.tj -feven fmall
uprights, known by the name of the Smaller Falfion, atid
infcribed " Figurre Pafiionis Domini Noftri Jefu Chrilli
1519, 1520." An " Eece Homo,'' in folio, engraved in a
bold and broad ftyle, and with great freedom. " The Holy
Trinity, iurroundedby the Angelic Hoft," and dated 151 i.
Another " Ecce Homo,'' known by the title of " The Myf-
tery of the Mafs.'' A fet of fixtten folio pieces, incUifive
of the frontiipiece, of wliich the fubjects are taken from the
Apocalypfe, and the text printed on the revene of every
Ic^if. A fet of tn-enty-two fmall folio prints from the life of
the Virgin Mary, dated 1 509, 151 I : feventeen of this beau-
tiful fet of engravings were copied by Mare Antonio at
Venice, to all or which copies, except one, the Italian artilt
added the cypher of Albert Durer. •' The Holy Family,"
of the folio dimenfions, where St. Anne holds the infant
Saviour, and tlie Virgin Mary is in the aft of adoration.
"The Rhinocei-o8,'' a rare print, in folio, with a Germau
infcription, dated 15 1 5.

In clair-obfcure (or chiarofcuro) printed from a fuccef-
fion of blocks, the following are afcribed to Albert Durer :
" A Holy Family in a Landfcape :" two angels are crown-
ing the VirginMary, and on the fore-ground are three rabbits ;
in large folio. Two, of legendary ftories from the lives of
St. Auguftin and St. Chriflopbrr, in large folio, the htter of

which is fcarce. A fort of apothco.^s of the emperor
Maximilian, where, acccmpanicd by the Virgin Mary and
numerous faints, he is ad<n-ing the Saviour. (Of this piece
liuber poiTeffed an impreffiouon villum very richly colc/ured. )
A pair, which are icarce, of "A Fortrefs in a Hale of Siege,"
generally called the Siege of Vienna, dated 1527. A fet 'of
fix ornamental defigns fortapciiry, of allrononiical fubjefts.
The whole number of engravings by Albert Durer, and after
his deligns, are ihited to amount to 1214: but Maricttc's
colleftion amounted to no more than 420, which were fold
at his death for 1830 livres. See the article Durer in the
Catalogue Raifonnee of the Brandes cabinet.

The triumphs of the emi e.-or Maximilian, which, when
pafled togetlier, form two very large and long prints of the
trieze form, have been generally a'cribrd to Albert Durer, -
but the refearches of Mr. Douce of the Britifh Mufeum, and
Mr. Edwards of Pall-Mall, have determined that they arc
the performances of various other artills, though perhaps
executed under the general fiiperintendance of Albert Durer.

Lucas Cranach, orKranach, was born at Cranach, in Weft-
phalia, in the year 1472 or 1474, and died at Weymar in
1553. He was educated a painter ; vet whether he lludied
under any oth.er mailer tlian his father has not been recorded.
He pafiod feveral years in the fervice of the ckclor of
Saxony as an artiil, dillingnidiing himfelf by his engravings
on copper and wood, and in that manner which is techni-
cally called chiaro-fiiiro. His fertility of invention far outran
his judgment : led away bv the livelinefs of his fancy and
talent fur compofition, he took fuch forms as were before
him, following the ftiff Gothic taile which prevailed in nisi-
country at the time, without attempting to improve it. His
manner of drawing is rather dry and tattelefs, than abfolute-
ly incorrcft, but his heads have a moderate portion both of
character and expreffion, though they are not maiked with'
preciilon or in a plcafmg ftyle : his hands and feet are very
defective, and a total ignorance of the art of diilributing
light and fliade confuies his effects.

Cranach fometiraes marked his plates with the initial let-
ters of his name : and fometimes with the cyplier, but m.ore
frequently with the dragon holding a ring in his mouth,
which will be found in our hril plate of German marks and mo-
nograms. The dragon is tlie cri ft of the elector of Saxony,
to which, on foir.e occafions, Cranach added the eledtorol.
lliield.

The following will probably be found among[t}ie beft of his
engravings, beginning with thofe which are executed on cop-
per: Portraits of Jean Frederic eleftor of Saxony, where an
angel appears on high with a crown of laurel, in large 410.
and very rare. The two eleftorsoi Saxonv, Frederic and, lean,
the former of whom is Iiold:iig a chaplet, in 410. dated 1510,-
and almoft fquare. Chriftianus H. king of Denmark and
Norway, furrounded by ornamental architefture, armorial
bearings, &c. in large4to. Profile of Martin Luther in the
habit of a monk of St. Auguftin, infcribed " Des Luters
gellalt," in 4to. and dated 1523.

The chief of his hiftorical works are : "Adam and Eve-
after their Fall,'' (called by foixie the Penitence of St. Chry-
foftom) the fcene is a dcfart, where a naked woman and
child appear on the fore-ground, and in the back-ground a
man is crawling, a folio plite, dated 15C9, marked with the
cypher and little dragon of Cranach, and executed quite in
his Gothic manner. " The Temptation of our Kaviour in
the Defai-t," where the Chrift has fomewhat better preten--
fions to merit, than generally belongs to the figures of Cra-
nach, but the tempter is as grptefque and entertaining a devil
as you would wi(h to fee: the print is in fmall folio, and.
m;irkcd L. C. W. the laft letter denoting ^Vittenbourg : it

i»

GERMAN SCHOOL Ol- ENGRAVING.

is verv rare anJ Ind. A whimficJ compofition, of "Jefus
Chriainthe Clouds," furroumW by angels, and infpinng
the cleclorof Saxony, a half length oi whom appears below ;
afmall print, almoil fquare.

In chiarofcuro, that is, on two blocks of wood, the one
for th» outline and darker flmdows, and the otlicr for the
demitints and lights, Cranach has engraven " St^Chnftopher
carryincr the Infant Chriil over an Arm of the Sea. a toho
print, d'atcd 1507. '^St. Georjre and the Dragon," a large
Ato " St John preaching in the Deiart," ui loho, dated
T576. And, " A Naked Venus'' (of ludicrous beauty) ac-
companied by Cupid, who is trying his bow, in folio

The Ictter-prcfs engravings of Cranach, commonly iup-
pofed to have been performed on wood, are as follow : Bull
of Jean Frederic, eleClor of Saxony ; ditto of Martin
Luther in the coftume of a monk of th< order of St. Augul-
tln, dated 1520; both in 4to. ^, . ^ , „, .,. .,

"Whole leno-th portraits of Martin Luther ; Phi.ip Me-
landhon ; the°emperor Charles V. ; the emperor Ferdinand ;
Jean Fredric, eleftor of SaxBiiy ; and Jean Guillaume, duke
of Saxony, all of the folio lize.

A half length of the eleftor of Saxony, holding a book
open before a crucifix, a rare print, marked with the little
dragon, dated in 1552, and infcribed with a Latin fentence^
Of his hiftorical works, the following are held m molt
requeft among collcftors. " Adam and Eve in Paradife, or
the Sin of our Firft Parents," dated 1509. " The Annun-
ciation." " St. John preaching in the Defart," which has
been called a grand compofition, and is dated 15 16, and
the "Decollation of St. John :" all of the folio fize.

A fet of twelve in fmall foho from the life and paffion of
Jefus Chriil, infcribed on the title page " Pafilo D N. Jefu
Chrilli venuiliflimis imaginibus," &c. and dated 15C9 : this
fet is highly efteemed among connoifleurs. Another fet of
twelve, of the Martyrdoms of the ApolUes,in 4to. and which
are held in ilill more requeft for rich compofition and the ex-
preffion of the heads, and are on the whole fuperior to the
preceding : they are dated in the year 1 549.

It is curious to refle.^ with how frequent infenfibility, the
Gotho-gennan artills of the age of Cranach fclefted fubjefts
that called for the introduaion of beauty even of the highcft
kind,anddre!l out their virgin Maries and Venufes in all theftiff
jiieagrenefs of their age and country. " Paris vifited by the
three Goddeffes on iwunt Ida," is a rare piece in large foho,
dated 1508. " Curtius leaping into the fiery Gulph" is alfo
in foho, and dated 1508. Three plates of tournaments, of
■which two are called the great, and the other the little tour-
nament, dated 1 5«9 ; and a pair of park fcenes with ftags
in the rutting time, and which are very rare, conclude our
lift of the engravings of Lucas Cranach.

Hans or John Burgkmair painter, and engraver on wood,
was born at Augfburg in the year 1474. He iludied under
Albert Durer, and fome of his engravings are dated fo early
as 1510, but the time and place of his death are unknown.
He engraved chiefly, if not entirely on wood, and his prints
pofTefs much of the fire and fpiritwhich diilinguilh thofe of his
mailer. ProfelTor Chriil attributes to him fome fmall fpirited
wooden cuts which were made for the ancient edition of theworks
of Geyler de Keiferberg, which bear the above date ( of 1 5 1 o ) ,
and are marked T. B. Many of the works of this artift bear
his name at length, the reft are marked with one or other of
the two cyphers which will be found in our plate of the
monograms, &c. of the German fchool.

The following are the engravings by Burgkmair, which
are moft fought after by colleAors : " The Emperor Maxi-
jnilian I. 00 Horfcback ;" of which dcfign tliere h a dupli-

cate engraving in clare obfcure, which bears the name of
Joft de Negker, but which is partly the work of Burgkmair.
It is a very rare print, dated in the year 1508, both of the
folio fi7.c. "St. George on Horfcback," alfo bears the
name of Negkcr, and is of th; folio fize, and in clare obfcure.
"Joleph and the wife of Potiphar," is of a fquare f(jrni,
and in 4^0. " St. Thomas," " St. Bartholomew," and " St.
Seballian," d.ited 1515, are all in folio. "A young
Woman mourning the lols of a Hero that Death has over-
come," is a raie print in folio ; by Burgkmair and
Negker.

The remainder of the letter prefs cuts of this artift are,
a fet of two hundred and thirty-feven for a folio work, of
which the manufcript by Marc Treitz Sauerwein is in the
Imperial library at Vienna : its title is " Der weifs Konig"
(the wife king), and it confills of the diftinguiihed aCls of
the emperor Maximilian.

" The triumphal Entry of Maximilian," confifting of one
hundred and thirty-five blocks or plates, have remained for
a long period of time unknown at the caftle of Ambras, but
v.ithin thefe few years have been removed to the Imperial
library at Vienna, fmce wliich, impreflion!-. have been taken,
and feveral fets have been brought to England. Many of
thefe engravings are the work of Burgkmair, and are
marked at the back with his name or initials, tliough the
whole fcnerally pafles under the name of Albert Durer, and
were probably executed under his dlreftion. Another work,
executed by thefe artills conjointly with Hans Schaufflein, ij
called the Tewrdanck ; but the greater number of the prints
contained in it ai'e from the graver of Burgkmair.

Johanlen, or Hans Baldung, furnamed Grien or Grun,
painted and engraved for the letter prefs and in clare obfcure.
He was a native of Gemund in Suabia, and was born in the
year 1476. He flourifned as an engraver through the
earlier part of the fixteenth century, and tlie lateft of hij
works is dated in the year 1534, but the time of his death is
uncertain.

His engravings are executed in a bold Ityle, and with con-
fiderable power over the inilruments of his art. Strutt fays
of him, that " his figures are rather exprefave tlian corrcft ;
the naked parts of them are poorly drawn ; and the ex-
tremities, though free and fpirited, are often heavy, and not
well marked :" yet confidering tlie period and place at
which Baldung lived, be may be regarded as a meritorious
artift. His engravings are fonvtimes marked with his name
at length, and at othi-rs with the cj-phers which we have
given in our plate of German monograms. His principal
works are, " Adam and Eve in Paradife." " The Fall of
Adam :" in the latter, a tablet is fufpended from a tree, bear-
ing the motto " Lapfus humaiii generis," and the date 15 11.
Both are of the folio fize, and the Fall of Adam is a per-
formance of merit in clare obfcure.

A fet of thirteen figures in fmall folio of the Saviour and
twelve apoftles, dated in 1 5 14, and marked with the artift's
cypher. " The Crucifixion," with the holy women and St.
John at the foot of the Crofs, in dare obfcure. A fet of
four fmall uprights reprefenting the Efletls of Love, or
Influence of Women, exemplified in the ftories of Samfon
and Dalilah, Solomon's Idolatry, David and Bathflieba, and
Xantippe and Socrates, (called by fome Ariilotle and-
Phryne,) dated 1515. "A drunken Bacchus lying at the
mouthof aCafl<," in 4to. " The Sorcerefs," who is mounted
on a he -goat, holding a cauldron. A pair, cut in a mafterly
ftyle, of wildhorfcs in a foreft, with the name of Baldung at-
length, and the date 1534. Another pair of fmall land-
fcapes, which are faid to be etched on plates of iron, and are
very rare.

7 Of

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Of Hans Brcfang, a defigner and engraver for the letter
prcf?, very little more is known than that he was contempo-
, rarv with Bildimg, and has fometimes been miilaken for
him from the finrlarity of their cyphers, and their tafte in
defigning and engraving. Millaking tlie numeral 5, in the
dates of his engravings, for a 6, Strutt has placed him a
century too late.

Thofe of his works which are bed known, are "Adam
and Eve in Paradife," of the folio fize ; bearing the cyphrr
of Brefaag, and the date 15! 9. A fet of three of tlie 410.
dJmenfions, dated 1504; -viz. " Cl'.ri!! on the Crofs ;"
« Chriil lamented by the holy Women;" and "A dead
Chrift," with angels bearing him away. Another fet of
thirteen, of tlie Saviour and twelve apolUes, alfo in fmall
410. and the three Defliiiies in a landfcape, dated 15 13,
■a very rare print in 4to.

Lucas or Lo\iis Krug, or Kriigcn, painter, goldfniith, and
engraver, was born at Nuremberg in the year 1489, and died
in the fame city in IJ;^5. He formed his talte, in deilgning
and engraving, from Itudying the works of Lucas of Ley-
den, and drew the human figure better than many of his
contemporaries, though his attitudes are ill chofen, and his
draperies ftiff. His mark was a fmall pot or jug placed
between his initials or. a tablet, as rcprefented in our tirft plate
of the monograniE, i2:c.ofthe German engravers, to which
the date was in fome inftanccs added. His principal en-
gravings are as follow :

" The Nativitv," " The Adoration of the Shepherds,"
and " The Adoration of the Kings," th.ree fmall uprights,
dated 1516. " The Holy Family," and two prints of the
Ecce-Homo, with the inltruments of flagellation, in fmall
4to. " St. John the DiWne, writing," while the holy Virgin
is diftating to him from the clouds, and below is the ludicrous
incident of the devil emptying the ink-horn of the faint. "Two
naked Women contemplatiiig a Skull and Hour glafs," and
*' A naked Woman fitting with her Back towaids the Spefta-
tor," with a city and mountain appearing in the diftance ; all
fmall uprights.

Hans Sehaufvlein, the tliird engraver of that name, was
torn at Nuremberg fome time about the yeai" 1487, and
died at Nordlingen, a town in Suabia, in 1550. He thidied
under Albert Durer, aad imitated his llvle with conliderable
fuccefs.

The moft diftinguilhed of his performances are, " The
Creation of Eve," in ato. ; "Chrift with the Crown of
Thorns, and the Virgin Mother in Grief;" and " Herodias
with the Head of St. .Tohn the Baptift," both in folio.
"The Banquet of Herodias," a grand compofition, fup-
pofed to be engraven on two blocks in large folio. " Numa
PompiHus recommending religious worfhip to the Romans,"
aud " Lucretia ftabbing herfclf," a pair in 4to. A fet of
eight plates of military fubjedts in folio. Another fet of
four rare prints of " The Triumplis of the Wives of the
celebrated Sots," in fmall folio. The greater number of the fet
oft wenty of marriage proceffions. Part of the fet of an hundred
and eighteen of "The Perils and Adventures of the excellent
and famous chevalier Tewerdanks," a curious and very rare
book, printed at Nuremberg in the year 1517.

But few libraries have the honour of poireffing a complete
copy of this celebrated work, of which Melcliior Ptintzing
fays, in the dedication to Charles king of Spain, that he had
feen moft of the aftions that are therein engraved and
defcribed, which in faft are thofe of the emperor Maxi-
milian I. under the fiftitious name of Tewerdanks.

Albert Altdorfer, whom fome have millakenly fuppofed to
have been of Altdorff in Switzerland, was a native of Altdorf
in Bavaria, born in the yeai' 148S. His name is found in the

regifter of the citizens of Ratifbon in the vear 151 1, v.liere,
having paffed the routine of preparatory civil offices, he was
made a member of the interior fenate, and arcliiteft of the
city of Ratiibon, and where, in 1538, he died without iffue.
Some of hispidures may yet be I'een «t Ratifbon, and at
the town houfe is preferved a complete coUeAion of liis en-
gravings. The French call him " le petit Albert," pre-
iumptively in contradiftinftion to the _frt-a/ Albert Durer,
and becaufe his engravings are fmall, i'or which reafon alf»
he is ufually ranked with "the little mafters."

His merit was however not inconfidcrable. He engraved
both for the rolling-prefs and letter-prcfs ; but thofe wiiicli
he did for the latter are his beft performances. He pofieffed
a hvely fancy, a free hand, and great facility of invention. Yet
his ftyle is German, and his drawi.v.g, though fpirited, is in-
correft. He marked his plates and blocks with the Ufo
forts 01 monograms which appear in our plate of the cy-
phers. Sec. of the German fchool. One of thefe marks has
been attributed to Aldegrever ; but tlie evident fuperiority
of the latter mafter is of itfelf fufiicient (independent of the
cypher) to corretl the millake.

From the fpirited wooden cuts of Altdorfer, Holbein,
of whom we fliall prefently fpeak, is faid, and probably
\\ith truth, to have deri\ed great affilhuice in the progrels
of his ftudies.

Altdorfer's principal engravings on copper are the por-
trait of himfelf ; and that of Martin Luther, in an oval, fur-
rounded by fohage ; the head of an infant, one of his earliell
works, dated in 1507; "Adam and Eve in Paiadife ;''
"Solomon's Idolatry ;" " Ualilah and Sampfon ; ' " Ju-
dith and Holofernes;" feveral fmall prints of the Madonna
and infant Chrift ; a Crucifi.xion, with numerous figures ;
another with the Virgin Mary and St. John, both fmall up-
rights ; " St. Jerome ftanding in a Cavern," where is an aliar,
book, crucifix, and a tablet, with the monogram of the ar-
tift ; another St. Jerome among buildings, accompanied by
a lion ; " St. George combating the Dragon ;" two etch-
ings of the death of Dido, and that of Lucretia ; a pair co-
pied from Marc Antonio, of " Venus accompanied by Cupid
entering the Bath," and " Venus leaving the Bath :" thcfc are
fmall uprights and in a neat ftyle. " Cupid Sporting with
Sea-horfes." "Amphion faved by Dolphins," dated 1525. A
pair of " Lafcivioufnefs," and prefumptively, " Chaility,"
reprefented by a female fitting on an altar, and holding a
fceptre, with numerous attendants bearing lanterns. " A
Warrior precipitating himfelf into the Sea." A pair of
fmall landfcapes lengthways, one with rocks and the other
with trees, which are touched with confiderable freedom.
The " Synagogue," with a Latin infcription ; and two pktci
of ornameHted vafes in 4to.

The number of engravings by this mafter, which arc fup-
pofed to have been performed on wood, is confiderable,
probably exceeding a hundred, of which' the following are
moft valued : — A fet of forty of " The Fall and Redemp-
tion of Man," fmall uprights, executed in Altdorfer's beil.
manner, and much valued : but coUeftors (hould be careful
not to admit into their portfolios, inftead of thefe, a fet of
which all but two ai-e coJ>ifs from Altdorfer, and which were
publifticd at Zuric A. D. 1604, under the forged name of
Albert Durer. " The Sacrifice of Abraham," and " Jolhua
and Caleb," both fmall. " The Annunciation," ditto, dated

'513

The four following are in 4to. " The Purification ;" " The
Maflacre of the Innocents," dated 151 1; " The Decollation
of St. John the Baptift," and " The Refurreaion of Chrift,"
both dated 1512, and the latter efteemed one of the moil
fpirited works of the iraftcr.

•GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

, Tiie beautiful virgin of Ratifton, engraved from her
il;;tuc in Ratiftion cathodra! , is engraved in cliiarofcuro, though
ftiinc few impreiTions were printed widiout ihc h;ilf tint : this
is a Tare print.

Of the often repeated fabjeclof St. Jerome, Altdorfer has
cnjrraveu two blocks, in one of which the holy man is kneel-
i.'i^ before a crucitix in a ca\-ern, and tlv; other may be diilin-
p".iiihed by its vory romantic back ground, both are fmall,
but iuilly held in erteera. " St. George and the Dra-
gon,'' and " The Judgment of Paris," both dated in 151 1,
and " St. Chriilopher and the infant Chrill," are all in 410. A
mountain Dus landfcape with buildings, and a large tree on
the right hand, another of a gateway, and a grand baptil-
mal piocelfion, a fort of allegory, where, inlide of a church,
th^ virgin and child, fome angel.=i, and a pilgrim, appear in
the procefiion, are all of the folio llzc.

Hans Holbein the e!d<T flourilhcd towards the clofe of
the fifteenth century, and was of Augfbourg, but after-
wards removed to Dalle in Switzerland. According to pro-
feflbr Chrilc, he engraved on wood, and certain prints marked
with an H., or the cypher H.B., the B being joined to the
tirll perpendicular llroke of the H., arc attributed to him ;
but Strutt doubts whether they ought not rather to be afcrib-
ed to Burgkmair or Bnldung.

Tlie great celebrity of his fon has reflected a fteadier light
upon his nam.e. Hans, or John Holbein the younger, was
bornat A'Jgfbourg in the year 1495 or 1498, and died of
the plague in London A.D. 1554. He was the pupil of his
father, and gave earneil of his very extraordinary potrers, at
a veq-y early age.

About the time of his father's removal to Bade, the genius
of Holbein began to dav.-non the arts cf Europe. At this
time,befide engraving, as has been faid by various authors, for
theletter-prefs in a vervfuperior ilyle.he painted portraits,'and
occalionallyhilloricalfubjectsia diftemperandin oil, and Eral
mus, who was then fuperintending the printing of his works
at Bafle, came to fit forliis likenefj to young Holbein.

Being charmed with his portrait, Erafmus foon formed a
friendlhip for the artiil, and at his perfuation Holbein foon
after travelled to England. He brought with him the por-
trait of his friend, and letters of warm recommendation to
the great fir Thomas More, who was at that time lord chan-
cellor, and high in the favour of Henry VTH.

HolL 'in was received by the chancellor in the moft friend-
ly and flattering manner, and the family of the Mores, be-
fides feveral other perions of diitinftion, and finally the king
himfelf, honoured our artilt by fitting to him for their por-
traits. Patronized by fir Thomas, and poiFelTed of fuch
talent in the arts as had not appeared in England before, he
was eafily receivedinto the royal fervice upon very libera! terms,
and fo proud w.is Henry of the abilities of his protegee, or
fojufttothe claims of his genius, that he frequently fat to
him for his portrait, and the ftory which we have related of
the condefcenfion of the emperor Maximilian to Albert
Durer has been often repeated of king Henry and our
artift.

After the death of Henry, Holbein fliill continued to en-
joy the royal favour, and feveral portraits of Edward VI.
from his hSnd are ftill extant.

The career of Holbein was but thort, but as the poet on
a lefs interefting occafion has beautifully faid, " the fands of
his hcur-glafs were diamond-fparks," which, as they fell,
jrlitteredin the radiance of his reputation. He died, as we
have before mcnzioned, -oi the plague, in his apartments at
V/hitehjU. ■

• For an account of his merits as a painter the reader is re-
ferred to the article Holbein. He beg..n engraving when

he was about fixtcen years of age, and very numerous and
of extraordi.iary merit are the lettcr-prefs cuts wliich are
faid to be from his hand, and after liis own defigns, wliich
adorn the books that were printed about this time at Bafle,
Zuric, Lyons, Lcydeu, and London.

Holbein appears to have fonned his ftyle, probably under
the direttion of his father, from iludying the works of liis
contemporary Altdorfer, who was nov.' rifing in reputation,
though not more than ten years older than our artift, £nd it
feems highly probable that the wh-ole of whatever lettcr-prefs
engravings are from the hand of Holbein himfelf, air the
production of thofe fifteen years of his life which elapfed be-
tween the years IJII and 1526, when he came to England,
for it is not ver/ likely that he would be led afide from the ad-
vantages of the royal and noble patronage v.hicli he enjoyed
ill England as a painter, by any inducements wiiich the prin-
ters and book'i'eliers of the continent might offer. Engaged
in fuperior purfuits, th.e prefent writer is inclined to think
that he did no more than defign the little wood-cuts v«hie!i
are aferibed to him during his refidence in our ifland.

Tlie foreign \vriters on art, however, call "him " the glo-
ry of wood engraving," and " the phenomenon of liis age,"
adding that in order duly to appreciate his merit as an en-
graver, the connoiflcur fliould not look at the hallily printed
and worn imprelTions which arc common, but (liould have
before him, early proofs, printed only on one fide the paper,
fuch as were lately in the colleflion of M. Otto, an ama-
teur of Leipzig, which, in point of dehcacy, exceed all that
had previoufly been exhibited.

His moll clleemed production in this way bears the Latin
infcription

" Ccrnere vis Hofpes fimulacra fimillima vivis ?
Hoc opus Holbinx nobils cerne manus ;"

and confills of a ferics of ninety fmall letter-prefs cuts, of
unequal merit, of which the fubjcAs are taken from the
Old Teilament. The encomiums that have been repeatedly
palfed on the whole, namely, that " boldnefs, fpirit, and de-
hcacy are united in their execution,'" are only applicable to the
beil of tliefe cuts : the rcfl are fcarcely, if at all, fuperior to
the common place of the day.

The firil edition of this work, whieh is commonly
termed Holbein's Bible, is faid to have been printed
(at Lyons, by the brothers Melchior and Gafpar
Trefchel) in the year 1539, and as this was thirteen years
alter his departure for England, it is not eafy to beUcve that
thefe cuts are really eugravin by Holbein, notwithllanding
what is afi"erted in the infcription : and they are on the whole
inferior both in defign and engraving to the " Dance of
Death,"' of which we fhall prefently fpeak.

That the craft of publifhers on fucii an occaficn {hould
have out!lrii)ped the flriclnefs of truth, and that a name
which had refounded through Europe ihould be ufed as the
trumpet of popularity and the means of profit, would be
no very extraordinary occurrence. The work was for the
multitude, and the multitude, on fuch a point, were eafily
deceived ; nor could Holbein, if he were really the author
ot the ilfjigiis, eafily contradict the complimentary infcrip-
lica.

" The Dance of Peafants,'' engraved from a piftur?
which he painted in the fiih-market at Bafil, and evidently
before his departure for England, of wliich fine imprelfiocjj
are now become rare and valuable.

Tiie cuts for " The Praife of Folly,' ' of his friend Erafmus,
have alfo been aferibed to Holbein, befides feveral detached
frontifpieces, jewellery ornaments, and vignettes, and, laillr,
we ih;iil mention the " Imagines Mortis,'" or " Dance of

Death ■'

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Deat^," OTer Holbein's claims to which the accurate refearcli
of M. Douce of the Britirti Miifeiim has thrown a (hade of
«ioubt that may not eafily be difpclled.

It coniills of forty-lix fmall upright prints, each furround-
<d by a double-line border, wherein Death, in the llceloton
iorm, is poetically repreiented as leadinjt off an individual
from every ilatiou and condition of life, from the emperor in
his imperial Rate, down to the meaneil peafant ; and the ge-
neral moral which combines the whole is, that Death pays no
regard to age, fex, or condition.

It ieems proper here to be obferved that thefe engravings
are not taken, as Paplllon, Strutt, and others have miftakenly
fuppofed, from an ancient painting on the walls of a ceme-
tery at Balil, and that this painting is not from the hand of
Holbein, but is of much older date. The originals are
drawings or fmall pictures which have been fuppoied to be
by Holbein, between which and the large picture in the ce-
metery there is th.is material difierence, tiiat the former forms
one long and connecled pruceflion of (ingle figures, each led
by a (keleton, whereas the latter is compofed of feparate
groups, ia wiiich one or more living figures or (kcletons are
occafionally introduced, as fiiited the views of the arlitl, and
altogether forming a feries, the idea of which was no doubt
fuggeiled by the walls of the cemetery, and by the dances of
death that were foir.etimes found painted in the crypts of.an-
''cient cathedrals, and of which there was one at Lu'ec^
anotlier in the church of the Innocents at Paris, and an-
other in our old cathedral of St. Paul.

Of Sigifmund Holbein we fhall fay but little, for much
eould not be faid to his credit. He was uncle to our Hans,
and ])ainted, and engraved on wood ; but his powers were
very inferior to thofe of his nephew, and even to thofe of
bis brother. The prints marked with the monogram, wiiich
will be found in our firll plate of thofe of the German
fchool of engraving, are afcribed to him, but Strutt
doubts the facf of his having engraved them, nor does it much
matter.

The cypher formed of an H and an I., which appears to
that cut in the Imagines Mortis, of which the fubjeft is
called " The Duchefs,"' is certainly not that of cither of
the Holbeins, and is very likely to have belonged to fome
< German wood engi-aver, whofe initials might be tkus conjoin,
rd, who was the real engraver of th.' whole fet of the Dance
of Death, and who might perhaps be Hans Lederer, as is con-
jcclured by Mr. Douce.

Bartolomeo Beham was born at Nuremberg fome time
about the year 1496, and, according to Sandrart, ended his
days in Italy, a (hort time before the middle of the fucceed-
ing century. He travelled thither with duke William of
Bavaria, and became the difciple of Marc Antonio, under
whofe inltruftion he advanced rapidly in his profeffion, and
wiiofe (lyle he imitated without implicitly following. He
remained ieveral years at Rome and Bologna, workinn- chief-
ly in the excellent fchool of Marc Antonio, and incorporat-
ing v/ith tlie careful and patient manual execution of Gcrma-
ry, the accurate drawing of his mafter, and the fine tafte of
Italy and Raphael. Strutt accordingly fays of him, that "his
drawing is correct and mafterly ; his heads charattcriilic,
and the other extremities of his figures well marked."

Sandrart ftatcs of this mafter, that in his time a great many
cf his engravings (prefumptively engraved //i/to, and notini'-
preflions from thf m) might be feen in the gallery of the elec-
T-r of Bavaria at Munich, and in the cabinet of tl>e prince of
Nei:boiir<-'.

o

The collection of the works of Bartolomeo Beham is
l^owevcr attended with confiderable uncertainty, from the
tircj-iulance of many of ihem having been publifhcd witu-

VoL. XVI.

StriJtt attriSctcg {<»

y c 1 '"""""' l^^iiuout the mark oi the artill
"A Sybil reading, and having before her a Boy liolding
1-lambeaux," (marked B B. but apparently after Raphae
" Sufannah aiid the Eiders,' after Ji.ho Romano. T

out his name, monogram, or other mark.

him the engravings that arc markt d v/ith a fmall die, on
which fometimes appears the letter B, whilft the abbe M;;-
rolles, Huber and Roil, contend that thefe prints are the
produdfiou of Beatrici.

Of the works generally attributed to this mailer the fol-
lowing are the principal :— the portraits of William, duke of
Bav.ina ; Erafmus Balderman, at the age of 33, and Leo-
nard van Eck, a counfellor of Bavaria, -ill in oCidvo. The
emperor Charles v., at the age of 31, with the Latin in-
Icnption " Progenies divum quintus fic Carolus i!!e imperii
C.cfar et ora tulit ;" and the emperor Ferdinand I. with the
infcription " Proximus a fummo Fcrdinandus Cifar Rex
Romanorum fic tulit ora genas," both in quarto, and marked
n.li. 1 hefe are a finely engraved pair of portraits, a:.d ia
much m the ilyle of Marc Antonio, that Vafari thinks the
portrait of Charles V. is really engraved by that mafter.

The belt hillorical works of Beham are " Adam and Eve,
with the figure <;f Death introduced into Paradife."
"Judith beheading Holoferne.s" d;...,! 1525, and in th; tafte
ot^ Marc Antonio. " Tile Mad.nna lucklln- the Infant
Cnri't at a \\^indow," (without the mark of the artilL )

A Svbil readinn-. and liavin.T Kr-f,in> h^t- ■■ n,^,- l,„u;„jj. ,

J , - - - - ..v«...„.,^. The

deatlis ot Lucretia and Cleopatra, both without the en<rra-
ver o mark. " The Judgmert.of Paris," with a dark back
ground, a imall fneze, reprefenting a combat, and marked
"iitus Gracchus," and anotiier fmall plate of a combat,
wuerein foldiers are fighting with clubs, companion to the
above. " An Infant carefting a Dog," a fmall circle, dated
I52|. Another Cliild, with a (kull nesr him, markrd
B. B. and dated 1524. An emblematical piece, infcribed
'■ Der Veit Laul," m which appears a half nakfd woman
fettered, and alleep under a tree, an infant at her fide, and a
lanib at her ieet ; and an indelicate fubjeA from Ecclcfiaftes .

Hans Sebald Beham, the coufin or' nephew of Bartholo-
mew, was born at Nuremberg in th.e year i ^co, and died
at trankfort on the Maine in i^p. lie Is faid by Sandrart
to have ftudied under his relative, but Bartholomew went
early to Rome, and, it mull be remembered, wis but four
years older than Sebald ; periiaps he merely learned of him
the rudiments, and afterwards itudied with Aldegrever, of
whoin we fliall prefently fpeak, the works of Albert Durer.

He was obhged to quit Nuremberg on account of his
hbertimfm, but lettled foon after at I'rankfort ; where, how-
ever, he relapfed into his former courfes. and after engraving
for fome years, ui the courfe of which t!ie number of plate,
and tablets which he produced is lurpriUng, he became the
landlord of a tavern.

The German biographers of Sebald maintain, that whet,
he eftabiftiedliimfelf at Frankfort, he altered his monogram.,
by fubftitutmg the letter B for the P which he ufed at
Nuremberg ; they do not fay he did it for the fake of con-
cealmeut, and it may in fome degree account for this varia-
tion, when we recollect that thefe letters are often o-rllr
confounded among the people of that nation. The Abb'e
MaroUes, Le Comte, and the French wriu rs, on the other
hand, often call him Hlll,ens, and Sebald de Boheme, for
which we cannot fo readily account.

Sebald Beham ranks defcrvedly high among the littl*
mailers; he engraved chiefiy from hl8 own c^Trnpolitions.
which l.iew a hveiy and vigorous invention, though fome-
wliat hampered by the Gotho.gern.au tafte, which wa»
then prevalent, and whicii chleflv appears in ilie ftaithed and
inelegant folas with whlcli he loaded his draperies. His
drawing of the naked, on which he fe<

piided Jiiinfe'f, ihoug!

ins to have juiUy.
:i n.>t free iiwn Hiu.ner, ij often
2 . correct.

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

•forjeA, and fometinies mafterly ; his heads are exprcfTive,
^d his other extremities carefully determined. Tlic manual
part of Ills engraving on copper, executed with the graver
only, is cleaj' and delicate. The prints which he has cut
on wood are flight, but fpirlted and free, as wood engrav-
ing ought to be ; for wood engraving ought not to emulate
the del'cacies and difficulties of the art of engraving on copper.

His two monograms will be found amojigiiioie of the firft
plate of the German fchool. Fromthofc which he engraved be-
tween the yusrs 15*9 and 1530, with the Nurenibert; cypher,
\ve~feleiS the following ; vix. the portraits of Ss'bald Behum
and his wife Anne, where his cypher appears encircled bv lau-
rel. Two fmall plates of " Adam and Eve in the tcrreftrial
Paradifo," datedi5i9. "St. Jerome with liLs Lion holding I he
cardinal's Hat.'' '• Tlu: Madonna fuckling the infantClnift.'*
" The Virgin of Ratiibon," where file is reprefented Hand-
ing ou a creicer.t, and furrounded by radiance, and "The
Dtath of Dido," all dated in 1520. " St. Anthony writing
in the Deiart," and " St. Sebald, (the patroH faint of Nu-
remberg,) fitting among trunks of Trees, and holding in his
right hand the Model of his Church," both dated I5;:i. "Two
Peafants marcliing and playing on the Flute and Biig-pipes,
and a male and female Peaiant Dancing," dated 1522. " A
Triton fupportinga Nereid," dated 1523. " Force, allegorized
by a Woman littingon aLion,'' dated 1524. "A youngMan
fitting under an Arbour embracing a young Woman," dated
1526 '■ The Death of Cleopatra,'' dated J529. An orna-
mented vafe with an infcription. " A combat between the
Greeks and Trojans,'' infcribed " Krichen und Droioner,''
nnd another combat, infcribed " Achilles und Hector,"
both fmall friezes.

O thofe which S. Behatn engraved at Frankfort, between
the years 1531 and 1549, and which are marked with his
fccond cyptier, thi hjlluwing are held in moll ellcem.

A vafe enriched with fculptured ornaments, at the bafe
of which are two fyrens, dated 1531. " Adam and Eve
tarefiingeach other.'' "Adam and Eve in Paradife," between
whom is Deathj with a ferpent wound round him, prelenting
the fatal apple j a high finiflied plate, dated 1543. "The
emperor T-:._hn arrelled at the head of his Army." " Melan-
choly and Patience,'' two female figures, the former copied
from the celebrated engraving of the fame fubjeft by Albert
Durer, d^ted 1539; the latter fitting on a cohmin, which
is infcribed " Paticntia,'' and dated 1540. Another pair,
of Good-fgrtune and Evil-fortune, the former fig'.u-e ftandii g
and holdmg a wheel, the latter arrelled in her courfe by an
tvd genius, who is prefenting her with a lobfler or craw-lidi.
An etching of y buffoon prefenting flowers to a young
woman. A fet pf the four evangelifts, dated 1 541.
Another fet of twelve of the labours of Hercules, dated
from 1542 foi548. "AnEnfign beatingaDrum,'' infcribed
" ImBaucren l<j-eig;" fmall, and dated 1525. "A Roman
Charity," very fiijely engraven, dated 1544. The arms of
Behara, as granted to the family by the emperor Maximi-
lian, a hexagonal print, infcribed " Sebalt Behani, von
Nurnberg, maler, jekt wohnhaftcr Burgher in Frank-
furt," dated 1544. Bull of Domitian in the manner of an
antique medal. A fet of fix, and a title-page of the months
reprefented by male and female peafants dancirig, the lall
dated 1 545. "The Judgment of Paris,' 'dated 1546. " Death
i-Azed from behind by a naked Female,'' a beaiuifully finifhed
plate, dated 1547, with the following words infcribed on a
none, " Omnemin homine venuflain mors abolit." " A Man
endeavouring to root up a Tree,'' dated 1549, and infcribed
" Imycllibik-, &e." and a virgin and child copied from
Bartholomew B<-ham, dated 1549.

The letter-prefs cuts of S. Beham have not been thus careful-
!j urraagcd and feparatcd. We kleix from themtlie following.
3

His own portrait in a bonnet and without a beard. A fet
of eight from the Paflion of our Lord, two of whicii are
marked witii his former, and lv\o with his latter cyplier.
An " Holy Family," in whicli St. Joieph is plucking fruit.
" Tie Virgin and L'iiild.'' "A Pemtent.'' " St. Jerome with
aBiblcandCrucifix.'' " Inuiiortality," reprefented bya female
crowned with liars, and trampling on a Ikeleton, dated 1548.
A public bath of Anabaptiils, of both feses and all ages, of
the cncular form. Another public bath, a large print on lour
leaves. " A village Fair" of the frie/c form, and " A March
of Soldiers," alio of the frici^e form, and large ; the four lall-
mentioned engravings are very rare ; a let of tluee hundred
and forty-eight, engraved for " Biblica; Hillorix Artifi-
ciofifiime depiclx," printed at Frankfurt in 1537. But it is
to be oblerved that there are two editions of tins bible, of
which the former is in Latin, and the latter, dated 1539, is
in tlte German language.

Gregory Peine,, or George Peiitz, was alio a native of Nu-
remberg, born in the year 1500. He firll lludied in the
fchool of Albert Durer, and profited much by the inilruc-
tions of that dillinguiflied mailer, but it was in Italy, and
under Marc Antonio, that he finiihed his taile, formed kis
ftyleof engraving, and acquired that correClnefs of draw-
ing whicli we regard with fo much admiration in his bell
works. His plates are executed entirely with the graver,
which he handled with much fkill, uniting with great pre-
cilion a degree of freedom which was unexampled. He ap-
pears to have worked on I'onie of the bell plates that pafs un»'
dirthe naineof Marc Antonio.

The tar greater number of the engravings of Peins are of
fmall dimenllons ; wherefore he is ufually clalled among
" the little mafters ;" but he has produced fome few large
prints ; one cfpecially of great merit, of "An Army pafling a
Ditcli, and fcaling the "\\''alls of a forti'.icd City," after Julit>
Romano ; which, as Strutt has faid, is " an admirable fpecimca
of the artifl's fuperior abilities.''

Peins died at the age of fifty-fix, but where, his biogra-
phers have not mentioned : his monogram will be found in
our plate of thofe of the German fchool ; and the moll
efleemed of his numerous works are thofe which follow :
Portraits of Gregory Peins and his wife on the fame plate,,
with the infcription " Imago Gregori Peins Imago L^uxore
Ciregori Peins.'' From this engraving it fhould appear, that
the name it bears was the true name of our artilt, and that
the name Georgius Pentz, which appears under his large-
plate after Julio Romano, is probably an error of the pub-
lifher Van Aelil. Portrait of Jean Frederic, eltClor of
Saxony, a rare print, dated 1 543.

The befl of the hiilorical works of Peins are, a pair of
" Eflher before Ahafuerus," and " The Temptation oi'
Job ;" another fmall pair of " Judith in the Tent of Holo-
fernes, and Judith appearing afterwards with his Head ;'
another pair, finely executed, of " Solomon's Idolatry,''
and " The Judgment of Solomon."

Peins appears to have pofl"efred fome judgment, at leaft fome
humour, in pairing his prints ; the next companions which
we have to notice, are " Sufannah fohcited by the Two old
Men," and " Lot intoxicated by the Two young Women,
his Daughters."

From the hiflory of the patriarch Jofeph, we find a fi t
conCfling of four plates ; another let from the hiflory of
Tobit ot feven, includ/'ng the title-page. A pair of " The
Good Samaritan, and the Convtrfion of St. Paul." A fet
of the Four Evangelifls after Aldegrever, wiiich bear the
cyphers of bolli artiils. Another fet of tlie Seven Works
ot Mercy, of the circular form, and with German infcrip-
tions. Another fet, very highly finiihed, confilljng of
twenty-five, from the Life of Chriil. '• 'Hcrodias receiving

the

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

th" Hoad of .Tolin the Baptift." A pair of " Tlie Rape,
anH Death, of Liicretia," A pair of " King Porfenna
paflinc; the Tibet", and Horatius Codes finglv defending
' the Bridge." Another pair from the Life of Virgil.
Another pnir, dated 1539, of " Ceplialus and Procris, and
Medea and .lafon." "The Death of Dido,'' and "Tlic Death
of Virginia." A fet of three, of " Mutius Sccvola thruft-
irig his Hand into the Fire;" " Marcus Curtiiis precipi-
tating:; hiir.felf into tlie fierr Gulf;'' and " The Punilhment
of Titus Manlius ;' in the latter of which the artift has
introduced vhe beheading machine, which is fince known in
France, the dreadful guillotine. A pair of " Sophonifba" and
" Artemiiia;'' " The Supplication of Reguhis;" "Tile Cen-
taur Chiron inllrufting Achilles;" "The Triumph of
Batchus," a frieze in tlie antique tafte. A fet of fix em-
hlrinatical triumphs of human nature, •viz. of Valour,
ChalHtv, Love, Time, Deatli, and Religion. A fet of
five of the fenfes perlonificd, with Latin infcriptions ;
another fet of the feven liberal arts ; and another of the
feven mortal fins.

But lii.i principal and largeft work, of which we have
already fpoken, is -'The taking of Carthage bytlie Romans,"
after Julio Romano.

Among tliat clafs of tlie ancient en.graver.'i of the con-
tinent who are called the " Little Mailers," from the fmall
dimenfions of their works, Henry Aldegrever (lands in the
very firft rank. He was born at Zoull in Weftphalia,
A. D. 1502, but of his anceftors we find no account. Both
his baptilnial and family names have been miihiken, for, by
fume authors, he is called Aldergraft ; while otliere, perhaps,
millaking fome of the fmaller works of Albert Altdorfer
for his, fay that his ciiriilian name was Albert ; but pro-
feflor Chrill allures his readers that the name of this artill
was Henry, and not Albert ; and upon his own portrait
his firname is written, at full length, " Aldegrever.''

Nuremberg was at that time the head-quarters of Ger-
man art ; and thither young Aldegrever was feiit to ftuJy
under Albert Durer. He imitated the ftyle of his mafter
with great fuccefs, and gradually learned to blend with it a
certain fmall portion of the elegance and fimplicity which Italy
firft caught from the refurreClion of Grecian art; and Germany
from the engravings which were brought thither fi-om Italy.

Aldegrever is a lofty objetl, which receives the firlt
faint ravs of a riling fun, and it is univerfally allowed bv his
critics, tliat had he refided in Italy, " the genius and ability
which difplayed iticlt io conlpicuoully in his own country,
would have flione with double luftre.''

The manual part of his engraving, executed entirely with
the graver, is extremely neat, and in a ftyle evidently
founded upon tliat of Durer. He is among the firft who
gave texture to the light parts of flelh by the admixture of
fmall long dots, which lias fince been carried to fuch ad-
mirable perfection bv Nauteuil and others. His drawing of
the naked, which he lecms fond ot introducing, is morecorreft
than is found among kis predeceifors of Germany, and his
nieJT more corrtCt than his women. His heads are, in
general, cxpreffive, and his other extremities well marked,
though occafioiially fomewhat heavy.

. Tlie time of the deceafc of Aldegrever is not accurately
loiTOwn, but the latell of his prints is dated in the year 155S.
The Abbe Marolles had feen at leall three hundred and
fiftv diifercrtt prints from his graver, of which the following
lift contains the names of the principal ; butthegreat demand
for his works has occafioned his plates to be much worn,
and often re -touched ; and Strutt, with becoming iolicitudo
for his fame, advifei; the collector to be circumlpefl an t« tile
imprciiion.s he admits into hi.i port -folios. Hi."; monograms
maybe ieenin our-pkitca at lli«f« ol lUtfGeriuan Ichool.

The" principal portrait* of AltkgrCver. iff tlibfc of hint-
felf without a beard, aged 28, and dated ijjo. v\iiolhcr
of himlelf, aged 35, in vviiich he appears with a long beard ;
Martin Liitlier, dated 1540; Philip Melanfthon, of ' the
fame date ; and Albert Vander Helle, aged 28, and dated
153^ ; all in quarto.

His folio portraits are thofe of Williarti due de .Tuliu? ;
John of Leyden, king of tlie Anabaptifts, Snd Bernard
Knipperdolling, another fanatic.

Of his hiftorical engravings, the mod celebrated are,
A fet of fix, from the Hiftory of Adam .Ind Eve, dated
1540. A fet of four, from the Hiftory of Lot, dated
1555. A fet of four, from the Hiftory of the patriarck
Jofeph, dated 1528 and 1532 ; all in i2mo.

A fet of iix, from the Hiftory of Abfalom, dated i J'40,
A pair of " David and Bathdieba ;" and " The Judgment of
Solomon," in 8vo. A fet of four, of " The Hiftoi-y of Sufanna
and the Elders,'' dated i^^^. Another fet of four of " The
Good Samaritan." A fet of five, from " The Parable of the
Ricli Man," dated 1554. A fet of the " Four Evangclifts,"'
bearing the monograms of both Aldegrever and Peins.
" The Annunciation and Nativity," a pair, in 8vo. Two of
" The Madonna and Infant Jefits.'' Two fmall friezes of
" Battles between HeCfor and the Greek.s, and Scipio and
the Carthaginians." A fet of fijt, of <• The Deities who pre-
fide over the Planets." A fet of twelve, of " The Labours of
Hercules," each with a Latin diltich, dated 1550. A
ftt of fourteen allegorical figures, ending with the Saviour
viAorious, and infcribed " Pax noftra Ciiriftus." A fet
of the feven Cardinal Virtues. A fet of the feven worfl:
Vices. Another fet of feven, of '« The Ettipire of Death,'*
dated 1541.

The only etching from the hand of Aldegrever is now
become very fcarce : its fubjeft is Orpheus and Euridice,
dated in 1528, and in 121110.

James, or Jacob Binck, was alfo of Nuremberg, or,
according to fome authors, was born at Cologne, in the
year 1504, and died at Rome in 1560. His ftyle of
engraving greatly relcmbles that of Aldegrever, under
whom, or Albert Durer, he probably learned the rudiments
of his art, and iraproved himfclf afterward in the fchool of
Marc Antonio : yet his ftyle is not always the fame ; it
often pofTefles more feeming facility than that of Alde-
grever, and when, at the beft, more of Italian tafte. He
apparently ftudied alio, and iinitatcd, that of Marc de
Ravenna.

His cypher, compofed of the initial! letters of his name, is
that of many other artifts who lived ribout the fame period ; but
he fometimes added a little bird, and at others ufed the
monogram, which will be found on our fecond plate.

The chief works of Jacob Binck are, " A young Mas
drefted in a Bonnet, holding a Skull under his Cloak, and
a Cup in his Right-Hand." This, according to Sandrart,
is his own portrait ; but, though the face may pofTibly
refemble him, the reft of the compofition is copied from
an engraving of the fjime fize by Ifrael von Mechenin.

The portraits of Francis I, Cln-iftianus II. furroundcd
by ornamental architefture ; a young princefs, datej
IJ26; Luke Gaflele, dated 1529; the archduch<Ti!
Elizabeth of Denmark ; a pair, of Martin Luther, in-
fcribed " In illentio Veftra," and Phihp Melani'thon, in-
fcrilied " Si Deus pro nobis qtiis contia' nos."

His principal hiftorical engravings are, a fmall plate of
St. Jerome. " Marcus Curtius precipitating himfelf into
the Fiery Gulf," marked 15 I. B. 29. A pair, of the
frieyx' proportions, of " Infant Bacchanals gathering grapes,'
Src." and " The Triumph of Bacchus," wherein his car,
iii drawn by fatyrs, aud attendant nymplis' are playing "un

Z i mulksl

f

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

wuficsfl imlrutuciits. Jilted 1528, 1529. A ftt <,f the Auguftin Hirfchfogcl waa born at Nuremberg A. D,

S"ven Pkmou nerlonitiea. Another of the vSeven Car- 1 506, and died in the fame city in 1560. He was proba-

Oiiial Virtues. An cmbleiiiatiial piece en medaUlon, in hly educated a painter, but produced feveral etchings, of

which a flaming- lieart, i e. an heart of ardent virtue, is which the landfcapea poffefs conliderable merit, being etched

beaten on an anvil, by four a'legorical females : whicli with fome tafte and the touch of a mafter, but when he

- • ■ - "rkheimcr's emblems, introduced the liuman figure it is very incorrectly drawn.

iitolerauce, marked Tiie fingidar monogram of Hirfchfogel, funnounted by a

female figure with wings, little crofs, will be found in our lirll plate of thofe of the Ger

i

figures, as we are informed in Bilibald Pirkt
are Experience, Envy, Tribukition, and In
15 I. B. 29. " Hiftory," a female fig
writing. A pair of " Peafants marketmg with People of
fuperior Condition." A fet of twenty, of Divinities (land-
ing in Niches, copied from Curaliccs, who copied them from
RofTo

The above are mnrked with the initials of the artilt : the
following are with his monogram. A pair, very fmall, of
«' Eve with Two Apples, and Adam holding the Branch of a
Tree.' ' " Lot and liis Daughters," a fmall circle. " David
with the Head of Goliah ;'' and " Judith with that of Holo-
ferncs 5" both fmall. " The Millennium, or Archangel
Michael, chaining the DeviL" "The Holy Family."
«■ The Slaughter of the Innocents," a very rare print

man fchool, and his principal productions are as follow :

Part of " Raphael's {laughter of tlie Innocents," from a
fl<etch by that mailer, whicli differs from the print by Marc
Antonio, dated 1545. A fet of four, and another fet of
iix landfcapes, from his own compolitions of caftle and
mountain fcenery, in 4to., dated 1546. A folio landfcape,
in which is introduced an ill-drawn female intended for
Cleopatra, dated 1547. An ornamented vafe in 410. dated
the fame year, and two fmall views of fea-ports, with (hip-
ping, &c, dated 1549.

Henry, whom Strutt has miftakenly confounded with
Hans or John Lautcnfack, was alfo of Nuremberg, or, ac-

after Raphael, but perhaps copied from the engraving by cording to fome authors, was of Doppelmayr, and born iii^
Marc Antonio. " The Defcent from the Crofs." " St. the fame year with the preceding artift. He was the fon of
John afleep with the Lamb," dated 1526. " St. George a painter, and learned the principles of delign in his father's
imd the Dragon." " Mercury travelling in a Defart," a houfe, which he probably continued to inhabit, for we
fmall circle. " A Soldier defending himfelf agaiull Death, fi„d that he died in his native city in the year 1590.
who has overthrown him." "A Woman beating the The elder Lautenfack employed much of his time in en-
Devil with a DiftafF." " A Woman advancing with Sur- graving on the precious metals for the fidcboards and per-
crife towards a Man who is feated near a Pedellal, on which fonal ornaments of the opulent and the great, but in the
r ~ ^ ,^ , , , 3 ],.. ..I,.. ,i:,...vi.:-^., " " - --

is a Child," after Raphael, and engraved under the direftion
of Marc Antonio. " A Male and Female Pcafant Dancing."
" The Blind Child." A vignette, with Cupids mounted
en dolphins.

Strutt begs leave to add, a figure of " Saturn ftanding in
a Niche devouring One of his Children," a fmall upright,
which differs in the llyle of engraving from the fore-
going, being more bold, fpirited, and correft. The real
meaning of this allegory mull be, that Time is fwallowed
X'p hy Eternity. On a tablet which is uitroduced is
"Jacobus Binck Colonienl'is, fecit 1530.

Another of " the little mailers" of Germany was Hans
cr John Brofamer, born at Fulda, in the circle of the Up-
per Rhine, in the year 1506. His m.anner of engranng
often bears refemblance to that of Aldegrever, but the
fchool in which he ftudied is not known ; lometimes, how-
ever, he differs from that dillinguilhed mallsr by interworking
the lines of his draperies and backgrounds with ilippling.
His drawing of the naked is however very deficient, and in
manual execution he by no means equalled the Behams. He
died at the age of iifty-four, and his cypher, compofed of
the letters H and B, will be found in our liril plate of thoie
•f the German fchool.

His principal engravings are, the portraits of Martin
Luther, and the abbot of Fulda, dated in 1 541.

And in hillory, " Samfon and Dalilah ;" " David and
liathlheba;" and " Solomon's Idolatry;" dated 1543, all
I'mall uprights. " Xantippe and Socrates ;'' " Laocoon and
his fons;" dated 1538; "The Rape of Helen;" of the
frieze form, dated 1540 ; " Marcus Curtius leaping into the
G-ulf;" a fmall circular plate ; " Tiie Judgment of Paris;"
« A Crucifixion, with Angels, the Virgin Mary, and St.
John;" "The grand procelhon of Cliriftian Heroes;'' a
rare print, engraved on wood, and fometimes attributed to
Burgmair ; and " Biblia Vcteris Tellamenti ai-tificiofis pic-
turis etfigiata," printed at Frankfort in the year 1552, and
conlilling of a fet of engravings on wood, chiefly, but not
entirely, copied from thofe of Holbein, which were pub-
liflied at Leyden in 1547 ; but by no means equal to the
•rijioalsj eijkier iu fpirit, acatoeis, or truth.

year 1567 he publilhed at Franckfort on the Mayne the
" Geometrical proportions and pijrfpeftive of the Man and
Horfe ;" in fmall foho ; " The Martyrdom of St. Cathe-
rine ;■' two ornamental plates of boys, &c. ; " The decolla-
tion of St. John the Bnptift ;'' " Chrifl expiring on the
Crofs," and a boy ftanding on a globe with a bow in his
hand, and below whom is a deluge, with many fmall figures,
are alfo engraved by Henry Lautenfack, whofe marks will
be found in our fecond plate of German monograms.

Of the fame jdace and family with the preceding, was
Hans Sebald Lautenfack, who was born in the year 1508,
but of the principal events of whofe hfe, and the time of
whofe death, we are ignorant.

His portraits are held in efleem among connoifTeurs for
their truth of refemblance ; and his landfcapes, which an;
chiefly etchings, for their wild, or beautiful, or grand
effetts ; but the figures which he has introduced are gene- •
rally difproportionate.

His landfcapes are of an hiilorical charafter, and are com-
monly denominated after the figures they contain. Of thefe
the following will probably be found moft worthy of
the colledlor's attention : " The little David combating •
the Great Goliah,' dated 1551. " The Blind Man of
Jericho, reftored by our Saviour,'' and another miracle of
" The Devil call out from the Canaanite," both dated 1559.
" Balaam and his Afs,'' in a very mountainous landfcape, and
a very rich fcene of " The Labours of the Vintage," are
alfo dated in 1559, all of the folio lize. An upright land-
fcape with a large farm, dated 1551. A pair of intereiling
and extenfive fccnes in 410. dated 1553 and 1555. A grand
tournament, of large folio dimenfions, entitled " Equellrls
pedeflrifque pugnueicon," 1560; and another grand joufl,
entitled " Secundum CircenCum Ludorum, equeflre cer-
tamen continens,'' 1560, both of which are now become
very rare. A pair of views of the imperial city of Nurem-
berg, in large foLo, each engraved on three plates, and dated
1552 and 1555.

The principal portraits by Hans Sebald, are thofe of hi»
father Paul Lautenfack, painter of Nuremberg, in folio.
Hiinfelf, in fmall folio, dated ijjz. Hierouimus Seurflab.

pcorijius

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Georgius Roggenbacli, and two other half-lengths, all in and four beautiful candelabra, with an arabefque bahj
folio. which is cfteemcd the beft of his engnavings.

The brothers David, Jerome, and Lambert Hopfer ap- Strutt lias added to thefe another Hopfer, for whom he

pear to have been the fons of a goldfmith, and fiourilhed at claims equal merit with thr bell. The initial letter of his

Nuremberg within the firll fifty years of the fixtecnth cen- chriitian name was an N. He worked with the graver, but

tury. They produced a great m?i>yfpiritcd etchings, which imparted to his lines fomewhat of the roughnefs of etching,

Hollar afterwards made the foundation of his llyle. David and drew more correctly than David or any other of the

was the moil indullrioiis of the three, but defigned in the family. To this artill he afcribes " The Call of Jeremiah," a

vicious tafte of his age and country : yet his freedom of fmall upriglit, dated 1525. " A female Saint, holding a Palm

handling is very plealuig, and difplays itfelf to advantage in Branch, and feveral Figures fleeping witli the Deity°appcar-

buiulings and ornaments. He ufually marked his plates with ing above," which, he fays, is " a fine fpirited etching."

the initials of his name, between which he introduced what David Funck, a printfeller of Nuremberg, towards the

the Abbe MaroUes appears to have millaken for a candle- beginning of the laft century, collected and publilbed all the

ftick, for he emphatically calls the Hopfers " le Maitres plates of thefe artilU, amounting to two hundred and thirty,

du Chandelier,'' but what is really intended for a hop-plant, under the title of " Opera Hopferiaua :'' fome of whicU

in sllufion to their name, which in the German language fig- were found to be executed on plates of iron or tin.

nifies hop-plant. Thefe letters, with the plant, fometimes Virgile Solis engraved both on copper and on wood,

appear on a tablet, for which fee our plate of German mo- chiefly from his own deligns ; was born at Nurembero- in the

nograms. year 1514, and died in the fame city in 1570. Under what

The principal works of David, are the portraits of Nero mafter he itudied does not appear. His early works refem-

and Galba, of the 4to fi/.e, as medallions. Carolus Rex ble thofe of Beham, but when he came to engrave after

Catholicus, the fame. M:irtin Luther, dated 1523, and Raphael, and other Itahan mailers, he adopted a (lyle more

Claude Sturzenbecher, a rare print in folio. open and fpirited. His prints on wood bear great refem-

Of his hillorical engravings, we ihall mention, " David blance to thofe of Joil Ammon, both in deli^n and ex-

beheadincr Goliah,'' in 410. and " David Playing on the ecution.

Harp before Saul," in folio, dated 153 1. " The Adulte- Virgile Solis was a man of ability. His compofitions
rous Woman;" " The Prefentation in the Temple;'' "The are often judicious, but his drawing of the naked is not.
Laft Judgment ;" and " A Grand Altar," with the figures equally correft. He is clalTed among the little mafters, and
of Jefus Chriil, the Virgin Mary, St. John the B:iplift, and tiled occafionally three cyphers, which will be found in our
others, all in folio. A fort of ridiculous " Morice Dance of fecond plate of the monograms of the German engravers.
Grotefque Figures." " The Monopolifer of Grain, e.Kecrat- Mr. Evelyn fays, that for " imitating the vile poftures of
ed by the PeopL-," infcribed, " die Sprich Salomo. Das XL Aretin, he had his eyes put out by the fentence of the ma-
Capitel." A fubjeft from the loth cha-jtcr of Solomon's giilrate." Strutt p'refumes, that if this llory be true, the
Proverbs, dated 1534. both in folio. " Tlie Three Great engravings of Solis muft have been copies from thofe which
Jews, Jolh'i.i, Divid, and Judas Maccabeus, on horfe- Marc Antonio did after the defign of Julio Romano, (and
back." " The Three Chriiliau Heroes, Cliarlemagne, king which had nearly coll him his life,) to which the poet Aretin
Arthur, and G >dfrey of Bj illoigne," companion to theabove, did but fupply verfes.

both in 4to. and after H-ms Burgmair. _ " A Grand Vil- The engravings of Solis amount to upwards of eight hun-
lage," of fqu.ire form and folio dimenfions. " Two Fe- dred, of which it may fufiice to fpecify the followintr : "The
males Surveying themfelves in a Mirror, behind whom are Marriage of Cupid and Pfyche ;" " Tlie Allemblv of the
Death and tie D.vil." Two very grotefque figures, Gods ;" and " Mount PariiafTun," all a.fter Raphael! "The
infcribed " Bolikana, Markelfas," in folio. " The Cruci- Bith of the Anabaptifts,'' a fmall plate, after Alden-rever. A
fixion betwi.'it the two Thieves." Another " Crucifixion," fet of four plates of fragments of ancient architecTiure. A
in which St. John and the Virgin Mary are introduced, tlie fet of fix heads of Roman emperors, fmall. A pair of fmall
|a;'.T pierced by a fword, in allufion to her exceffive grief; fri<-ze3, in which are numerous parroquets. A fet of por-
anu . fmall copy of a celebrated work of Andrea Manteg- traits of the kings of France, from Pharamond to Henry HI.
na, of '« A Co nbat of M.irine Monilers." The above are on copper, with fome few etchings, whiclr

Jerome Hopfer etched much in the fame ftyle with his are inferior to the refl of his works,
brother, but was fomewhat his inferior in merit. He made His principal engravings on wood, are a fet of one lum-
feveral copies from celebrated v/orks of Albert Durer, and dred and feventy froin Ovid's Metamorphofes, fmall, and
fometimes engraved from his own compofitions, marking his dated 1563. A fet for the emblems of Nicolas Reufner,
prints as did his brother. dated 1581. And, another fet for thofe of Andrea Ancia-

His be.t works after Durer are, " St. Hubert," " St. Je- tus, both of which books were printed at Frankfort in the
ro- '. ,"and"TlieGrandC innon.'' " HerculesCombatingthe year 1581.

Hyd.'a," is from Andrea Mmtegna : and the beil from his Melchior Lorch, or Lorich, was born at Flenfburg, in the
owii I'eUgns are " Lucina holding a Moon in her right Hand, dutchy of Slefwic, in the year 1527, and died at Rome in
and a Fla.nbeau in her left." " Minerva holding a fmall Figure 1586. He was dillingnilhed both as an artill and an anti-
ofViftory." A rare print of "The Englilb and French drawn quary : fome time about the middle period of his life, he
Tip in battle array, previous to the Fight at Agincourt."' And made a voyage to Conllantinople, where he painted and en-
a battle, after Julio Romano. graved the portraits of the grand feignior and his favourite.

Of lliU lefs merit than his brethren, was Lambert Hop- which are now become very rare, and wliere he formed that
fer, who copied in etching a great number of the wood cuts coUedlion of Turkifh dreffes, which were afterwards engra-
of Durer, but his works difplay little talle and lefs cor- ven on wood, and pubhihed in the year 1576, in a folio vo-
leftnefs. lume. His engravings are decidedly thofe of a man of ta-

Among them a-e a fet of fifteen of " The Life and Paflion lent: he drew with confiderable fpirit, and a tolerable de-
of Chri.fl." " The Converlion of St. Paul." " The Fall of gree of correftnefs. His \Vorks on wood are executed with
•ur Fijft Parents." Several plates of arabefque oi-naiiients> nuich freedom anJ boldoefs, while in tlv»fe on copper thef«-

GERMAN SCHOOL Ol' ENGRAVING.

qualities are in fome degree loft, in the neatncfs to wliich lio
laboured his fiiiilliing. Strutt fpcaks of a crucified figure,
(which is defij^ned fo much in the ilyle of Michael Aiigeli),
that he fuppoies it to be engraven iifter fome work of that
great mafler'i as a very extraorJin:iry produClion. It is ex-
ecuted entirely with the graver, and the left leg and arms are
much fore-lliorteiied. He fays, " if this figure be uot quite
correft in all its parts, it is however well drawn upon the
whole, notwithilandiugthe diflloulty of the fore-fliorleniiigs,
and is finifhed in a Ilyle of ncatnefs equal to that oi Jerome
or Anthony Wierix, while it is fuperior to them in point of
tafti'.'' His monograms, which he foniCtimes furmounted
by the date of iiis work, will be found in our fecond plate
of thofe of the German fchool.

The works of Lorich, which aix> held in moH requeft
among connoifieurs, are : the portrait of Martin Lu-
ther, dated 15+8. That of Albert Durer, with four
Latin verfes, dated 1550, a very rare print, done in imitation
of a Cameo, and thofe which we have mentioned above of the
grand fcignior and his favourite fultaua, very neatly executed
on copper, and very fcarce. Ariftotle, the Stagyrite, dated
1561. " St. Jerome in the Defart,'' dated 1546; and a
fraall upright of a female head, beautifully executed, are alfo
on copper.

His bell engravings on wood, are a fet mentioned above,
of the colluine of Turkey, in fmall folio, dated from 1570
to 1581. " The Tlburtine Sybil," dated 157 1, executed
in his bell ftyle. " A Woman preffing her Breall, with nume-
rous Animals below," and infcribed " Ops Saturni conjux
materque Deonmi,'' a very fpirited engraving in folio, dated
1565. And " The Deluge,'' a large foho, engraven on
two blocks, the imprelTioiis from which are afterward pailed
together.

Theodore de Bry, or de Erie, the elder, was born at Liege
ia the year 1528, and died at Frankfort on the Miiine in
I 598 ; at which latter place he chiefly refided, but to whom
he owed his early initiation to art is not known. He appears
to have formed his tafte by copying the works ot Sebald
Beham. He worked almoft entirely with the graver, and
acquired a neat and free ftyle, which was well adapted to fmall
fubjefts, in whicli numerous figures were required to be in-
troduced, fucii as ftate, and funeral, proceiiions. He drew
correctly : liis heads in general are fpirited and expref-
five, and his other extremities well marked, and his back
grounds, though frequently fliglxt, are touclied with a maf-
terly hand.

About twenty years before his death he vifited England,
and engraved at leaft tWX) large and laborious plates, ot
which we (hall prefently fpeak, in the city ot London. He
died, as his fons in the 3d part of Boiffard's colleftion of
portraits inform us, March 27, 1598. De Brie marked his
plates with the cypher T. B. F.,and at other times with that
of Rene Boivin ; and his principal engravings are thole which
follow: an etching of '• St. John in tlie Defart,' a rare
print. A pair of " The Fountain of Youth,'' and the
" Little Village Fair," copied from Sebald Beham. " A
Bacchanalian Procelfion," from Julio Romano. Three mixr
lures of the grotefque with the allegorical, of the circular
form. " The Golden Age," a fmall circle, after Abraham
Bloemart. A pair of portraits eu medalHon, of Scanderbeg
and Donice his wife. A. fet of nine figures of tlit miifes, in
folio. The plates for the four firft. volumes of Boiffard's
Roman Antiquities (of which the two laft volumes were
completed by the fons of our artift). The plates of the
manners and cuiloras of the Virginians, publiflied in " Ihe
brief true Report of the Now-foundland of Virginia, by
Thcuias Hamet, fcrvant to Sir Walter Kaleig);," ffoia

drawings by J. White, printed at Frankfort by J. We-
chelius, A. D. 1590, which were afterwards copied by
Ficart, for his " Rehgious Ceremonies, &c." The plates ta
the Latin narrative of Spaniih cruelties in America, pubhlhed

His largeft work appeared in the fame year, and is entitled
" Dcfcriptio Lidiae Orientalis et Occidcntalis,'' in nineteen
tracts, which are contained in five folio vohinies.

De Brie is alfo the author of a work which may be
thought IHU more interelling to Britiih leehngs, beeaulc
coniifCled with Brililh hillory. It is tlie procelfion of the
knights of the garter in the 18th year of the reign of Eli-
zabeth, of which Strutt gives a very particulai- dcfcription :
" The nrocefPion is repreteiited as moving along a portico
quite opeu on the fide next the obfcrver, but fupportcd by
thirty-thn-e pillars of the Ionic order, on the fide from him.
Over each knight companion of the order, are bis armi
within tlie garter, and, in a compartment below, his name,
titles, fee. are written in French. The lall flail was vacant,
and ttiere is only a fancy portrait given, without name or
arms. There are fixty portraits in the procelfion, each of
them between four and five inches in heigiit ! Under the
arches of the portico is a delightful view of a hilly
country, (too hilly tor an Engliih profpett,) interfpcrfed
with calUes, churches, houles, rivers, woods, &c. and aa
exact view of Windior caftle as it appeared in that reign.
The roll is lixteen feet thrc-e inches long, and was engraved
on twelve plates."

Hollar to his plate of the procefilon, copied in fmall from
this engraving, in Aihniole's order of the garter, fays, "the ,
original was defigned by i!»Iarc Garrerd, who cuuld be then
only fifteen yeajs old." Wherefore Strutt concludes this to
be a millake, 'out perhaps Garrerd made a reduced copy from
this print, from whicli copy Hollar's plate was engraven,
which would reconcile tlie accounts ; for lord Orford dates
Garrerd's drawing in the year 1584, whereas De Brie's'plate'
was finilhed in the year 1578 ; and Strutt, reafoning from the
dedication being made in tlie name of Thomas Dawes,
Rouge-Croix, concludes that it was defigned by him.

Strutt fays he never heard of any other impreliions from
this plate than the proof, which, after belonging to the
Norroy king at arms, came finally into the poffeihon of John
Femi, efq. of Eaft Durham in the county of Norfolk ; but
the engraving is mentioned by Hubcr, and preiuinpiivelj'
therefore, is not unknown on the continejit.

To this detailed account of this very curious hiftorical
engraving, Strutt adds the order of procelfion, and the
names of the fixty portraits of the knights coin|ianions and
officers of ftate ; and the reader who willies to be informed,
on thefe poiiits, is therefore reierred to his biographical
diftionary.

The other plate which our artift is known to liave engraved
in LumioM, is "The Funeral Procefiion ot lir Phihp Sydney,"
on thirty-four plates, forming, when paftcd together, a very
long roll, but more frequently forming a book. In the
infcription beneath, it is faid to be "contrived and invented
by Ttomas Lant, gent, fervant of the Iionourable kmght,
and graven on copper by Derick, or Theodore de Brie, ia
the city of Loiidun IJ7K; ' and prefixed is- the fvortrait of
Mr. Lant, aged 32.

Jean Tlieodore de Brie tlie young.er was the eldeft fon
of Theodore, of whom we have jutl concluded our account.
He was bor.n at Liege in the year 1561, and died at Frank,
fort on the Maine in 1623.

The engj-avings of Jean Tlieodore are on the whole fu.
perior to thoftrof his father both in taile and prccillon, and
lie aiuilcd.his fathej ia the literary j;i;rts of thole works in

wh-.«.-U

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

nKich he engat^ed, as well as in the engravings ; but Jean
Ifrael, the fecond fou of Theodore, who alfo alTiiled, and
Succeeded iiiin, was far lefs fucccfsful.

The brothers John, Theodore, and Tfraol, completed the

plate

Boiflard's Roman Antiquities, and added fcveral

to tlie coUertion of portraits of illuftrious perfons, which
tlieir father had begun to form.

Among other portraits, we find thofe of Gerard Mer-
eator the celebrated gcogi-apher, and Daniel Specklin, both
in 4to.

The bell hiftorical works of Jean Theodore are, a fet of
the elements, coniifting of four plates in 410. " The Return
of Rebecca," after baltliafar Peru/.7:i. "A Marcli of
Soldiers," and " A March of Soldiers conducting Pri-
fonefs," fomctimcs called " The Triumph 0} Death," both
of the frieze form, and by fome fuppofed to be after Titian.
" The Village Fete," with a Latin infcription, after Sebald
Beham, and "The Fountain of Youth," after the faine,
both of the frieze form ; and a fet of levcnty-four plates
for " Profcenium vhx humane five Emblematum, &:c."
acconrtpanied with explanations.

Jean Kelertal'-r was bom at Drefden in the year 1 530 ;
under whom he iludied is not known, but he continued en-
graving in his native citv, until fome time about the dole of
the fixleenth centur)-. He engraved fome plates after Jean
Marie NolTeni, who was fculptor and architect to the eledtor
of Saxojy, of which the following are ti.ofe of moll im-
portance.

" Nimrod building the Tower of Babel ;" " The De-
ftrutlion of the Babylonian Empire;" " Tlie Empire of
Rome," in tl)e back ground of which is the death of Ciiefar.
" The Empire of the Church," « here the Pope is reprefented
receiving the homage of Charlemagne ; and " An Allegory,"
where a winged ligure of Death, with two trumpets, is fup-
portiiig a globe, all of tlie 410. fiz?.

Tobias Stimmer was born at SchaiFliaufen towards the
clofe of the fixteenth century, but refided chiefly at Straf-
burg, where he was patronized by the margrave of Baden,
and became both a painter and engraver of eminence. His
engravings are chiefly on wood, and from hi? own coni-
politions ; the engravings in the " Novix Tobias Stimmeri
lacrorum Bihliorum figure verfibus Latinis et Germank-is
expolit.e," are from compofitions by Stimmcr, though he
was aflilled in the engraving bv his brother Chriilopher, and
his pupil CliriRopher Maurer. Stimmer undcrftood the
hiwian ligure very well, and compofed with lo much talle
and judgment, that Rubens has been heard to declare, that
fie iiad Uudied Stimmer's bible with attention and with
preat benefit, and Sandrart, wlio relates tliis anecdote, calb
the book, "A Trealury of Science for the art of Painting. '

In the earlier part of his career, Stimmer was unfortimate,
and palTed fome of his bell days in painting the facades of
houfes at Frankfort on the Maine, and at Straftnirg. But
let no man of talent, who poiiefTes the means of fhewing his
talent, defpair ; it was the pleafure he received from fome
of thcfe, which accidentally caught his notice, that occa-
tioned tlie margrave to engiige Stimmer in his fervice, and
became die foundation of his fortune. For him our artiil
painted the hiliory of his ancellors, and the margrave's own
portrait to this day afferts the fuperior powers of Stimmer
in this department of art.

We have given his monograms in our fecor.d plate, and his
principal work, excepting his bible, is " The Annunciation,"
jti folio.

Jean Chriilopher Stimmer was born at Scha.fFhauftnin the
year 1552, and died at Paris fome time about tlie commcnce-
nutnt oi the I'uccecding centur^'. He was the brother and dif-

ciple of Tobias, and engraved on Trood a great number of his
compofitions with confidcrable fuccefs, for lie drew with
abihty, and hatched his engravings in a bold, but mellow ftyle.

After the death of his brother, Chriftoplier travelled to
Paris, where he performed fome engravings, and was com-
monly known by the name of " the Swifs," and where he
died, leaving behind him a fon, wlio alfo engraved on wood a
confrderable number of tabk-ts after Francis Chaveau.

Clirillophcr ufed the complicated cyplier which will be
found among thofe of our monograms of the ftco.id plate of
the German fchool, and his beft engravings are thofe whicli
follow ; — A fet for the New Teilament, with the Apoca-
lypf*-, printed at Stralhurg in the year 1588. A colleclion
of portraits of the fcholars and theologians of the German
nation, printed alfo at Strafbiirg by Bernard Jobio, in 1591.
" Icones AfFabrae ;'' a coUeClion of emblems printed in the
fame year, all of the 4to. fize ; and a capital print of an hifto-
rical portrait of a kneeling figure, infcribed " Contrafacite
Bildnus des Hemn Lafarus von Schwende," Sec.

Joll or Jodocus Amman or Ammon, deligner and engraver
on wood and on copper, was bom at Zurich in 1539, and
died at Nuremberg in 1591. Not meeting Avith encourage-
ment in his youth at Zurich, he travelled to Nuremberg, a
city where the arts were reported to be in a flourilhing ftate,
the year he became of age, and in 1577 renounced the
rights of a citizen of Zurich, in order the more firmly to at-
tacii himfelf to his adopted country-. Stnitt fays of him,
that if patience and afiiduity of themfelves could conllitute
an artill, Amman would well defervethat character, from the
multitude of deligiis which he made, and the great number of
plates which he engraved, amounting, according toHuber, to
more than five hundred and fifty. But tliough a great genius
may be improved bv cultivation, yet it is equally certain that
neither pains nor lludy can create a great genius. Much
merit, however, was certainly poiTelTed by our artill ; who
lived at a time when almoil every book which appeared was
ornamented with prints, and was employed by moll of the
g^eat bookiellers, efpecially Siegmund Feyerabandt of Frank-^
fort.

The engravings of Joll Amman upon copper are not
equal to thofe which he performed for the letter prefs. His
invention was not ven' copious : his figures are tolerabV
proportioned, and the detail of his dra^ring is careful and
inoderatelv correft ; animals in particular he touched with
great fpirit. His llyle of engraving is neat and decided,
yet if his lines are more regular, tliey are lefs free than
thofe of many of his predeceltors. He affixed Tarious marks
to his performances, as may be feen in otir fecond plate of
the nionogi-ams, &c. of the German fchool of engraving.

His principal works on copper arc, a fet of t\\ elve illuf-
trious women, beginning with Eve, under the title of " Eva
die Geberirln ;" a fet of figures of v.unnors, fmall uprights,
marked Joll Amman inventor 1590 ; the fet confills of eight,
and there is a fet of eigiit others, fighting with fwords and
flicks. The four feafons, and the four elements, dated
1569. A fet of the twelve months, perfonified, and a fet of
fixtecn friezes of hunting fubjefts ; a coiUiderable mimber
of etchings of fubjefts of piety, after Wincellaus Jamitzer ;
the bombardment of a city, dated 1570, in folio, and the
portrait of Carparis di Colignon, D. Callilione, marked
Joll Ammon Figv.rinus, 1573.

His beft engravings on wood are, *• The Creation of
Man;" " The Diet of the Empire," both in folio, the
latter an oval. " The Marriage at Cana," in quarto ; a fet
of one hundred and' fifteen, entitled, " De omnium hbera-
lium mechanicarum ct fcdentarium artium genera contincns,
Sec. Edit, per Hoilmanti Scoperura Francof. 1564." This

n-v/rk

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

workconfifts of artift* and artifans, reprefented in their re-
fpcftivc employments : among them arc feme excellent fi-
gures, and in that which rcprelents the engraver, Animan
has given his own portrait. A fecond edition was printed
A.D. 1574, and a third in 1588, but tiie lirll is now become
very Icarce. The book is a laigc oftavo.

A fet of one lumdred and two, belides the portrait of
Feyerabandt, for a Latin edition of Livy, printed at Frank-
fort 1572-3 in oblong quarto.

Ani)lh..'r fet for a foho edition of Pliny, printed alfo at
Frankfort A.D. 15S4. Another fet for a ipiarto book of
hunting, printed at Frankfort in 15H2, which book was
tonfiderably augmented after the death of Amman, and re-
printed in 161 7. Another fet of one hundred and three of
ecclefiaitical habits, dated 1564, and another of one hun-
dred and twenty, for " Gynaceum, fivcTheatrum Mulierurn,
in quorum prxcipuarum omnium per Europam, &c." in
oblong quarto, printed at Frankfort, 1586.

Chriftopher Maurer engraved from his own compofitions,
»nd from thofe of T.Stimmcr, botli on copper and on wood.
He was born at Zurich A.D. 1558, and died at Wintert-
hour in 1614. His father Jofliua was an artift, and under
the paternal roof he learned the rudiments of art, but was
afterwards removed to Stralburg, and placed under Tobias
Stimmer, where both the mafter and fcholar were clofe llu-
dents, and foon began to be diftinguiflied by the number of
interefting and beautiful works which they produced.

The cypher of Maurer will be found in our fecond plate of
German monograms. After paffing fome years in the
I'choolof Stimmer, lie returned to his native city, and added
to his reputation by his frefco piftures which adorn the fa-
9adesof dirtinguiliied hdufes, and by thejuft likenefTes he
difplayed in his portraits ; with the true I'pirit of a Swifs
artill, he always preferred patriotic fubjects, and has often
painted the origin of the Helvetic confederacy.

Of his engravings, thole on copper are moft fought after
t)V connolifeurs, particularly a fet of bible cuts, and four
emblematical etchings relative to proceedings in the courts of
law, which, after the death of the artift, weK introduced
into a Latin book.

Of his letter-prefs engravings, which are neatly executed,
tlic bell are probably the fet of animals of the chace, which
he executed in coniunftion with his mafter, and which were
publiihed at Stralburg in the year 1605. And a fet of the
bible under the title of " Hiftorifciie Vorftellungen iiber
die ganze Bibel," which do honour to his inventive talent, as
well as to his manual powers as an engraver.

Chriftopher Jamitzer, or Jamnitzer, was born at Nurem-
berg :n the year 1560, and died in the fame city in 1617. He
pertormed leveral etchings which are marked with the c)'pher
« hieh the reader will iind among our monograms of the
German engravers, but they are far from being of firft rate
merit.

Of the fame family were Bartholomew and Wenceflaus
Jiunitzer, whom we pafs as unimportant perlbns.

Thebcft walks of Chriftopher confift of groups of boys
varioufly occupied, and the beft of tliefe groups are thole
which follow : A fet of twelve, in izmo.; another fet of
twelve, mounted on marine anim.als ; another fet of four
combined with fwaus, flowers. Sec.; fourciiildren dancing in
an arbour. A fet of grotefque chimeras, in quarto ; Chrif-
topher jamitzer alfo engraved a portrait of himfclf fitting
ina perfpeftive macliiue, in the aft of drawing or nieafunrg.

Mattliew Greuter was born at Stralburg A.D. 1564. He
travelled more than once to Lyons and Avignon, and from
thence to Reme for profeflioiial improvement, in wliich
latter city, in the year 163S, he died.

Strutt defcribes him as a man of genius, but fo mucK
praife as is implied in this word, cannot juftly be allowed him.
He worked partly from his own compofitions, but his draw-
ing is by no means corretl ; his extremities in particular
being fadly neglected. He fomelimes executed his plates
with the graver only, in a neat ftyle, and in other inftances
has employed ctcliing. His principal productions are, the
portraits of tiie popes Innocent X., and Sixtus V., the
latter furrounded with an ornamental border in which the
jiapal coinage is introduced. Cardinal Seraphinus Olivarius
Razzalius ; all in quarto.

Of his hittorical works we ftiall only mention " The Vir-
gin and Child,'' leated in a landfeape, alter Daroccio. M=ry
Magdalen leaning her right lund upon a Ikull, alter S. Gae-
tano, dated 1584; both in quarto. An emblematical print
of Venus ftanding on a globe, with various virtues and vices
perfonified, very neatly fmilhed, and marked M. Greuti r
inv. et fee. 15S7, in fmall folio. " The Fall of Phaeton,"
after Windel Dieterlin, in large folio, dated 1588. " The
Deilruftion of Troy," after Lanfranc, and the magnili-
cent cavalcade of the emperor Charles V. engraved by Greu-
ter ill concert witl; Lucas Vorllerman, a large print of the
frieze form, engraved on feveral plates.

As Jean Frederic, the fon of Miittliew.Greuter, was bom
at Ronu-, and lived and died in Italy, our account of him
will be found under Italian' School of Engravers.

Matthias Knger was born at Munich in the year i 566, and
died at Auglburg in 1634. He fludied in Italy, and befide
ranking higli among the hiftorical painters of his time, was an
engraver of merit. His llyle is neat, and performed chiefly
with the graver, though iometinies with the admixture of
etching. His attachment to liberty, and averfion to the man-
ners ot a German court, induced him to quit that of Bavariii,
and he became a citizen and finally a burgomafter of Augf-

S. Kilian engraved a portrait of him in 1626. The bed
of his own prints are : "Tlie Adoration of the Shepherd;,"
dated t6io. " St. John Baptiling Chrill in the river Jor-
dan," both of the folio fize, and from compofilions by h^m-
felf : " The Holy Family," in an oval, alfo from his own
pifture, and in 4to. and " St. Francis furrounded by the
Monks of his Order, to whom Chrift and the Virgin Mary
are appearing in the Clouds," a middling-fized upright from
P. Remigius Bozzulo.

Of Adam Ellheimer, furnamcd Adam of Frankfort, who
fhould elfe have been mentioned in this place, we have already
fpoken. See Ei.^iiElMElt.

Theodore Kruger, or Cruger, was born in the city of
Munich A.D. 1576. He travelled to Italy for improve-
ment, where he formed his ftyle of engraving on that of
Francifco Villamena. He handled the graver, which was tlie
fole inftrument of his art, with boidnefs, iieedom, and facility,
but his chiarofcuro is very defective, and his outlines incoi -
reft and hard.

His principal engravings are : " The Life of St. John the
Baptift,'' on twelve upright folio plates, after Andrea del
Sarto, with the portrait of the painter prclixed, and dedicated
to Cofmo de Medicis, dated 1618. " The Laft Supper," ia
large folio, after the fame. " The return of the Hoiy
Family from Egypt," where the infant is embracing Jeius
Chrift, after F. Bigio, alfo in folio. "The infant Saviour
bleffing the little St. John," after the fame jniinter. And
" A Prince on a Tribunal, furrounded by divers Statefmcii,"
after Lasifranco, and iiifcribed "Vox mihi."

Cruger has alio cngiaven fome portraits after Gabriel
Waver, to which he iigns his nrnie Fiitricli Cruger, by which
Chrilliaii name he is bell known in Italy.

Theodore

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Theodore Crugcr, the younjjer, was born in the year 1648,
and was the ion of the preceding artift. The Itahans call
him Delia Croce, the Hcmings Vercruys, and the German
Kruger. In the year J 7 1 o, he engraved, in concert with two
others, th» Florentine gallery. He alfo engraved " St. Fran-
cis at Prayer,'' after Carlo ^laratti, and a coiichant Venus,
both in folio, befide fcvcral portraits, among which is the
daughter of Georgione, after that maflcr ; and Ludovicus
Adimari, after P. Dandini.

Dominic Cuilos, otherwife called Baltens, was the fon of
Pierre Balthafar Baltens, a painter and poet, who had fome
pretenfions alfo to knowledge in the art of engraving. He
vas born fome time about the year 1560 '^i Anvcrs, and
died at Aug(tau-g in 161 2. His real family name appears
to have been Baltens, but he fettled at the laft named city, at
an early age, under the name of Dominique Cuftos, and mar-
rying there the widow of Barthelemy Kilian, the elder, was
enabled to eftablilh a lucrative print trade, w hich continued to
fiourifli for a long period of time.

Cuftos had feveral daughters, of whom fome were educat-
ed to the art of engraving, and lucceeded tolerably well. He
\S'orked in a neat ftyle, entirely with the graver, but his
prints are laboured, tailelefs, and without harmony of effect.
Florent le Comte fays he engraved portraits in the taile of
Vandyke, but as Strutt properly remarks of this millakeu
affertion, there is not the leaft refemblance between the lliif
portraits of Cuftos, and thofe fo highly andfojuftly efteem-
ed by Vandyke.

The principal engravings by this artiit, arc ; the effigies
of the German emperors, large whole length figures, in folio,
dated 1601.

The portraits of the Fuggera family, of which the firil
edition, which is now become very rare, and is dated 1593,
contains but fixty-four portraits : in the fecond the number
of portraits is increafed to fixty-feven : the third contains a
hundred and twenty-feven, befides the arms of Fugger, and
an ornamented title, but the names are added, of Lucas and
Wolfgang Kilian. Another fet of portraits of heroes, &c.
entitled " Atrium Heroicum, Cxfarum, Regum, aliorumque
fummatum ac principium, Sec."

The chief of liis engravings of feparate portraits are thofe
of pope Sixtus V. prince Sigifmond in the coftumeof Mol-
davia, after J. ab. Ach, and from the fame painter Marcus
Bragadino, dated 1591. Chriftianus H. duke of Saxony,
Henry bilhop of Augfburg, (in an oval.^ Johan Philippi,
bilhop of Bamberg, ditto. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria,
and Ehzabeth Lotharingea his wife, a pair of ovals, dated
1598, all of the folio dimenfions.

The moft efteemed of the hillorical works of this artiil,
area fet of " Female Saints," half lengths, after Fraut/;
Afpruck. A fet of four in folio, of " L'Hiiloire de
I'Enfant prodigue," and " Judith beheading Holofernes,'
after John Von Auchen, of the foho fize.

Lucus Kilian, the patriarch of a numerous progeny of
engravers, was born at Augfburg in the year 1579. Under
whofe directions he ftudied, is not known, but the works of
Heury Goltzuis and MuUer appear to have been his fchool.
It appears, however, that he went to Italy, in order to com-
plete his fludies, where he engraved feveral plates from the
piftures of the great Italian matters : but returned, and died
in his native city in the year 1637.

" Few artifts have manifefted a greater cominand of the
graver than Kilian ; whether we conlider the apparent facility
with which hia ftrokes are turned over each other, or the
firmnefs with which they are executed, one cannot Iielp ad«
miring the author, though it evidently fh-ikes us that by
paying too cloi'e attention to this part of his art, he neglefted

Vol. XVI.

the correftnefs of his outlines, and fatigued the lights vrith
unneceffary work." Such is the opinion of our country-
man Strutt: to which fliould be added, that his drawing is
not accurate, nor his chiarofcuro broad and impreffive.

Of the numerous works of Kilian, the following are held
in mofl efleem; " The Adoration of the Shepherds," a mid-
dling-fized plate, from the younger Pahna. The fame fubjecl,
a large upright, after Spranger. Another of the fame fuB-
j eft, after Rotenhamer. And another (a large upright ) from
J. Heintz. " A Holy Family," from Cornelius de Haerlem,
and "The Miracle of the Loaves and Fi/hes," fromTintoret :
both large uprights. '•' Chrill Praying in the Garden," a
fmall upright, arched at the top, from Frederic Suflies. " A
deadChrift," from Michael Angelo. And " A Nymph and
Satyr," from J. Heintz, both fmall uprights. " The Rape of
Proferpine," a large folio plate, from the fame mafter. " The
Entombing of Chrifl,'' an upright, without the painter's
name, dated 1600, which perhaps, with many other of the
engravings of Lucas Kilian, is from his own defign.

The bell portraits by this mailer, are thofe of himfelf,
aged ^^, a rare print in 410. " Petrus Cuflof,vulgo Battens;
Piclor et Poeta Antwerpianus,'' dated 16:9. Nicholas
Chriflophe, Prince de Rud/ivil, both in 4to. The emperor
Chrillian II. dated 1615. Maria Eleonora Suevorum Go-
thorum Regina. Guflavus Adolphus .Suevorum Gothomni
Rex. And Albert Durer, a half-length ; all of the folio
fize : but whether the latter is from a pifture by Rotenha-
mer, or after Albert Durer himfi-lf, the prelent writer is
uncertain.

Wolfgang, the brother of Lucas Kilim, was alfo of
Augfburg, and born in the year 158 1. He fludied under
Dominic Cuilos, and, after his return from Italy, under his
brother Lucas, whofe ftyle he imitated without attaining to
the fame degree of excellence : his prints ai-efomewhat neater,
but more ftifF and formal.

Wolfgang employed the greater part of his time in en-
graving portraits, of which the following arc thofe of mofl
importance. Erneft Count Mansfield. ^laximilianof Wal-
lenftein, dated 1642. Jean T\Iaior, mathematician of Augf-
burg. Frederic Baron de Teuftcnbach. Jean Godefion,
bilhop of Wurzburg, and Ferdinand HI. king of the Ro-
mans, all in 4to. Of the folio fize; the archbifhops of
Mayence. Cologne, and Treves ; his own portrait, infcribed
" Labor improbus omnia vincit," and afet of twenty-feven of
the emperors and arehdukes uf tlie houfe of Auilria, from
122910 1623, with tiuir lives and euh>giums, publifhed at
Augfburg, in 1629.

Tiie moil efletMiied of his hiiloricnl works, are the " Bap-
tif'm of Jefus Chrill," after Paolo Veronele. " The AfTump-
tion of ill',' Virgin Mary," after Tintoretto; " The De-
ieent from the Crofs,'" after Paolo Farinato, and the " Good
Samaritan,'" after Giacomo BufTano, all in folio. "The Re-
furrettion of Clirift," arched at the top, after F. BafTano.
The four Evangelills, in upright ovals, from his own de-
figns : and the" Feilival of iIk- Peaceof Weilphalia," after
Joab Sandrart, in large folio, engraved on two plates, and
which is now become a rare print.

Bartholomew Kilian, the third fon of Wolfgang, wat
born at Augfburg in the year 1630, and died in the fame
city in the year i6(j6. He diftinguilhed hiniftlf at a period
of life fo early, that Sandrart emphatically fays, " he was
l>orn an artifl. ' At the age of eighteen he engraved a Mag-
dalen after M. Gondelacli, wliich induced his father to place
him under M. Merian of Frankfort, after ftudpng \nth
whom two years and a half, he travelled to Paris for further
improvement. Here he remained more than three year.^,
availing himfelf of the inftruftioRs of different artifts, and
A a herff

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

workconfifts of artilH and artifans, reprefcnted in their re-
fpeftivc einploymenls : among them are feme excellent h-
eures, and in 'that wliieli repreients the engraver, Annman
ha? given his own portrait. A fecond edition was prmted
A.D. 1574, and a third in 1588, but the Ihll is now become
verv Icarce. The book is a large oftavo.

A let oF one hundred and two, befidcs the portrait of
Feycrabandt, for a Latin edition of Livy, printed at Frank-
fort 1572-3 in oblong quarto.

Another fet for a foho edition of Pliny, prmted alio at
Frankfort A.D. 15S4. Anotlicr fet for a quarto book of
liunting, printed at Frankfort in 1582, which book was
confiderably augmented after the death of Amman, and re-
printed in 1617. Another fet of one hujidred and three of
ccclefiartical habits, dated 1564, and another of one hun-
dred and twenty, for " Gynaceum, live Thcatrum Mulierimi,
in quorimi pr.ccipuanim omnium per Europam, &c." m
oblong quarto, printed at Frankfort, I 586.

Clirillopher Maurer engrived from his own compofitions,
»nd from thofe of T.Stimmer, both on copper and ou wood.
He was born at Zurich A.D. 1558, and died at Wintert-
hour in 1614. His father Jolluia was an artill, and under
the paternal roof he learned the rudiments of art, but was
afterwards removed to Stralhurg, and placed under Tobias
Stimmcr, where both the mailer and fchular were clofe llu-
dents, and foon began to be diftinguilhed by the number of
inteivfting and beautiful works which they produced.

The cypher of Maurer w ill be found in our feeond plate of
German ' monograms. After paP.ing fome years in the
fchoolof Stimmer, he returned to his native city, and added
to his reputation by his frefco pictures which adorn the fa-
cades of diilinguiihed houfes, and by thejuft hkenefles he
difplayed in his portraits ; with the true I'pirit of a Swifs
artill, he always preferred patriotic fubjects, and has often
painted the origin of the Helvetic confederacy.

Of his engravings, thoi'e on copper are moil fought after
t)y connoiffeurs, particularly a fet of bible cuts, and four
emblematical etchings relative to proceedings in the courts of
law, which, after the death of the artill, wepc introduced
into a Latin book.

Of his letter-prefs engravings, which are neatly executed,
tlic bell are probably the let of animals of the chace, which
he executed in coniunftion with his mailer, and which were
publiihed at Stra(l)nrg iu the year 1605. And a fet of the
bible uuder the title of " Hiftorifche Vorflellungcn iiber
die ganze Bibel," wliich do honour to his inventive talent, as
well as to his manual powers as an engraver.

Chriftopher .lamitzer, or Jamnitzer, was born at Nurem-
berg in the year I j6o, and died in the fame city in 1617. He
performed levcral etchings which are marked with the cypher
whieh the reader will iind iimong our monograms of the
German engravers, but they are far from being of firll rate
merit.

Of the fame family were Bartholomew and Wenceflaus
Jamit/er, whom we pafs as unimportant perfons.

Thebe'l works of Clirillopher coniill of groups of boys
Tarioufly occupied, and the bell of thefe groups are thole
which follow : A fet of twelve, in izmo.; another fet of
twelve, mounted on mai-ine anim.als ; another fet of four
combined with fwaiis, flowers, See; four children dancing in
an arbour. A fet of grotefquc chimeras, in quarto ; Chrif-
topher jamitzer alfo engraved a portrait of himfelf fitting
iii^a pcrfpedlive machine, in the aft of drawing or meafurirg.

Matthew Greuter was born at Strailnirg ri.D. 1564. He
travelled more tlun once to Lyons and Avignon, and from
thence to R<^me for profelfional improvement, in wliich
latter city, iu the year 1638, he died.

Strutt defcribes hiin as a man of genius, but fo much
praife as is implied hi this word, cannot jiillly be allowed him.
He worked partly from his own oompolltions, but his draw-
inir is by no means correft ; his extremities in pai-tieular
being fadly neglected. He fometimes executed his plates
with the graver only, in a neat flyle, and in other inllaneei
has employed etcliing. His principal produclions are, the
portraits of the popes Innocent X., and Sixtus V.^ the
latter furrounded \eith an ornamental border in which the
]vdpal coinage is introduced. Cardiiid Seraphinus Olivarius
Ka/.zalius ; all in quarto.

Of his hillorical works we Hiall onlymention " The Vir-
gin and Child,'' featedin a landfeape, after Baroccio. M=ry
Magdalen leaning her right liand upon a fkull, after S. Gae-
taiio, dated 1584; both in quarto. An emblematical print
of Venus (landing on a globe, w ith various virtues and vices
perfonilied, very neatly finilhed, and marked M. Greuttr
inv. etfec. 1587, in fmall folio. " The Fall of Phaeton,"
after Windel Dieterlin, in large folio, dated 1588. " The
Dellruftion of Troy," after Lanfranc, and the magnih-
cent cavalcade of tiie emperor Charles V. engraved by Greu-
ter in concert with Lucas V<n-llerman, a large print of the
frieze form, engraved on fevcral plates.

As Jean Frederic, the fon of Muttliew -Greuter, was born
at Rome, and lived and died in Italy, our account of him
will be found under Italian' School of Engravers.

Matthias Kager was born at Munich in the year 1566, and
died at Augiburgin 1634. He iludied in Italy, and befidc
ranking higii among the hillorical painters of his time, \vasan
engraver of merit. His ilyle is neat, and performed chiefly
with the graver, though iometmies vvitii the admixture of
etching. His attachment to liberty, and averfion to the man-
ners of a German court, induced him to quit that of Bavaria,
and he became a citizen and finally a burgonialler of Augi-

S. Kilian engraved a portrait of him in 1626. The bell
of his own prints are : "Tlie Adoration oi the Shepherd;,"
dated i6lo. " St. John Baptiling Chrill in the river Jor-
dan," both of the folio fize, and from conipoiitions by hxfr\-
felf : "The Holy Family,'' in an oval, alfo from his own
picture, and in 410. and " St. Francis furrounded by the
Monks of his Order, to whom Chrill and the Virgin Mary
are appearing in the Clouds,'' a middling-lized upright from
P. Remigius Bozzulo.

Of Adam Elfheimer, furnamed Adam of Frankfort, who
fhould elfe have been mentioned in this place, we have already
fpoken. Sec El.*liElMEli.

Theodore Kruger, or Cruger, was born in the city of
Munich A.D. 1576. He travelled to Italy for improve-
ment, where he formed his Ilyle of engraving on that of
Fraiicifco Villamena. He handled the graver, which was the
fole inilrument of his art, with boldnefs, freedom, and facility,
but his chiarofcuro is very defective, and his outlines incor-
reft and hard.

His principal engravings are : " The Life of St. John the
Baptill," on twelve upright folio plates, after Andrea del
Sarto, with theportrait ot the p;iiiiter prefixed, and dedicated
to Cofmo de Medicis, dated 161S. "The Lall Supper," in
large folio, after the fame. " The return of the Holy
Family from Egypt,'' where the infant is tmbraciiig Jeiu's
Chrill, after F. Bigio, alfo in folio. " The iniant Saviour
bleding the little St. John," after the fame painter. And
" A Prince on a Tribunal, furrounded by divers Statefincn,''
after Laufranco, and infcrihed "Vox niihi."

Cruger has alfo engiaven fome portraits after Gabriel
Waver, to which he iigns his nrnie Ditrich Cruger, by vvhicU
ChrilUan name lie is bell knowa in Italy.

Theodore

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Theodore Crugcr, the younger, was born in the year 164s,
and was the fon of the preceding artift. The ItaHaiis call
him Delia Croce, the l-lcmings Vercruys, and th.e German
Kruger. In the year 1 7 10, he engraved, in concert with two
others, th» Florentine gallery. He alfo engraved " St. Fran-
cis at Prayer,'' after Carlo Klaratti, and a coiichant Venus,
both in folio, befide fevcral portraits, among which is the
daughter of Georgionc, after that mafler ; and Ludovicus
Adimari, after P. Dandini.

Dominic Cuilos, otherwife called Baltens, was the fon of
Pierre Balthafar Baltens, a painter and poet, who had fome
pretenfions alfo to knowledge in the art of engraving. He
■was born fome time about the year 1560 ui Anvers, and
died at Augftm-g in 161 z. His real family name appears
to have been Baltens, but he fettled at the lad named city, at
an early agt, under the name of Dominique Cuftos, and mar-
rying there the widow of Barthelemy Kilian, the elder, was
enabled to eftablifh a lucrative print trade, -i^ Inch continued to
fiourifli for a long period of time.

Cuftos had feveral daughters, of whom fome were educat-
ed to the art of engraving, and iucceeded tolerably well. He
worked in a neat ftyle, entirely with the graver, but his
prints are laboured, tailelefs, and without harmony of effect.
Florent le Comte fays he engraved portraits in the tafte of
Vandyke, but as Strutt properly remarks of this millakeu
affertion, there is not the leaft refemblance between the itiff
portraits of Cuilos, and thofe fo highly and fo juftly efteem-
ed by Vandyke.

The principal engravings by this artift, arc ; the effigies
of the German emperors, &rge whole length figures, in folio,
dated 1601.

The portraits of the Fuggera family, of which the firll
edition, which is now become very rare, and is dated 1593,
contains but fixty-four portraits : in the fecond the number
of portraits is increafed to fixty-feven : the third contains a
hundred and twenty-feven, befides the arms of Fugger, and
an ornamented title, but the names are added, of Lucas and
Wolfgang Kilian. Another fetof portraits of heroes, &c.
entitled " Atrium Heroicum, Cxfarum, Regum, aliorumque
fummatum ac principium, Sec."

The chief of liis engravings of feparate portraits are thofe
of pope Sixtus V. prince Sigifmond in the coftumeof Mol-
davia, after J. ab. Ach, and from the fame painter Marcus
Bragadioo, dated 1591. Chriftianus H. duke of Saxony,
Henry bifhop of Augfburg, (in an oval,^ Johan Philippi,
bifhop of Bamberg, ditto. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria,
and EUzabeth Lotharingea his wife, a pair of ovals, dated
1598, all of the folio dimenfions.

The moft efteemed of the hillorical works of this artiil,
area fet of '« Female Saints," half lengths, after Fratit^
Afpruck. A fet of four in folio, of " Iv'Hi'.loire Je
1' Enfant prodigue," and " Judith beheading Holoijrnes,'
after John Von Auchen, of the folio fize.

Lucus Kilian, the patriarch of a numerous progeny of
engravers, was born at Augfburg in the year 1579. Under
whofe diredions he ftudied, is not known, but the works of
Henry Goltzuis and MuUer appear to ha\e been his fchool.
It appears, however, that he went to Italy, in order to com-
plete his ftudies, where he engraved feveral plates from t!ie
piftures of the great Italian matters : but returned, and died
in his native city in the year 1637.

" Few artifts have manifefted a greater command of the
graver than Kilian; whether weconfider the apparent facility
with which his ftrokes are turned over each other, or the
firmnefs with which they are executed, one cannot lielp ad»
miring the author, though it evidently Ih-ikes us that by
paying too clofe attention to this part of his art, he neglefted

Vox,. XVI,

the correftncfs of his outlines, and fatigued the lights vritV
unneceffary work." Such is the opinion of our country-
man Strutt: to which Ihould be added, that his drawing is
not accurate, nor his chiarofcuro broad and impreflive.

Of the numerous works of Kilian, the following are held
in moft cfteem: " The Adoration of the Shepherds," a mid-
dling-fized plate, from the younger Palma. The fame fubjecl,
a large upright, after Spranger. Another of the fame fuH-
j eft, after Rotenhamcr. And another (a large upright ) from
J. Heintz. " A Holy Family," from Cornelius dc Haerlem,
and "The Miracle of the Loaves and Fifties," fromTintoret :
both large uprights. '•' Chrift Praying in the Garden," a
fmall upright, arched at the top, from Frederic Sufties. " A
dead Chrift," from Michael Angelo. And " A Nymph and
Satyr," from J. Heintz, both fmall uprights. " The Rape of
Proferpine," a large folio plate, from the fame mafter. " The
Entombing of Chrift,' an ujiright, without the painter's
name, dated 1600, which perhaps, with many other of the
engravings of Lucas Kilian, is from his own defign.

The beft portraits by this mafter, are tliofe of himfclf,
aged ^^, a rare print in 4to. " Petrus Cuftos, vulgo Baltens?
Pictor et Poeta Antwerpianus,'' dated i6;9. Nicholas
Chriftophe, Prince de Rud/ivil, both in 4to. The emperor
Chriftian II. dated 1615. Maria Eleonora Suevorum Go-
thorum Regina. Guftavus Adolphus Suevorum Gothomm
Rex. And Albert Durer, a half-length ; all of the folio
fize : but whether the latter is from a picture by Rotcnha-
mer, or after Albert Durer himfelf, the prefent writer is
uncertain.

Wolfgang, the brother of Lucas Kilian, was alfo of
Aug(burg, and born in the year 158 1. He ftudied under
Dominic Cuftos, and, after his return from Italy, under his
brother Lucas, whofe ftyle he imitated without attaining to
the fame degree of excellence : his prints are fomewhat neater,
but more ftifF and formsl.

Wolfgang employed the greater part cf his time in en-
graving portraits, of which the following !irc thofe of moft
importance. Erneft Count Mansfield. Maximilian of Wal-
lenftein, dated 1642. Jean i^Iajor, matliomatician of Augf-
burg. Frederic Baron de TeufFrnbach. Jean Godefion,
bilhop of Wurzburg, and Ferdinand HI. king of the Ro-
mans, all in 4to. Of the folio lize ; the archbifliops of
Maycnce. Cologne, and Treves ; his own portrait, infcribed
" Labor iniprobus omnia vincit," and a let of twenty-feven of
the emperors and archdukes of the houfe of Auftria, from
122910 1625, with their lives and eulogiums, publifticd at
Augftjurg, m 1629.

The moil elleemed of his hiftorical works, are the " Bap-
tii'm of Jefus Chrift," after Paolo Veronefe. " The Afliimp-
tion of the Virgin Marv," after Tintoretto; " The De-
fcent from the Crols," after Paolo Farinato, and the " Good
Samaritan,'" after Giacomo Baftann, all in folio. " The Re-
furreclion of Chrift," arched at the top, after F. Baftano.
The four Evangelifts, in ui)right ovals, from his own dc-
figns ; andtlie " Feilival of the Peaceof Wcilphalia,"' after
Joab Sandrart, in large tullo, engraved on two plate?, and
which is now bicome a rare print.

Bartholomew Kilian, the third fon of Wolfgang, was
born at Augiburg in the year 1630, and died in the fame
city in the year 1696. He Jillinguilhc J himfelf at a period
of life fo eai-lv, that Sandrart emphatically lays, "he was
born an artift." At the age of eighteen he engraved a Mag.
dalen after M. Gondelach, which induced his father to place
him under M. Merian of Frankfort, after Uud\nng \nth
whom two years and a half, he travelled to Paris for further
improvement. Here he remained more than three year;,
availing himfelf of the inftruCilioBS of different art>fts, and
A a herff

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

hrtt he cnjrravca his " Atrumplion of the Virgin," after
Philip Champagne, :ind "Crucifixion," after Tt-ftehn.

Returning to his native city, he continued to cultivate his art,
and produced a great many excellent portraits, with fome few
liiftorical fubjeits. Strutt is millaken in faying he worked
entirely with the graver, but is right in what he alTcrts of
the originnlity of Bartholomew's ftyle. He worked in a man-
ner entirely different from thofe of the Kilians, who had pre-
T:cded him ; fometimes, in order to make a ftriking dilbndlion
lietweeu the fie(h and the draperies of his figures, he finiflicd
the former with dots only ; and at other times exprcfled the
darker Ihadows of his flelh by lines, which he blended with
dots in the lighter parts. Mariclte and Barthekmy talk of
him as an example for a painter, hut thefc writers arc warmer
in his praife than an infpeaion of his work will fully warrant.
B. Kilian generally marked his engravings, of winch the
following liftlontains the principal, with his name at length,
but fometimes ufed only his initials, and at others, accord-
iug to Hubcr, a cvpher which does not appear to h.-long
to him, but which we have copied, with others of the Kilian
iamily, in the fccond plate of our German monograms.

Six half length portraits, in folio, of celebrated protedant
preachers at Auglburg, after B. Hopfer. Three medallions
of archbifhops of Salzburg, with allegorical accompani-
ments, afLcr Henry Schoenfeldt. Johannes HI. king of
Poland, after Bloeniart, dated 1681, a large bull of learned
execution. Maximilian Emanuel, eleftoral prince of Ba-
varia, -vith hiftorical accefTories, a celebrated work, and the
fubjea of a thefis. The emperor Jofeph as king of the
Romans, on horfeback, the fubjecl of another academical
thefis, da' »-'. 1694; which Hubcr pronounces one of the
fineft prints cxilling for natural grandeur ; all thefe are in
large folio. The portrait of Auguihis II. Abbas Einfid-
leolis, is a large upright folio, dated 1686.

The bellhilcorical produAion of Bartholomew is a " Ma-
donna and Child," a beautiful engraving in large folio, after
Cafpar Sing.

Philippe Kilian was a younger brother of Bartholomew,
imitated his llyle, and confined his talents almoft entirely to
portraits. He engraved, among many others, the portrait of
bis elder brother, whom he never equalled, though many of
his works polfefs no fmall portion of merit. _

Strutt mentions another engraver of this family of the
■ame of Wolfgang Philip, who fiouriihed in the next cen-
tury, and who executed a great number of portraits, which
however have too little merit for our parlicuhir notice.

Yet to (hew that nature had not exhaufled the Kilian
ftock of talent, we fliall here mention a little out of hia
shroaological place, Pliilippe Andrea Kilian, great nejihew
of Bartholomew, who was born at Augfburg A.D. 1 7 14,
and died in that city in the year 1759.

Defcended from a family of artifts, he imbibed, in early
life, what may perhaps be termed an hereditary tafle for fine
art. He firft. ftudied drawing and engraving under Frederick
of Au<rfbi!rg, and afterwards became the pupil of G. M.
Prietler of Nuivmberg, where he diitiisguiihed himfelf by
engraving fome plates for the " Phyfica Sacra of Scheuch-
ser," and laid the foundation of his future fame.

Some years after, whilll enga^,'ed in engraving from the
Drcfden gallery, the reputation of our artill ftood fo iiigh,
that Augullus III. of Poland emphatically called him
«• the Magnet of Drefdcn," and when any other engraver
producedlin inferior plate fro.-n the colleaion, was ufed to
lay, in the w.iy of delicate reproof, that it ought to be ic-
engrave.i by KiJian.

Bato.ir artift, notv.-ithftanding thcte honours, felt fo much
stftrtait, whilH rcfiding at the court of Dicfden, or fuch

Paffionate defire to return to his native city, that he fought
an occafion to make fuch arrangements as enabled him to quit
Bavaria after a refidence of fome years.

P. A. Kilian is ufually reckoned among the mod meri-
torious liiftorical engravers of Germany. On a balis of
found drawing, he crcfted rather a fingular ftyle of execu-
tion ; he interworked his principal or firll courfe of lines
with very delicate ftrokes, which he crofTed with a courfe
of lines exceedingly lozenge upon the firft, and fometimes
added a third courfe fomewhat more fquarc ; at other
times he intc-rworked his fliadows with long {lender feels, as
they are technically termed among engravers. But the cha-
racfVers of his heads are not equal to his general knowledge
of the human figure.

His bed liiftorical engravings are, " Jefus Chrift at prayers
in the Garden of Olives," an upright plate of the folio iize,
from a defign of hisown. "The Adoration of the Kings,"after
Paolo Veronefe ; " The Woman taken in Adultery," after
Tintoret ; and " The Family of a noble Venetian," after
Paolo Veionefe, are all large folio plates, executed for the-
Drefden gallery. " Mary Magdalen wafliing the Feet of
Chrift" is from Nicholas Gralli ; '< The Baptifm of St.
Augullin," from ,1. B. Pittoni ; and " Herodias with the
Head of ,Tohn tlie Baptift," from Carlo Dolce, are all of
folio dimenfions ; " Regina Angelorum," where the Virgin
appears furrounded by Angels in Glory, after Bergmuller,
and another from the life of the Virgin, after C. T.
Scheffler, are a large and highly cfteemed pair of engravings.
But perhaps his moft juftly celebrated work is a very large
plate ©f " St. Cofmo and St. Damien," after J. Wolfgang
B.iumgaertner.

The beft portraits from the graver of Philippe Andrea, are
thofe of Francis I. emperor of Germany, in a coat of armour,
after Meitens. And Clemens Re/zonicus Venetus, Pon-
tif Max, after G. D. Porta, a pair in large folio. Maria
Therefa, queen of Auftria, an upright folio. .lohan Mar-
tin Chriftell, from a pifture by P. A. Kilian, himfelf.
Chriftoph Henry Andre Geret, after ,1. Romelli. Field'
marfhal Curtius Chriftophel Graff von Schidcren, after
StraHZ. Ferdinand, duke of Brunfwick, general in chief
of the allied army, after Ant. Pefne ; and Godofredns
Schnurbein, marked P. A. Kilian, pinx. et fculp. 1750, all
of the folio dimenfions.

George Chriftopher Kilian, another engraver of the fame-
family, was living at Augfliurg when Heinnekin pubhnied.-.
his " Idee generale d'uno Colleilion complete d'Eliampes,""
and perhaps may be living ftill.

Ifaac NIajor was born at Frankfort on the Maine in the
year 1578, and died in 1630. Difcovering an early in-
clination for the arts of defign, he was placed with Roland
Savery, under whom he ftudied landfcape painting for a
time, but defirous of becoming an engraver, he placed
himfelf, for inftruction in that art, with Giles Sadekr. He
united etching with the work of the graver, but his works
want energy, though they were held in fome eftinution at the
time in which he lived. His principal produiflions are, a fet
of fix middling fi'/ed landfcapcs, wild fcenes in Bohemia,
from Pietro Stephani. A very large landfcape from Row-
land Savery, in which St. Jerome is introduced. Another
fet of eight mountainous and favage landfcapes in Bohcniia,
in large folio, after .ler. Wolf, and an allegorical portrait of
the emperor in a car of triumph drawn by eagles and fwans.
Chriftopher Jegher was a juftly celebrated engraver on
wood, who was born fome time about the year 1590, but
the incidents of whofe life are but little known. He efta-
bliflied himfelf at Antwerp when he was about thirty years
of age, wh?re his extraordinary merit fo llroiigly recom-
mended,

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

Jnended liim to Rubens, that he was engaged by that great
niafter to engrav^- a confider.ible number of his compoiUiona,
and it is no linall praifc to add that he fucceedcd to the per-
feft fatisfaftion of the painter.

After the death of Rubens, Jegher re-purchafed mod of
thefe engravings, and publiflied them on his own account.
Collc<ftors Ihould therefore bear in mind, that thofe inipref-
fions, from which the name of Rubens as tlie publiflier is
taken away, and that of Jegher fubftituted, are of tlie fecond
edition, and confequently of inferior vahie to the firll.

There is a degree of freedom and vigour in the flyle of
Jegher that is perfottly homogeneous with tliat of Rubens ;
his hatchings are broad and powerful, and the imitation of

Morell, as is wtll known,
fruits, flowers, and infefts,

was a dillinguifiicd painter of
and under hi:i inllrudion out

as a painter and nafu-'
file afternardj added

young artill foon didinguifhcd htrfelf
ral phih)fopher, to which attainments
tlie art of etching.

In the year 1665 (Ite married Jean Andre Graf, a merito-
rious painter of Nuremberg, who ftudied in the fchool of
Mon-ll. In 1679 fhc publifl.ed the firft volume of her
" Hillolie des Infeftes dcl'Europe deflines d'aprc> nature,
et expliques par Marie-Sybillc Merian ; oil Ton traite de la
generation et des differentes metamorpholes des infeifies ct del
plantes dont ils fe nouriSent ;" and in 1683, (he pnblifiie<l
the fecond volume of the fame work, in the execution of

the crofs hatchings is fo well expreffed, that his bell prints which fhc paidattentioa totheengrdvings,a3wcll asthedefigr.g.

very much refemble drawings made with the pen and ink
He drew with mallcrly correftnefs ; the extremities of his
figures are well marked ; and his heads, though flight, are
full of expreifion.

His beft, and by far the greater of Jcgher's productions,
are after Rubens, but he has engraved a Crucifixion after F.
Franck, which is dated 1637, and fome few more from other
mailers.

' The following are after P. P. Rubens ; " Sufannah furprif-
ed by the Elders." "A Repofe in Egypt,'' both in large
folio. Some of the latter are printed in chiarofcuro, (/". e.
with an additional block or two to add the demitints,) and
a.-e now become fcarce. " The infant Chrift and St. John
playing with a Lamb." " The Coronation of the Virgin
Mary,'' and "The Temptation of Chriil in the Defart,''
all middling-fized folios. " Hercules deilroying Envy and
Difcord," is from the cieling at Whitehall. " The Conver-
fation of Lovers," is a very large garden-fcene, engraved on
•two blocks. " A drunken Sileuus fupported by Satyrs," is
of the upright for.^^, and a very fine compoiition of the mailer,
which was alio engraven on copper by Bolfwert.

Matthew Merian, the elder, was born at Balle in the year
1 593. His tlril ftudics were under the direftion of Theodore
Meyer, who indrufted him in drawing. He afterwards be-
came the ditciple of Theodore de Bne. He was a man of
talent, and his principal engravings are landfcapes, which he
etched in a flight free ftyle, and linllhed with the graver.
His views have much of that rare but valuable topographi-
cal quality, the appearance of having been really copied from
tlie places of which they bear the names, and which qua-
lity Merian had the fl<ill and the honour of imparting to his
difciple Wenceflaus Hollar, of whom we h;;ve given an ac-
count in our progrefs of English engraving, but whofe
monograms will be found in our third plate of thofe of the
German ffhool.

Merian married the daughter of his tutor de Brie, hy
1n-hom he had ilTue : he died in the year 1657, aged j8, at
Frankfort, or, according to fome of his biographers, at
Schwalbach.

His works, according to Le Compte, amount to upwards
cf five hundred plates. They are well known, and there is
not fo much difparity in their merits as to make a felettion
here either eafy or iifccfTary. His marks and monogiams are
five in number, as will be found in oar third plate.

Of Matthew Merian the younger, who was for a (hort
time in London, we have mad
place.

His daughter, Maria Sybilla Merian, was a much more
Jiftinguiflied charafter. She was born at Frankfort on the
Maine in the year 1647. At the age of four years flie loll
Iver father, which in moll cafes is a great misfortune, but not
fo here, for her mother found in her fecond hulband, Jacques
Morel], a kind and indulgent protector, who foftered the in-
fant genii^ of Maria.

Ilight mention in a former

it being the firll work wherein is difplayed the minutis which
is fo important in the eye of the comioidcHr, and Ihe managed
the etching needle with the dexterity Ihe had before cTinced
in the management of her pencil.

In the courfe of the next year, {he returned to Frankfort
with her family, and, from a miltalcen zeal in religion, fepa-
rated from her hufnand ; retired with her mother and two
daughters to Well Frielland, and became a member of th.-
fociety of Lahadilles. The fraternal fociety of Labadiltcs,
(who called themfelves brothers and fillers) had then a.l'emblcU-
under Peter Yrond, and their head-quarters were the caftle
of Den Bofch, fituated between Franeker and Levardin, of
which the polTelTor's name waj Sonimerdyck. Here Ihe re-
mained a confiderabletiine, and Iiere fhe had opportunity to
infpeftatleifure a fine collection of the infedls pf America,
©f whict flie made very exaCl drawings, and from hence her
thirll after profeffional knowledge led her to make occafionaJ
excurfions to Amilerdam and other parts of Holland, which
at that time abounded with cabinets both of pictures and
natm-al hi (lory.

Her enthufiafm now took a n 'w turn, and coinciding witk
the willies of the Dutch naturalilts, fhe was induced, m the
year 1699, to undertake a voyage to Surinam. On her arri-
val, after an agreeable palTage, a wide field opened to her
profeflional ambition. She painted the infeAs and reptilei
of the country on vellum, and examined with philofophical
care their various habits and changes : but the heat of the
climate, and her intenfe application, having injured her health,
it became ncceffary for her to return to Europe in the fol-
lowing year.

She brought home an ample coUeilion, not only of draw-
ings, but of (hells, dried infefts, &c. She now fettled at
Amilerdam, and immediately fet about publifliing the fruits
of a voyage, than which none had ever been performed more
truly interelling to the naturalifts of Europe.

Of the lixty large folio plates contained in her " Meta-
morphofes Infeetorum Snrinamenfium, ixc." feveral wereex-
ecute<l by herlelf, and Ihe alfo fupplied the defcriptious. It
was pubhihed at Amilerdam in the year 1 705.

J-i the f.-cond edition^ which was publiflied by the phvfi-
cian Jean Marret, in the French language, more plates and
explanations were added by tte author, wh« confecrated the
remainder of her days to delineations and refearches of ilus
nature.

Too far advanced in lile to venture on a fecond vovagr,
yet knowing that much had been left unaccomplilhed at Suri-
nam, Maria Sybille now formed the defign of fending thither
hereldell daughter, uho had accompanied and aflittid her in
her former voy:ige. Jeanne Ilclene cheertully undertook
the commiHion, landed at Surinam, painted with hei-eJilarjr
ikill all the reniaining lub'nCts of iiaturnl Ir.llory that (he
could find iutereiUug in the country, added her remarks, and
tranlmitted them to AniiterJani ; but death had now inter-
poled to prevent this conlu;ViHiiltoii of the plealures of M&ria
A. a 2 .Srbille.

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

SyLilk. Tlie- fupplement was liowevcr publifiied by her fe-
cond daughter Dorothea Maria, who was born in 1678, and
hcrfelf painted flowers and infeds with great ability.

TI.e curious, wlio would form an adc<iuate idea of the
knowledge and talent of this extraordinary artill, fhould vifit
the principal cabinets of Holland. Yet in our own nation-
al colleaiun at the Britilh mufeuni, are fome volumes of
her paintings on vellum, which are almoft. daily tiuned over
with wonder by its numerous vifitants.
' John William Baur was a very meritorious painter and
engraver of landfcape and hiilory. He was born at Straf-
botirgin the year i6co, (ludied imder Frederic Brendel,and
afterwards in' It;Jy, where he relided a conliderable time,
aud where he was patroni/.ed by tlie duke at Bracciano and
prince Guilliniani. In the year 1 63 7 he removed to Venice,
and from thence to Vienna, and died there throe years after-
wards, at the age of forty.

The landfcapes which lie painted with water colours on vel-
lum are particularly celebrated, and he engraved a vaft aujn-
ber of plates from his own defigns, fome of which are in a
ilyle refembling that of his contemporary Callott, to which
he affixed the cypher which the reader will find in the third
plate of our monograms, &c. of the Germsn fchool of en-
gravers.

Melcljior KuITell completed the volumeof his works, wliich
sontains not lefs than five hundred engravings, after the death
of Baur, whofe " defigns," in the language of Strutt,
" manifelt great marks of a fuperior genius, but without
cultivation." The cvpher with which he ufually marked his
engravings, of which the following are the names of the
pnncipal, will be found in our plate of monograms.

Portrait of Don Paolo Geordano II ; Orfmo, duke de
Bracciano, an oval, dated 1636, a rare print; a fet of
eighteen, of the collume of different nations ; a fet of
fifteen of the battles of various nations, entitled " Capr'icl di
varie Baittallie," in quarto ; another fet of fourteen battles ;
a fet of eight landfcapes, and another of four, entitled " The
Elements." A fet of twenty of a fuperior charafter, of
the battles of " La Guerre Belgique," and

His principal work, confiding of one hundred and fifty
plates in quarto, from Ovid's metamorphofes, pubhfhed at
Vienna in 1641. Thefe are flightly etched, and finifhed
with the graver. The figures introduced are generally fmall
and incorreft in the drawing, the back-grounds rather dark,
and the trees deficient in lightnefs and freedom. The arclii-
tedure, which Baur is fond of introducing, is well defigned,
and corred in the perfpedive.

Hans or Jean Ulric Franck was a native of Kaufbeuren,
an imperial city of Suabia, born in 1603, and was particu-
larly excellent in painting and etching fmaU figures. He
fettled at Augiburg, where he died in the year 1680.

In conjundion with Sufan Sandrart, A. Zelt and J.
Meyer, Franck engraved a fet of the Fountains in Rome
and its environs. The beft of his other engravings are four
combats iu quarto, dated 1643. '• David and Abigail,"
a«d " Alexander defeating Darias,'' dated 1644, and both
HI folio.

Joachim Sandrart was born at Frankfort on the Maine in
the year 1606, and began his career of art by fludying under
Theodore de Brie and Matthew Marian, of whom we have
fpoken. At the age of fifteen he went on foot to Prague,
to viiit and obtain inilru&ion from Giles Sadeler, after
-which he placed himfelf under Gerard Honthorfl, of Utrecht,
to learn the principles of painting, with whonj he travelled
to England. He afterwards vifited Venice, Bologna,
Naples, and Rome, and received inftrudions from Titian,
Paul Veronefe, Guido, Guercino, PoufTui, and others : in
ilwrt, if inftjudion and example alone CJidd have producd a

great artift, Joachim fhould have been the full of his tinsf.
He returned however to Germany, and finally fettled at Nu-
remberg, where he eflablifhed an academy of art, and where
he died ten years afterwards, at the age of 77.

Sandrart was rather an artiil of acquirement than of genius,
and hence his works are deficient in vividnefs and warmth.
He painted and engraved hiilory and portrait ; he was alfo a
man of letter;?, and his " Academy of Architedure, Sculp-
ture and Painting," which was firll publifhed at Nuremberg
in the year 1 679, though prohx, is llill celebrated through
EHrope.

This book, which contains much hiftorical information,
and the biography of the mofl diilinguiflied artifls, is enrich-
ed with a confiderable number of engraved portraits, befide
otlier prints. It was firlt publifhed in the German langp.iage,
but an edition in Latin was printed in the year 1 683, and it
has fincc received various additions from the fuccefTors of
Joachim Sandrart.

His own engravings are performed chiefly with the point,
and the boil of tliem will probably be found .to be a half
length figure of tke goddefs Flora, after Titian ; an elderly
woman contemplating a Cupid in no very delicate adion :
and " The Death of Cleopatra,'' from his own compofitions,
all in quarto.

Jacques Sandrart, the nephew of .Toachim, was born at
Frankfort in the year 1630, and died at Nuremberg in
1708. He fludied engraving at Amfterdam under Cornelius
Dankcits, and afterwards at Dantzic under W. Hondius.

He fettled finally at Nuremberg, where he purfued his.
art with fingular induftry, the number of his portraits alone
being not fewer than foui- hundred, fome of them of the folio
dimcnfions, and executed with the graver alone, in a clear and
neat flyle, befide which he publifhed a number of geogra-
phical charts and other engra\ings.

His portraits are not uncommon, and among the mofl me-
ritorious will be found to be thofe of his uncle Joachim
Sandrart, a half length figure, infcribed " Seculi Noftri
Apelles. 'The bulls of Rodolphus II., Ferdinand II., Fer-
dinand III., and Frederic, prince of Norwegia and duke of
Slefwic ; a half length of Hohannes Michael Dclherrus,
after R. Wernfch ; Ermuth Sophia, eledoral princefs
of Saxony, &c. Johannes Paulus Aucr, painter of Nu-
remberg ; Joachim Sandrart, junior, dated 1688 ; all in
foho.

Jean Jacques Sandrart, the fon of Jacques, whom we
havejufl difmifTed, was bom at Ratifbon A.D. 1655, and
died at Nuremberg in 1698. He fludied the arts of defign
under his father and his gretit uncle Joachim ; his works
prove the facility of his invention. He enriched tlie volumes
of Joachim with feveral tafteful and fpirited etchings, and
his portraits, which are etched, and finifhed afterwards with
the graver, are defervedly held in efleem. His beft works
are, the portraits of Elizabeth Henrietta, princefs of Bran-
denburg, furrounded by emblems ; and Silvius Jacob de
Dunkelmann, both in folio, after Adam le Clerck ; "The
Holy Family," after Joachim Sandrart ; " .£nea3 faving
his Father from the Flames of Troy," after Raphael, dated
1682. " Marphorius, or the Statue of the Rhine," among
ruined edifices ; " The Nile" among ruined monuments of
antiquity, all in folio, and the latter pair, with many others
after Joachim, are introduced into his " Academy, &c."

Jean Jacques alfo engraved feveral plates of merit for a
foho work,5ntitled " Suecia Antiqua et Hodicma."

Sufan Marie Sandrart was t'.ie fitter of Jean Jacques, and
was born at Nuremberg in the year 1658. She fludied
under the diredion of her father, and engraved with fome
ability a confiderable number of plates of ornaments.

She engraved alfo a Bacchanal, with the infcription " Im.

mode-

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

rnoJeratum diilce Amorum ;"' " The AfTembly of God« at
tlieMarriagcof CupidandPfyche,"after Raphael, andthcan-
tique bas relief of " The Aldobi-andini Marriage," after Pictro
Santo Bartoli, for the academy of Joachim Sandrai-t, all of
the fulio dinicnllons.

Of Hollar, vho ftourithed about this time at Prague, we
have already fpokcn. See Origin and Progrefs of ExtiLisii
En^'tiviiig.

That extraordinary artift, Adrian van Oflade, for an ac-
count of whofe merits as a painter, fee the article Ostaue,
performed about this time fome etchings, which are very
juftly admired for their freedom and fpirit. They are not
all executed in the fame flyle, tiiough the fame mind be
every where evident. Some are dark and coarfc, and were
printed jull as the aquafortis left them, while others are more
neatly executed, and appear to have been fubfequently
worked upon with the triangular point, as was the cuilom
of Rembrandt and Worlidge. The two marks with which
Oftade occafiflaally fubfcribed his etchings, will be found in
our third plate of the monograms of the German fchool.

The whole of his etchings confift of at lead fifty-two
plates of various dimenfions, all from his own dcfigns, of
which the following are perhaps moft worthy of being fpe-
cified ; " Several Peafants at the Door of a Cottage,'' with
a fair in the back ground, a middling-fi/.ed upright. " A
Dutch Wake,'' the fame. " Several Peafants Fighting
with Knives,'' a fmall plate, lengthways, dated 1658. " The
Cottage Dinner,' the fame, dated 1653. All thefe are in
his bold ftyle of etching. Thofe which follow are fuch as
he finifhed with more care. " The Painter,'' with an infcrip-
tion beginning in this manner : " PiAor Apellce, pingas,"
and the full impreffions of this plate are with the cap con-
fiderably above the eyes of the figure ; in the fecond im-
preffions, the cap nearly touches the eyes. " A Mounte-
bank,'' a fmall upright plate, arched at the top. " The
Speftacle Seller,"' a fmall upright plate. " A Man, 'Wo-
man, and Child, at the Door of a Cottage," a middling-
fized plate, lengthways, dated l6j2. Several peafants, half
figures, at a window, one of them is finging a ballad, and
another holds the candle, a fmall upright plate. " A Man
Leaning ever a Hatch, blowing a Horn,'' the fame. " A
Cottage Entertainment,'' with iigures dancing, a middling-
fized plate, lengthways.

The biographers of lieutenant-colonel de Siegen, (an offi-
cer in the icrvice of the landgrave of HefTe,) have conteftcd
^ith the friends of prince Rupert for the honour of the in-
vention of mezzotinto. The lieutenant-colonel was born in
the year 1620, and, according to the baron Pleinnekin, exe-
cuted in that manoer a portrait of the princeis Amelia Eli-
zabeth of Heft CafTel, in 1643.

For an account of prince P.upert's prctenfions to the dif-
covery, fee the article Origin and progrefs of Engi.is)! Hn-
grav'mg. " An Holy Family," after Caracci, in folio, is
aifo mentioned (but without a date) as a mezzotinto pro-
duftion of Siegen.

Jean Frangois Ermels, who poflTeffed confiderable talents
in the art of painting and enj;raving Isndfcapes ap.d cattle,
was bom in the environs of Cologne in the year 1 62 1 , and
died at Nuremberg in 1693. He lludied under J. Holzmann
and Jean Both, and the following plates, confifting chiefly of
laadfcape Icenery, adorned with ruined edifices and animals,
were etched by him with great fpirit and freedom. A pair of
upright landfcapcs, " A Rocky Scene, and a compofition of
Ancient Architecture," in 410. " A Landfcape," in which
the figures introduced are a faun and bacchante. Another,
with moBumeats of antiqiijty. And a pair of " Paftoral

Scenes," with fhepherds, cattle, and ruined edifices, all of
the 4to fize.

Matthew Kcefcll, or Kyfell, was born at Augfljurg ia
1621, and du-d there in the year 1682. He fuccefsfully mirv-
gled the work of the graver with tliat of the point, and his
bell prints, v>hich are named in the following lift, pofl'efs a
large (hare of merit. The portraits of Chriilopher Benden,.
in 4to. Carolus Sulzer. Adolphus Zobelius. Andreas
Winkler Johannes Michael Dilherrus, after Ulricus Mayr
(an highly finiibed head in an oitagon border). Leonardus
Weiffius, after Jos. Werner, all in folio. A fet of forty-
two after Ludovico Burnacini, entitled " II Pomo d'oro,'*
and confiiling of fcenic decorations, &c. dated 1668, are
folio etchings : and the only hillorical work from his hand,
with which we are acquainted, is " The Virgin and Child,"
apparently from a compofition by himfelf.

Melchior Kcefell, the brother of Matthew, was born at
Auglburg in the year 1622, and died in the fame city in
1683. Here he acquired the rudiments of his art, but per-
fected his iludics under Merian of Frankfort, from whence,
after refiding fome few years, he returned to Auglburg,
and began to engrave the " Iconographia," of Wilhelm
Baur, a folio work, which confifts of one hundred and
fortv-eight prints of various lizes, confilling partly of the
" Life and Miracles of Jefus Chriil,'' and partly of views o£
the " Seaports and Gardens of Italy, " which work was pub-
lilhed at Auglburg, A. D. 1682.

Strutt fays of this artill, that " there is fomcthing very-
agreeable in his manner of engraving, efpecially when he
confined himfelf to fubjecls where the figures are fmall, for
as he drew but incorrectly, his figures appear defective, as
they increale in lize.' Baur was fond ot ornamenting the
back-grounds of his compofitions with fuperb buildings,
which Keefell has executed with much fpirit; his rocks alfo,
and mountainous dillances, have great merit ; but his trees
want freedom, lightnefs, and characlorillic determination of
their foliage ; his chiarofcuro is alfo fpotty and fatiguiug to
the eve, if this be not rather the fault of Baur.

Melchior engraved other plates btCde thofe for the Ico-
nographia of Baur, of which the principal are, " The Hif-
tory of Ulyffes,'' from Tjieodore van Talden ; fome antique
ftatues, executed entirely with the gra^ver ; and the portraits
cf Sebaflianus Kirchmajerus, public proteifor at Ratifbon,
after Benj. Block, in 410. ; Johannes Hozius ; Maximilia-
nus Cvu-z, dated 1658 ; and Antoiiius Scliottius, dated
1680, all of the folio fize.

Jeanne Sibclle Keefell, born at Augfburg in the year
1646, was the third daughter of Melchior, married Jean
Ulrich Kraus, engraved, among other plates, a fet of four,
of the Satyr and Villagers, Juno, Venus, and Pallas,
after Elfliiemer, and died in her native city in 1 7 17.

Jonas Umbach was alfo of Augftnirg, born in the
year 1624, and merits an high rank among the artifts of
Germany. His prints confiit chiefly of etchings attcv his
own defigns, executed with fpirit and an appearance of faci-
lity. He engraved one hundred and eleven plates, of which
the following are the fubjeds of the principal, and died in
his native city about the commencement of the fevcnteenth
century-. " A Madonna and Child." "An Holy Fa-
mily."' " A Penitent Magdalen, " and " St. Peter,'' all of
fmall dimenfions. . Four plates fVom " The Parable of the-
Good Samaritan.'' Four ditto of " Infantile Sports." A
pair of '• Triumphs of Mai-ine Deities."' " A Earaily of
Satyrs," all of fmall fizes ; and a fet of four land-
fcapes, adorned with rjins of ancie.-.t monuments acd
palloral figures, dated 1671?, in 410. higlily efteemcd e*»-
gravings.

Lintel

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

I,ing'll)ac»!, Backhuyfen, and Jean Henry Roo», alfo per-
formed lome meritwiovis etchings in Germany about this
time. Tlie animals of the latter are much celebrated, and
among his beft plates may be reckoned a fct of twelve, ot
" Domeitie. Animals," in 4to. A pair of " Grand Land-
fcapes."' adornjd with cattle and ruined buildnigii, and " Un
Berger endormi au pied, &c." He was born at Otterdorf,
in the Palatinate, in 163 1, and died at Frankfort in 168 1, and
his malters were .Tvilian Jardeyn, and Adrian de Bie.

The family of the Wolfgangs contributed but little to
the advancement of engraving : we therefore pafs tlicm briefly.
George Andrea Wolfgang was originally a goldfmith and
engraver on the precious metals, but afterwards lludied eii-
rraving on copper under Mattliew Keefcll, and fcraped fome
few me^/otintos. He was born at Chemnit/, in Saxony,
A. D. 1631, and died at Aiiglburg in 1716. The bell
engravings of George Andrea are tlie portraits of George
Fredericrmarg/aveof Brandenberg, after C. Zierl, in folio,
!tnd Pii>rre Mnller, Juriconfulti, in 410. And, in hiftory,
" A Grand Sicritioe to Diana," after A. Schoenfeld, and
« Saul confulting the Gholl of Samuel/' after Jof. Wernc-r,
both of the fuiio fi^e.

Andrea Mattliew, the fon of George Andrea Wolfgang,
was born at Augfcurg in the year 1662, and died in the fame
city in 1735. He ftudied the elements of deiign under the
direftion of his father ; but embarking for England with liis
brother, prefumptively at fome port in the Mediterranean
foa, they were intercepted by an Algcrine corfair, and car-
ried isto captivity. On their liberation, which was in coiife-
quenee of a raiifom paid by their father, they both returned
to Augfljurg, where Andre Matthew fettled, and began to
engrave portraits : he alfo engraved a print of " Tiie Court
of Algirs," in which he lias reprefeuted himfelf as a (lave.

His beft portraits are thofe of George Andre, his father,
and Nicolaus Nuremberger, both in 4to., and in folio, John
George Buttner, bifhop of Frankfort, and Chriflopher Rad.
In mez/.otinto he has engraven Charles VI., king of the
Romans. But, perhaps, his very beft performance is a por-
trait of the margrave of Anfpach.

His younger brother, Jean George Wolfgang, was born
in 1664, received tlie fame inftruftions as Andrea Matthien,
and fooii after their refeafe from captivity travelled to Berlin,
and in i 704 became engraver to the court. He engraved
and publiflied there a great number of portraits, among
vhich that of the elettor Frederick William,, after Jacobi's
equellrian llatue in bronze, is defervedly held i;i moll efteein,
though, in moll of liis portraits, the fleOi is executed with
delicacy, and Jem George is, on the whole, as an artiil, the
flower of the Wolfgang family. He died at Berlin in the
year 1704.

Gullavus Andrea Wolfgang was the fon of Andrea
Matthien. He was born at i^ugfburg in the year 1692,
and, after ftudying portrait engraving and miniature painting
under his father tor a time, followed his uncle to Berhn,
♦■here he remained for many years, but returned finally to
his native country, where he died in tlie year 176$.

His beft portraits, of which the flelh is engraved chiefly
in dots, are thofe of M. Fr^iiKjois Reyter, admiral pour
J'Armee navale Angloiie en Afriquc. Wolf^angus Jacobus
Suiter, Reipublicac .\uguftaiicc Deci mvir, after G. Eichler,
and Carl. Freyher von Stien ; in fmall folio.

Jean Jacques Tluirneifen, or Thouriieyien, was born in
the year 1636 at Bade, in Switzerland, and died in tlie fame
city in 17 iS. After having learned to draw in his ow«
country, he went to Stralbourg to Itudy engraving under
Pierre Aubry, wlu;re he remained about three years, and
removed luccelfively to Lyons, and to the court of Turin.

In 1695, he returned to Vienna, accompanied by Lis fons ;
and his great merit, which was called by his rivals his
fuperior fortune, obtained for him the patronage of the
emperor Leopold. He was now the objedl ol envy to the
artifts of Augft)urg, where he continued to refide for '
fome years ; but as age approached, he wiflied to fee again his
native land, and departed for Balle in the year 1699,
where, as we have already faid, he liniflied his career.

Thourneyfen was a man of a robuft frame, vigorous
mental powers, and extreme profeffionaJ ailiduity. His mo-
iKigram will be found in our third plate of thofe of the Ger-
man fchool. Among the engravings he performed, thofe
which are executed witli a fmgle llroke or fpiral, in imita-
tion of Mellan, have been molt admired, though, perhaps,
not moft jullly. He alfo occafionally imitated the fquare
croffings of F. de Poilly.

His fon, Jean Jacques the younger, worked in imitation
of his fatlier, but was lefs fuccelsful. The beft engravings
by Thourneyfen the elder are, the portraits of Laurentms
Scotus, after Luc Damaret, dated 1 661. Francois Tur-
retein, after P. Hand. Petrus Weienfelfius, profeflbr in
the academy of Bade, after L. F. Wetllein, engraved of
the folio fize, (by the Thourneylens, fatiier and fon,) in'
1702.

Of his hiftorical works, our allotted fpacc only allows
us to mention " The Virgin Mary, Infant Glirift,
and St. John," in a circle, after Carl. Dauphin, a folio
plate, engraved in the fafliionable ftyle of Mellan. *' An
Infant Chritt," after Blanchet, in 410. " La Bilancia PoIitJca
del Boccalini.' Two large folio plates of " Grand Thefes
in Philofophy," in which whole length portraits of the
princes palatine of Neubourg are introduced, and the
ftatues of Laocoon, Antinous, and Latona, in the ftyle o£
Mellan, for Sandrart's academy.

Fran5ois Ertinger was born at Wyl, in Suabia, A. D.
1640, travelled to Italy for improvement, but died at Paris
in the year 1700. As an engraver, neither his judgment
nor his tafte ranks very high; but the following lift of his
beft works will fhew that the fubjedls of his prints at lealt
were fometimes wifely chofen.

A fet of eight plates, after Rubens, from the Hiftory
of Achilles. " The Marriage of Cana in Galilee," a large
folio, after Raymond le Fagi A fet of ten, from tlie
fame mafter of the Hillory of the Counts of Thoulout-.
A large folio, of a Bacchanalian fubjeft after N. Pouflin ;
and the portraits of Nicholas Machiavel of Florence, the
celebrated political philofopher, in 8vo. Gabriel d.e
Pinaco, .Tureconfulti ; and Jean Ferdinand de Beughem,
bifliop of Aiivers, after F. de Cock ; both in folio.

Gerard LaireflTe was born at Liege in the year 1640, and
died at Amfterdam in 171 1. He was inliruftcd by hi*
father, Regnier, in the rudiments of art. For an account
of his merit as a painter, fee the article Lairesse. He
etched a vaft number of plates, from his own compofitions
with great freedom, and the fearlefs hand of a painter who
has other objects in view than the graces or blandiftiments
of manual execution. His chiarofcuro is broad and power-
ful, and fo contrived as to condudl the eye of a fpeftator at
once to the principal objcdls in the coropofition.

The major part of his deiign s were engraven by himfelf,
and, as Baian obierves, are highly efteemed by connoi/feurs,
and exceedingly ufeful to itudents in art.

The portrait of Laiieffe, in folio, lurrounded by emble-
matical ornaments, has been engraven by N. Vificher.

The moil efteemed of his own engravings are, " The
Sin of our firft Parents," and " Adam and Eve expelled
from Paradife," a pair in folio. A rich compofition of

♦■ Jolepfe

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

'« Jofeph and his Brethren," and another from the Hiftory
of Solomon, both in large folio. " The Incredulity of
St. Thomas ;" and another in folio, from the Life of
Chrift, infcribed " Sapiciitia unigena Dei Maximi." " St.
Thercfa in Extafy," a large folio. " The partinjr of
HeAor and Avidromache," in foho. A rich campolition
of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, with the motto " qiiam
Mars nimquam, vicit Venus." A march of Amazons,
inlcribed " Virtus viri computa aiftionibus probis." A grand
Bacchanalian fubjeit. '•' Venus lamenting Adonis." A
fet of four plates of the feafons. " Diana and Endymion."
" Bacchus Silenus and Nymphs :" all of the folio dimen-
fions : and three large allegoncal firbjedls, ia comphment
to the prince of Orange.

The prints of LairelTe are gencr.illy infcribed with one
or other of the four monograms which the reader will find in
our third plate of thofe of the German engravers.

Samuel Buttschild was born at Sangerhaufen, in Thu-
ringia, A. D. 1640, and died at Drefden in 1707. He was
an artlll of taile ; and, being pofTefled of elevated habits of
thinking on profeffional fubjeils, he was appointed director
of the Drefden academy, and infpector of the electoral
g-llery. His excellence in frefco painting is attefted by his
picture of " The Defcent from the Crofs," in the church of
St. Martin at Halberltadt, and by feveral paintings which
adoi-n the callle gardens near Drefden ; and his etchings are
performed with much picturefque freedom : the general
character of his art partaking much more of the grand than
the graceful. His principal engravings are, " The Army
of Sennacherib defeated by the exterminating Angel," in
folio. A fet of four, entitled " Le Don de I'Entendement :"
" Le Don de la Science ;" " Le Don de la Sageffe ;"
" Le Don de la Force," in 410. A fet of the four parts
of the day, with Latin infcriptions. A pair of emblcina-
t>cal fubjects, intitled " L'Efperance et la Patience ;" •' La
Foi ct la Charitc," ovals, in 410. " Ulyffes and Epius,'"
and a fubject from the Life of Hercules, both of the foho fi7.e.

Elias Hainzelmann was born at Augfburg in the year
1640, and died in the fame city in 1693. Fie ftudied en-
graving at Paris in the fchool of Francois de Poilly, whofe
ftyle of manual execution he imitated with great fuccefs ;
and Strutt has well obfer-ved, that Jiad his drawing been
equally correft, his works would have ranked with thofe of
the greate'il mafters. They pofTcfs, however, efpecially his
portraits, a confiderable ihare of merit.

From Hainzelmar.n's hiftorical works, the following will
probably be found molt worthy of felcdtion : " The
Silence," after AnnibalCaracci ; fo called, becaufe, while the
Infant Chriit is deeping, the Madonna hvlds up her finger to
St. John, as he approaclics, to prevent his dilturbing the Sa-
viour. This picture has fince been engraved by others, but
particularly by Bartolozzi in a very fuper;or ityle. A large
upright plate of an Holy Family, after Sebaflian Bourdon ;
and t wo others le iglhways, of the fume fubjeft, from the fame
paintcr,in one of wiiich the infant St. John prefents a Iamb, and
in the other an apple, to Jefus Chrift. St. Francis, after Domi-
nichino. " The noli me tangcre," or Chrift in the gaidcn,
approached by Mary Magdalen, after Albauo. " The
Madonna and C'iiild," after Raphael, i. Jefus Arnabilis ;
Mater Amabihs ; St. Regard; all of the folio fize.

His belt portraits are thole of Franci.^ Zavitr, of the
fraternity of Jefuits ; George Philip Riis, after Ulric
Mayr ; Marcus Haberns, and Juliana Beiiedicita Winklerin,
after the fame. David Thoman ab HagelltciD, after de
Neve; i". gnes van Schoenberg ; Godfrecd Eggerus ; Ga-
briel Wilkx ; John Jacob Haller, after D. Savoy, all in
fclio, and Jolian Chriftoph. ab A dclmannsfelden, after

C. C. Krctzfchmann, in T:?ry large folio; tlie head, tiie
fizc of real life.

Jean Ulric Kraus, or KraufTcD, was born at Augfburg
A.D. 1645, and died in the fame city in 171.9. He was the
difciple of Melchior ICulTcll, and married Jean Sjbille bin
daughter, and became a clofe imitator of the works of his
contemporary Le Clerc. But all followers arc neccifarily
b< hind. Though Kraus copied Le Clcrc's life of Chrift,
(which conlifta of fixty fubjedts) it it fufficiently obvious that
they are but copies.

His engravings are numerous, chiefly from his own com-
pofitions, and llie fubjedts of them, for the nioft part, views
of buildings, or taken from the Old and New Teftameuts. Ia
imitation of his mode! Le Cierc, he generally introduced a
vaft multitude of figures into hh compofitions, but thevare
kfs graceful, and far lefs well drawn. He frequently en-
riched his back grounds with architecture, whicli he appears
to have well underftood, and his chiarofcuro is often judi-
cioufly difpofed, and his general eftects good.

The cypher with which Kraus ufually marked his prints
mil be found in our thii-d plate of German monograms, and
the lift of his principal works is as follows : a fet of fixty
fubjetts copied from Le Clerc's life of Chrift, on fmall folio
plates, two fubjects on each, printed at Augfburg 1705. The
hiftoryof the Old and New Tcftaments, in 410 containing
four fmall fubjects on each plate, and apparently dcfigned to
be bound in Svo, fo as to have two fubjefts only on a leaf.
The number of leaves would then amount to one hundred
and eighty-eight, and they are fo numbered. The four
feiifons, and the four elements, defigned for the royal ta-
pcrtries. A fet of twelve intereftiug views of the city of
Nuremberg, after Andrea Graf, in folio, and a very large
and capital view of St. Peter's church at Rome, afler the
fame mailer.

Carl Guftave d'Amling, or ab Ambling, was born at Nu-
remberg AD. 1651, and died at Munich in the year 1702.
He ftudied under F. de Poilly at Paris, and imitated his
ftyle, but Avith no very great lucccfs. He was a painter as
well as an engraver, but was chiefly engaged in engraving
portraits. When he attempted hiftory, neither his drawing
of the naked, nor the cxprefiion of his heads is correct, and
the general appearance of his prints is cold and metallic.

Yet the race is not alua) s to the fwift, nor the battle to
the ftrong, and Amling, iiotwithftanding thefe defects, ob-
tainel court patronage, and bjcamc engraver to the duke of
Bavaria.

Of his numerous portraits, we fnall only mention thofe
of Maximilian Emanuel, electoral prince of Bavaria, after T.
Macolinus Muficus, dated 1670, a rare print. Maximilian
Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, after J. B. Champagne, both in
folio, and the latter efteemed one of his very beft per-
formances. An equeltrian llatue, alio of his patron, and
Henrietta Maria Adelaide, duchefs of Bavaria, after Dela-
monce, dated 1675,11 an oval, and alio of folio dimcnfions.

Of his hiftoricid works the principal are, a fet of thirteen
plates of different fizes, of the hiftories of the emperor Otho
and Louis of Bavaria, from the tapellries in the c<aftle of
Munich, which were executed after P. Candido. Another
fet of nine in folio, from the fiune tapellries, rcprcfenting
perfonifications of the mouths September, October, and No-
vember, the lour Seafons, Morning, and Niglit.

The family of Meyer flourilhed as artifts, and chiefly as
engravers, through two centuries. Joachim was born at
Stralbiu-g early in the Gxttenlh, and diilinguiihed himfelf
by engraving a fet of fixtytwo prints of combats witli the
fwoid.
Andrea was u native of Zuricli, and engraved feveral views

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

•7 towns, to which he affixed one or the other of the linfrular
raoiiogranis wliich will be fouml in our third plate of ihole
of the German fchool i)f engravers.

Diricli v.as born in the f.ime city, and of the fame family,
in the year 1571, and his principal work of engravings is a
let of portraits of the illnllrious perfons of vSwitzerland.

Rodolpli, and Conrad, Meyer were the fons of Dirick.
The engravings of the former are chiefly portraits, with
foiiie L-w emblematical prints : he was tolerably fncccfsful,
and marked his prints as may be feen in our plate of German
monograms. He was born in the year 1605, and lived only
to the age of thirty-three.

His younger brother Conrad was born in the year 1 6 1 S, and
died at'Znrich, the city of hisnativity.in 1689. He produced
a confiderable number of prints which were chiefly from his
own deligns, among which are the cuts for an edition of
Erafmus's Praifc of Folly. A fet of five, which are termed a
cojnparifon of the prefent times with thofe of Noah and Lot.
"Tlic Deluge;" " The Lad Judgment," and "Memento
Mori." A fet of fifteen for the Mirror of Chrif-
tians. A fet of cuts for a dance of Death, partly invented
by himfelf, and partly by his brother Rodolph. And
feveral lets of portraits of tiie burgomafters, reformers, and
artills of Zurich.

Jean Meyer relided about the fame time, or a little earlier,
at Nuremberg, but is prefumed by Strutt to have been of
the fame family as the preceding. He etched, among oth.cr
plates, a fet of battles in a flight but fpirited ftyle, from his
own compolitions.

Felix Mever was more celebrated. He was boi-n at
Winteriiour, in Switzerland, in the year 1653, and died at
Wevden in 17 13; his genius developed itfelf at Nuremberg,
whiill lludying under F. Ermels, a celebrated painter of land-
fcape, to wliich he afterwards added the iludy of nature
His etchings are defervedly held in eftecm among connoif-
leurs, for the freedom and inteUigence which they difplay,
combined with effective chiarofcuro. The moft important
of thelc are, a fet of twelve, ornamented with ruined edifices
and rocks, &c. Another fet of four of the fcenery of Swit-
zerland, with ancient monuments and figures, dated 1701.
Another fet of four of the fame kind of fubjects, and an-
other fet of the fame number, of a more wild, mountainous,
and rocky charafter, all of the 4to. dimenfions.

Joachim Francois Beifch, or Beicli, was born at Munich
in the year 166^, and died in the fame city in 1748. He
ftudied the principles of defign under his father, who was a
painter of Ravenlhurg, but domiciliated at Munich. They
both painted landfcape and battles, and Joachim travelled Ut
Italy for improvement, where he refided for feveral years,
coatemplatiiig the fcenery of that claffical lainlfcape country,
and the works of Gafpar Pouffin and Salvator Rofa.

On his return to Munich, he took up the etching point with
■fucccls, and produced levcral fets of plates of landfcape fce-
nery in a grand talle, among which the principal are, a fet of
eight mountainous laiidfcapes from his own compofitions, in
4to. Anotiier fet of fix. Anotlier fet of fix with rocks,
catarads, and banditti, in the ftyle of Salvator Rofa, of the
folio fize.

Ge )rge Philip Rugendas of Augfburg was born in the
year 1666. He learned drawing of Ifaac Fifcher, but
afterwards ftudied with more advantage from the works of
Piftro Tempella, and Bourgognione. He travelled to
Vienna, from thence to Venice, and from thence to Rome,
where he remained a long time, and revifited Augftjurg in
the year 1 695. At this time the war of the Spanilh fuc-
ceflion was raging in Germany, and our artift had oppor-
tuaity to contemplate its effeds, and draw battles, ikirmilhes,

and fieges, from nature. Among thefe the bombardment and
taking of his native city by the French and Bavarians, formed
an iutiivlling fubjeci for his pencil and etching needle, and
lie j/ullilhed in iix prints, tV"ir military operations in that
neiglibourliood during the years 1703 and 1704.

Rugendas defervedly holds a diilinguiflicd rank amorg
battle painters. His dcfigns are at once bold and corrcft,
his compofition orderly, his pencil facile, and his colouring
performed on principle ; above all, the vaiied attitudes and
graces of his cavalry are juftly admired.

Befidcs the pidiires from his hand, which arc not ancom-
mon in the galleries and cabinets of Germany, Rugendas
lia-; performed a confiderable number of etchings and plates
in niezzotinto, of wliicli the fubjefts are chiefly hunting and
battles ; fome by himfelf, and others in conjunftion witli his
fons, of whom he had three that were educated to the arts.

We begin our lift with a fi-loftion from his etchings : a fet
of fix of " Capricci de Georgio Filippo Rugendas," dated
1698. Three fets of " Cavaliers Marching, in Aftion, &c."
conllfting of twenty-two plates, in 8vo. A fet of iix very
capital etchings, in folio, of " Les Operations militaires del
Francois et des Bavarois a Auglbourg et h fes Environs/'
dated 1 704.

His beft mezzotintos are, " A Colonel of Huflars on
Horfeback." A fet of four, of " Combats between Hun-
garian and Prufiian Hulfars." A fet of four, " Hunting
Pieces." A let of four, '• Battles, &c. in the Turkifh
Campaign." Another fet of fix, entitled " Les Operations
et les Occupations militaires,'' &c. all in foho.

Tiie following -were produced in conjunftion with his fons:
A pair of " Mountainous Landfcapes," in 4to. A pair of
" Combats between Cavalry." A fet of four, of " Marchei
and Halts." Another fet of four, of " Camps and Skir-
millies," all in 4to. A fet of fix, of " The Amufements
of the Camp." Two fets of Battles, confifting of fix
in each. A fet eight, of " Marche?, Halts, and Combats
of Cavalry," all in folio ; and a fet of twenty of variou*
military fubjefts, in 4to.

Jaques Chriftophe le Blond, or Blon, an engraver in mez-
zotinto, was born at Frankfort in 1670. He travelled i»
Rome in the year 1 696, in the fuite of the imperial ambaf-
fador, where he ftudied painting under Carlo Maratti, but
his genius being of a mechanical turn, he entered with
warmth into various fpcculations : at length he learned to
fcrape mezzotinto, and difcovered a method of printing mez-
zotinto plates in colours. The Dutch painter Overbeek per-
fuaded him to bring his new difcovery to Anifterdam, from
whence he emirrrated to En<jland.

Eagerly bent on the execution of his new projeft, he ex-
ecuted in London feveral large plates in mezzotinto, from
piftiircs by the greateft matters, and difpofed of the prints
by lottery : but thofe who obtained the prizes appear not
to have held them in any very great ellimation. He made
known the manner in which he performed and printed thefe
plates, in a book entitled " Coloritto, or the Harmony of
Colours in Painting, reduced to mechanical praftice, under
eafy precepts and infallible rules," which were printed both
in Engliih and French : but nothing is more common than
the failure of infalUble pi-etenfions, and the fpirit of fine art
has always evaporated in the various attempts to reduce
it to mechanical practice. Le Blond's projeft did not fuc-
ceed.

He afterward fet on foot a fcheme for copying the Car-
toons of Raphael in tapeftry, and made dra%vings for that
purpofe ; but though money was fubfcribed, houfes built,
and looms erefted at the Mulberry-ground, nem- Chelfea,
this project alfo failed, and poor le Blond, to the «o fmall

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

dilTatisfaftion of thofc who were engaged with him, was
obhgcd to difappcar. He died at Paris in the year 1740,
in an hofpital.

The mezzotintos which he produced are not witliout a confi-
derable fhare of merit ; but in his colouring procefs he was not

her defcription could find fubCftence. Among'
rts of the CJcrman delators, there was probably

artift of no otln

the petty courts ot tlie ticrman ele<itors, there was probably
at tins time very little talk-, yet obfervation enough to dif-
crmnnate between two or more fet of features ; and pc^fonal
vainty and courtly pomp enough, to catch at tlie means of

always equally fuccefsful. The prefent writer has feen fome, attauinig a certain fpex^ies of pc^iniable popularity.

We have paiTed hghtly over engravers of this inferior de

fcnption, ar.d fome we liave cntir°cly omitted, as they con-
tributed nothnig toward the advancement of ai't, but rather
perhaps retarded its advancement.

From thefe men of mediocrity, attention turns with plea-
lure to the contemplation of tlie extraordiriar)' powers of
Jacob, or Giacomo Frev. Frcy was born at Lucerne iii

which, in refpeft of colouring, may be called good, and others
which can fcarcely be elleemcd as any thing better than bad.
His colours are rarely vivid and frefli, but frequently flat and
dirty, and his drawing of the naked is incorrecl, efpecially
in the extremities of his figures. On the whole, his portraits
will probably be found to be his beil performances, of which
the principal, are thofe of king George H. in large folio,
the li/.eof life : his queen, as a companion print.
dii'" ----- -

c

Va

"^'^P. '^ u' a ■ f 1 '" Jn ^ ■'"■?' ^"!'''' '^^ ''"'o °^7'''''- . c- r -^'^ r"?' apprenticed 10 theTra'de" 'of'a cartwright, and in
1 he belt of Ins hiltoncal works are, " St. Agnes and St. fpite of his propenllties towards the f-ne arts was obliged
CecUia." after Dominichino. « A_ Repofe during the to follow that trade till he attained the age of two and twenty

when he fomehow or other made his way to Rome ; but

after Dominichino
Flight into Egypt ;" and a " Venus Couchant,'' both after
Titian. " The Triumph of Galatea," after Carlo Maratti.
" Cupid fafhioning his Bow," after Corregio. " The Cha-
rity of Jofeph," after C. Cignani. " Chrift on the Mount
of Olives," after Caracchi. " Chrilt Entombed,'' after
Titian. And an anonymous, but very fine " Magdalen,"
all of tlie folio lize.

Martin Bemigeroth was born at Ramelfburg in the year
1670, and died at Leipfick in 1733. He produced a num-
ber of portraits which is furprifing, and which were collc£t-

quitting the peaceful and placid vale of Lucerne, he feems
to liave broken loofe from all fober reftraint, and on his ar-
rival ni Italy, his pafiions, which had hitherto been held in
check, hurried him into every dangerous excefe. Yet, as
the lame Po, which roars and riots down the Alps, winds
atterward a llately river through the plains of Italy, fo it
was with our artift : when the cbiiilition of paffion was
over, he lirtened with delight to the advice of Arnold van
V\ irtenhout, and the inftruttions of Carlo Maratti, and from

art of

ed in nine port-fohos in the ducal cabinet at Drefden, many that period began to make furpriling proTiefj in the

of them being of foho diraenfions. Yet Bcrnigeroth does engraving. °

not rile above mediocrity as an engraver. ^ .-'^fp"'c!"'f Maratti to Gi;icomoFrey, which {Irflogly ir.arki

Jean Martin Bcrnigeroth was the fon and pupil of Martin, his goad fenfe and obfervation, has betn recorded : ""The

He was born at Leipfick in the year 171 3, and died in the engravers of hirtory (i'aid he) make too much ufe of the

fame city in 1767. He pcifefTed about the fame portion of iurin, and hence arifes a certain harjn.fs in the contours

talent with his father ; his bell work being a portrait of Jean from which, however, the beft prints cf Dorio-ny are compa-

Adolphus, duke of Saxe Wciflenfeld, in foho, dated 1745, ratively free. I would advifejor/to faniiliarife yourfelf with

T( hich fcarcely rifes above mediocrity. _ _ the etching point, becaufe it operates in a far more pifturefque

» . ■ T) 1.1 r _ ir — : is born at Berlin in the year manner than the graver."

'ome time about 1 740. His Frey followed this advice. Robert van Audenarde was

.ortraits are thofe which are at this time his fellow-difciple and liberal rival, but the ranid

'ithout a certain portion of ilrides of our artill foon left him at an immenfe diftance,

ig of PrulTu, after AVeide- though a man of abihty. He drew with fuperior taftc ; had

Antoine Balthafar Koenig was born at Berlin in the year manner than the graver.'
1676, and died in the fame city fome time about 1740. His Frey followed this advice,

prints, of which the follo«nng portraits are thofe which ar
held in mod e&eem. are not wi* '
merit. Frederick Wilham, king

mann. Frederick baron de Derfflinger, general of Prufiian a fine eye for the harmony both of colours and chiarofcurc •

cava-ry. Charles Gottfried Schrader, aulic counfellcr to the etched with a degree of fpirit and freedom, which have very

king of Pruffia. Alexander Hermann, Cointe de Wartenfle- rarely been attained; v/orked over and finifned his etchint's

b.-n, after Ant. Pefne, dated 1716. And the monument of with the graver, at once with tirmncfs and facility; incor-

Schradcr, with a Latin infcription. _ porating the whole by means of fuch exquifite fteli'nT of the

Chriflian Albert Wortmann was bo.'-a in Pomerania fome m.eritsof hisoriginaL that it has been emphatically faid of hi»

time about 1680. He went very young to Berhn, where prints, that they appear rather printed than engraved. He

he ftudied engraving under Wolfgang, and at the age of was the Gerard Audran of Italy, and feemed only to difier

t vventy-five was fummoned to Caflel, where he became en- from Audran himfclf, as Raphael, Guido, Dominichino, and

graver to the landgrave of Hefle. From Caffcl he went to Gucrchino, (after whom his principal works are engraved,)

Drefden, where he engraved feveral portraits, and among the differ from Le Brun. In faort, his feeling for the peculiar

reft his celebrated head of Chriftian Frederick Boetiiis. In excellencies of the firll matters of the Italian fchoo's was of

the year 1727, Wortmann was called to the court of Petcrf-
burg, but the time and place of his death have not been re-
corded.

His principal engravings are the portraits of Erncll Louis,

the highell and pui-eil kind; fo that it may be faid, almod
without a metaphor, that in his engravings their forms ap-
pear revivified by the fpirit of Giacomo Frey. He died at
Rome in the year 1752, the admii-ation of every intelb'gent

landgrave of Kelfe Darmtladt. Chrillian Frederick Boe- artift, yet before he had received more than an earneft of the

tius. Joachimus Julius Breithaiipt, doftor in theology, ?fter praifes that are juftly his due.

J. A. Rudiger. Johan Samuel Drobifch. Hermann Joa- It is to be regretted, that when his plates, which were

eV.im Halin. Anna, emprefs of Ruflia, after L. Caruvac. publifhed by his ion Philip, began to wear, they were in-

.\le.\is, fon of Peter I. judicioudy retouched, perhaps by Philip liimfelf, who dc-

In an age and country of low tafle, an indifferent painter ftroyed all hi? father's Av'cetnefs ar.d harmonious mellownefs-

or engraver of portraits will find «ncouragenieut, though an fo that good imprcffioas of the prints of Frey, ia their ori-

VoL XVI. ' lib <r;„a!

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

ginal flate, are now become rare, though they have not yet
attained their intrinfic value.

We add a hft of his principal works, a!\nofl every one
of which merit a particular criticifm, beginning with the
hiflorical fubjefts: " The Holy Family," after Raphael,
cnjjraved from the fame pifturc as the print by Edi-lmck,
and of the fame fo'io fize. •' Aurora, with the Hours,
preceding tlie Chariot of the Sun," a large folio, from
Guido, which has alfo been engraven by Audenarde, the
fellow-pupil of Frey, and by PaTcalini and others. " Bac-
chus confoling Ariadne, after the departure of Thefeus,"
(companion to the former^ after tlie fame mailer. " The
Communion of St. Jerome," a large upright folio, from
Domiiiichino. " The Adoration of the Shepherds,'' of
the fame fize and form, from Seballian Conca. " A Saint
kneeling, and an Angel fiicwing him a Pifture of the Virgin
a^J Child,'' after Carlo Maratti, infcribed " In conipevllu
Angelorum pfalmam tibi.'' " The Virgin giving the Sca-
pular to St. Simon Stock," a large upright, arched at the
top, and infcribed " Ecce fignum lali-r^is," after Seballian
Conca. " St. Francis de Paul reftoring fight to a Child,"
a large upright, from B. Lambcrti. A large upright,
from Andrea Sacchi, wherein Eceleliaftics appear to be
afcending to heaven. " St. Charles Borromeo obtaining
fi-om Heaven the ceHation of the Plague," from Pietro da
Cortona, both large upright folios. "A Repofe,'' from Carlo
Maratti, wherein St.Jofeph is offering cherries to tlie In-
fant Chrift. And " The Martyrdom of St. Andrew,"
from the fame mafter; both middling fized uprights. " The
Death of St. Petronilla," after Guerchino. « St. Paul and
Ananias," after Pietro da Cortona, both in large folio.
•■ Tile Rape of Europa,'' and " A Charity," both after Al-
bano, and of t'ne folio fize. A fymbolical fubjcft, after
Bianchi, infcribed " Congregavit de regionibus libcros."
And " The Beatification of the Virgin Mary," after Car-
rachi, both in large folio. An allegory, in honour of
the church, after Carlo Maratti, infcribed " Cuftos de-
mentia mundi." " Tine Emperor Auguftus (hutting the
Temple of Janus," after the fame painter. " The Arch-
angel Michael," and "The Conference of the Fathers ef the
Church, on the Subjeci of the Immaculate Conception,''
both in large folio, after Guido; the latter from the fame
original which has alfo been finely engraved by our own
counti-yman Sharp. " The Death of St. Anna, and St.
Romualdo," both after Andrea del Sacchi, ar.d tlie latter a
very favourite print. And the four angles cf the Church
of St. Charles de Catenarius at Rome, reprefentin i- tlie
cardinal virtues; (viz. Fortitude, Prudence, Temperance,
and JulHce,) after Dominichino, large upright folios.

Frey alfo engraved portraits, of which the beft are thofe
cf his friend Carlo Maratti, from a pifture by himielf.
Pope Innocent XIII. after A. MalFuccius. Pope Benedi-I
XIII. on horfeback. Pope Gregory XIII. in a c'-.air,
after the marble of Camilla Rufconi. Cardinal Hieroninius
Piece de Mirandole, after Neilly. And Clementina, M.
Brittan. Fr. et Hib. Rcgina, from a pifture by himfeif ;
all in large folio.

Elie Ciuillopher Heifs, an engraver of very large, but
not very good raezzotintos, was a native of Memmingen,
in Suabia. He wm educated to the arts by his fat'ner Jean
Heifs, a painter of Memmingen, and died at Aujjibur'j- in
the year 1731.

He produced a confidcrable number of plates, both in
hiilory and portrait, of which " The Salutation of tlie Vir-
gin" is three feet One inch in height, by two feet two inches
wide ! and " a Crucifixion," from his har.d, is of nearly the
fame iimenfions.

Bernard Vogel was the coadjutor of Heifs, fome of thefe,
very large plates being fcraped by them in conjunftion. He
was a native of Nm-emberg, born in 1683, but refided
chiefly at Auglburg, where he efpoufed the daughter of
Heifs. In the earlier part of his career, he produced fome
tolerably good portraits with the graver, but latterly en-
graved only in mezzotinto. He retired from Auglburg
to liis native city, probably after the death of his father-in-
law, and died tlievc in the year 173". leaving behind him a
fon, Jean Cliriftophe, who engraved feveral plates in mezzo-
tinto, after Kupetzkj-.

The beft works of Bernard Vogel are the portraits, per-
formed with the graver, of Johan M:chel Weickmann, after
L.C. Eichler; Auguilus Hermann Frankius, profeffor of
theology ; and Johannes Michael Welfer, fenitor of Nu-
remberg, after J. C. Hirfchmann, all in folio.

The chief of his portraits in mczzotijito, are thofe of
Johannes Kupetzky, painter, dated the year of our artifl's
death ; Mich.acl GottiVcid Wittbor, a celebrated furgeon,
after Kupetzky ; and George Bledinger, the painter, all in
folio.

Chrillopber Vogel engraved, in the fame manner, the por-
trait of his fatlier, infcribed " Chalcographus Norimb."

Jean George Bergmuller was born at Dirkheim, in Bava-
ria, A. D. 1687, and died at Augdnirg in 1762. He
learned the rudiments of art under Andrea Wolf, of Munich,
but aftervj'ards ftudied vith more advantage under Carlo
Maratti. He painted fuccefsfully, both in oil and in frefco,
and etched a great number of plates, in an able and matterly
ftilc, which he afterwards finifhed with the graver. He was
like\^■iie the author of t^vo works ; one on the growth of
man, which he called " Antropometria :'' the other on
mcnfuration and architecture, publifned 1752, and became
dircftor of the Academy of Arts, which was eftabUfhed at
Auglburg. His fon, Jean Baptifte, alfo followed the art
of engraving with fome fucceis.

The beft of Bergmuller's prints_are thofe which follow :
a fet of four, of the Baptilm, Transfiguration, Refurrec-
tion, and Afccnfion of Jefus Chrift. " The Madonna and
Child." « The Death of St. Jofeph." " The Saviour
on the Moimt of Olives." " The Martyrdom of St,
Catherine and St. Sebaftian.'' " Juftice, and Peace,'', ih-
fc!-ihed " Juftitia et Pax obocidutK funt." A fet of
the four feafons, dated 1730. Another fet of four of the
zodiacal figns.

Jean Daniel Herz, draughtfman and engraver in aquafortis,
was born at Auglburg A. D. 1693, and died in the fame
city in 1754.

Herz was an artift of original powers, rich in compofition,
bold and rough in execution, but deficient in grace and bar.
rr.ony of parts. He was appointed direftor of the imperial
a-ademy of arts at Augflmrg, and filled the office with
credit ; but an hereditary direftor of as academy, nature,
and fcience, vn\l not endure, and his fon Daniel, to whom
the dircftorihip unfortunately devolved, foon made himfclf
appear ridiculous in tliis fituation, though he was a tolerably
good knight of the holy Roman empire.

The ftyle of execution of Herz the elder bears marks of
great rapidity, and rapid he muft have been, for his plates
are numerous, and fome of them of very large dimenfions.

W^e have felefted the following, as thofe which, on the
v.'hcle, are moft worthy of the portfolio of the connoilTeuf,
*' The Annunciation," richly compofed, and in very large
folio. " The Railing of the Crofs." " The AfFumption
of the Virgin." " "Tlie Adoration of the Kings." " An
Ecce Homo." " The Crucifixion.'' " The Death of
Anani.;s." " The Difpute between St. Paul and the Philo-
7 fopheri

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

fophers of Athens.'" AnJ " The Judgment of Solomon ;''
all in very large folio. " The Coronation Proceffion of
Queen Maria Therefa at Prcfbourg ;" alfo of very large
dimenfions.

Jean Elie Ridinger, a very diftinguiflicd engraver of ani-
mals, was born at Ulm in the year 1695, and died at Angf-
burg in 1787. His father was a reputable drawing mailer,
and from him our artiil received his earlieil inftruftions in the
art. He afterwards ftudied painting under Chrilloplier
lleifch, but as an engraver ftudied nature alone, and was one
of her fuccefsful votaries. He formed a ilyle of engraving
animals for himfelf, which confill chiefly of etching, which
is performed with charafteriftic freedom and firmnefs, tem-
pered and harmonifed, without being over laboured, with the
graver. He appears to have lludied in the wildeil and mod
unfrequented recefles of the forefts of Germany, and the
back grounds of his favage animals are conceived and exe-
cuted in a grand and mallerly ftyle, occafionally difplaying
all the wild vigour of luxuriant and uncontrolled vegetation,
which can only be contemplated in the depths of untrodden
forefts, and occafionally in his dens of bears, tygers, lynxes,
&c. the moft barren and difmal rocky folitudcs, infomuch
that the reflcfting fpeftator is led to wonder, either at the
bold truths and fertility of a daring imagination, or, if he
believes that Ridinger has really villted fuch fcenes, at the
dangers he muft have cfcaped.

Nor are his portraits of wild and ferocious animals, lefs
than his landfcape fccnery, the rcfult of vigorous obferva-
tion, and exteniive power over the inftruments of his art.
In tracing their habits and manners, he combined the exatt-
titude of a naturalift with the talents of a confnmmate artlft.

Several of Ridinger's prints may be called hiftorical, being
reprefentations of chafes which really took place in his time,
and at which he muft have been prefent, in the forefts of
Germany, with portraits of the animals that were killed or
taken, and beneath thefe engravings there is generally a par-
ticular defcription, or hiftory, of the chafe, in the German
language.

He did not, however, draw the human figure, nor that of
the horfe, with equal ability ; and though his chiarofcuro be
often effeftive, yet in many inftances his lights are too much
fcattered. He worked from his own compofitions, and
fometimcs painted, as well as engraved, a favourite fubjecl,
but his pictures are not common. The moft efteenied of his
numerous engravings are thofe which follow :

" The Tcrreftrial Paradifc," a f^t of twelve large folio
plates, in which are introduced, in an appropriate manner,
all the various animals ; the fubjefts are connetledby means
of the hiftory of Adam and Eve. Thefe are grand compo-
fitions, finely executed, and in England but rarely feen. A
fet of fixteen fables. A fet of heads of wolves and foxes,
finely executed. A fet of four large upright folios, which
by fome are eftecmed the maftcrpicces of Ridinger, and two
of which, reprcfcnting "Bears feafting on a Stag," and a
haunt of " Wild Boars in a Forcft:," are more cfpecially to
be admired. A pair of " Stag-hunting" and " Bear-hunting,"
in large foho, both defigned from nature. Another pair of
hunting pieces, of "Tiie large Wild Boar with double Tufl<s,"
and " The Stag in Rutting-time," dated 1755, and 1757,
taken by the duke and duchefs of Wirtemberg. A fet of
fixtcen hunting pieces of the larger and fmaller game, as prac-
tifed in the different ftates of Germany, with German and
French explanations beneath, rich and interefting compofi-
'tions. A fet of twelve plates of favage and carnivorous ani-
mals, all in large folio, and after his own defigns.

Ridinger alfo engraved, with h is ufual ability, a lion-hunt,
after Rubens.

The Prciflers were a numerous family of engravers,
whom we ftuili pafs with brief notices, as they rarely rofe
above m:'diocritv..

Jean Daniel IVcifler, an engraver of portraits, was of
Nuremberg, and lived at the clofc of the fcvcntcenth and
beginning of the eighteenth centuries. His fon Jean Juftiri
was born in the fame city in the year 1698, aad died there-
in 1771. He refided in Italy a confiderabie lime, and he-
came direftorof the Imperial academy of Augfburg. Hii
moftdiftinguiftied works are "The Apothcolis of vEneas. '
A fet of the four elements, after Edmond Bouchardon ;
and another fet of the four parts of the day, all in folio.
A fet of lifty plates of the antique ftatiies pri.fervcd at
Rome, from drawings by Bouciiardon ; fmall uprights. The
cielin^s of the Jefuits' church at Antwerp, after Rulu-n.i,
confiiting of twenty fmall plates, cxdufivt- of the portraits
of Rubens and Vandyke.

George iMartin Preifler, a younger brother of Jean Juftin,
was alfo of Nuremberg ; lie engraved, in the family ftyle, a
confiderabie ;^nuniber of portraits, and a fet of twenty -oiw
plates of ftatues, at Rome aad at Florence, from drawing!
by his brother Jean Martin.

The engraving of Valentine Daniel, another fon of Jeati
Daniel Pitifler, was chiefly continud to book plates and por-
traits.

Jean Martin Priefier, the fourth fon of .lean Daniel, tra-
velled from Nuremberg to Rome for improvement, and be-
came, on the whole, perhap.s, the beft engraver of the familv.
He accepted an invitation to Denm.-irk, and was living in
good repute at Copenhagen ill tlie year 1770. His ftyle is
clear and neat, but deficient in vigour, and liis bell prints arc.
" Chriil bearing his Crofs," a large folio, from Paolo Wtl-
nefe. " Seniiramis, placing tlie Crown of Ninus upon her
own Head," from Guido, a large folio, ingraved with the
former, for the Drefdcn gallery. " A Battle,'' from Par-
rocel, and a Bacchanalian fubjed, from Pierre, both i:i
large folio.

Jean Alexander Thiele was born at Erfiirth in the year
1C9J, and from the rank of a common foldier rofe to be a
diftinguilhed engraver and painter of landfcajies. -'\ decided
tafte for this art, and fome pidures of Agricola, which it
w as his good fortune to fee and copy in dillemper, introduced
him to the notice of that artift, by whofe inftruftions he failed
not to profit. He is believed to have been the firft in Germa-
ny who attemped to paint landfcape in cravons, which,
though an ineligible mode of art, is a proof of his ingenuity :
he afterwards acquired a knowledge of oil-painting under
Menyoky, in wliich he gloried, and in which he excelled.
His ftudy was the romanlic part of Saxony, and more cfpe-
cially the banks of the Elbe and the Sala. His etchings, of
whicli the fubjcfts of the principal are named below, are
rude but maftcrly. The celebrated Dietrich ftudied under
him at Drefden, where he left a fon, and where he died in
the year 1752.

A pair of moimtainous landfcapes, adorned with ruins of
ancient buildings, dated 1725, in folio, and very rare; a
pair of fmaller landfcape.', of more ruftic character ; a fet
of three mountainous landfcapes ; a landfcape of grander
charafter, adorned witii ruined monuinents of antiquity, in
quarto ; a pair of " The ancient Port or Mouth of th«
Elbe,'' drawn from nature, and dated 1742 ; a pair oi" views
at Naumburg, all in quarto ; a fet of fix of fupcrlor exe-
cution, from nature, including views of Pilnitz, Koaing-
ftein, Mullen, and Drefden, dated 1726, in large folio.

Paul Troger was born at Zcll, in llie biftiopric of Brixen, in

the year 1695, and died at Vienna in 1777. He lUidied the

rudiments of his profelfion in his birth-place, and aftetwarJs

B b 2 travdUa

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

travelled for improvement to Fium, in the bifhopric of Trent,
ii orcler to avail himf -If of the inlliiiflions of D. J. Alberti,
after whiehhe went to Vienna, and foon became known by
kis prints, and by the pifturcs with which he adorned fomc
of the clmrches' of Auftria. In etching, the touch of
Troj^cris firm andprecife. Iris fi^nres are well defigncd, and his
expreflion julL He became director of the Imperial academy
ef Vienna, and engraved in a good talle both hillorieal fuh-
jcflsand landlcapce, the latter of which he ornamented with
figures, ruins, &c.

His bed prints are two fmall Holy- Families ; " The
Virgin and Child ;" " St. .lofeph carefl'mg the Infai:t
Chnft ;■' " The Virgin in Grief, comforlcd by Angels ;"
in folio. Five fn.all landfcapcs. And a pair of laudicapcs,
in which ancient monuments arc introduced, in quarto, dated
J724.

Jacob Maennl was born at Vienna in the year 1695, and
died in the fame city at an advanced age; and, according to
the baron Heinnekin, was a mezzotinto engraver of conh-
derable ability. He was employed by C. Lauch, infpetlor
ef the Imperial gallery at Vi^mna, to fcrape th^t celebrated
toUeftion in mezzotinto, and had executed thirty-one of the
plates, when the diatb of both the engraver and employer
prevented the completion of their projeft.

Of tliefe thirty-one prints, only eleven were ever made
public ; the reft are prefumed to have been fold by the heirs
of Maennl, and are now miffing. At the head of the work
is a portrait of the emperor Charles VI., and Heinnekin
and Strutthave given lifts of the fubjciSls engraved.

Antoine Jofeph Prenner, or Von Prenner, after the
death of Lauch and Maennl, undertook, in concert with
Stampart, Altamonti, Schmutzer and others, to recom-
mence the work from the Imperial gallery, and after a con-
fiderable lapfe of time produced

" Thcatrum Artis piAorise, quo tabidae depiftx quae in
Cscfarca Vindobonenfi Pinacotheea fervantur," &c. in four
folio parts, or volumes, of which part one was publidied in
1728, part two in 1729, part three in 1 731, and part four

»ni733-

Thefe four parts contain one hundred and fixty pnnts,
which are furrounded by borders in a bad taile, and the work
altogether is but of mediocral charafter. The bcft portraits
by this artift arc thofe of Jean Gottfried Auerbach, painter
to the emperor Charles VI. and count dOdt, governor of
Vienna, both ot the folio dye,

Gafpar von Prenner, tlie fon of Antoine Jofeph, was alfo
an engraver, who travelled to Italy for improvement, and
■was engaged in engraving the " Mufeum Florentinum."
He alfo produced a fet of forty-five etchings, neatly linifhed
with the graver, of hiftorical fubjefts from Taddeo Zucche-
yo, and other diiiinguilhed mailers, dated i 746.

G. A. Muller was born at Vieima fome time about the
commencement of tlie eighteenth century, worked in a de-
licate ftyle, and, in concert with the Schmutzers, produced
Rubens'-, ieries of the hillory of Decius, of which Muller
tngraved two.

His otlier principal works are the portraits of Phillipe Louis,
toimt de Sintzendorf, after M. Altomonte ; Jacob van
Si'liuppen, member of the academies of Paris and Vienna,
after a pirture by himfelf. " The two Children of Rubens
at the age of adolefcence,' from a celebrated pidlure by
that mailer, in the Lichtenllein gallery.

The brothers, Jean Adam, Jofeph, and Andrea Schmut-
zer, were natives of Vienna, and born about the clofe of
the feventeenth, and beginning of the eighteenth centuries.
They died, the former in the year 1739, the twij latter in
1743.

Their grandfather, a general in the Imperial fervice, loflr
much of his property by the accidents of war ; and the
infidelity of the tutor to whom he had eutrulled t\)f educa-
tion of his f(m, reduced that fon to grievous extremities, but
his fufferings tlruck out a talent witli which it now appear-
ed that nature had endowed him. He acquired tlie art of
engraving on iron and ileel, and ornamented locks and fire-
arms with much tafle.

He brought up his fons, the brothers of whom we tr; at,
to the prolilhon of gun-engraving, v.hich they quitted for
the more elegant a?t of engraving on copper. Joan Adam
was the eldell, but, in fpite of application, could never attain
to the eminence of Jofeph and Andrea. He engraved,
however, for the gallery of Vienna under Altomonte, and
his beft prints are the portraits of the' three (•mpreffes Eleo-
nora, Amelia, and Elizabeth.

Jofepli and Andrea generally, if not alwav.s, worked in
concert, and affixed their name", fomi-timcs Jofeph and An-
drea, and at others Andrea and Jofpli, Schmutzer, with
brotherly alternation. Joiepli ponifTed dexterity both in
etching and re entering with the graver, and Andrea pofTeffed
great facility in managing the tool, which v.as the neceffary
rcfult of his being educated to engrave on fteel, and to
which he added a careful fludy of the works of Bolfwert,
and Van Dulen. Tlie bell prints from the gravers of thefe
brothers are the portraits of the emperor Charles VI. on
foot, after M. de Meylens; the emprefs Elizabeth Chriftina,
after J. G. Auerbach ; GuftavusAdolplius, baron de Cot-
ter, PruDian minifter of Hate; and Li-ymann, a librarian, or
bookfeller, of Vienna, all in folio, and llie two latter, alfo
after Auerbach. A pair of ancient temples, in large folio, de-
corated with Itatues and tropliies, after Jofeph Galli Bibiena.

But their moil diiiinguilhed work is three folio plates,
from Rubens's hfe of Decius, in the galk-ry of the prince
of Lichtenftein.

Jacques Schmutzer was the fon of Andrea, and had the
misfortune to lofe his father when he was feventeen years of
age. By what further mi.sfortune he came now to be fo very
poor as to be employed partly as a butcher and partly as a
fhephrrd is not known, but he was employed to watch fhecp,
fometimes in the field-, 'cut more frequently when penned
up for ilaughter. The public drawing-fchool, however,
was in the neighbourhoood of the (heep-pcnn;;, and his love
for art often induced him to confide his flock to fome indo-
lent comrade, whilil lie ftole away to draw with the ftudents
of tlie academy.

The celebrated medalift Matthew Donncr, apprized of
the fecircumftance.';, took fome notice of the lad, and invited him
home, but by fome new accident or impuifc, he now began
to iludy architeclurc ; which pnrfuit he did not afterwards
renounce for the arts of defign. He was employed for three
years as an architect in Hungary, during which time he de-
ilgned and painted and engraved hillorieal fubjefts at bis
leilure liours, and on his return to Vienna, continued occa-
iionally to praftiee architefture.

He had now the good fortune to become known to the
baron de Kettler, a great patron and proteftor of art
andartills, who, charmed witii his eflays in engraving, foli-
cited the prince Kaunilz, and tlie emprefs queen, to fend the
young Schmutzer to Paris ; his felicitations were attended
to, and our young engraver was placed under the guidance
of AViUe ; here he perfedled himfelf in the art, and in the
courfe of the four years he remained in that celebrated me-
tropolis, learned to ufe the graver with mafterly intelli-
gence.

He was now recalled to Vienna, with high rank in his pro-
feffion, and was named by Maria Therefa a Director of the

academy.

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

academy. He fiiperintcndcd the education of a great num-
ber of fludents in his mature age, and at the clofe of the lail
century, was as great at Vienna, as Wille in Paris.

The beft of Schmutzer"s engra\-ings are the portraits of
Don Emanuel, of the illuftrious family of Defva'ls, and
.Tofeph von Sonnenfels, both fmall ; Martin de Mi-ytens,
the celebrated painter, after a picture by himfclf, dated
1756; C. G. E. Deiti-icr, another celebrated arlill, after
the fame, dated 1765 ; Jofeph Wenccflaus, prince of
Lichtenfteiii, aiter V. I'anti ; the ennpefor Francis I., after
von Liotard, dated 1769; the companion to which ib tlie
einprefs Maria Thercla ; and two portraits of prince Kau-
nitz, one after J. Steiner, and the other aftrr Hagenauer,
dited 1786, in a circle; a much eftecmed and rare piece
of engraving.

The ahovi' are all in fulio. We now jiroceed to fcleft
frem hj« hiilorical engravings, " Uiyiies difcovering Ally.
anax and Andromache,'' after the prince of Saxe Tefchen,
dedicated to n;ail,ime the archduchefs ; " Mutius Scjvola
before Porfeiina," tronr a picture by Rubens in the cabinet
of th? prince KauuUz, dated 177H ; " St. Gregory re-
fufing to admit the emperor Theodolius into the Church,"
after the fame mailer, both plates in folio, and of learned ex-
ecution ; " Venus riling from the Sea,'' from a pifture by
Rubens, in the gallery of count Schoenborn at Vienna, beau-
tifully finiflied, and four large and interefting landfcape views
at Neuwaldeck and Dornbath, in which occurs the tomb of
Roufleau, and the ftatues of the Gladiator and the god Mars.

George Frederic Schmidt was born at Berlin A. D. 1712,
and died in the fame city in 177J. Schmidt was deilined by
Fortune to be a tradefman, but the voice of Talle, (fays
Huber,) proclaimed him an artifl. His pcrfeverance, after
various llruggles, at length, furmounted the obftacles that
oppofed themfelves to the gratilication of his natural pro-
penfities, and he was admitted a Undent in the fchool of
George Patcl Bufch at Berlin, from whence his ambition,
rather than his purfe, in the year 1736, carried him to Paris,
■where he frequented the fchool of Nicholas de Larmeflin, who
honeftly and earneftly feconded the profefTional wiihcs of
Schmidt, by imparting to his dii^'iple all that it was pofllble
to communicate of his knowledge of the art of engraving.

In the year 1742 he was admitted a member of the
French academy of Arts, although (which at that time was
an important exception) he was of the Proteltant religion.
At this time Schmidt, Priefler, and Wille (of whom the
reader will find an account under FiSENCit School of Engra-
vers) were diilinguidied at Paris by their fuperior merit in
engraving, and were bound together by the tics of friend-
fhip, while ;here reigned between tliem a noble profelhonal
emulation. Schmidt had recommended hinifelf to the friendly
regard of the celebrated Rigaud by the very fine portrait of
P. Mignard, which he engraved for his reception into the
Royal Academy, and Rigaud contributed to his fpreading re-
putation, by feeking and obtaining for him fuch engage-
ments as were analogous to his wilhes and talents.

lu two years, however, or a little more, he was fum-
moned to Berlin, and nominated engraver royal, and in the
year 1757 he was fent for to Pelerfburg by the emprefs
Elizabeth, to engrave her portrait, which he executed (with
many others, while he remained in Ruifia) to the great fatis-
faftion, not only of the connoiflcurs of the court, but of
the beft judges throughout the Ruffian empire.

On his return to Berlin, in 1762, he began to diftinguifli
hinifelf in a new career of engraving, by etching in a piftu-
refquc ftyle after the works of Rembrandt, in which he
imitated Rembrandt's own mode of exeeution, but generally
fcit-in his plates to deeper tone*.

The engravings of Schmidt amount in number to nearly

two-hundred, beiide I he vignettes which he did for the works
of the king of Pruflia. Count Craven publiilied a cata-
logue raifonnce of the whole, from which we have thouglit the
following moll worthy of feleclion, as fpecimensof the varr-
ous powers of o;i'-artill.

Parlrails perfjimal rhlffy •u.'Uh the Gravfr, r.nd of foUo di-

mrifioiu CouHaiitine Scarlatli, prince of Moldavia, a rare

and fme print, dated 1738; Charles Gabriel dc Tubiercs
dc Caylus, bidiop of Auxerre, after Fontaine ; I.onis de
la Tour d'Auvergiic comte d'Evreux, after H. Rigaud,
dated 1742; .loh.innes Rajitilla Rolfeau, after J. Aved,
dated 1740; Chriile.-, de St. Alvin, archbifi.op of Cambray,
after H. Rigaud, dated 1742; Maurice Quinten de la
Tour, from a picture by himfelf, dated 1742; Jean Bap-
tise Sllva, a celebrit. d phyfician, after Rigaud, dated
174- ; Pierre Migiiard, firft painter to the French king,
after his friend Hyaciathe Rigaud, engraved in 1 744, for
Schmidt's reception into the academy, a piece regarded by
connoilfeuis as a chef d'ouvre of the mailers, and the flefh
of which is engraved in a ityle fo foft and mellow, that it
has been emphatically laid to be rather painted than en-
graved. The four lull are in large folio.

Afler his return from Paris to his native city, Schmidt
engraved the portraits of Antony Pefnc, firft pa'inter to the
king of Pruflia, and Samuel Baro liber de Cocceii, both ia
tolio, dated 1751 and 1752, and reckoned among the bell
portraits from the graver of Schmidt.

Johannes Theodore Eller, aulic-counfellor, &c. after
Pefne ; and Louis Albertene de Brandt barcm de Grapen-
dorf, after le Sueur, are a very rare and beautiful pair of
portraits of the folio fize.

Among the bell portraits which our artiil engraved at
Peterfhurg, are ihofe of Michel de Woronzow, count of
the Holy Roman empire, and Nicholas Ellerhazv de Ga-
lantha, both in large folio, after L. Tocque, aiid dated
1758 ; Pierre Comte de Schuallow, grand-maftcr of thir
PrufTian artillery, from the life, and dated 1760; the em-
prefs Ellzabetli of Ruflla, a whole length figure, with ac-
companiments of the imperial colhmie, after 1„ Tocque,
which Huber calls a fuperb print, more efpecially for tlie
execution of the accelTory parts, it is dated in 1758 ; cour>t
Cyrillus de Rafumowlky, after L. Tocque, and Jacobus
Mounfey, from a piclure by Schmidt himfelf, dated 176a,
are rare and beautiful, and M. de Katt, field marflial and
miniller of Hate to the king of Pruffia ; the lall portrait
from the graver of Schmidt, the head in which is by liim-
felf, but the reft finilhed by Bergere the elder.

Among his hiftorical iuid fancy works, may be diftin-
guilhcd a pair of "The fair Greek,"' and " The amorous
Turk,'' the two firft plates which Schmidt engraved under
Larmeffin at Paris ; " Tabagee Flamaode," &c. in folio,
after Oftade, engraved in a ilyle refembling that of VilT-
cher, and dated 1757 ; " The Virgin Mary fitting with the
Infants Chrill and St. John," after Vandyke, dated 1773 I
" The Virgin at Prayers," after S. Ferrata ; " The Prefen.
tation in the Temple,' afler Pietro Tefta, for the Imperial
gallery at Peterlhnrg ; " Alexander and Philip the Phyli-
cran,'' alter Annib.d Carraeci, engraved in imitation of
the hiftorical ftyle of Gerard Audran, a: Berlin 1769, artd
•' Timocles juftified by Alexarder," tompaninn to the
above, and after the fame painter, both in large folio.

In imitation of the Tnfle uf Rembrandt. — A half length of
a bearded old man with a feathered bonnet, defigned by the
engraver, and an old woman in profile, after Rembrandt,
companion to the above ; bull of an Oriental in the ftyle of
CalliglitJnej dated 1750; bull of a young man in a Rem-

iraodt

GERMAN SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.

brandt head-drefs ; an old man habited as a Pcrfian, after Mufe of Harmony ; all in folio, and after his firft matter,

Rembrandt ; portrait of a young female, and portrait of a Amiconi.

voun-r fiffncur, from the fame maftcr ; the Je\vi(h bride, Among the mofl cftccmed of his hiftorical works are,

and the father of the Jewilli bride, botli after Rembrandt, " The Infant Chrift afleep in a Landfcape," a beautiful

and from tlie collection of the count dc Kamki ; the profiles print. " The Education of the Virgin." ^' The Prophet

of Salimbeni, and count Algarotti ; the portrait of the en- Tirefias," infcribed "Tirefias triplex modo vix modo fcem.ina

jrravcr hinifclf, infcribed " Georg Fridrick Schmidt ; Ko- vates ;" all of the foho fize, and after Amiconi. "The

uigll Preuff. Hof. Kupfertecher Mitghid der Maler Aca- Holy Family," elevated on a pedeftal, at the foot of which

deinien /ii Berlin i Paris," dated 1752. arc other faints, after Paolo Veronefe. "The Interview

His heft hiilorical works, in the taile of Rembrandt, of Jacob and Rachel," after Lucca Giordano, engraved

are, •' Jefus Chrill prefented to the People, and bufFetted
by the Soldiers," after Rembrandt, dated 1756. "The
Refufcitation of the Daughter of Jairus," after
Rembrandt, with a very fine chiarofcuro, dated 1767.
" The prefontation in the Temple," after Dietrich, com-
panion to the above. " The Philofopher in his Grot,"

for the Drefden gallery. " Rebecca receiving the Pre-
fents," after the fame mafter, and for the fame work.
" The Death of Abel," after B. Luti, in large folio. " St.
Mary Magdalen," from the fame mafter, and of the fame
dimenfions. " The Virgin and Infant Chrill,'' after Soli-
mena. " The AflTumption of the Virgin Mary," after

by fome call-d Anchifes taking refuge in his grotto during Piazetta. " St. John in the Defart," after Carlo Vanloo ;
the fack of Troy, in the back-ground of which is a city in all in large folio.

flames, after Rembrandt, and dated 1768. " The Repent-
ance of St. Peter," after F. Bol. " Lot and his Daughters,"
after Rembrandt, from a picture in the poflefTion of prince
Henry of PruiTi.i, to whom the print is dedicated, and
the funeral monument of Sir Andrew Mitchell, kniglit of the
Bath, and ambaCfidor from the king of Great Britain, who
died at Berlin in 1771 ; the two lafl are of folio dimen-
fions.

Jofeph Wagner was born A. D. 1706, at Thalendorf, on
the lake of Conftance, and died at Venice fome time about
the year 1780. He learned the art of dellgn under J.
Amiconi, whom he accompanied to England and to Italy,
and, obedient to the advice of this mailer, he afterv,-ards
travelled to Paris, and ftudied engraving with very con-
fiderable fuccefs under Laurent Cars. In the year 1756
he fettled at Venice ; began to pubhlh there the engravings

A fct of large landfcapes, ornamented v.-ith Italian pafto-
ral figures, after Zucarelli, and executed with much tafte,
are by Wagner, in conjundlion with Bartolozzi.

GEnM.vx School of Miific. Though the language and
national ftyle of finging in Germany arc n-.uch inferior to
thofe of Italy, the inllrnmental mufic of that country is
indifputably the firft in the world. It is true that the violin
is infinitely obliged to Corelli, Gemiiiiani, Samis, Tartini,
and Boccherini ; but for fymphonics, and the union of
wind-lnftruments with thofe of the bow, the Italians have
nothing at prefent, equal to the full pieces of the elder
Stamitz, Vanhal, Haydn, and Mozart ; nor on keyed-inflru-
ments have they any compofitions equal to thofe of Emanuel
Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and fevcral other great clavecinidcs.
And though the bcft German fingers are, in general, in-
ferior to Xhe pta-ma, or ftreet fingers of Italy ; yet Ger-

of himfelf and pupils, and finally eftablifted a beneficial many has, now and then, furni(hed a vocal performer equal

commerce with feveral parts of Europe. Among his
difciples were Flipart, Berardi, and, above all, Bartolozzi,
whofe talents have done honour to his mafter, to himfelf, to
Italy, and to England, and who Hill lives engraving in Portu-
gal amid the din of arms.

to the beft of Italy : fuch as Raaf, the Mingotti, theTaibcr,
the Tofi, Mara, &c.

M. Suard, ci-devant member de I'Academie Francoife,
an extremely fevere and faftidious critic of the dramatic
mufic of Italy, and a determined Gluckift, begins a

The ftyle of Wagner's engraving is particularly eafy and long article in the Encyclopedic Methodique an the hiftory
engaging, and is in fine art, what in manners we term of mufic in Germany ; but though the article confifts
amiable. It is built on the firm foundation of found draw- of twelve quarto pages, only four or five of them are be-
ing ; and partakes highly of the merits of Gerard Audran ftowed on German mufic in general, before the author
and Giacomo Fi\:y. Like them he harm.onioufly mingled haftcns to his hero Gluck, whofe fife he gives, and an ample
etching with the work of the graver and dry needle, and, lift of his works, fince he quitted the Italian ftyle of corn-
like them, he evinced a high feeling of the merits of thofe pofition for that of France. All this is minutely and ably

mafters after whom it was his fortune to engrave.

The elements of his ftyle are, vigour tempered with
mildnefs and fuavity ; hence he is delicately bold, and,
without the leall appearance of labour, produces, in his beft:
works, an effeft of finiftiing, v.hich others labour after in
■rain, and which is more particularly obfervable and
•appropriate in infantile fubjefts, or where he has to touch
the imagination with indefinite grace. In his figures of the
Infant Saviour and St. John, where the charaftcrs in his
original allowed him to be fo, he is, indeed, the Fiamingo
cf his art ; though if living artifts had found a place in our
Cyclopaedia, that honour muft rather have been awarded to
the moft diftinguiftied of his pupils.

Wagner's firft attempts in engraving are faid to have

done, and would be fatisfadlory to all mufical readers, if the
author's zeal for Gluck, and his ftyle were not f.vclujive, and
his cenfures fo fevere, of all that has been admired in Italy,
both in compofition and performance, by all the reft of
Europe, except France. No vocal compofitions but thofe
of Gluck efeape condemnation. IMetaftafio's dramas are
not written to his mind. The compofers are too florid,
and the finging too important.

If M. Suard had confeffed that the ftyle of finging in
France was bad, and tliat its native public fingers were
unable to execute fuch fongs as the great Italian mafters have
compofed ; and therefore that it was moft prudent to have
as little finging as poffible ; the airs very ftiort and fimple
no introduftory fyniphonies, or ritornels to impede the

been the portraits of the Englifh princeflcs Anne, Amelia, progrefs of the drama ; to fet the poet above the compofer

and Caroline, daughters of George II. Of his other por
traits, the moft remarkable are, a pair in folio, whole length
figures of theemprefs Anne of Ruffia, and Peter the Great,
condufted by Minerva. The emprefs Elizabeth Pctrowna,
-with a Ruffiap inr<;ription, and Farinelli crowned by the

and the adlor above the finger : with thefe conceftions all
Europe would have admitted his reafoning to be juft ; but
when M. Suard infifts on all Europe implicitlv following the
French model in mufical dramas ; that where great opera com-
pofers and refined fingers abound, they arc not to be em-
ployed,

G E R

ployed, but that the mclo-drania, to r'ndcr it interefting,
(liou'd never admit an nir fupcrior to an elegant br.llad, is
what lovers of dr?.m;\tio nndic, and judges of good cora-
pofition and good finging, will never fubfcribe to.

But though M. Suard is fo determined a foe to all
opera mufic but that of Gluck, and finging, except that of
the natives of his own country, when he fpeaks of the inftru-
mcntal mufic of Germany, he is very juft, and celebrates
the fchools of Vienna, Coblent/,, Manheiin, Munich, and
Stutgard ; which have produced the Stamitzes, the Touchis,
Canabichs, Schrceters, Haydns, and innumerable other
fymphonifts, whofo compoiitions are known to all lovers of
mufic. All thefe different fyuiphouills (fays with great
truth M. Suai-d) have a peculiar charafter and flyle of their
own ; yet, coitinues he, " it mud be allc«vcd that all give
^*ay to the inexhauftible Haydn for invention and ongiuality.
He unites all the refources of fcicnce to the charms of good
tafte : he is noble and gay, full of grace and foixe ; fimple
wiih iniinite variety ; and unites to movements the moft
fweet and captivating in melody, the grcatell orcheftral
effefts."

This character is written with fuch truth, inteUigence,
and feeling, that we forgive tly; elegant and refined v.ritcr
much of his bigotry for Gluck, and intolerance for all dra-
matic raufic, except that of France.

No praife is too ftrong for the infirumcntal mufic of
GermaiL^in general by the compofers fo juftly celebrated
by M. Suard ; but when to thefe we join Emanuel Bach,
and the admirable Mozart, and his fcholar Beethoven, it
feems as if inftrumental mufic, at lead, was arrived at its
acme of perfection. This extenfive empire has likewife
produced mailers who have even equalled the moft eminent
Italian dramatic compofers of tl.e laft century ; fuch as
Handel, Hafie, Graun, J. C Bach, Miftewecce, Gh'.ck,
Naumann, &c , without mentioning the operas, oratories,
and maflTes of Haydn, and the dramatic mufic of Mozart,
perhaps the bell of its kind. So that Germany may be
faid frequently to vie with Italy itfelf in its own bed i'yle
of compofition.

German, in Geography, a townfiiip of Am.erica, in
Fayette county, Pennfylvania ; containing 1 835 inhabit-
ants.

German Flirts, the chief and pod-town of Herkemcr
county, in the date of New York, fituated on the N. fide
of Mohawk river, oppofite to Herkeiner, and 24 miles E.
•f Whitedown ; and containing 1637 inhabitants.

German Town, a town of New York, in Columbia
county, containing 516 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of Phi-
ladelphia county, in the date of Pennfylvania, feven miles
N. of the city of Philadelphia. It is a corporation, con-
fiding chiefly of High and Low Dutch, and contains about
350 houfes, chiefly of done, fome of which are large and
elegant, forming one dreet about two miles in length. The
public buildings are a Prcftiytcrian, Goniian-Calvinid and
Lutheran church, a Friends' meeting-houfe, and an aca-
demy. Here is a confidcrable manufafture cf dockings,
made of cotton, thread, and worded. This is an ancient
town, pleafantly fituated, and by its vicinity to the metro-
polis, Well adapted for manufaclures. The principal con-
gregation of the Mennonitts, and the parent of that fedl in
Aftierica, fubfids in this place. A fevcre battle was fought
here between the Englifh and Amei-icans in Oftobcr 1777.
•; — Alfo, a pod-town, and capital of Stokes county, N. Ca-
rolina, fituated near the town fork of Dan river, and con-
taining a court -houfe, gaol, and about 30 lioufcs ; 528 miles
S.W. by S. of Philadelphia. — Alfo, the chief town of Hyde
county, in Newbern didrict, N. Carolina.-^Alfo, a town of

G E R

Bracken county, in Kentucky, containing ? i inliabitants
— .'Vlfo, a town of the date of New Jerfey ; 17 milts
W.S.W. of Morridown.

GERMANDER, in Botany. See TF.rrniuM.

Guit.MANDER, in the Materia Mcdka. The comm'.n

5cr

mander, fucnum chamidrys, chamttdrys minor repent, 13 a
native of England, and flowers in June and July. The
leaves and tops have a moderately bitter ta!le, accompanied
with a weak aromatic flavour, diminiflicd by drying the'plant.
They give out their virtues both to watery and fpirituou*
mcnilrua. The cham.cedrys has been chiefly eftcemed in the
charailer of a mild aperient and corroborant ; it is recom-
mended in uterine obdruflions, intermitting fevers, and in
the rheumatifm and gout. The good effcfts of the cha-
ma;drys in the latter diforder are recorded by different
authors who have employed it in various forms and com.bi-
nations, of which the celebrated antiarihritic, or Portland
powder, is an indance. According to Murray the virtues
of this plant fhould be nearly allied to thofc of Marrubium ;
and therefore it promifes to be ufeful in adhmatic affcdlions,
coughs, and infarfiions of the lungs. Thefe virtues, how-
ever, are fomcu'hat problematical.

The Mdnim germander, or Syrian herb maflich, In/erittm
marum, flowers from July till Septem.ber. It is a native of
Spain, and is firid to grow plentifully alfo in Greece, Egypt,
Crete, and Syria. It v»as firit cultivated in England by
Parkinfon in 1640, and is now to be found in many o' our
gardens. The leaves and you"ger branches of w^rum, when
recent, emit, on being rubbed between the finrers, a vola-
tile aromatic fmell, which excites fneezing, but to the tafte
they are bitterith, with a fenfation cf heat and acrimony.
According to Lewis (Mat. Med.) it lofes but little of its
pungency by being dried ; and gives out its aclive matter par-
tially to water, and completely to reftifiedfpirit. Diftilled
with the former, it yields a higiily pungent, fubtile, volatile,
effential oil, fimilar to that of fcurvy-grafs, but ftronger
and of lefs perifhable pungency. Reftified fpirit carried
off, in the infpifTation of the fpirituous tinfturc, a confi-
dcrable fliare of the fmell and pungency of th.e marum, but
leaves much the greateft part cy.icentrated in the extra£l ;
v.-hich, on being taded, fills the month, with a durable, pe-
netrating, glowing warmth. WedeUi:s ftrongly recommends
tiiis plant as an important remedy in many difcafes requiring
medicines of a ilim.ulant, aromatic, and deobdrucnt quality j
and inftances of its efficacious ufe have been adduced by
Linnaeus, Rofendein, and Bergius. At prefent, however,
marum is here chiefly ufed as an errhine, and is an ingredient
in the " pulvis atari compo":tus" cf the London Pharma-
copoeia. The dofe of ilie powdered leaves is from a fcruple
to half a dram, which ^Iurray ad^^fes to be given in
wine.

The tualer germander, teucr'ium fcordium, is a native of
England, in majrfliy fituations, and flowers in .July and Au-
gud. The leaves oi fcordium have a fmell refombling that
of garhck, whence its nam.e ; and to the talle they are bit-
teriih, and dightly pungent, ^\^lcn moderately and newlr
dried, they give out, fays Lewis, (Mat. Med.) their fmell
and tafte both to water and to rcilified fpirit. In dliiillation
their peculiar flavour arifes with water, but th.o imprcgra-
tion of the didilled fluid is not drong, nor could any eflen-
tial oil be obtained on fubmitting to the operation fveral
pounds of the herb. The ancients attributed to_/?or(/«/w a
peculiar antifcptic and alexipharmic power, and it had for
ma'-;y ages the character of being remarkably efficacious in
all pedilential and putrid difeafes. With this view it entered
into the compofition of feveral officinal medicines, that were
fuppofcd to be antidotes to -•aricus kinds of poii'ons and in-
fections

G E R

foAions. But, notvrithftanding this celebrity, it appears to
be a very inlignificant article oi the Materia Mcdica, and is
tliercfoie very juitly fallen into difufe. Bcrgius, however,
ftates its virtue to he *' antiiiutrcdinofa. tonica, diaphore-
tica, diuretica, refolvcns ;" and fome others recommend it
to be cmjiloyed externally in antifeptic eataplafms and fomen-
tations. Woodville Mat. Bot.

Gkhmandkr, Rock. See Vkuosica.
GERMANE A, in Botany, named by Lamarck after
Moiif. de Saint-Germain, a great admirer and cultivator of
plants, Lamarck Dift. v. 2. 690. Illuflr. t. 514. JnlT. 116.
449. See Pi.KCTKANTHUs, which latter appellation, given
by L'Hcritier, who was partial neither to M. de Saint-Ger-
main nor his admirers, has been univerfally adopted.

GERMANIA, in Gro^^yaphy, a poll -town of Culpepper
county, in Virginia ; 82 miles from Wadiington.

GERMANICIA, mj/icknt Gi-ogmpby, a town of Afia,
fituated on a plain between nioiuit Taiirns and mount
Amanus, on the bank of a fuiall river which ran into the
Pvranuis, W. of the town.

'GERMANICOPOLLS, a town of Bithynia, near the
Propontide, called by Pliny Htlgasand Boos-Cxte — Alfo,
a town of Paphlagonia, called Gtingra. — Alfo, a town of
Ifauria.

GERMANICUS, C.T,.<:An, in Biography, grand-nephew
of Auguftus, nephew of Tiberius, and grandfon of Livia.
When Augudus adopted Tiberius, he obliged him to adopt
Germanicus, who thus, according to the Roman law, flood
in the filial relation to them both. Germanicus married
Agrippina, grand-daughter of Auguftus, a lady not more
illuririous for her rank than her virtues, and he himfelf grew
up in the general affeftion of the public, ou account of the
excellence of his temper, and the mildnefs of his difpofi-
tion, and was denominated the " delight of the Roman
people.'' Germanicus was very learned and eloquent, and,
at an early age, he became illullrious in warfare, and was
raifed to the moil important offices of the Hate. When
.Aug.iftus died, he was engaged in a war in Germany, and
the affeftion of the foldiers unanimoufly faluted him emperor.
He refufed the honour, and then appeafed the tumult which
his indifference to the rank had occafioned. He continued
his exploits in Germany, and defeated the celebrated Ar-
minius, and upon his return was rewarded with a triumph.
The Germans fought with the greateft bravery, but were at
length obliged to yield to fuperior difcipline and generalfliip.
The concluding battle was attended with great ilaughter to
the Germans, and gave the Roman commander oceaiion to
raife a trophy with this infcription, " The nations between
the Rhine and the Elbe fubdued by the army ol Tiberius
Caefar;" but this fubjugation was only a temporary cclfa-
tion of the conteft, and, upon fome difafter experienced by
the Romans from the elements, the Germans renewed their
attack, which afforded Germanicus an opportunity of ac-
quiring new laurels, and he expected to have made an entire
conqueft of Germany, but the emperor, jealous of his
fuccefTes, recalled him, with m^any compliments upon his
paft conduft, and the profpeft »f a fecond coniulate. On
his return he was honoured uith another triumph, which v>'as
celebrated with extraordinary m.agnificcnce. That part of
the fpeftacle which was moil afTeCtirg to the Roman people,
was the chariot of the viftor, filled with his three fons and
two daughters. Germanicus was foon fent into the Eait to
quell fome diilurbances there : the powers entruiled to him
on this occafion were very extenfive, but the fi Ipicious
Tiberius had placed Pifo as a fpy and check on the
illuftrious general. Germanicus entered upon his fecond
•onfulfhip, having the emperor for his colleague : he vil'ited

G E R

Athens, and was received in that city with all the adulation
ufually praftifed by the inhabitants. He then failed t»
Eubcca and Lefbos, thence he touched upon Thrace, and
croffing into Afia, viewed the ruins of Troy, and confultcd
the oracle at Colophon. Pifo liailily followed liim, and
after terrifying the Athenians with a fevere harangue, and
throwing out inliuuations againft Germanicus, embarked for
Rhodes, where he would have penfned Iiad he not have been
faved by the humane afiillaoce of the prince, whom he over-
took tiiere. Germanicus now proceeded to execute his
commifHon. He placed the croun on the head of Zeno,
fon of the king of Pontus, an ally of the Romans. He
then reduced Cappadocia and other places to the Hate or
Roman provinces, and in the enfuing year he made a pvo-
grefs into Egypt, and viewed every thing that was deferv-
ing of notice in the country, at the fame tim.e opening the
public granaries to tlie people, who were fuflering under a
fcarcity. Upon his return from Egypt to Syria, he found
that Pifo had abrogated every regulation which he had
eftabliflied among- tlie legions, and in the cities, and his
indignation at tliis behaviour widened the breach between
them. At this time Germanicus was attacked with a
difeafe which afterwards proved fatal, and whicli was im-
puted to the effefts of poilon, but fome of our beft hiflori-
ans, having impartially examined the collateral fafts, do not
think the evidence fuiiicient to juflify the affertion. Ger-
manicus himfelf had no doubt that he was the vittim of tJia
malignity of Pifo, and, in his laft moments, conjured h's
friends to profecute with the utmoft vigour the authors of
his death. He died at Epidapline, near Antiocli, in the
year 19, in tlie tliirty-fourth year of his age. His death
was the fubjeft of univerfal lamentation at Rome. Every
other concern was forgotten, and the people, without wait-
ing for an order from the magiilrates, forfook the forum,
(hut up their houfes, and affunied every token of univerfal
forrow. A profufion of honours was decreed to his me-
mory, and even foreign princes ajul nations joined their
tefUmonies of efleem and regret. He had been highly
eftcemed not only for his military accomplifhments, but alio
for his learning, humanity, and extenfive benevolence. In
the midfl of war he devoted fome moments to ftudy, and hff
favoured the world with two Greek comedies, fome epi-
grams, and a tranilation of Aratus in Latin verfe. Taci-
tus, Suetonius, and Univer. Hift.

GERMANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in La-
vora, containing four pariflies, four convents, and about
800 perfons. Near this place are the ruins of " CaiTinum,"
dellroyed by Tlieodoric, king of tlie Goths The town is
lituated 43 miles N. N. W. of Naples. N. lat. 41' 33'.
E.long. 13"^ 45'. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Urbino ;
13 miles E. N. E. of Urbino. — Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of th.e Sefia, late in the lordHiip of Vercelli ;

four miles E. of St.Ja Alfo, a town on the W. coart of

the ifland of Porto Rico. N lat. 18 20'. W. long. 67^
40'.

GERMANS, fo called from the name of their country,
in Ecclrjinjlkal Hi/lory, one of the fedts of rigid anabaptills
into which the Flcmingians were divided ; the other two
being denominated Elandrians and Frieflanders. See Fle-

MlNGIAN.S.

Geiim ans, St. or Germa'itis, in Geography, a borough town
of Cornwall, England, was, during the Anglo-Saxon era, a
bilhop's fee. In 981, the Cornidi bilhop removed liis fee
from iiodmin to this place ; but bifhop Levinus tranflated
it to Crediton, in Devonihirc, in 1049. King Athelllan
founded a priory for fecular canons here ; to which tlic
cathedral buildings were annexed. Of thefe nothing remains

8 but

G E R

tut the church, which is a curious and interefting fpecimeii
of ancient architefture. It confills of a nave, two ailles, and
two towers at tl>.e weftem end. Between tlie latter is a
large entrance door-way, with a femi-circular arcli, con-
jifting of feveral ornamented mouldings. Contiguous to the
church is Port-Eliot, the feat ot lord Eliot. St. Germans,
as a borough, fends two members to parliament, both of
whom are nominated and influenced by lord Eliot. A fmall
market is held here weekly ; and two fairs annupjly. The
living is a curacy in the gift of the dean and canons of
Windfor. The Rev. John Whitaker, author of " The
Hiftory of Mancheller,'' &c. has publilhed two volume.^,
quarto, entitled " The ancient Cathedral of Cornwall,
liiftoricallv furveyed.'' This work contains many curious
particulars rcfpefting St. Germans ; but the greater part is
occupied by theoretical differtations.

GERjVIANUS I. in Biography, was patriarch of Con-
ftantinople in the beginning of the eighth century. His
father was bafely murdered by the emperor Conftantine
PagonatUF, and himfelf, by the fame authority, was deprived
of his manhood. In 715, lie was appointed to the bifhopric
of Cyzicum, and from that honour he was traBflated to the
patriarchate of Conilantinople. He was the chief oppofer of
the emperor Leo, when he iflued his edidl for prohibiting
the worfliip of images ; during four years the emperor bore
with patience all the refiltance made to his decree, till at
le igth the people, irritated by his difcourfe, broke out in afts
ot rebellion ; to quell theie, Leo aifemblcd a council at
Conilantinople in 730, by which the patriarch was degraded
from his dignity, but permitted to retire to his paternal feat,
where he fpent the remainder of his days in peace and quiet-
iiefs. He died in 740, and was immediately elevated as a
faint in the Greek and Latin churches, on account of his
zeal and fuffcrings in defence of image worfliip. He was
author of feveral treatifes ; one, entitled " De fe.x Synodis
Oecumenicis," &c. has gone through many editions, but
that by Le Moyne in his " Varia Sacra,"' in 16S5, is by
much the bed. He wrote " An Apology for Si. Gregory
Nyflen, in oppofition to thofe who accufcd him of falling
■into the errors of Origen ;" and divers others mifcellancous
pieces which are inferted in the Colledl;. Concil. and in the
J3iblioth. Patr. Moreri.

GerM-\nus II. was patriarch of Conilantinople in the
thirteenth century, to which honour he was appointed about
the year 1222. In 1233, he held a fynod at the city of
Nice, where he had lixed the patriarchcd refideuce. He
was, OB account of feme mifunderftanding, depofed from
his dignity in the year J 240, but rellored again jull before
his deatli, which happened in 1254. He was author of a
work intended to ilUiftrate the liturgy, and entitled " Re-
rura Ecclefiallicarum Thcoria," and of numerous homilies,
orations, fermons, epilUes, decrees, &c.— There v. as a third
Germanus, who was tranflated to the patriarclrate of Con-
ilantinople, from the fee of Adrianople in the year 1267,
but who religned his dignity within a few months after his
eleftion. Moreri.

GERMANY, in Geography, an extenfive country of Eu-
rope, fituated between 45 4 and 54- 40' N hit. and between
6° 30' and 19° 52' E. long, comprifes chiefly the prelent
empire of Aullria, except Hungary, the greateft part of the
Pruihau dominions, a part of Pomerania belonging to Swe-
den, the duchy of Holilein, belonging to Denmark, forae
parts of Holland, fome of the French departments on the
Rhine, and all the ilates of tiie new confederacy of the
Rhine, with the formation of whicli it loll its exillcnce as
an empire.

VoL.XVL

G E R

In ancient tiny?« Germany was inhabited hy 'arioui
nations, which, the Romans, v.-ith whom they waged war for
fome centuries, conudered as Gauls. Of thtfe th,- Helvetii,
Boji, Teftofagi, and Gothi (fee Goths, &c. ), and
tlie Teutones, who dwelt in the Sinus Godanus near the
Cimbri, were among the firft that eroded the Rhine, and
applied to themfelvcs the name of Germani, probably from
the Teutonic word Geier or Cuer, a fword, aflferting, as it
were, their quality of warriors. The word Guerra, Guerrr
in the Italian and French, which is not of Latin origin,
appears to confirm this etymology. (Seethe hiftory of the
ancient Germans in the fitjuel of this article.) It is ah™
from the Teutones that, in the German language, the country
is called Tfutfchland, and latterly Deutfchland. (See Tei=-
TONES.) The French gave it the name oi Alhmagneirovn thr
Akmanni, one of the German nations. (See ALK.\fANNl.)
In the middle age the northern and north-eallern regions of
Germany got an acceffion of population from the VandaJj
and Sla\onian3 ; and towards the end of the feventeentli
century, fome parts of Germany received an inconfiderable
increafe of inhabitants, by fome thoufands of French protef-
tant refugees, who left France after the revocation of the
edi<?t of Nantes.

Bufching ftated the extent of Germany at 11,^4 Ger-
man fquare miles, 15 to a degree ; but piofelTor Crome «ji"
Gieflen, including Silefia, Ilates it at 12,796 German fquare
miles, and its circumference at 500 German miles.

Germany is bounded on the north by the river Eider, and
the canal of Holftein, which fcparate it from Dcnn-.aik,
and by the Baltic fea ; on the call by Pruilia, Poland,
Hungary, Slavonia, and Croatia ; on the foath by the gulf
of Venice, Italy, and Switzerland ; and on the weft by the
Rhine and the North fea.

Maxiniihan, grandfather to Charles V., divided Germany
into ten circles, and this divifion was confirmed in the diet
of Nuremberg in 1552 ; but the circle of Burgundy,
which contained the feveuteen provinces of the Lov.- Count rie«,
having been detached from the empire, it latterly coutaincd
only niue circles, ^';z.

I. The C'ti-ck of Aujlr'm, which comprifcd, 1, the arch-
duchy of Aullria proper ; 2, the duchy of Stiria ; 3, the
duchy of Cariiithia ; 4, the duchy of Caniiola ; 5, th?
Auftriau Frioul ; 6, the Littorale, or the territories of
Trieft and Fiume ; 7, the county of Tyrol ; 8, Upper
Auflria ; 9, the bifhopric of Trent ; 10, the bifhopric of
Brixen ; 11, the conmianderies of the Teutonic order is
Auilriii, and on the Etfch ; and 12, the lordlhip Trafp,
belonging to the prince of Dietr;chllci'.i.

II. The Circle of IVtjIphalia, which comprifed, i, the
bifhopric of Muniter ; 2, the biftiopric of Ofnabruck ;
3, die bifhopric of Paderborn ; 4, the bilhopric oi Lii-ge;
5, the abbcv of Corvey ; 6, that of Stablo and Midmedy ;
7, that of Werden; 8, that of Cornelius Munller ; 9, thai
of Efl'en; lo, that of Thorn; II, that of Hcrvorden ;
12, the duchy of Cleves ; 13, the duchy of Julicri ; 14, tfa«
duchy of Berg; 15, the principality of MiJideii ; 16, th«
principahty of Verden ; 17, tiie principality of NUi.iu;
iS, the principality of Eaft Frielland ; 19, the prhicipiJitT
ofMoers; 20, the duchy of Oldenburg j 21, the couuly
of Mark; 22, the county of Raveniberg ; 23, the count/
of Schaueuburg, 24, the county of I>ippe ; 25, the county
of Sternberg, which now belongs to Lippe ; 26, tlie couuly
of Bentheim ; 27, the couuly of Stciufurt ; 28, the coun-
ties of Tccklenburg and Lingen ; 29, the county ol Hoya {
50, the county of Diepholtz ; 31, the county of Wicd ;
^ Cc %i,^'<:

GERMAN Y.

32, the county of Sayn ; 33, that of Rk-tbcri
Bf Pyimont ; 35, that of Gronsfeld i 36, that of

that of Rictbcrg ; 34, that
af Rcckhcim;
5", the county of Anholt ; 3S, that of Holtzapfcl ; 39, that
[,{ Limhurg in the county of Mai k; 40, that of Blanken-
heim and Gerolftein 541, thi; counties of Kerpen and Loiii-
merfum ; 42, that of Schltidcn ; 43, tlie county of Hallcr-
mund; 44, that of Virncnbnrg ; 45, that of SpiCfrc-lberg ;
46, the couHtv of Fagnolk-s or Lignc ; 47, the lordnnps of
Gimborn andNeuIlndt, Winnenburg and Beilllem, Witti-m,
Eyfs and SchU-nackcn, Gehmen, Wickciad, Mylcndonk
and Reichenlum ; 48, the free imperial cities of Cologne,
Aix-hi-ChaucUc, and Dortmund.

III. Tlio Cirru- of the Louur Rl'me, or the eleftoral
circle of the Rhine, which comprifi. d, I, the electorate of
Mayence or Mentz ; 2, the ckclorale of Tre\is; 3, the
electorate of Cologne ; 4, the palatinate of the Rhine ; 5, the
' ■ " ' ' of l^ower Ifcn-

landgraviate of Slvi'ilingen ; 3S, the tandgvavlate ofBaar?
39, tlie county of rruchlefsAValdburg ; 40, the county of
Koenigfcgg ;'4i, that of Eberftein ; 42, that of Fugger ;
43, that of liohen-embs ; 44, that of Hohen-Geroldieck ;
45, the county of Ncipperg ; 46, the county of Bondorf ;
47, the lordlhips of Wicieiilleig, Haufen, Moefkirch, Tett-
nang and Argen, Mindelheirn and tichwabeck, Gundel-
fingen, JulHngcn, Eglof, Thannhaufen, Egglingen ; 48, th»
free imperial cities of Auglburg, Ulm, Eflingen, Rent,
lingen, Nordliugcn, Halle, Ueberlingen, Rotlnveil, Heil-
bronn, Giniiad, Memmingen, Lindau, Dii;)kelft)iihl, Bi-
berach, Ravpnlhurg, Kenipteu, Kaufbeuren, Weil, Wan»
ovn, Yfni, Leutkirch, Winipfen, Giengen, PfuUendorf,
Buchhorn, Aalen, Bopfingen, Bucliau, Offenburg, Gen-
geiibach, ZtU on tke Hammeribach ; 49, the imperial
village of Alochhaufen.

VI. The Cii-ch of Bavaria, which comprifed, j, the arch-

princioalitv of Aremberg ; 6, the county of Lower Ifcn- VI. The Cifck oj Eavana,wh\chcoxn}^T\ic&, i.thearch-
hnrcr-' •7. the bura-wraviate of Reineck j '8, the county or bilhopric of Saltzburg ; 2, the bilhopric of Frey lingen ;

Jordllup'of Beilftein"; 9, the commanderj' of the Teutonic
order Coblence. The prince of I'hurn and Taxis waa a
member of this circle, without having any territorial polTef-
fions in it.

IV. Th.e Circle of the Upper Rhine, which comprifed,
I, the bifhopric of Worms; 2, the bilhopric of Spire;
3, th:it of Stralhourg ; 4, that of Bale or Bafel ; 5, that
ofFulda; 6, the principahty of lieiterflieim ; 7, the abbey
of Prlim ; 8, the abbey of Weifienburg ; 9, that of Oden-
heim; 10, the landgraviate of Hefle ; II, the principality
ofHersfeld; 12, the county of Katzenellenbogcn ; 13, the
county of Hanau-Muntzenberg ; 14, that of Hanau Lich-
tenberg ; 15, the principality of Simniern ; 16, the princi-
pality of Lautern; 17, that of Veldentz ; 18, the princi-
pahty of Deux Fonts ; 19, the county of Sponheim ; 20, the
principality of Salm ; 2 1, the principality of NalTau ; 22, the
principality of Waldeek ; 23, the county of Solms ; 24, the
county of Koenigttein ; 25, the county of Upper Ifenburg;
26, the poflcffions of the Wald or Wild, or Ran Graves and
Rhine Graves, (in Latin, Comites Saltuarii, Foreftarii,
Silveilres and Hirfnti,) counts of Grumbach, Stein, and
Dhaun ; 27, the county of Leiningen ; 28, the county \>'i
Witgenfteiii ; 29, the county of Falkenllein ; 30, that of
Krichin.gcn ; 31; that of Wartenberg ; 32, the lordftiips of
Bretzenheim, Dachllul, and OUbrllck ; 33, the free imperial
cities of Worms, Spire, Frankfort on the Maine, Friedberg,
and Wetzlar ; 34, the imperial borough of Friedberg ;
35, the imperial villages of Miintzfelden, Sultzbach, and
Soden.

V. The Circle of Suabia, which comprifed, 1, the
bilhopric of Conftance ; 2, the bilhopric of Auglburg ;
3, the abbey of Elwangen ; 4, the abbey of Kempten ;
5, .he duchy of Wiriemberg and Teck; 6, the marggraviate
cf Baden ; 7, the principality of Hohenzcllem ; 8, the
abbey of Lindau ; 9, that of Buchau ; 10, the principahty
of Furfcenberg ; 11, the county of Oettingen ; 12, the
principality of Klettgau ; 13, the principality of Liehten-
itein ; 14, that of Friedberg-Scheer ; 15, the abbey of
Salmanfw tiler ; 16, the abbey of Weingarten ; 17, that of
Ochfenhaafen ; 1 8, that of Elchingen ; 19, that of Yrlee ;
20, that of Urfperg ; 21, that of Kayferllieim ; 22, that of
Roggenburg ; 23, that of Roth ; 24, the abbey ofWeiffe-
Kau ; 25, that of SchulTenried ; 26, that of Marchthal ;
■27, the alibey of Peterlhanfen ; 28, the abbey of Wetten-
haufen ; 29, that of Zwiefalten ; 30, that of Gengenbach ;
31, the abbey of Hcggbach; 32, that of Gutenzeil; 33, that
ot Rothmiiniler ; 34, the abbey of Baindt ; 35, that of
Ncrelheim; 36, the somir.andcry of j^lfchhauien ; 37, the

3, the bilhopric of Ralilbcn ; 4, the bilhopric of Paflau ;
5, the principality of Berchtefgaden ; 6, the abbey of Si.
Emmeram in Ratifbon ; 7, and thofc of Lower ; and 8, of
Upper Miinller in the fame place ; 9, the duchy of Bavaria j
10, the Upper Palatinate ; 11, the piincipality of Neuburg j
12, tiie principality of Sultzbach ; 13, the landgraviate of
Leuchtenberg ; 14, the principality of Sternllein ; 15, the
county of Haag ; 16, the county of Ortenburg ; 17, tlic-
lordlhips of Ehreufels, Sulzbnrg, Pyrbaum, Ilohenwaldek
and Breitenek ; 18, the free imperial city of Ratifbon.

VII. The Circle of Francoitia, which comprifed, i, the
billtopric of Bamberg ; 2, the bilhopric of Wiirtzburg f
3, the bifiiupric of Eichftacdt ; 4, the commandery of the
'I'eutonic order of Mergentheim ; 5, the principality of
Culmbach, or Bayreuth ; 6, the principahty of Onolfbachj.
or Anfpach ; 7, the principality of Henncberg; 8» that of
Schwartzenberg ; 9, the principality of Hohenlohe ; io»
the county of Callell ; 11, the county of Wertheim ; 12,
that of Rieneck; 13, that of Erbach ; 14, the lordlhipa-
of Limburg, Seinfhcim, Reichellbcrg, "Wiefentheid, Welz-
heim., and Haufen ; 15, the free imperial cities of Nurem-
berg, Rothenburg, Windlheim, Schweinfurt, and Weiffen-
burg ; 16, the imperial villages of Gochlheim and Senn-
feld.

VIII. T\\c Circle of Upper Sanciiy, which comprifed, r^
the duchy of Pomerania ; 2, the electorate of Branden-
burg ; 3, the electorate of Saxony ; 4, the duchy of Saxe-
Weimar ; 5, the duchy^ of Saxe-Gotha ; 6, that of Saxe-
Cobourg ; 7, that of Saxe-Meinungen ; 8, that of Saxe-
Hildburghaufen ; 9, the abbey of Merfeburg j 10, the
abbey of Naumburg-Zeitz ; 11, the principality of Alten-
burg; 12, the principality of Querfurt ; 13, the princi-
pality of Anhalt ; 14, the abbey of QuedHiiburg ; ij, the
abbey of Walkenried ; 16, the principality of Schwartz-
burg; 17, the county of Mansfeld ; 18, the county of
StoUberg and Wernigerode ; 19, the county of Barby ;.
20, that of Hohnflein ; 21, the principality of Hatzfeld ;
22, the county of Reufs ; 23, the county of Schocn-
burg.

IX. The Circle of Loiver Saxony, which comprifed, 1,
the bilhopric of Hildeiheim ; 2, that of Lvibeck; 3, the
abbey of Gauderfheim ; 4, the duchy of Magdeburg;
5, the principality of Halberlladt ; 6, the duchy of Bre-
men ; 7, the principality of Celle ; 8, the principality of
Grubenhagen ; 9, the principality of Caleiiberg; 10, the
duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg ; 11, the duchy of Wolfen.
bvittel ; 12, tke principality of Blankenburg ; 13, the
duchy of Holfteinj 14, the duchy of Mecklenburg; 15,

GERMANY.

fhe prmc'ipaFity of Scliwerm; !(>, tlie principality of and the Oder, Kinking am«ng the largeft and mofl, noble

Ratzeburg; 17, tlio county of Ranzau ; t8, the free im- rivers of Europe.

perial cities of Liibeck, Goflar, Miihlhaufcii, Nordhaiifon, The number of mineral fprlngs and bathn exceeds one

Hamburg, and Bremen. thoufand ; the moll; famous are Carlihad and Eyra, in Bo-

The following countries, without forming part of any of hf"ila ; Warmbrunn, in Silefia ; Toplitz, in Auitria ; Heil-

the nine circles, were likewlfe confidered as belonging to hronn, in Bavaria ; Wifbaden and Seltzer, in the circle of
the German empire ; v'l^. I , the kingdom of

ngmg
Bohemia ;
2, the marggraviate of Moravia ; 3, the marggraviate of
Upper Lufatia ; 4, that of Lower L\ifatia ; 5, the duchy
of Silefia ; 6, the county of Montbelliard ; 7, the three
circles of the immediate Knights of the Empire, in Suabia,
Franconia, and on ^he Rhine ; 8, the lordfliips of Afch
and WafTerburg, the convent of Schonthal, the burggra-
Tiate of Freudenberg, the barony of Horilgen, the abbey
of Cappenberg, that of Elten, the lordlhip of Rheda, the
abbey of Burfcheid, the lordihip of Jever, the barony of
Knlphaufeu, the lordfliips of Dyk, Mechernich, Schonau,
Wylre, Richold, Stein, Dreyfs, Landllvron, Rhade, Saf-
fenberg, Schaumburg, Oberftein, the county of Homburgh,
and the barony of Schauen. The German empire had
alfo feveral fiefs in Italy.

The climate and temperature of Germany mufl. in gene-
ral be acknowledged to be temperate, yet it Is conliderably
milder In the fouthern than in the northern parts, where the
winter Is fome^imes extremely fevere, and of long duration.
Tlie air, however, is every where fercne and healthy, except
in a few low marlliy places towards the North fea. The
▼ine thrives, and yields excellent wine, In all the fouth-
•weftern parts. The falubrity of the climate may likewife
l>e inferred from the longevity of the iuhabitauts, fonie of
whom arrive to a very great age.

There Is perhaps no country in Europe in which the foil
♦ariei more than In Germany. Sandy plains and barren
heaths predominate In the north -eaft, and fwamps and marflies
in the north-weft : but fome of tlie interior and fouth-
weftern parts have an uncommonly fei-tile foil, and great at-
tention is generally paid to its improvement. The fouth
and the fouth-eaft fide Is the moft mountainous. Bohemia
is feparated from Silefia by the Rleli-n Geburge, or the
Giants' mountains. Towards Hungary are the Carpathian
■mountains ; towards Italy the Alps. In the Interior parts
are the Schwarzwald, (black forelt,) the Rauhe Alb, the
Ertzgeburgc, theFIchtelberg, the Harz, orHercynian foreft,
whofe higheft fummit, the Broeken, is only 3580 feet above
the level of the Mediterranean fea. 1 n ancient times Ger-
many was covered with forefts, chiefly of oak, birch, pine,
fir, larch, and a(h trees. Though they have been confiderably
thinned, and Immenfe tratts of them converted Into tillage,
there are yet fome very large woods, as the Spefiart, the
Schwartzwald, the Hartzwald, and the Thurlngerwald.

The extent of fea-coall on the North fea is not much
above 150 Englilh miles, and oh the Baltic about 500 Eng-
lllh miles. The principal lakes are the Boden fee, or
lake of Conftance, in Swabia, which forms one of the bound-
aries towards Switzerland ; the Chiem fee, in Bavaria ; the
GIrnltzer fee. In Auftrla ; the lakes of Damm, Neuwarp,
Madue, and Wilm, in Pomerania ; thofe of Wcrbellln,
Uckerfee, Parftein, Schwieluch and Ruppin, in Branden-
burg ; the Dammer fee, in the county of Diepholtz, be-

the Upper Rhine ; Freyenwalde, in Brandenburg ; Dobbe-
ran.m Mecklenburg ; Lauchftedt, in Saxony; and Pyrmont,
in Weftphalia.

As almoft all climates, or at lead ail temperatures and
foils, are to be met with in Germany, it abounds in almoft
all produftions of nature and their varieties, and chiefly in
all kinds of corn : flax of excellent quality, hemp, hops,
tobacco, madders, faffron, rape-f.-ed, rhubarb, excellent
garden vegetables and orchard fruits ; wine, in greated per-
fediou on the banks of the Rhine, Mayne, Mofclle, and
Neckar. The agriculture of Germany has been confider-
ably improved of late by the efforts of Mr. Thair and
other patriotic writers. In the rearing of cattle and fliecp
Germany is, however, greatly deficient. The breed of
horfes, except in Mecklenburg, Eaft Friefiand, Oldenburg,
Holllelii, and fome parts of Hanover and Wirtemberg, is
very indifferent. The number of o.'^cn Is not fuflicient cither
for agricultural purpofes or for confumption. The beft
breed is in Eaft Friefland, Oldenburg, and Holftein. The
number of flieep does not exceed thirteen or fourteen mil-
lions. The Spanidi breed has been naturalized in fome part*
of the Pruftlan and Saxon dominions. The breed of hogs u
much negleftcd ; that of goats Is encouraged in the moun-
tainous parts, where they alfo rear afles and mules. The
forefts are ftocked with wild boars, flags, deer, and hare^
Poultry is abundant. Salted and fmoked gcefe, and goofe
quiUs, are exported from Mecklenburg and Pomerania.
Some parts of Germany are remarkable for fine larks and
thruflies, of a delicious flavour. Otliers abound with fingin^
birds, particularly Canary birds and goldfinches, which are
exported to almoft every country of Europe. Bees are leii
attended to than in ancient times. Silkworms are reared
with particular care In fome of the fouthern, and evea north-
ern diftrlfts.

Of the mineral productions of Germany, gold forms tVe
moft inconfiderable part, fmall particles of it are found in
the Rhine, the Danube, tlie Elbe, and the Saale. Silver it
more plentiful ; its annual produce exceeds 2CO,ooo marks,
that of copper amounts to 100,000 cwts. The fupply of
tin from tlie mines is ftifficient for home confumption. Iroa
of a very good quahty, lead, quickfilver, cobalt, arfenic,
and zinc are in great abundance. Beiides topazes, amethyfts,
cornelians, agate, ferpentine, and other rare Itoncs, Germany-
has large quarries of curious marble, and capital mill and
burr ftones. It abounds with various forts of fine earth,
fuch as tripoli and porcelain eai"th, chiefly in the circle of
Mifnia in the kingdom of Saxony; terra figillata, potters*
clay, fvillers' earth, and others. There are fome coal mines,
particularly in Weflphalia, and abundance of peat mi->fs.
Salt is obtained in fcventy-fix fait works, of which thofe
near Halle, in the former duchy of Magdeburg, produce the
greateft quantity. There is no rock fait in Germaiir.

The principal manufarturcs of Germany are thofe of
linen and woollen cloth, cotton, thread la'-e, cliina, hardware

fides feveral fmaller ones In Mecklenburg and other parts of inferior to none but the Englilli, gbfs, tobacco and fnuff.

■the country.

But it is chiefly the great number of rivers, by which Ger.
many is interfcfted in various directions, that give it immenfe
advantages for trade. It counts five hundred and twenty
rivers in all ; fixty navigable to a great length, and fix, r.'a.

writing paper, foap, wax, toys and trinkets, and filks, but
not eijual to the French. Manufafturcs flourifii nu)ft in the
Auflrianaad Prufiinn dominions, in Saxony, in the prefent
kingdom of Weftphalia, in the grand duchy of Berg, &c.
The towns moft remarkable for extenfive manuf.\<Jtures are

tke Danube, the Rhine, the Mayne, the Wefer, tke Elbe, Ahoaa, Augiburg, Berlin, Bronfvick, Bremen, Caflel,

C c 2 Chemqitz.

GERMANY.

Chemnitz, DefTau, Drefdcn, Eifenacli, Erfurt, Erlangeii,
Erancfort on tlie Maync, Gorlitz, Gottingen, Gotha, Ham-
burgh, Hanau, Hanover, Hcrrnhuth, Hof, Leipzick,
Lubcck, Mmiheim, Meifien, Neiiftadt on the Do(re,Neuwied,
Niirnberg, Offenbach, Pluuci!, yuedUnburgh, Stutgard,
Uhn, and Zwickau.

Situated almoll in the centre of Europe, bounded by the
Bahic and Norili lea, and interfiftcd by many large rivers,
Germany has enjoyed, till very lately, a mod cxtcnlive com-
merce. it& -principal fea ports are Hamburgh, Altona, Kiel,
I.ubeck, Wifmar, Rollock, Stralfund, vSlcttin, Emden,
Bremen. Inlar.d towns of great trade are Bronfvick, Mag-
deburg, Leipzick, Naumburg, Francfort on the Mayne,
and Francfort on the Oder, Vienua, Augfi>urg, Nurnberg,
Breflau, and U!m. The principal articles of exportation are
timber, corn, fruit, wine, tobacco, madders, cobalt, fmalts,
pota/h.horfes, oxen, fait and fmoaked meat, butter, cheefe,
honey, wax, leather, wool, cotton yarn, linen cloth to the
, amount of fix millions fterhng, linen yarn, thread lace, cotton
ttuffs, hardware, lead, copper, brafs, quickfilver, china,
earthen-ware, mirrors, glafs, wooden toys and trinkets, &c.
Gcrm:iny imports corn, oxen, and horfes chiefly from Hun-
gary, Poland, and Denmark, hogs from Hungary, butter
from Ireland and Holland, iilk and cotton, all forts ofco-
loniiil produce, wine and fruit, filk and cotton ftuffs,
paper, jewellery and trinkets. It carries on a mofl important
trade with European Turkey, from whence it getb by land
as far as Semlin, and from thence upon the Danube by way
of Vienna, an immenfe quantity of raw cotton, which is
diftributed all over the north of Europe, Germany and
Switzerland. As it has to pay annually from three to four
milhons of piafters in hard ca(h to the Turks, thefe nnoney
tranfadlions are carried on by means of the bankers of Vienna.
The principal infurance companies are at Hamburgh, Lu-
beck, and Bremen. Weights, ineafures, and coins differed in
every petty principality of Germany, and this circumftance
was one of the difadvantages which travellers at leaft ex-
perienced from that number of free cities and fmall ftates for
which Germany was partic\ilarly remarkable. It is true,
as has been juftly obfervcd by the intelhgcnt author of an
edliy on the Reformation of Luther, that all thefe cities snd
principalities of moderate extent had their principle of life
aftive, peculiar,and independent. Each prided itfelf on mak-
ing induilry, fciences and arts fiourifh in its little capital.

By the treaties of Paffau in 1552, of Augfburgh in 1555,
and of Munfter in 1648, the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and
reformed religion, were acknowledged as dominant in Ger-
many : but aJl other fefts enjoyed a complete toleration, and
the number of Jews in feme parts is very confiderable.

According to Mr. Charles Villier's view of the prefent
Aiie of ancient literature and hidory in Germany, in his re-
port to the third clafs of the French institute, the German
literati poffcfs a great facility in entering into the fpirit of
nations and of ages, different from thofe of the prefent day,
and are eminently fuccefsful in archeological refearches, and
in the interpretation and tranflation of the ancients, particular-
ly of the Greeks, perhaps on account of fome fecret affinity
between the two nations, as the analogy of the two languages
feems to indicate. But if any fpecies of literary production
can be faid to belong to Germany, almoft excluGvely, it is
the hidory of literature. The German literary and critical
journals, efpecially thofe publidicd at Jena, Halle, Leiphck,
and Gottingen, rank among the bed in Europe. Betore
the revolutionary wars, the number of authors exceeded
7000. Their literary prcdudlions found a ready market at
the two fairs of Leipfick in the fpring and autumn of every
year. The number of new books publiflvcd at tliofe fairs

was rarely under 4000 : but fincc the fall of PrufTia, in 1 8ofr
it has never exceeded 1500 Two hundred German, and
about thirty foreign bookfellers, ufed to meet at Leipfick,
to barter their refpeclive publications ; the amount of thcle
exchanges was generally above 200,000/. derhng. Anci-
ently German authors wrote mod of their works in Latin.
In the beginning of the feventeenth century, there were at
lead 400 out ot 700 written in that language ; towards the
end of the eighteenth century the proportion was only 200
in 2COO. Before that period the literary labours of the
Germans were confined to theology, jurifprudcncc, and bibli-
cal and clallical erllicifm : but during the latter half of the lail
century they have been extended to every branch of fcienc9
and literature j mineralogy, natural hidery in general, che-
midry, adronomy, and geometry have been cultivated with an
intelligent ardour and perfeverance that have been reward..*d
with many brilliant difcoveries. .Statidics, which elucidates
the theoretical tenets of political economy, and furniihe*
important materials to the hidorian and the geographer,
is indebted alike for its origin and its improrement to
the literary indudry of the Germans. In metaphyfies
they have incurred the reproach of dogmatical obfcurity,
and in their dramas and novels they are juftly accufed
of a difguding affeftation of morbid fentimenlality. But
their epic and tragic poets, and their moral philofophers,
have immortalized themfelvcs by works, which have been
eagerly tranilated into all the idioms of modern Europe.
To the great names of Luther, Kepler, Leibnitz, Haller,
Euler, Mofiieim, Puffendorff, Pott, Margraff, Hagedorn,
Leffing, Gleim, Kleid, Heyne, Rabener, Klopftock, Rani-
ler, Geffner, who live in the records of literary fame, mull
be added thofe of Bcrnouilli, Lambert, Kacftner, Wicland,
Schiller, Gothe, Herder, Zollikoffer, Spalding, Bloeh,
MofesMendelfohn, Klaproth, von Humboldt, Vofs, Hblty,
Michaells, J. A. Eberhard, Von Zacli, and many others,
whofe merits are as confpicuous as tliey are generally ac-
knowledged.

The German language is of Teutonic origin, and may be
regarded as a primitive one, as it is tiie mother tongue of the
Dutch, Flemifh, Danidi, Swcdifli, and Englilh languages.
Its dominion extends from the boundaries of Lapland and
Finland, to thofe of France and Italy. In the middle ages,
the limilarity between the idioms derived from the German
was lo great, that tlie German and Englidi miffionaries that
went to Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had no difficulty
in making themfelves underftood in thofe countries. The
learned Ihre, in his introdu6tion to his Sueo-Gothic Gloffary,
has alfo difcovered a flriking conformity between the old
Teutonic and Perfian languages. That which it bears to the
Greek in its condruftion is not lefs drikiiig. The dialcA
known by the name of Low German, or Low Dutch, is
now difufed in writing, and wholly confined to the vulgar
in the kingdom of Wedphalia, in the duchies of Mecklen-
burgh and Holltein, and in Pomerania ; it comes very near the
Dutch. The High German, or High Dutch, has been con-
Cderably improved fince Luther's time ; it is remarkable
for drength, richnefs, bold inverfions, and compound words,
which render it admirably fit for the higher drains of epic
poetry. The learned dictionaries of Adelung, Eberhard,
and Campe, hare ferved to elucidate the meaning of every
one of its terms, fo that it may now be confidered as fixed.
It is fpoken in its greated purity in Upper Saxony, i)art of
Lower S;:xony, and on the banks of the Necker and the
Mayne. There are dill fome traces of the Slavonian lan-
guaj;e left on the (hores of the Baltic, in fome didrifts of
Pomerania, in Silefia, Bohemia, and Moravia : but it is dif-
appearing very faft.

^ No

GERMANY.

"Ko country can boaft of more and better inftitutions for
tlie acquifition of kr.owlt Jge and fcience than G'Tmany.
Notwithftanding the great extent of territory ceded to
France, there are ftill 30 univerlities, of which 17 arc Pro-
fcftant, 1 1 Catholic, and two mixed, -vi-z. ; Griefswalde, Jena,
Leipfick, Wittenberg, Guttingen, Halle, Hclmftadt, Kiel,
Roftock, Altdorf, Erlangen, Rinteln, Gicflen, Marhiirg,
Stuttgard, Tubingen, I'rankfort on t!ie Oder, are Protel-
tant univerfilics ; Bamberg, Wietzburgli, Padorborn, Fulda,
DiUingen, Freyburg, Infpruck, Vienna, Ingollladt, Salt/-
burgh, and Prague, are Cathnlic univerfitic-o ; and I lie two
mixed ones are Erfurt and pleidelberg. The oldeft of
tliem is that of Prague, which was founded in 134S, and the
mod modern that of Erlangen, founded in I74'5. Mod of
thefe learned feminaries, which have furniflied the northern
regions ot Europe with able teachers, are provided with
extenlive libraries, anatomical theatres, mufcums of natural
tiiftory, botanic gardens, and ailronomical obfervalories.
The profeflors are animated with the noble ambition of ex
tending the fame of the univerhty in which they teach by
their writings, and as the iludents pay a liberal fee for their
lectures, this opens an honourable and ufcful competition
among the teachers. Every iludent is at liberty to feledt
what leisures he chufes to liear, and may employ his time as
he likes. He has only a levere examination to undergo when
he offers himfelf as a candidate for any fitualion in the law,
adminillration, or church, or when he wants to take his de-
gree as a doctor in medicine, without which degree he cannot
be admitted into any college of phyficians. AH the other
ufelefs fcholaftic formalities have long fmce been abrogated.

Befides thefe univerfities there is a great number of public
or free grjimmar fchools, lyccums, and other learned fehools
in Germany. The methods of teaching have been confider-
ably improved within the latter half of the eighteenth century,
when Bafedow, profiting by the hints thrown out by J. J.
Roufleau, opened the Philantropinum at Delfau, and fet an
example of liberal and fcientific education, which was foon imi-
tated by men of enlightened views and extenfive information.
Campe, Villaume, Saltzmann, Trapp, and latterly Pefla-
lozzi, have eminently contributed to introduce better modes
of inftruftion. There arc alfo many eftablifliments deftined
to train young men for particular employments, fuch as
military, mineral, commercial, and even agricultural fchools.
Females are inoftly educated at home under the eyes of their
mothers, who are particularly anxious to guard their
daughters againft the baneful influence of ladies boarding
fchcols.

The nmncrous literary focieties of all kinds, public libra-
ri' ", reading clubs, circulating libraries, critical journals, and
other means of <li!Teminating and preferving knowledge, afford
another proof of the high liate of civilization to which molt
counines of Germany are arrived. The mod dillinguilhed
ol its learned focieties are the iniperial academy of natural
philofopliy at Vienna, the royal academy at Berlin, the aca-
demies at Caffel, Erfurt, Gottingen, Manhcim, Miinchen ;
tlie agricultural focieties at Heidelberg, Leijiilek and Zelle.
The bed public libraries are thofe of Berlin, Drefden, Got-
tingen, Gotha, Hanover, Leipfick, Manheim, Stuttgard,
WeiiiKU-, Vienna, and Wolfenbuttel. Though Germany
may boad of being the cradle of the art of printing, Eikt-
land and France bear the palm. The ge; erality of German
books are printed without taile, with had types, and on
bad paper. A few fplendid editions have, huwever, been
attempted at Leipfick, and met with merited fuccefs. The
liberty of the prefs, which was never general all over Ger-
many, has receited its death-blow from the fway which the

French government exercifes in every one of its couulici,
lincc the peace of Tillit.

Of the fine arts, mufic is that in which the Germans excel.
They vie with the Italiaiii, and the names of Handel, Bach,
Haydn, and Mozart are reverenced by their rivals. Ger-
many has alfo produced fonie good painters and engravers,
but few datuarics and architeas. With refped to dancing, it
IS far behind Italy and France. The principal academics f<,r
tlie encouragement of the fine arts are at Berlin, Drefden,
Leipfick, Manheim, and Vienna. The mod celebrated gal-
leries of pittures are at Urefden, Vienna. Sans Souci, near
Potfdam, Duffeldorff, Manheim, and Caffel.

'l"he influence of the arts on the manntrs of a people is
no where more Ihiking than in Germany, where concerts and
mufical parties, together with dancing, form the chief amufc-
meiit ; a.id the manners of the middle orders are polite and
affable.

Before the peace of Luneville in 180 1, the population of
Germany was rated at 27 millions of inhabitants; but as it
loll 3,700,000 individuals, througii the ceflion of the coun-
tries fitiKited on the left fhoreof'the Rhine, its prcfcnt po-
puiaiion is very little above 23 millions.

I'he hidory of Germany in its ancient date, its gradual
advancement towards extent of territory and dominion, and
ilsrecent decline and fall, prefents to our notice a fubjeft
that is in a variety of refpetts peculiarly interedlng. Tiie
vvedern monarchy of Rome was fird refidrd, then invaded,
and at length overturned by the warlike inhabitants of Ger-
many ; and it was from the woods of this country that the
niod civilized nations of Europe iffued ; and we may ftill
didingiii/h in the rude indituuons of tiicfe barbarians the
original principles of our laws and manners. Ancient Ger-
many, excluding from its independent limits the provinces
wedward of the Rhine which had iubmitted to the Roman
yoke, extended itfelf over a third part o£ Europe. Almoft
the whole of modern Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden,
Friefland, Livonia, Pruil'a, a:;d the greater part of Poland,
were jieopledby the various tribes of one great nation, whofe
complexion, manners, and language denoted a common origin,
and preferveda driking rel'.-nMjlance. On the weft, ancient
Germany was divided by. the' Rhine from the Gallic, and cii
the fouth by the Danube, from the Illyrian provinces of the
empiic. A ridge of hills, rifing from the Danube, and
called the Carpatliian mountains, covered Germany on the
fide of Dacia or Hungary. The cadern frontier was fiintly
m.'i-ked by the mutual fears of tlie Germans and the Sarma-
tia ., and was often confounded by the mixture of warriors,
and confederating tribes of the two nations. Such was
alfo liiecafe with refped to the Gauls on the weft, where
it is il.ll more dilhcult to fix their boundaries en account of
their eimdant fiuftualion. In the remote darknefs of the
north, tiie ancients imperfeCfly defcried a froren ocean, that
lay beye.nd the Baltic fea, and beyond the pcninfula, or illaiids
of Sannitia. But their nearefl northern limit was the Her-
cynian loreft, at that time fuppofed to be impenetrable. It
appears from authentic documents that tlic climate cf an-
cient Germany was much colder than that of the country in
its more modern date. For the evidence of the faC^, and
the explication of it, we refer to the article Cusiate, where
the reader will alfo find fome rcfteftioiis oa the influence
wiiich variety of climates is fuppofed to have on the minds
and bodies of the diderent inliaijitants of the globe. The
keen air of Germany contributed, without doubt, towards
forming the large and mafcubne limbs of the natives, who
were, in general, of a more lefty flature than the people of
tlie fouth, gave them a kind of l^rength better adapted to
violent exertions than to patient labour, asd infpired them

wiik

GERMANY.

with confl.itutional bravery, wliich is the refult of nerves
and fpirits. " In hos artiis, (fays Tacitus, Germania, iii.
20.) in hxc corpora, (jure niiramiir, e'ccrcfcunt." The fe-
verity of a winter campaign, that chilled tiie courage of the
Roman troops, was fcarccdy felt by thofe hardy children of
the north, who, in their turn, were unable to refill the
fumnicr heats, and diilblved away in languor and ficknefs,
under the beam;; of an Italian fun.

As to the origin of the Germans, although we cannot al-
low with Tacitus, that they were " Indigenjc,'' or natives of
the foil, yet we mull admit that ancient Germany was not
peopled by any foreign colonics, already formed into a politi-
cal fociety ; but the name and nation received their exiilence,
as we have already obferved in the beginning of this article,
from the gradual union of fome wandering barbarians, pro-
bably of the fame nation with the Celta; and Gauls, and
both, perhaps, defcended from the ancient Gonierians, or
defcendants of Gomel", the elded fon of Japhet. {See Dis-
persion <;/ Mrtw/v'/^/. ) The Germans, however, were very
•much intermixed with the old Scythians and Sarmatians, on
that fide which joined their territories, and particularly be-
tween the two great rivers, Rhine and Danube ; and they,
•without doubt, had adopted many of their cuiloms, as well
as intermingled fome portion of their language with their
.own ; but in all other parts of Germany, we find fuch an
exail conformity in their religion, laws, cuftOms and lan-
guage, as affords a very ftrong prefumption that they were
defcended from the fame ancient (lock with the Celt^ or
Gauls, and tliat they came by gradual and fucceffive migra-
tions from A fia. (See Cklt.^:.) How this country came
to be denominated Germany, and whence its inhabitants de-
rived the appellation of Germans, it is not eafy to determine.
The mod probable conjeAure is, that they were fo called,
either from their affinity to the Celtes, or from the Celtic
words " ghar man," a warlike man ; but this was not their
•orir.'inal name, any more than the appellations of " Teutonea' '
or " AUemanni," by which, as we have already obferved,
they were occalionaliy denominated. This name was of a
more modern date, a^id feems to have had its rife on the
•other fide of the Rhine, when the Cendrufi, Eburones,
Cserafi, and Pa;mani croifed that river, after the example of
fome others of their countrvmen, and fettled in Gaul. Thefe,
it feems, were the firft to whom the appellation of Germans
was given, and wjiich, tJicrefore, extended no farther than
the Rhenilh (liore on the Gallic lide, but foon after paffcd
over to the other, and became common to other people of
the fame language asd cuiloms, till at length it became the
general name ef the whole nation, and the country was
called fro'T. thera Germania or Germany.

Whatever nrmy be fcippofed to be the remote origin of the
German 5, they appear to have been in a favage and unci-
■^^vilized (late ob their firfl fettlement in this country. The
■account given of the country itfelf by Caefar and Tacitus is
fo unfavourable, that it feems to be almoll incredible, that a
'brave nation, for Inch we muft allow the ancient Germans
•to have been, would have been contented to remain in it,
when they were deftitute of neither ftrength nor courage to
have forced their way into others more pleafant and fruitful.
Thefe ancient hillorians defcribe it as wholly barren and un-
cultivated ; and even its variety of foil and climate added
to the horror of it, from the dreadful forells, putrid and in-
lalubrious bogs, the inclemency of its winds, dampncfs of
its fcas, lakes, and rivers, and fterility of its foil. The unci-
vilized itate of the ancient Germans may be inferred from
-the account given of them by Tacitus ; for in his time they
•were unacquainted with the ufe of letters (German, ii. 19);
and tlic ufe of letters is tlie principal circumilance that dillin-

guiflies a civilized people from a lierJ of fafages incapable
of knowledge or reflection.

Of the ufeful and agreeable arts of life the ancient Ger-
mans were wretchedly deftitute. Modern Germany is faid
to contain about 2,300 walled towns, whereas, in a much
wider extent of country, the geographer Ptolemy cotdd dif-
cover no more than ninety places, which he decorates with
the name of cities, though, according to our ideas, they
would not deferve that fplendid title. We can only fuppofe
tliem to have been rude fortifications, conftrutlcd in the cen-
tre of the woods, and defigned to iecure the women,
children, and cattle, whiUl the warriors of the tribe Biarchcd
out to repel a fudden invafion. Such is the account given
of them by Cxfar ; and Tacitus aflerts that the ancient
Germans had no cities. Even in their hamlets or villages
they did not build their houfes contiguous to each other.
They confidered it as a badge of fervitude to be obliged to
dwell in a city furrounded with walls. Each barbarian fixed
his independent dwelling on the fpot to wliich a plain, a
wood, or a dream of frefli water had induced him to give the
preference. Neitlier ftone, nor brick, nor tiles, were em-
ployed in thefe flight habitations. They were, mdeed, no
more than low huts of a circular figure, built of rough tim-
ber, thatched with draw, and pierced at the top to leave a
free paflage for the fmoke. That they confidered cities as
places of confinement rather than of fecurity, appears from the
following circumftance : when one of their tribes had diaken
off the Roman yoke, their countrymen required of tliem, as
an evidence of their having recovered liberty, to demolifli the
walls of the towns which the Rom.ans had built in their
country. The Romans built feveral cities of note on the
banks of the Rhine. But in all the vad countries from that
river to the coads of the Baltic, there was hardly one city
previous to the ninth century of the Chriftian era.

In the mod inclement winter, the hardy German was fa-
tisfied with a fcanty garment made of the fliin of fome ani-
mal. The natives, who dwelt towards the north, clothed
thenifelves with furs ; and the women manufaftured for their
own uie a coarfe kind of linen. The game of various forts,
with which the foreds of Germany were plentifully docked,
fupplied its inhabitants with food and exercife. Their mon-
drous herds of cattle, lefs remarkable for their beauty than
for their utility, formed the principal article of their wealth.
A fmall quantity of corn was the only produce exafted
from the earth. The ufe of orchards, or artificial meadows,
was unknown to the Germans ; nor can we expeft any im-
provements in agriculture from a people, whofe property
every year experienced a general change by a new divifioK
of the arable lands, and who, in that drange operation,
avoided difputes, by fuftering a great part of their terri-
tory to lie wade and without tillage. Gold, filver, and
iron, were extremely fcarce in Germany. Its barbarous in-
habitants wanted both flvill and patience to inveftigate thofe
rich veins of filver, which have fo liberally rewarded the at-
tention of the princes of Brunfwick and Saxony. Although
the various tranfacfions of peace and war had introduced
lome Roman coins (chiefly filver) among the borderers of
the Rhine and Danube ; yet the more didant tribes were
abfolutely unacquainted with the ufe of money, carried on
their limited traffic by the exchange of commodities, and
prized their rude earthen veffels as- of equal value with tlie
iilver vafes, the prefents 6f Rome to their princes and am-
balFadors. If we contemplate a favage aation in any part
of the globe, a fupine indolence and a careleffnefs of fu-
turity will be found to conditute their general cliarader.
This was decidedly the cafe with refpett to the ancient Ger-
mans. The care of the houfe and family^ the n.anagement
4 oi

GE RM ANY.

•f the Innfl and cattle, vrcie delegated to the old and infirm, convened at dated feafons, or on fiiJdcn emergencies. Tlie

to women and (laves. I'lie lazy warrior, deftitute of every
art that might employ his Icifure hours, confumed his days
and niglits in the animal gratiiications of flccp and food.
Nevcrthelcfs, the found that Aanmoned the German to arms
ivas grateful to his ear. It raifed him from his tincomfort-

trial of public offences, the election of magi it rates, and the
great bufinefs of peace and war, were determined by its in-
dependent voices. Sometimes thcfe important queflions
were previoufly conlJdered, and prepared in a more feleA
council of the principal chieftains. The magiflrates might

execute. When timid, though jull and prudent, couiifcU
were propofed, they exprefied their diflike by a hollow
murmur. But whenever a popular orator propofed to vin-
dicate tlie meaneft citizen from cither foreign or domeftic
injury, whenever he called upcm his fellow-countrymen to
alfert the national honour, or to purfue fome enterprife full

able lethargy, gave him an aAive purfuit, and, by flrong deliberate and perfuade ; the people only could refolve and
exercife of the body, and violent emotions of tiie mind, re-
ftorcd him to a more lively fetife of his exiflence. In the
dull intervals of peace, thefe barbarians were immoderately
addicted to deep gaming and exceflive drinking ; both of
which, by different means, the one by inflaming tlieir
palTions, the other by extinguifhing their rcafon, alike re-
lieved them from the pain of thinking. They gloried in of danger and glory, a loud clafhing of ihields and fpears
pafllng whole days and nights at table ; and tlie blood of exprefied the eager applaufe of the affembly ; for the Ger-
friends and relations often ftained their numerous and drunken mans always met in arms. On occaiions of danger a gcne-
affemblies. The polfeiiion and the enjoyment of property ral oi' the tribe was clefted ; and in circumftances of prefT-
are the pledges which bind a civilized people to an improved ing and extenllve danger, feveral tribes concurred in the
country. But the Germans, wlio carried with them what choice of the fame general. The bravelt warrior was named
they moil valued, their arms, their cattle, and iheir women, to lead liis countrymen into tlie field, by his example rather
cheerfully abandoned the vail iilence of their woods for the than liis commands. His power expired with the war, and
unbounded liopes of plunder and conqueft. The innumera- in time of peace the German tribes acknowledged not any
ble fwarms that iifued, or feemed to ifTue, from the great fupreme chief. Princes were, however, appointed, in the
ftore-houfe of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the general affembly, to adminiiter juflice, or rather to compofe
»anquiflied, and by the credulity of fucceeding ages. And differences (miniumt controverfias, Cu;far) in their re-
from facts thus exaggerated, an opinion was gradually elta- fpeftive diftrifts. To the choice of thefe magiflrates, birth
bhfhed, and has been fupported by writers of diilinguiftied was regarded as much as merit. To eacli was affigned, by
reputation, tliat in the age of Csfar and Tacitus the inha- the public, a guard, and a council of looperfons; and the
bitants of the north were far more numerous than they are iirft of the princes appears to have enjoyed a pre-eminence
in our days. On this fubjeft fir William Temple and Mon- of rank and honour, which fon-.etimes tempted the Romans
tefquieu have indulged the ufual livelinefs of their fancy, to comphment him with the regal title. The Germans re-

A more ferious inquiry into the caufes of population, feems
to have convinced m.odern philofophers of tlie fallehood,
and indeed the impoffibiiity, of the fuppofition. To the
names of Mariana and of Macliiavel, we can oppofe the
equal names of Robertfon and Hume.

A warhke nation like the Germans, without cities,
letters, arts, or money, found fome compenfation for this _

favage flate in the enjoyment of liberty. Their poverty tach them tO his perfon and interell
fecured their freedom, liuce, fays Gibbon, our defires and
our poflefTions are the llrongefl fetters of defpotifm. Csefar
and Tacitus inform us, that the flate of fociety among the
ancient Germans v\'as of the rudeft and moll iiniplc form.
They lived entirely by hunting or paflurage. They ne-
glefted agriculture, as we have already feen ; their chief food

fpefted only thofe duties which they impofed on themlelves.
The mofl obfcure foldier refilled with difdaiii the authoiity
of the magiflrates. Every individual among the ancient
Germans was left at hberty to cluife whether he would
take part in any military enterprife which was propofed ; it
became, of confequence, the great objetl of every perfon,
who aimed at being a leader, to gain adiierents and to at-
■ " " ■ ' " ■ ■ Csfar calls thefe ad-

herents Ambaftiand Clientes, i. e. retainers or clients.
Tacitus calls them Comites, or companions. The chief
diflinftion and power of the leaders confiflcd in being at-
tended br a numerous band of chofen youth. This wa«
their pride as well as ornament during peace, and their de-
fence in war. The leaders gained, or prcferved, the favour

was milk, cheefe, and flefli. While fociety remains in this of thefe retainers by prefents of annei'r and of horfes, or

fimple flate, men, by uniting together, fcarcely rclinquilh by the profuie though inelegant holpitahiy \yith which they

any portion of their natural independence. The authority entertained them. But even after they united in fociety,

of civil government was extremely hmited among tlie Ger- the Germans circamfcribcd the criminal jurifdiftion of the

mans. In times of peace they had no common or fixed ma- magiflrate within very narrow limits, and txerciled aJmoft

giflrate ; but the chief men of every diftriti difpenfed iuftice all the rights of private refcntment and revenge. Their

and accommodated differences. In tlic far greater part of magiflrates had the abfolute difpoia! of the landed property

Germany, the form of government was a democracy, tern- within tlieir diftrici, and they dillributcd it every ye;ir ac-

pered indeed, and controlled, not fo much by general and cording to a new divifion ; but they had not the power ot

pofitive laws, as by the occafional afcendant of birth and imprifoning, or of inflicling any corporal punuhment on a-

valour, of eloquence and fuperilition. Some tribes, how- private citizen. Ever)- individual was obhged to avenge tlie

ever, on the coafl of the Baltic, acknowledged the rights wrongs which his pa.rnts or friends had lullaincd. 1 heir

•f kiugs; but their kings had not abfolute or unbounded enemies were hereditary, but not irreconcUeable. tven

power; their authority confifted rather in the privilege of murder was coinpenfated by pay nig a certain number ot

adviling than in the power of commanding. Matters of cattle. A part of the fine went to- the king or ilate, a part -

Lnall confequence were determined by tiie chief men ; affairs to the perfon who had been injured, or to his kindred,
of importance, by the whole community. As foon as a Chaility is aferibed, almoft without exception, to the wive*

youth, bom of free parents, had attained the age of man- of the ancient Germans. Polygamy was not in uic, except

hood, he was introduced into the general council of hia among tlie princes and amonjr them only for the lake ot

countrymen, lolemnly invefled with a fhield and a fpear, nndi-lplying their alliances. Divorces were prokibited by

and adopted as an equal and worthy member of tlie manners rather than by laws. Adulteries were punilhoJ as

joiUtary coramoawealtii. The a£embly of the tribe was rare and inexpiable cnmcs ; nor was reduction juitihcti bv

GERMANY.

example anJ falhion. Tacitus c\njcntly indulges an lioncfl
pleafure in the conlrafl of barbarian virtue with the diir<)lute
condud of the Roman ladies ; yet there ave fome ftriking
circumflaiices thai give an air oi' trutli, at leall of probabU
litv, to the conjugal faitli and chaility of the Germans.
I'he German huts, open on every fide to the eye of indif-
cretion or jealoufy, -vvcre a better fafeguai'd of conjugal fi-
delity than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs of a IVr-
fian haram. Befides, the Germans treated their women with
elleem and contldence, confultcd them on every occafion of
importance, and fondly believed that in their breails refided
a fanftity and wifdo:n more tiian human. Some of thefe in-
terpreters of fate, fucli as Valleda, in the Batavian war, go-
verned, in iIr* name of the Deity, the fierceil nations of Ger-
many. The reft of the fcx, without being adored as god-
defles, were rcfpefted as the free and equal companions of
foldicrs ; aiTociated, even by the marriage ceremony, to a
life of toil, of danger, and of glory. In their great inva-
fions, the camps of the barbarians were filled with a multi-
tude of women, who remained finn and undaunted amidtt
the found of arms, the various forms of deftruttion, and the
honourable wounds of their fons and hufoands. 'J'he women
dreaded death much lefs than lervitude. If the day was ir-
recoverably loft they well knew how to deliver themfelves
and their children, with their own hands, from an infuking
viitor. Heroines of fuch a call may claim our admiration;
but they were moft afturedly neither lovely, nor very lufcep-
tible of love.

Confcious pride taught the German females to fupprefs
erery tender emotion that flood in competition with honour,
and the firft honour of the fex has ever been that of chaf-
tity.

The religious fyftem of the Germans was dictated by their
wants, their fears, and their ignorance. They adored the
great vifible objefts and agents of nature, the fun and the
moon, the fire and the earth ; together with thofe imagina-
ry deities who were fuppofcd to prefide over the moft im-
portant occupations of human life. Tliey were perfuaded
that by fome ridiculous arts of divination, they could dilco-
ver the will of thj fuperior beings, and that human facri-
iices were the moft precious and acceptable offering on their
altars. If tliere was any difterence between the Gauls
and Germans in point of religion, it confifted only in tliis,
tliat the latter, being more fierce and untraftable, were not
only more tenacious of iheir fuperftitious rites, but likcwife
more cruel and inhuman in them. It appears, from the tefti-
monies of Ca'far, Tacitus, Diodorus Siculws, Strabo,
Athenxus, and other ancient authors, that the Germans had
DO temples, but performed tlieir religious rites in groves
eretted for tliat purpofe, or in woods, forefts, and defert
places. Temples were not introduced in Germany till long
after the Gauls had creeled them ; and the inferior divinities
introduced amo.ig the Gauls, inch as .love or .lupiter. Mars,
Apollo, Mercury, Venus, Diana, &c. were alio adopted
bv the Germans, though fome of them were reprefented un-
der different names and attributes. Jupiter was worfliipped
under the name of Thor or Taran, i. t. the Thunderer ; tliis
name was given by the Gauls to Mars ; and the Germans
bellowed it on their Odin or Woden ; but the name of Ju-
piter was never adopted by the Gauls, nor by the Ger-
mans. Both Gauis and Germans agreed in worfliipping the
fupreme deity und^r t!ie name of Helus or Eius, and under
die emblem of ;m oak, which was confecrated to him. The
goddeis Hertha was one of their ancient deities, and her
idol was preferred in a wood or grove, " Caftum nenuis,"
upon a covered cart, and ftie had but one prieft to minifter to
her, who was the only perfon that was allowed to approach

her. The worfhip of this goddefs correfponded with that
which the Romans and others paid to the " Earth," under
the name of " Magna Deorum Mater." A folemn procef-
fion was occafionally celebrated in the prefent countries of
Mecklenburg and Poinerania. Tlie unknown fymbol of
the " Earth," covered with a thick veil, was placed on a
carnage drawn by cows ; and in this manner the goddefs,
wliofe common relidence was in the iilc of Rugen, vifited
feverat adjacent tribes of her worlhippcrs. During her pro-
grefs, the found of war was huftied, quarrela were fufpended,
arms Liid afide, and the rcftlefs Germans had an opportunity
of tailing the bleflings of i>eace and harmony. The " Truce
of God,'" fo often and fo ineffectually proclaimed by the
clergy of tiie I ith century, was an obvious imitation of this
ancient cullom.

The influence of religion on the minds of the ancient
Germans was far more powerful to inflame than to moderate
tlieir fierce paflions. The confecrated ilandards, long re-
vered in the groves of fuperllition, were placed in the front
of tlie battle ; and the hoftile al-my was devoted with dire
execrations to the gods of war and of thunder. A brave
man was the worthy favourite of their martial deities ; and
the wretch who had loft his ftiield was banifiied alike from
the religious and the civil affemblies of his countrymen.
Some tribes of the north feeni to have embraced the doc-
trine of tranfmigration ; others imagined a grofs paradife
of immortal drunkennefs. (See the Edda, fable 20.) All
agreed, that a life fpent in arms, and a glorious deatli in bat-
tle, were the beft preparations for a happy futurity, either in
this or in aHother world.

It is faid that tlie Germans, as well as Gauls, were early
taught by their Druids, as fundamental truths, an over-
ruling providence, and the immortality of the foul ; but
thefe noble principles of religion and virtue were foon cor-
rupted as inflruments of divination and fuperftition. Csfar
fays, indeed, (Com. 1. vi. c. 21.) that the Germans had no
druids, asthe Celtes had ; but Tacitus, who was better ac-
quainted with the Germans, fpeaks frequently of their
priefts, whofe office and authority, as he ftates them, were
fimilar to thofe of the Gaulifli druids, and they feem to
have been of the lame order of men, though perhaps they
did not bear the fame name. As to the immortahty promif-
ed by their priefts, it was in fome degree conferred by the
bards, who by their military fongs kindled in the breafts of
their audience theenthufiafm of arms and glory. The view
of arms and of danger heightened the effett of thefe fongs ;
and the pafTions wliicli they tended to excite, the defire of
fame, and the contempt of death, were the habitual fenti-
ments of a German mind. A contempt of danger'and of
death was one of the principles which they infiillcd into the
minds of their youth, and a regard to which their priefls in-
culcated as the iurefl means of reputation and wealth, and
alfo of happinefs in a future life. Under the influence of
this principle their armies, whicli confifled more of ii^fintry
than cavalry, were eafily raifed and maintained. Eike tlie
Gauls and Britons, the Germans fought in feparate cantons
or tribes ; and thus they were induced to exert tLemfelves
with the greater firmncis and vigour in defence of their
relations, neighbours, and friends, and for the honour of
their reipedlive communitie?. We are told, indeed, that
fome of them, efpecially the Cimbri, formed their wholf*
infantry into one fquare battalion, and placed their wives,
cliildren, and baggage behind a fence made of their wag-
gons ; and when they were prepared for an attack, a figral
was given, which was re-echoed by an univerfal fhout, and
repeated till the engagcir.ent commenced. They ufed no
art or ftratagem in fighting, but wholly tonfided in a furirus

unlvt

GERMANY.

oufet on the enemy, which they maintained with a defperate
intrepidity till the day was won or loH : if they were once
thrown :nto diforder they feldom rallied, but became defpe-
rate, aiid either fought till they were (laiightered, or be-
took, thcmfelves to flight ; for it vtas reckoned inglorious to
yield themfclvcs prifoneis. The military weapons of the
cavalry among the Germans were (hields and fpe.irs, wliich
they uled in common with the foot, but the latter h id, lie-
fides their darts, bows and flings, and feldom had recoiirle
to their pikes and fwords. Their arms were eflcemed their
favourite furniture and chief ornament ; fo that thev nerer
appeared in public without them. Th» fword was fo facred,
that the molt folemn andobhgatory oaths were thofe which
they took upon a naked blade. Nor did tke y affill in any
folemn rite, without their fword, ihicld, or fpear. Ther
even wore them at their familiar vifits, banquets, and reli-
gious dances ; and they were frequently to be burnt or bu-
ried with them, when they died. The fports, game?, and
exercifes of the Germans, were of the mafculine kind, and
fuch as inured them to the operations of war. It was a
long time before they acquired any knowledge of the
liberal arts, or even that of writing ; and we are
told, that Charles the Great caufed fome of their barbarous
poems, which they had been accullomed to ling from memory,
and which celebrated the illullrious actions of their ancient
kings and heroes, to be committed to writing for their ufe,
and by way of encouraging them to learn to read. The
Saxons, it is faid, had fuch a contempt for letters, that they
refufed to learn to read the gofpels till they were put into
verfe, and fet to fuch tunes as they could ealily ling. Even
their laws were not reduced to writing till about the 1 2th or
13 th centuries.

The native difpofition of the ancient Germans difplayed
itfelf chiefly in their martial genius, and in their iingular lide-
litv. In fome cafes their love of liberty, and hatred of ty-
ranny and oppreffion, precipitated them to acts of treachery
and even of murder ; for in fuch caies they were eafily iu-
oenfed, and extremely vindictive. On other oecaiions, Ta-
citus fays, they vrere noble, magnanimous, and benelicent,
without ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or to invade
thofe from whom they received no injury ; rather chufing to
employ their ftrength or valour defenfively, than offenfively ;
to preferve their own, than to revenge their neighbours. In
their own houfes, furniture and diet, they were dillinguifhcd
bv their plainnefs and finiplicity ; but at the fame time, they
were no lefs diftinguifhed by their hofpitality to llrangers,
and by their readinefs to fuccour thole that were in dillrefs.
Although in molt of their cultoms tlie Germans very much
refembled the Gauls, yet, with regard to their funerals, they
were very different. The latter performed thefc obfequies
with pomp and profufion ; whereas the Germans diicharged
their lait ofhces to the dead with plainnefs and limplicity ; the
only grandeur they affeifted, was to burn the bodies of their
great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood ; and after-
wards they flung each man's armour into the funeral pile, and
fometimes his riding drefs. They then depolited their afhes
in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and other nations. It may
be obferved in general, that the facrifiees they offered tor
their dead, the prcfents made to them at their funerals, ar.d
the other fupcrltitlous rites performed on thefe occafions,
were all the leTalt and the evidence of an eltabhihed belief,
that the foul was immortal.

The ancient Germans were a brave and independent race
of men, and peculiarly diftinguilhed by their love of liberty
and arms. They oppofed the Roman power, after it had
arrived at maturity. After their contell with Caefar, who
was prov )ked by the Treviri to invade their country, a^id
Vol. XVI

their revolt againfl Aaguttus, which was fupprcflid by'
Agrippa, and the infurredion which commenced among tlie
Roman legions in Pannonia, quelled partly by Druf.,s, and
finally by Gcrmanicus ; their other more co'nfiderable war»
with the Romans were waged againft the emperors M. Au-
relius, Alexander, Maximin, Valerian, Aurelian, Probue,
Conftantius, Julian, Valentinian, and fom.e of his fuccciTors.
Some notice is taken of thefe conflicts usdcr the namci
of the Alemanni, Gepida?, Franks, Sucvi, Htruli, and Bur-
gundians. Ther country' was divided into a number of petty
hjvcrcignties, independent of each other, tliough occadonally
connected by a military union, until it was reduced to the
condition of a Roman province ; and when the Roman em-
pire was (liattered by the Northern barbarians, Germany wai
over-run by the Franks about the year 480, and continued in
fubjecticn to chieftains of that nation, who governed over
the Suabiaus, Alcmans, Frilians, Saxons, Thuringians, and-
Bavarians, ur.til the end of the eighth ccnturj-, when Char-
lemagne united all Germany into one kingdom, as part of
the Frankilh monarchy. The conqi:eixd German nationr
had hereditary dukes of their own at firlt, and were goveni-
ed by their own laws : but Charlemagne put an end to the
former, and governed the different German provinces by
counts and royal delegates, and in the year 800 he affumed
the title and dignity of emperor. But the empire of Char-
lemagne was a drudture erefted in fo ihort a time, that it,
cculd not be of long duration. Under his immediate fuc-
ceifor it began to totter, and foon after fell to pieces. The
crown of Germany was feparated from that of France, and
the defcendants of Charlemagne eftabhihed two great mo-
narchies, lo lituated, as to give rife to a perpetual rivallhip
between them. But the princes of the race of Charlemagne,
who were placed on the Imperial throne, were not altogether
fo degenerate as thofe of the fame family who reigned in
France. In the h.ands of the former, the royal authority re-
tained lome vigour ; the nobles of Germany, though poffeficd
of extenfive privileges and ample territories, did not fo early
attain independence. The great offices of the crown conti-
nued at t!ie difpofal of the fovereign, and during a long pe-
riod, fiefs remained in their original Itate without becoming
hereditary in the fimailies of the perfonj to whom they had
been granted.

At length, the German branch of the family of Char-
lemagne became extiniEt upon the death of Louis IV.
His feeble defcendants who reigned in France had funk
into fuch contempt, that the Germans, without looking
towards them, exercifcd the right inherent in a free people ;
and in a general affembly of the nation at Worms, in the
year 911, offered the imperial crown to Otho, duke of Sax-
ony, who declined it on account of his great age, and recom-
mended Conrad, count of Francoiiia. The latter was unani-
mouily eledted emperor. His reign was dillurbed by the dif-
obedience of fome nobles whom he fubdued, and by the pre-
ter.uons of Henry, fon of the duke of Saxony, his benefadlor.
Their quarrels, however, did not prevent Conrad from ac-
knowledging the merit of that prince in the fame manner as
Otho had done his. He recommended Henry as the ritteft
prince to be his lucceffor, and his propofal being approved
by the nation, he fent to Hcnrv, without waiting ior the hour
of death, the crown, the fceptre, the lance, the iword, and
other imperial ornaments.

Henry I. alcended the imperial throne of Germany in
019. He was furiiamed the Foivlcr, bccaufe he was paifion-
ately fond of hawking. To confirm his authority, he made
more ufe of perfuafion than of arms. His defcendants, tlie
three Othos, were placed in fucceflion on the imperial throne
by the iuffrages of their countrymen. The extenlive terri.
fi 4 (urie«

6 E R 1\I A N r,

torlcs of tlie Saxon emperors, their eminent abilities, and cn-
tcrprifing genius, not only added new vigour to the imperial
dignity, but raifcd it to liighor |)0\ver and pre-eminence.
Otho the Great nv.rclied at the head of a numerous army into
Italy, and, after the example uf Ch;ulemagne, gave law to
that country. On !iis arrival at Rome, he was confccral/.d
by tlie pope, and crowned emperor of the Romans. He
treated popes and depofed them by liis fovcreign mandate.
He aanexcd the kinc;dofn of Italy to the German empire.
Elated with his fuccefs, he afTiimcd the title of C'sfar Au-
giislus, A prhicc, born in the heart of Germany, pretended
to be the fuccefTor of tic emperors of ancient Rome, and
claimed a ri'^fht to the fame power and prerogative. Sec the
biotjrapliical article Otiio.

But %vhile the empcrcr, by means of thefe new titles and
Bcw dominions, gt-ad'-ially acquired additional authority and
fplendour, the nobility cf Germany had gone on at the fame
time extending their privileges and jurilulftian. The fituation
of affairs was favourable to their attempts. The vigour which
Charlemagne had given to government quickly relaxed. Th.e
incapacity of fome of his fuccefTors was fuch, as would have
encouraged vaflals, lefs enterprifing than the nobles of that
age, to have claimed new rights, and to have alTumed new
powers. The civil wars in which other emperors were en-
gaged, obliged them to pay perpetual court to their fubjecls,
on whofe fupport they depended, and not only to connive at
their ufurpations, but to permit and even to authorize them.
J'iefs gradually became hereditary. They were trarifmitted
not only in the direft, but alfo in the collateral line. The
iiiveftiture of them was demanded not only by male but by
Female heirs. Every baron began to exercife fovcreign jurif-
diftion within his own domains, and the dukes and counts of
Germany took wide Reps towards re ]denng fiieir territories
ditlmct and independent fiates. Tlie S.ixon emperors ob-
lerved ilieir progrefs. and v.-erc aware of its tendency. But
as they could not hope to humble valTals al.-cady grown too
potent, unlefs they had turned their whole force and atten-
tion to that enterprife, and as they were extremely intent on
their expeditipns into Italy, which they could not undertake
\vithout the concurrence of their nobles, tliey v/ere follcitous
not to alarm them by any dirett attack on their privilccjes.

rhcy aimed, however, at undermining their power. V\"ith
tliis view, they incoafiderately bellowed additional territories,
and accumulated new lionours on the clergy, in hopes that
this order might ferve as a counterpoife to that of tlie nobi-
lity in any future ftruggle.

- The unhappy effects of this fatal error in policy vrerc
quickly felt. Under the emperors of the Fra:iconian and
Svvablaa lijies, whom the Germans, by their voluntary elec-
tion, placed on the im.perial throne, a new face of things ap-
peared, and a fcene was exhibited in Germany which afi.o-
niflied all ChriHendom at that time. The popes, hitherto
dependent on the emperors, and indebted for power as well
as dignity to their beneficence and protection, began to claim
a fupcrior jurifdiftion, and in virtue of authority, which
they preteni'rd to derive from heaven, tried, condemned, ex-
communicated, and depofed their former matters. Thefe
pretenfions gave rife to the facStions of the Guelphs and Ghi-
beliiies, of which the former was attached to the popes, and
the latter to the emperors. Pope Gregory VII. had ob-
ferved that the princes and nobles of Gernianv had acquired
fuch confidcrable territories and fuch extenfive jurifditfion,
as rendered them hot only formidable to the emperors, but
ilifpofed them to favour any attempt to circumfcribe fheir
power. He forefaiv that the ecclefialtics of Germany, raifed
almoll to a level with its princes, were ready to fupport anv
jierfon who v/ould llaiid forth as the protector of their pri-

\ilegrs and indepcndenef. With both of thefe Gregory ne-
gotiated, and had fccured many devoted adherents among'
them, before he ventured to enter the lifls againtl the head of
the empire. He began his rupture with Henry IV. upon a
pretext that was popular and plaufible. He complained ot
the venalitv and corruption with which the emperor had
granted the invclliturc of benefices to eccleilaflics. He con-
tended that this right belonged to him, as the head of thr
church ; he required Henry to confine himfelf within th.e
bounds of th-; civil jurifdiction, and to abftain for the future
from fuch facrilegious encroachments on th.e fpintnal domi-
nion. All the ccnfures of the church were denounced
againd Henry, becaufe he refufed to relinquifii thefe powers
wiiich his predecefTors had uniformly exercifed. The moH
confiderable of the German princes and ecclefiailics were ex-
cited'to take arms again 'l him. His mother, his v.ife, his
fons, v.'ere v.Tought upon to difregard all the ties of blood
and duty, and to join the party of his enemies. At length,
the emperor v/as even obliged to appear as a fupphcant at
the gate of the callle in which the pope refidcd, and to
Hand there three days barefooted in the depth of v.nnter, im-
ploring a pardon, wliicli he obtained with difnculty.

This att of humiliation degraded the imperial dignity.
The two faftions kept Germany and Italy in perpetual agi-
tation during three centuries, and, notwithllanding the re-
turn of fome fliort intervals of vigour, under the adminiilra-
ticn of a few able emperors, the imperial authority continued
to decline. During the anarchy of a long interregnum, fub-
fequcnt to the death of William of Holland, it dwindled
down almoft to nothing.

In the year 1273, Rodolphus of Hapfburgh, the foinider
of the houfe of Aullria, was elecled emperor, not that iie
might re-e!lablifh and extend the imperial authority, but be-
caufe his territories and influence were fo inconfidcrable a;; to
excite ho jealoufy- in the German princes, who were wilhng
to preferve the forms of a conititution, the power of which
they had deftroyed. Several of Rodolph's fuccefTors were
placed on the imperial thrOne from th.e fame m.otive, and al-
moll every remaining prerogative was wrelled out of the
hands of feeble princes, unable to exercife or to defend
them.

During this period of turbulence and confufion, the con-
ftitution of the German empire underwent a total change.
The princes, the great nobility, the dignified eccleflaflics,
and the free cities extended their ufurpations. They claim-
ed and exerciied the right of governing their refpcctive ter-
ritories with full fovSreignty. They acknowledged no fupe-
rior with rcfpect to any point relative to the interior admi-
nil1rati6n and police of their domains. They enacted la-ws,
impoiedtaxcs, coined money, declared war, concluded peaee,
and exerted every prerogative peculiar -to independ^-nt
fiates. The forms of feudal fubc.-dination formed the only
conneftion among the various members of the community.
This bond of union, however, was extremely feeble.

From the accefiion of Rodolph of Haplburgh, to the
reign of MaxiiTiilian, the empire felt every calam.ity wliich a
fta.e m.ud endure, when the authority- of government isfo
much relaxed. The diffenfions among its rsembers gave- rile
to perpetual private wars, which were carried on v.-ith all the
violence that accompanies refentment when unreftrained by
fuperior authority. Rapine, outrage, exactions, became uni-
verfal. The variety of expedients employed to refiore order
and tranquillity, prove that the grievances occafioned by this
Hate of anarchy had become intolerable. Arbiters were
appointed to terminate the differences among the fcveral
ftates. The cities united in a league to check the extortions
of the nobility, and the latter fonr.id eonfederacits to main-
tain

GERMANY.

tani tranquillity among their own order. Germany was di- nary aid^ which, on a few occafions thpy ohtaincd, vmc
-s-idcd into ten circles, in each of whicli a provincial jurifdic- granted fi)aringly, and paid with reludaji'ce. The 'cor.i ■-
tion was eftabliflisd. But all thefe remedies proved ineffec- quenceof this ilf-cumpaaed frame of government was, thai
tiial. At length Maximilian inflitiited the imperial chamber, the emperors imagined tlien.fclvos !o be the real foverei^r.s
a tribunal compofed of judges named partly by the emperor, of Germany, and aimed continually at recovering iheo^r-
partly by the feveral Hates, and veiled with avithority to de- cif: of thofe powers which the forms of the confiitulioa
cide nnally concerning all differences among the members of feemed to veil in them, and whjch tlicir prc-deceflbrs Charle-
the Germanic body, and thus reftored fame degree of vigour magne and the Olhos had aftua'.iy enjoyed. The prince*
to the imperial authority. and Hates, aware of thefe pretcnilous, watclied the motion*
But notvrithilanding the falutary effefts of thefe regula- of the imperial court to circamfcribeitspowerwithinlimitsilill
tions, the pohtical conilitution of the German empire, at more narrow. Tliis jealojfy of the imperial authority in-
tiie beginning of the fixteenth century, was of a fpeciisfope- creafed confiderably from die time that the eleclive power
culiar as not to refemble perf.xlly any form of government was vefted in a few princes of chief dignity,
known eitherin the ancient cr modern v.orld. It wasa complex During along period, all die members of the Germanic
bsdy, formed by the affociation of feveral ftates, electors, body had a right to affemble, and to make a chciice of the
priaces, dignitaries of the church, counts, barons, and free perfon whom'thcy appointed to be their iiead. But amidft
cities, c.ich of which poSeired fovereign and independent die violence and anarchy which prevailed for feveral centuriei
jurifdiftion within its own territories. Of all the members in the empire, feven piinccs, who poffeifed the moll cxtcii-
which compofed this united body, the emperor was the five territories, and who had obtained an hereditary title t» ■
head. In his name all decrees and regulations, with refpeCl the groat offices of the ilate, acquired the exclufive'privileae
to points of common concern, were iiTued ; and to him the of nominating the emperor. This right was confirmed to them
power of carrying th?m into execution was committed. But by the golden bull (fee Bull); the mode of cxercifing it v.ai
this appearance of monarchical power in the emperor was afcertained, and they were dignified with the appellation of
more than counterbalanced by the influence of the princes EUfioys. (See Ej.ectou.) The nobility and free cities
and ftates of the empire in every acl of adminiilration. No being thus Jlripped of a privilege wliich they had once en-
law extending to the whole body could pafs, no refolution joyed, were iefs connefted witli a prince, towards whofe
that afpecled the general interell could be taken without the
approbation of the diet of the empire held at Ratilbon.
In this afTambly ever\- fovereign prince and ftate of the Ger-
manic body had a right to be prefent, to deliberate and to
vote. The decrees or receffes of the diet were the laws of

elevation they had not co'ntributcd by their fufirage-s, and
came to be more apprehenfive of his aulhority. TheclcClors,
by their cxtenlive power, and the diftinguiihing privileges
wl;ich they poffefTed, became formidable to the emperors,
with whom they were placed almoll on a level in feveral acls
'fdictic

ot junidxt'.on. Thus, the introduclion of the electoral col-
In this refpecl the German empire v/as fimilar to lege into the empire ftrcngthened the principles of difcord
Achcean league in ancient Greece, or to that of the in the Germanic conilitution, which were continually ali-
ted Provinces of the Netherlands, and of the Swifs can- mentcd by the various and repugnant forms of civil policy

the empire, which the emperor was bound to ratifv, and to
enforce
th

Unit

tons in modern times. But, as the acute liiftorian of the in the feveral ftates. The free cities were fmull repubhcs, in
•emperor Charles V. obferves, the Germanic body was not which the maxims and fpirit peculiar to that fpccics of go-
formed by the union of members altogether diliincL and in- verument prevailed. The princes and nobles to whom Tu-
d'?pendent. All the princes and ilates, joined in this afTor promc jurifdiclion belonged poffefied a firt of monarchical
ciation, were oiiginally fubjccl; to the emperors, and ac- power wi;hin their own territories. Their common dclJbcra-
knowledged them as Cavereigns. They originally held their tions could not be carried on with the fame fpirit while th;
lands as imperial iiefs, and owed the emperor all thofe fer- love of liberty and attention to commerce were the reignint'
vices wliich feudal vaffals are bound to perform to their liege principles in the cities; and the defire of power, and ardour

lord. But ihof gh this pohtical fabjeCtion was entirely at an
erid, the ancient forms introduced while thcemperors governed
Germ.any with authority not inferior to that wliich the other
monarchs of Europe pofieired, ftill remained. Thus an op-
pofition was eilablifhed between the genius of the govern-
ment and the forms of adrainiftration in the German empire

for mihtary glory, d:c goreniing palTions of the princes and
nobility, llie fecular and ecclefiaflical membciS of the em-
pire were as little fitted for union as the free cities and the
nobility. Coufiderable territories had been granted to fevo-
ral of the German bifliopries and abbcyt, and fome of the
higheft ofFiCcs of the empire, having. been aniiexcd to them

The former coafidercd the empeior only as the head of a unalienably, were held by the eccltfiallics raifed to thefe dig

confederacy, the members of which, by their voluntary
c!o;ce, raifed him to that dignity ; the latter feemed to iin-
}My that he is really inveftcd v.ith fovereign power. The em-
j)cror3 were dlilinguilhed by the moll pq^npous titles, and by
fich mark'! of dignity as intimated their authority to be fu-
perior to that of all other m.onarchs. The greateil princes
of the empire- attended and ferved them, on fome occsfions.

mtles. The younger fons of noblemen of the fecond or-
der, who had devoted themfelves to the church, were com-
monly prom.oted to thefe llations of eoiincnce and power;
and it w;is no fmall mortification ^p the princes and great no-
bility, to fee perfo.is raifed from an inferior rank to the fainK
level witli themfelves, or even exalted to fupcrior dignity.
The cditcation of thefe cliurch— en, the genius of thtir pro-
felTion, and their connection with the court of Roir.e, render-
ed their character, as well as theirintcrell, different from diofr

:;s officers of their houfliold. They exercifed prerogatives
w hich no other fovereigns ever claimed.' They retained pre-
tenfions to all the extenfive powers wh.ich llicir predeceffois of die other members of the Germanic body, with whofti
had ci/joyed in any former age. But, at the fame time, in- , tliey were called to ad in concert. Thus another fource </t
i'tead of poiTeffing that ample domain which had belonged to variance v.-as openrd.

the ancientempcrors of Germany, and which llretchcd from . To all thefe caufes of diffenfion muH be added onewmcr*-,
Bafil to Cologne, along both banks of the Rhine, they arifing from the unec^ual dillribution of power and wo.iUk
were ihipped of all territorial property, and had not a foot among the ftates of tiie empire. The eledors and othei-
of land that belonged to them as heads of the empire. Their nobles of the higheft rank not only po Ife (fed fovereign jurif.
revenues were rcduaed almotl to nothing, and the extraordi- diclion, but governed fuch exter.five, populous, and rick

D d2 " ccunlri:^

GERMANY.

countries, as rendered them fjrcat princes. Many of tlie
other members, though they enjoyed all the rights of fove-
reignty, ruled over fuch petty domains, tliat their real
power bore no proportion to this high prerogative. The
electors and emperors, by tvirns, endeavoured to extend their
own authority, by encroaching on thofe feeble members of

Rhine to the ftiorr s of the Ealtic, without little intcrmiflion
from tlie battle of I'raguc to the peace of Weftphalia. The
vmfortunate Frederick, who had been put under the ban of
the empire, died broken-hearted. Ferdinand's arms were
almoft conftanlly victorious againll the Protellant princes for
the fpace of ten years. H-e was on tlie point of crufliing

the Germanic body, who fomelimes defended their rights their party when Gullavus Adolphus of Sweden rufhed upon
with much fpirit, but more frequently, being overawed or him. In vain did the Imperialilts commanded by Tilly en-
corriipted, tamely furrendered their privileges, or meanly fa- deavour to check his career; they were defeated and dif-
voured the defigns formed againft them. pcrfed. Ferdinand was going to fue for peace when the fall

But the empire of Germany comprehended countries of of the Swediih monarch at Lut/.en re-animated his hopes:
fuch vail extent, and was inhabited by fuch a martial and Wallenilein's defection did not arreil his arm. He con-
hardy race of men, that when the abilities of an emperor, or tinued lighting againft his Protcftant vafTals to the hour of
zeal for any common caufe could roufe this unwieldy body, his deatli, which happened in 1637. The war raged wiib
it was iHU able to aft with force. Charles V. grandfon of unabated fury under his fon Ferdinand III. who was ap-
Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of Spain, in right of pointed his fuccefTor on the imperial throne. The Proleftant
his mother, was elefted emperor in the year 15 19. In his caufe was ably defended by the lieroes brouglu up under the
reign happened the reformaticm of rehgion caufed by Luther, great Guftavus Adolphus. Hiftory will never forget the
which occafioned inceffant wars till 1648. (See Luther names of the duke of Saxe Weimar, of Bannier, Torften-
and Rei-ormation.) There were moments when Charles V. fon, Piccolomin!, Merci, AVrangel, and many others who
flattered himfelf with the hope of being able to hold the fliook the Aulh-i^-i power, till at length a general peace was
balance between the Roman Catholics and the Lutherans, concluded in 164(1, which being guaranteed by Sweden and
Hut the contending parties were too much inflamed with France, has been confidered for a century and a half as
animofity, and in addition to his wars againil Francis I. of forming the balls of the political fyftem of Europe, under
France, he was forced to fuftain a violent one in the heart of tlie name of the peace of Munfter or peace of Weftphalia.
the empire. Fortune, which fmiled upon him in the begin- Leopold I. who was elected emperor of Germany, after
iiing of his reign, forfook him towards its end. Heabdi- the death of his father Ferdinand III. in the year 1657, had
cated the imperial throne, in 1558, in favour of his brother to combat the French on one fide, and the Turks on the
Ferdinand I., who had the addrefs of getting his fon Maxi- other. The latter advanced to the walls of Vienna, but
milian II. declared king of the Romans, or fuccefTor to the were compelled to raife the fiege by the valeur of John
imperial crown in his life-time. This precaution became Sobieflvi, king of Poland. The fertile province of Alface
familiar to the lioufe of Auftria, and kept the imperial fcep- was conquered by France, but the Turks, having been
tre in that family, until the extinftion of the German empire, repeatedly defeated by prince Eugene of Savoy, were forced
By his laft will Ferdinand ordered that if cither his own to cede Tranfylvania by the peace of Carlouitz in 1699.
male iffue, or that of his brother Charles Ihould fail, his During Leopold's long reign, the duke of Hanover was
Auftrian eftates fiiould revert to his fecond daughter .Anne, admitted into the eleftoral college, the eleftor of Saxony
wife to the cleCior of Bavaria. Tliis circuniltance is the obtained the cleftive royal crown of Poland, the eleftor of
origin of the oppofition made by the houfe of Bavaria, in Brandenburg was acknowledged hereditary king of Pruffia,
later times, to the Pragmatic faiitlion in favour of Maria and a prince of the Bourbon family was fcatcd on the Spa-
Therefa, mother of JSJeph the fecond. nifli throne Leopold died in 1 705. The reign of his fon

The reign of Maximilian II. was difturbed by internal Jofeph I. lafted but fix years, and is remarkable onlv for
commotions, and an invafion from the Turks. He died in the viftories which the great duke of Marlborough gained
>5'76, and was fucceeded by his fon Rodolph, who was in his caufe over the French. As he left no male iffue, the
involved in wars vihU the Hungarians, and in differences with eleftor of Maycnce exerted all his influence to procure t!ie
his brother Mattliias, to wliom the empire devolved at his imperial crown to his brother the archduke Charles, who
death. Having no children, Matthias conferred the crown was at that time in Spain, dlfputing the crown of that
of Hungary on his coufin Ferdinand arch-duke of Auftria, kingdom with Philip of Anjou, grandfon to Louis XIV.
and caufed kim to be elefted king of Bohemia, which eleclion The elevation of Cliarles to the empire terminated the con-
proved the fource of a long war. Ferdinand perfecuted the tetts which had haraffed Spain and Germany. The peace
numerous feftaries in Bohemia. They took up arms ; the of Utrecht, concluded in 1713, was followed by that of
brave Mansfeld fought at their head, and Matthias, who Baden with France in 17 14, and that of Paflarowitz with
came to the alViftance of hi=; kinfman, died of vexation, for the Turks in 1 71 7.

Bot having been able to obtain a complete triumph over the Charles VI. intent upon fecuringhis hereditary dominions
liohemians. A tender of the imperial crown was made to to the archduchefs Maria Therefa his daughter, framed that
Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, who prudently declined the famous Pragmatic fanftion which was foon to dilturb again
offer. Ferdinand was therefore proclaimed em.peror in the peace of Germany. Happily for him the crown of
l6i9,butthoBohemians,maintaining thatlhefameindividual Great Britain devolved to the houfe of Hanover, which
«ould not wear the cn)wn of Germany together with that of circumllance drev/ the conneftion of Auilna and England
Bohemia, conferred the latter on Frederick, the eleftor pa- againil their common enemy m.ore clofc. Charles VI. mar-
lutine. Yielding to the intreaties of his fpoufe Elizabeth, ried his daughter to Francis duke of Lorraine, and died in
daughter of .James I. of England, againft his own conviftion, 1740. No fooner was he in the grave than the Pra-rmatic
Frederick made a fplendid triumphal entry into Prague; but fanftion was attacked on all fides The great Fredertck of
a few days after, his .army was attacked on the heights near Pruflia conquered Silefia, and Spain and'' L'avaria preferred
the town, and completely routed. He was obliged to fly their claims on feveral provinces. The intri "ues of France
with his wife and children, and found at laft an afylum in caafed the imperial throne to be filled, after an interregnum
Holland. His defeat was liie beginning of the thirty years' of two years, by the eleftor of Bavaria, who took the name
■war which ravaged Germany from the Danube and the of Charles VII, and was proclaimed emperor in 1-42.

G E R

IB'Jt after five years of dlfaftrous warfare, he died deprived
nearly of all.liis ftates. Maria Therefa had fufficient in-
flaer.ce to place her huiliand on the throne of the empire in
I 7^^. Francis I. was acknowledged as emperor of Ger-
many by the king of PrulFia at the peace of Drefden,
Ijgncd on the 2jtii of December 17+5, and by tlie French,
at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 174S.

The interval of peace which Germany enjoyed was not
of long duration. Frederick th* Great of Prudia having
difcovered the plots which were formed againft him by the
emperor, the eletlior of Saxony, Ruflia and France, and
being fublidizi^d by England, occupied Saxony, and refilled
the attacl^s of his numerous enemies with alternate fuccefs,
for the fpace of feven years. Peace was at length figned
once more at Hubertfourgh on the 15th of February 1763.
Francis I. died two years after. His fon Jofeph II. who
had been declared king of the Romans in 1764, was pro-
claimed emperor after his death. His attempt to pofTefs
himfelf of part of the dominions of Charles Theodore, the
laft eleftor of Bavaria, who died in Decembt?r 1 777, dif-
turbed the peace of Germany for a fhort time. No battle
of any confequence was fought between the Auftrian and
Pruffian armies ; but the fevere winter campaign of the latter
cad of 1778, and the beginning of 1779, ha\'iag thinned the
ranks of both, the treaty of Tefchen was concluded on the
13th of April 1779, and the peace of Wcilphalia appealed to,
and confirmed for the laft time. Maria Tlierefa left her he-
reditary dominions to her fon Jofeph II. at her death, which
happened in 1780. Frederick tlie Great of Pruffia, who
was the laft pillar of the Germanic con!;itutiun, died in 1786.
Ambitious of imitating the example of his illuftrious oppo-
nent, Jofeph II. introduced many falutary reforms in the
adminiftration of his dominions, proclaimed an unbounded
religious toleration, fupprefied a number of Ui"elefs convents,
aboliftied the ufe of the rack in criminal iiiquilltioiis, and
extinguifhed the remains of fervitude and villainage which
opproffed the peafants of his dominions. But his well-in-
tended innovations were too fudden. Difconttnts broke
out in the Netherlands, which he vainly attempted to ftifle
by force inftead of adopting conciliatory meafures. The
rebellion of his Flemifti fubjecls broke his heart. He died
childlefs, though he had been married twice ; and his brother
Leopold, grand duke of Tufcany, fucceeded him on the
impei'ial throne in 1 790. His unfortunate engagement with
the king of Pruffia and the eledlor of Saxony, to oppofe
the Frerxh revolution with all their might, and to affift the
eraio-rants in their attempts to re-enter France by force,
haftened the violent meafures of the war party in France,
which ultimately led to the extinction of the German empire.
He died on the ift of March 1792. His fon Francis II.
was raifed to the imperial throne in the middle of July fol-
lowirg. He embarked in the confederacy formed againlt
France, loft the Auftrian Netherlands, the Brifgau, and all
his poiTeflions in Italy, cind was at length obliged to abdicate
tlie imperial throne of Gcrmrjiy, and to be contented with
the title of emperor of Auiaia. See CoNFEDESATiON of
the Rhine.

The peace of Weftphalia, which had been regarded as
the bafis of the political fyilem of Europe, had, in f'aft, fown
the fe>ds of the diflbiut!^;! of the German empire, by con-
ferring on each prince ar*l ftate of the Gerir.an confederacy
the privilege of contrafting alliailces in their own names.
Their iriterefts were continually claihing with each other.
The irrcfiftible force of revolutionary France has only acce-
lerated a dilorganization, which v.ould infaliibiy have taken
place, through the rivaiibip of "he .-'\uftrian and PruiTian
monarchs, fupported, one by the Catholic, and the other by

G E R

the Proteftant ftates. Compofed of fuch difcordant ttiatc,
rials, it is rather a matter of furprife that its exiftence as a
ftate (hould have been protracted to the length of one thou-
fand years.

The Gennar.s never formed a nation united by the ties of
fimilar habits, laws and religion. Thefe differed in almoft
every petty principality, and the tie of language, from it«
many idioms and different pronunciation, was fo weak, that
the national hatred of the inhabitants of the PruflTian domi-
nions againft thrffe of the Auflrian ftates was as great as that
which prevails between the Englifli and the French. The
difference between the Proteftant and CathoHc countries wa»
alfo fo confiderable, that \\ hilft farmers in the former en-
Uvened their leifure by ftudy, the clergymen in the latter
were even ignorant of the (irll four rules of arithmetic.
Pahtzfch, a Saxon farmer, who was a fellow of the Royal
Society of London, died in 1788, and lix months before his
death a clergyman was wanted, in the gazette of Cologne,
capable of leaching the rudiments of common arithmetic.
The only feature which may be marked as a national one in
the Germans of all perfuaiions and places, is the induftry
and perfeverance of the middle and lower ranks, and the
pride and haughtinefs of the nobihty. As loldicrs, the
Germans, when ably commanded, have always fticwn them-
felves endowed with fteady courage and perfevering flrength.
But the name of German is extindl. Henceforth the tra-
veller muft inquire into the peculiar character and dir;)orition
of the Auftrian, Pruffian, Saxon, Bavarian, Weftphalian,
and tlie inhabitant of Wirtcmbcrg, Baden, Berg, Heffe
Darmftadt, NalTau, and the other Imaller ftates of the con-
federacy of the Rhine. I. G. Mcufel's Statiftics. Ro-
bertfon's Introduction to the Hiftor)- of tlie emperor
Charles V. Bufching's Geography. Anc. and Mod. Univi
Hift. Gibbon's Decline, &c. of the Roman Empire.

Germany, Upper and Loiuer, in Ancient Geography, divi-
fions of Caul ; which fee.

Germany, in Geography, a town of America, in Adams'
countv, Pennivlvania, containing loi^ inhabitants.

GERMEN, or Gekm. See Ejibrvo.

Gerhen, in Botany and Vegetahk Phyftokgy, the rudi-
ments of the fruit, confHtutingone of the two ellential parts
of the pirtil of a flower, the ftigma being the other ; the ft vie,
which ufually elevates the latter, not being indifpenfable,
nor always prefent. The Latin word gernun properly
means a bud, or fprout (fee Gemma) ; whioh latter, in
fcientific language, is now univerlally ufed in its ftead.
Linnceus therefore apphed germtn technically, and very
happily, to the feed-bud, or origin of the future ofi'spinng,
which had as yet no appropriate name. In this he is gene-
rally followed, even by the only perfon who conld tfF.itii.ally
have contended with him infuch apoiut, thecelehratcdjullieu.
Nevertliclefs, G;ertner, alTuniing feme well-founded autho-
rity on account of his valuable labours refpetting fruits and
feeds, prefers the word bvarium, bonowed from aiiatomilts,
for it is not claffical Latin. The only reafon for this inno-
vation is, as he is pleafed to exprefs it, that Linnzus "fatit
improprio" caib tliis part gcrmen. . The authority of Girtner
has unfortunately milled one excellent writer of late to adopt
the term ovariuw, to which we objeil, not fo mucli for its
want of claffical authority, as it might well be defended on
the ground of analogy, but bccaule it is not appiopriate,
and is not ufed by Gartner in the original anatomical fenfe,
but in a new and arbitrary one. A'egetablcs have no fuch
organ as the ovarium of animals. Malpighi, much more
correiftly, calls the gernun the uterus ; but this is improper
for plants with naked feeds ; whereas germen is apphcable
in all cafes to the rudiment of the fruit, whaVever its nature

may

G E R

mtiy b;. Such a eo'.nprchcnfive term is of the more Talue,
as not liaving any refpett to the difpiitablc point of whether
any feeds be really nak?d or no. We agree with Gxrtner
that they cannot in their ori^^in be naked, but mull have
fomc integument through which they arc impregnated ; fee
1""ecun7jATI0n of Plants. In an advanced Hate the fajne
able author could not but allow the exiilence of naked
feeds in a certain fonfe, that is, fuch as have only their ov.-n
clTential integuments, but no real perkarphim or feed-vefTel.

G.crtner very fuccefsfully combats the Linnxan hypo-
thefis, that the germen originates from the pith of the
plant, as the llaniens from the woody part. This idea was
purely hypothetical, and is unfuj)ported by any anatomical
facl, liowever ingenious the tlieory ot generation deduced
from it by the illuilrious Swede.

The germen is formed as early as any part of the flower,
of v.hicli indeed it frequently conftitiites the bafe. Before
the ftigma is ripe for impregnation, all the internal parts
of the germen, elpecially the young feeds, receive their due
fhape and ilruclure, except only the embryo, the rudirnents
of which can fcarcely be detected at that period. If no
iznprcgnation takes place, the germen, and even the feeds
fometimes continue to grow, but a cavity only in fuch cafe
will be found in the place ot tlie embryo, whicii has at leail
proved abortive and withered away, if it ever }iad any exift-
ence. More frequently indeed only the liudis or withered ru-
diments of leeds are found in an advanced unimpregnated
germen ; and llill more generally the whole germen withers
if the ilamcns and lligma have not performed their office.

Germens are either folitary or numerous, fimple or zrr-
pregate, in diiferent genera of plants. With refpecl to
I'/tuation, it is important to note whether tlie germen be
fuperior, that is, above the bafes of the calyx and corolla,
ot inferior, below them. Sucli a difierence commonly
marks a vei-y effential generic diftinction, yet in that moll
natural genus Saxifraga, fome fpccies have a fuperior and
others an inferior germen. Tliis proves, on a careful ana-
tomical invelligation, to depend merely on a greater or lefs
degree of elevation of the organ in quellion within the cavity
of the calyx. Indeed fucii an invelligation of flowers in
general will (hew that there is perhaps no fuch thing as an
inferior germen, ftrictly fpeaking, becaufe there mull necef-
farily be a continuation of the integuments of the flower
and their veflels, in fome form or other, alo^g the outer
part of what is commonly deemed an ii-.ferior germen, to
the ftalk whence their nourifhment- is derived. But tliis
" were to conlider too curioully.' The line is in alraofl;
every cafe drawn with fufficient diftinction for all ufeful
purpofes, and is generally indicated in due time by a fpon-
taneous feparation of parts. Sanguiforba is crroneoufiy
judged by Lmnsus to have the germen below the corolla
though above the calyx, a Ilrange and unexampled circum-
itance indeed ! He was milled by the clofe adliefion of
the thin pellucid tube of the coi-ollu to the germen. In
jidoxa, however, there is an approach towards fuch a fin-
gularity of tlrufture, the calyx being inferted half v,'ay
down, while the corolla crowns the germen, for this plant,
being akin to Suxifragci, partakes of tliat irregularity of
pofition in the germen wliich «e have already defcribed.

Notiiing is more wonderful than that difference of vaf-
cular conttitution in tlie germen of different genera or na-
tural orders, by which, though in all cafe^ nearly equally
juicy while young and growing, in- fome it becomes coria-
ceous, or woody, and dry, as it ripens, while in others it
attains a foft pulpy coniiftence, which obliterates all its
original inttrn.il ilruciure. The wife ends anfwered by
tiele differences are indeed apparent, but tke mcaa« by

G E R

which they are accompliflied arc, if not iiifcrutable, hitherto
unexplained. S.

GERMER, St., in Geography, a town of France, in
the departr.ic.it of tlie Oife ; 12 miles W. of Beauvais.

GERJvIERSHEIM, a town of France in the depart-
ment of Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, ia the
diftricl of Spire ; 5 miles S. of fipire. The j. lace contains
1251, and the canton 11,745 '"habitants, in 16 communes.
It i,-. fituatcd at the conflux of the O. eich and the Rhine,
and was credled into a town by Rodolpluis I., who died
here in 1 290. It was taken by the French in 1 794. N.
lat. 49 12 . E. long. 8 25'.

GERMINATION, ia Veg:lab'e Phfiohsy; the firft be-
ginning of vegetation in feeds, is acconiphdicd by moifture,
heat, and air, acting mechanically and chemically on the fub-
llance and component parts of the feed, as well as llimulating
its vital principle. Thefc agents mult perform tiicir func-
tions together, in order to produce a falutary eflecl, other-
wife the vital principle, or the chemiciJ properties of the
feed, may be ffimulated or fpoiled, nor mu'l their app'ica-
tion, generally fpeaking, be longer delayed than ui'ually
h:ippen3 in the ordinary courfe of nature. Some feeds, in-
deed, may be kept out of the ground for years, or may re-
main buried far beneath its fiirface, we know not how long,
without loling their vegetative power; while others muft
fcatter themfelves in their own way, immediately from the
feed-veffel, in order to fucceed with certainty. A feed ab-
forbs, through the veffels of its bafe, or fc.ir, any moillurc
that comes in its way, and it foon meets with fuch a fupply
when committed to the ground, at l!ie fame time receiving,
throughout its whole fubftance, a deiinite portion of heat,
foiue ieeds requiring more than others. Atmolpherical air
is alfo neceffary ta the germination of feeds, on account o£
the oxygen gas which makes a part of its compofition, and
which modern clieniifts have found to be abforbcd by feeds,
in tlie moments of incipient germination, from or through
the furrounding foil. I'liis appears from their being incapa-
ble of vegetation while buried deep in the earth, or while
under the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump ; though fuch
as have been fo fituated immediately grow, when the at-
mofphere has accefs to that part of the foil in which they
lie. By the above agents the bulk of the feed is increafed,
and its vital principle ftimulated. The integuments burll,
and the radicle, or young root, protrudes, which being
mod fufccptible of the ftimulus of moillure, for that rcafon
.(as Dr. Darwin ingenioufly judged,) elongates itfelf in the
direction where it meets with this llimulus, increafing chiefly
at the extremity, and defcending into the earth. It is a
well-known facT; that the radicle takes this direftion, in
wliatever pofition the feed inay happen to lie. Dr. Dar-
vn'n's feems to us tlie bell explanation «f this curious law of
the vegetable conftitution, and preferable to any one founded
on principles of mechanics or of gravitation. Accordingly,
the rudiments of the young plant, conlifting of the cotyle-
dons and phmiula or bud, being moft ilimulatcd by air,
raife themielves out of the ground, entirely for the mofl
part, in purfuit of it. If fome few cotyledons do remain
and wither under ground, it is only becaufe they have al-
ready met with a fufficiency of air or oxygen to anfwer
their dellination. See Cotyledoxes.

During the procefs of incipient germination, the imme-
diately neceffary fupphcs of nourilhment, 'till the young 1
root can derive any from the foil, are furnilhed bv the al-
httmeii, a Jubilance, either conllituting a feparate body of
itlelf, as in graffes, corn, palms. Sec, wliich, from a hard,
dry, and tallelefs niafs, changes, by the action of water and
oxygc;!, into a milky or f;'.ccharine fluid, witaefs thcx)pera-

tiuB

G E R

fion of malting ; or tlie fame fiibflance is lodgrd in, or
united with, the bulk of the cotyledons, as in tlie legumi-
Tiouj tribe. If the albumen happens to fuffer chemical de-
terioration, by keeping or otherwife, the feed germinates
ir.ore feebly, or rot at all. Hence gardeners prefer old
feeds of melons and cucumbers, as producing Icfs luxuriant
plants, and more fruit in proportion. We prefume the
confequences of keeping afFecl the chemical qualities of the
albumen before the vital principle fu.Ters, becaufe of the
f lecefs of recent French ch:m;(b, v.ho by the copious ap-
plication of oxygen rellore their original nature. See this
v.hole fubjecl more fully detailed in the TranfaAions of the
Linniean Society, vol. 9. p. 20.4. — 217. S.

GERMISCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the bilhopric of Freyfing ; 21 miles S. of 'Weilhaim.

GERlklONrO, Anastasio, in Biojmp/jj, was born at
Sala, in Piedmont, in 1551 ; his education was almo'l en-
tirely neglected till he had attained the age of manhood.
Feeling, at this period, his own deliciencv, he applied him-
fclf with fa much diligence, that in the courfe of a few
months he felt equal to engage in the lludy of the law. He
took his degree at the univertity of Turin, and was ap-
. pointed to the profeflbrihip of the canon-law, an office
which he held, in conjunction with other polls of honour and
emolument, till his archbifkop was created a cardinal ; he
then accompanied him to Rome, and acquired the eileem cf
Sixtus y. and the fucceeding pontiffs. He was appointed
by Clement VHI. to affift in compiling'-the feventh book
of decretals, in which were inferted the decrees of the
council of Trent, with explanations. After this he was
entrulled by the dukes of Urbino and Savoy ^^^th the ma-

Daeeraent of their concerns at the fee of Rome. So hisfh

^ . . . . ?

was his reputation, that two biflioprics were offered him

which he reiufed, but at len^jth accepted of the ?.rchbi(liopric
of Tarantafia, in Savoy. He was next fent embaffador, by
duke Charles iEnianuel, to the court of Madrid, where he
died in 1627. Befides his notes on the Decretals, and other
fmallcr pieces on the Digeil and Code, he pibliihcd " De
Sacrorum immunitatibus Lib. tres, &c." printed at the Vai-
can, 1 59 1 ; — " Pomeridianx ft-ffiones in quibus Latinoe Lin-
guae diguitas defenditur," &c. His writings are highly
c'lleem.ed for the purity of the language and the accuracy

• of the reafoning. Moreri.

GERMS, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 62 miles .
W.N.W. of Vienna. N. lat. 48' 32'. E. long. 15'.

GERMUK, a town of Ailatic Turkey; 45 miles W.
of Diarbekir.

GERN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tala ;
28 miles W.S.W. of Tula. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria; 15
uiDes W.N.W. of Braunau.

GERNACH, a town of Germanv, in the principality
if Wurzburg ; 5 miles W.N.W. of Geroldflioien.

GERNOl, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government of
Kolivan, feated on the Irtifch ; 204 miles S.^\'. of Ko-
livan. N. lat. 51^ 44'. E. long. 78 14.

GERKOL-\RSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Kolivan, on the Irtifch ; 196 r.;iles W.S.W.
.of Kolivan. N. lat. 52 30'. E. long. 7- 14'.

GERNORIETZKGI, a fortrefs of Riiflia, in the go-
Ternment of Kolivan, on the Irtifch, 180 miles WjSjW.
of Kolivan. N. lat. 52 45?. E. long. 77 14'.

GERNRODE, a town of Germany, in the principality

of Anhalt Bemburg, in wliich was an abbey faunded in 96c,

-.and richly endowed for ladies, by Gero, auirgrave of Lu-

.ialia, which was fecularized in favour of the houfe of An-

• halt, at the peace of Wellphalia ; 30 miles W. of Ddiau.
N. lit. 51-45'. E. long, u'' 20'.

G E R

GERNSHEIM, or Geken-.^heim, a town of" Gtrmany
given, in 1802, to the landgrave of Hefie barmftadt ; hi
miles E.S.E. of Mentz.

GERNYOSZEG, a town of Tmnfilvania, on the
river Maros ; ro miles S.W. of Kcrcfztur.

GEROCOMIA, of y'.fx-,, aged, and zojiifv, / ehri/h;
a term ufed by the ancients for that fort of medicinal
praclice which treated of the proper regimen to be cb-
lerved in old age.

GEROD.\, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
territory of Eiclisfe'd, with a rich Benedictine abbey ; eight
miles N.E of Duderlladt.

GERODOT, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube ; nine miles E. of Troves.

GEROLDSHOFEN, a town of Germany, in the
bidiopric of Wurzburg ; 20 miles N.E. of Wurzburg.

GEROLDSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Katzenelnbogen ; feven miles S. of Nallede.

GEROLSTEIN, a town of France, in the department
of the Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in the diflrict
of Prum ; 24 miles N. of Treves. The place contains 350,
and the canton 2892 inhabitants, in 29 communes. N lat.
50' 16'. E. long. 6 38'.

GERON Point, a cape of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim, on the eaft coaft. W. long. 5-' 50'. N. lat.

55" 3'-

GERONA, or GlROXSE, Lat. Gerum'a, a town of
Spain, in the province of Catalonia, the fee of a bifhop, fuf-
fragan of Tarragona. This is a fortified town, of nearly a
triangular form, iituated on tlie fide and at the foot of a
ileep mountain ; the river Tar runs through it. The ftrevts
are naiTow and crowded, but the houfes are tolerably well
built. It has feveral churches and convents ; and its popu-
lation amoiuits to about 14,000 perfons, a fourth of wliicli
number confiils of priells, monks and nuns, fchola'S and
lludents. Several provincial councils l-.ave been held in tliis
place, one in 517, another in 106S, &c. The trade of this
town is inconfiderable, and its only mannfaclorics confift of
a few looms for ftockings, c'oarfe cloths, and woollen and
cotton lluiTs. The cathedral and collegiate churches arc
the two moft remarkable edillccs in Gironne. The trcafury
of tl;e cathedral is richly funiiihed with chahces, erodes,
(lirines, rehcs, &c. of gold and filver fet with jewels. In
the Capuchin convent there is an Arabian bath, conilrufted
in the moft elegant ilyle, and confilling of columns ftanding
on an oftagon llylobate, or low-bafo, encircling a refervoir
to contain water. The univerfity of Gironne, founded in
1 52 1 by Philip II., was aboliflied in 1715 by Philip V.
After the fuppreffion of the Jefuits, pviblic inihuction was
concenti-ated in one college, accommodating 9CO lludents,
who are taught the Latin grammar, rhetoric, philofophy,
and theology. Tlie hbrgry is felecl and extenlive. Schools
are kept by the community of the Beguine nuns for the gra-
tuitous iiiilruction of poor girls ; 47 miles N.E. f^f ) arce-
lona. N. b.tT 42 10'. . E.. long. 2 35'.

GERONIMO, St., a town of Mexico, inNewBifcayj
90 miles N. of Parral

GERONTE, a fmall iiland in the Mediterranean, near
the coail of Natolia. N. lat. 36" 20'. E. long. 30^ 4'.

GERONTES, in Antiquity, a kind of judges, or ma^rif-
trates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what tlie Areopagites
were at Athens. Sec AiiEgp.tGUS.

The word is formed of Gi-eek, •ys.i'v, which fignihes old
man. Whence alfo the words geronik, fomeihing belonging
to an old man ; and gercniccn, a famous bock among the
modern Greeks, containing the lives of the ajicieiit morOcs.

Ti-.e

G E R

The fcnate of- gerontcs were caWcd sfriifa, that is, affembly
or council of old men.

The gerontes wore originally inftituted by Lycurgus: their
Bumbcrt according; to lome, was twenty-eight ; and, accord-
ing to others, tliirty-two. They governed in conjiinftion
wfth the kin;;, whole authority they were intended to ba-
lance, and to watch over ll'.e intorells of the pcojile. Poly-
biiis defines their office in few words, v.h>:n he fays, " per
ipfos, ct cum ipfis omnia ad-.tiiniftrati." None were to be ad-
mitted into tliis office nnder fixty years of age. and they
held it for life. They were fucceeded by the Ephori.

GERONTESSA, in Cfop;:/Jjy, a fmall ifland in the
gulf of Engia ; four mile:; foutii of Engia.

GERONTOXON. in Surgny, a little ulcer, (haped Fke
the head of a dart, and making its appearance occafionally
on the cornea of old perfons. The term is derived from
yjfiv, an eld pi-rfnn, and ro^c;, a f/nr/.

GEROPOGON, in Z?o/^ny,from yspv, an old man, and
Ti-j/i;, a beard, alluding to the long hoary down of the feed.
Linn. Gen. 398. Schrcb. yij.WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1491. Mart.
Mill. Dic^. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. no. JulT. 170.
Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 646. Giirrtn. t. 160.— ChU's and order,
SyngeiKJ'ia Polygamia-aquaHs. Nat. Ord. Compofil£ Sem'fiofcu-
loft, Lin:-;. Ctchoraccit, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx fimple, of numerous upright, lan-
ceolate, fomewhat awl-ihaped, keeled leaves, longer than the
corolla. Cor. compound, fomewhat imbricated, ur.ifcjvm ;
each floret hermaphrodite, with a corolla of one petal, ligu-
late, abrupt, live-toothed ; the outer ones equal in n-imber to
the calyx-leaves, inner ones fewer and fliortcr. Stim. Fila-
ments live, very fnort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube.
J'tjl. Germen oblong ; ftyle tliread-fliaped, the length of the
ftamcns ; iHgmas two, thread-fliaped, recurved. Pa'ic. none,
except the permanent, oblong, upright, gaping calyx.
, Seeds of the circumference awl-lhaped, as long as the calyx ;
their crown ftalked, of five fpreadnig rough briiUes : thofe
of the diik awl-(haped, but Ihorter, their crown feathery.
Recept. naked.

EIT. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx fimple, of many leaves.
Seeds of the dilk with a feathery crown ; thofe of the cir-
cumference with one of five nsktd rays.

Obf. Lii.nxus originally dofcribed the receptacle as naked,
which is confirmed by Ga:rtncr, Willdenow, and Jacquin.
Afterwards he -attributed chaffy fcales to this part, v.hich is
adopted by Schreber, but, as we believe, without founda-
tion. Jacquin, in coiilideration of the etymology, properly
makes this genus, as well as 'I'mgopogon and AndropOj^on, of
the mafculine gender.

Two certain fpecies of C eropogon o\-\^' are krown. They
have the clofell natural affinity to Tragopogon, but differ in
the briftly, not feathery, crown of tlieir external row of
feeds. The gunus is merely artificial, as not at all fupport-
ed by habit, nur is the difference in the croxen of the lecds
greater than what occurs amongtl indubitable fpecies cf one
genus in others of this natural order.

I. G. glaber. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 109. Jacq. Hort. Vind v. i.
t. ^3. — " Leaves fniooth.'' — Native cf Italy and the Levant,
.onietimes kept in botanic gardens for curlofity only. It is
annual, with a branched^?™, 12 or 18 inches high, clothed
with many alternate, clai'ping, long, graffy, Imoolh haves,
each branch terminated by a Imall, mcoiifpicuous, pale pink
Jloiver, hke the pink hawkweed, but far lels handlome. Tlie
feeds are larger and more remarkable. The herb abounds
with milky bitterilh juice. Nothing can be more clofely
allied than this plant to Tragopogon porrij'olius of Linnxus :
■^ee Engl. Bot. t. 638.

G E R

2. G.hhfuUn. Linn. Sp.P!. 1109. (Tragopogon gi-ami-
neo folio, fuaverabente flore ; Column. Ecphr. t. 231.) —
" Leaves hairv " — Found by Columna, \\\\o alone of all
botaniils feeins actually to have fecn this fpecies in a wood of
v>'ild pear-trees near Cirinola in It^ly, flowering in May. It
appears to differ from the preceding, chiefly in the roughncfs
of its hives, which neverth^lefs is fo precifely and forcibly
indicated by Columna, th.at we dare not prelunie it not to
be a fufficient diftinftion. All arthors have adopted this
plant from Columna, nor had Linn-^us a fpecimen.

A third fpecies occurs in recent writers, G. calyadalits ;
Linn. Syrt. Veg. cd. 13. 592. (Tragopogon calyculatus;
.Tacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 48. t. 106.) This was received by
Jacquin from Italy, and he fent a fpecimen to Linnaeus, wha
referred it to Geropogon. The habit is that of a Scorzonera. •
Rsit perennial. Vlonvcr-JlalJ:, calyx, and upper leaves hairy.
Calyx of a double row of fcales, fliorter than the corolla,
which is yellow. Crown of the fe:d fllghtly hairy, and, as
far as we can perceive, uniform. — This is certainly no genu-
ine Geropogon, nnd we are convinced it is the identical iVor-
zon.-ra hirfuta of Linnaeus, well figured in Columna'i
Ecphrafis, t. 233, though unfortunately we cannot prove it
to demonilration, there being no fpecimen of the latter in
the Linna:an herbarium. The plant in qucllion is however
the Geropogon hirfutus of Allioni, Fl Pedem. v. i. 229, as
his fynonyms faew, tliough he took it to be annual. S.

GERRARD, in Geography, a county of Kentucky, in
America, corvtaining 6083 inhabitants, of whom 1234316
flaves.

GERRARDS, Peter vax Zyl, in Biography, a painter,
born at Amlterdam in 1607. He came to England and lived
in the fame houie with Vandyke on terms of friendfliip
and intimacy. He ftudied his manner lucccfsfully, and oa
his return to Amfterdam was fo highly thought of, as ta
bear the name of the fecond Vandyke.

GERRES, Geruli, or Gholl, in Jchthyclogy, name*
given by the Venetians to a fifli common in that part of the
world. It is tiie fm.aris, or ma;na alba of authors. Artedi
very judicioudy makes it a fpecies of the fparus, and diftia-
guifhes it from others, by its having a black fpot on each Cde,
and the peftoral and tail-fins red.

GERRHA, Tip-p,, among the Greeks, wicker hurdles,
refembling the Roman rinf.*, which the Romans held over their
heads to (helter themlelves.

GERRH.jE, or GeRhhi, in Ancient Geography, a people of

Scythia, in Europe, S. of the Danube Alio, a people of

Afiatic Sarmatia, not far from the Cafpian fea.

GERRHUS, a river of Sarmatia, which runs into the
Pains Ma-otides. — Alfo, a river of Afia, in Albania.

GERRI, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia;
27 miles N. of Balanguer, — A Ho, a town of Africa, in
Nubia, fituated on the Nile ; containing about 140 houfesj
150 miles N.N.E. of Sennaar. N. lat. 16 15. E. long. 33^
GERRISH, a fmall iiland, near cape Neddock, dole to
the main land of the diftiift of Maine, in America.

GERRY, a townffiip of America, in the Hate of the Maf-
fachufetts, and county of Worcelier ; incorporated in 1786,
and containing 14,000 acres ot land, m which arc 802 inlia-
bitants ; 30 miles N.W.of Worceilcr.

GERS, a river of France, which riles near La Bartbc de
Neiles, in the department of the Upper Pyrer.ces, tra\erfes
the department of tlie Gers, and runs into the Garonne,
about three miles S.E. of Agen.

Gers, one of the nine departments of the fouth-well, or
Garonne region of France, bounded on the N. by the de-
partment of the Landes and the Lot and Garonne, on th?
E. by the department of the Upper Garonne, on tjie S. by
3 th«

G E R

-the departments of tlie Upper and Lower PjTEnces, and
on the W. by the department of Landes. This department
is compofed of Condommois, Armagnac, and Comminges,
and takes its name from tl'.c river which croflcs it from fouth
to north. Its capital is Auch. It isfituatedin N. lat. 43' 40';
its territorial extent is 7,047^ kiliometres, or about 339
fquare leagues, and the number of its inhabitants is eftimat-
ed at 291,845. It is dinded into five diftriAs, to's. Condour,
containing 67,103 inhabitants, Lp(iloune,with57, 445, Auch,
having 52,825, Lombcs, with 37,393, and Mirande, with
77,079 inhabitants. The number of its cantons is 3c, and
ot its communes 700. The total of its contributions, per-
fonal, fumptuary, and on moveables and immoveables, &c. is
*,663,3iofrancs, and the expence of adminiftration, juftice,
and public inftruclion, is 278,498 francs. Tlie foil of this
hilly department is indifferenliy fertile, yielding moderate
crops of grain, vrine, fruits, and good paiturts.
I GERSA, or Gairsa, anilland of Scotland, five miles E.

of Enhallow, two S. of Weir, ai'.d one E. of Mainland, is two
miles long and one broad, and contains 50 inhabitants. The
greateft part confifts of a conical hill ; ileep on the W. fide,
and towards the E. more plain and fertde. The only har-
bour is that of MiUburn on the E. coaft. See Gairsa.

GERSAU, or Geuisac, a village or town of Switzerland,
at the foot of the Rigi, and the fmallefi: repubhc in Europe.
Its territory is about a league in breadth, and two leagues
in length ; iituated partly on a fraall neck of land at the
edge of the lake of Schweitz, and partly lying upon the
rapid dechvity of the Rigi. It contains about 1200 inha-
bitants, having their general aflembly of burgefTes, their
landamman, their council of regency, their courts of juftice,
and their mihtia. In the whole republic there is not a fingle
horfe ; and the only way of arriving at the town is by water,
excepting a narrow path down the ileep fides of the mountain,
which is almoft impaffable. Gerifau is entirely compofed of
fcattered houfes and cottages of a very neat and pitiurcfque
appearance; each dwelling is provided with a field or fmall gar-
den. The inhabitants are much employed in preparing filk for
the manufactures of Bade. This httle republic is under the
proteftion of the four cantons, Luccrn, Uri, Schweitz, and
Undenvalden ; and in cafe of war furniflies its quota of men.
The town is fix miles diftant S.W. from Schweitz. N. lat.
46* ^f. E. long. 8' 20'.

GERSCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kori-
gingratz ; nine miles N.W. of Konigingratz.

GERSCHNITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality
fif Bapeuth ; fix miles E. of Bayreuth.

GERSDORF, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Querfurt ; four miles N.E. of Juterbock.

GE?>.SON, in Biography, chancellor of the church End
iiniverfityof Paris at the beginningoftb.e fifteenth century ;
according to whom the ground-work of all difcant was the
plain-chant ; and in his treatife upon the education of chil-
dren for the ehoir of Notre Dame, he enjoins a particular
attention to chanting, counterpoint, and dilcant, as the tlirte
molt eflential branches of their inftruclion and ftudy. (Ma-
gifter cantus ftatutis horis doceat pueros planum cantum prin-
cipaliter, et contrapunftum, et aliquos difcantus honeftos —
decent and fober melodies.) He likev.-ife tells us, that in
this cathedral, during his time, the choirifters were only al-
lowed, by the ftatutes, to praclife difcant till their voices
broke. (Nee faciat eos tantum inCfterc in talibus, quod per-
dint in grammatica profeclum ; attento maxime quod in
ecclefia noftra difcantus non eft in ufu, fed per ttatuta por-
hibitui, faltem quoad voces quae mutatae dicuntur). The Abbe
Lebeuf underftands thefe laft words as we have tranflated
iicm : (Le d^chaot n'etoit poiat eo u£age daiw I'eglifede

G E R

Paris, el qu'an eontraire il etoit dcfendu par les ftat'.tts, an
moins a I'cgard des veix qui avoient paffe Ic terns dc la mu-
tation. Traite Hid. fur le Chant. Eccles. p. 92.) The
indefatigable Abbe Lebeuf found in the king of France's
Lbrary the ftatutes here alluded to, which had been framed
in the 13th century, and from which the chancellor had beca
ordered to makeextrafts in 1408. He concludes the fourtli
article of his trail, which relates to pfalmody, by informing ut
that no written difcant was allowed in church miffals or gra-
duals, except for the cxercife and improvement of the finging
boys. (Nee debet in caiitu notulato regukiriter immifceri
difcantus, pueris exceptis propter exercitationem fuam. Gcr-
fon, torn. iv. ultima; edit. p. 717.)

GERSPACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in thp
county of Eberftcin, on the Murg ; taken by the French in
1794; three miles S.E. of Baden. N. lat. 48 48'. E. long.
8 20'.

GERSPRINTZ, a town of Germany, ia the county of
Erbach ; loven miles N.W. of Erbach.

GERSTEN, Christian Louis, in Biography, -vc^shoTA
at GiefTen in 1701 : here he was educated, and in the year
1733 he was appointed profeflbr of mathematics and tht
mechanical fciences in that city. On account of fome dif-
pute he was difmifled from his office, and left GiefTen in
1744 ; he went firft to Altona, and from thence to Pcterf-
burgh ; but meeting with no encouragement, he returned
and attempted to g^t rcinftatcd in his office, but failing in
his defign, he infultcd the landgrave, was arrefted at Franc k-
fort in 1 748, and doomed to perpetual imprifonment in tlic
caftle of Marburg, with an annual allowance of 200 flo-
rins. Here he employed himfelf in teaching the matlie-
matics to thofe young perfons who came to his prifon for
inftrudlion, and his leifure moments were occupied in ftudy-
ing the phenomena of the atmofphcre, and the eiianget
which take place in it, fo as to become very expert iu tlie
fcience of meteorology. In thq year 1760 he was liberated
from his confinement, but his freedom was not complete ; he
was admitted at large for a time by way of proving whether
he was entitled to a general difcharge : efcaping however
from his fliackles he went privately to Franckfort, where
he kept himfelf concealed, or at leaft quiet, till he died ia
1762. His works were numerous, and written in the Latia
langaage : they chiefly rehte to meteorology, to the me-
thods cf calculating eclipCcs, and to the ftructure of ailro-
nomical inftruments; He was eileomed by his contempo-
raries for his integrity and his learning. He fent loine pa-
pers to the Royal Society of London, of which feveral
were infcrted in the volumes of their Tranlactions. Moreri.

GERSTUNGEN, in Geography, a town of Ger.nanv,
in the principality of Eifenach, on the Werra ; 8 miles W«
of Eifenach.

GERSWALDE, a town of Germany, in tJie Uckor
Mark of Braadenljurg ; 9 miles S. of Prenzlaw.

GERTHAUSEN, a town of Gennany, in the county-
of Henneberg ; I o miles W. of Mcinun^en.

GERTRUDENBERG, a town ot Germany, ia the
bifliopric of Olnnbruck ; i mile E. of Ofnabruck.

GERTRUYDENBERG, St., a town of Brabant,
but i.i later times fubjeil to Holland, with 3 good harbour,
formed by the Merwe, whicli here extends to a confiderabls
lake, called « Bics Bofch/' over which is a paflageof twa
hours to Dort, It is built in the form of a crefcent, \^a\
regular fortifications, good baftions, and forts witli (luices j
by means of which they can lay tl;e adjacent country under
water. In ancient charters it is called " ^^oas Littoris,"'
the mountain of the Ihore. In 64", Pepin de Landen,
duke of Bribant, gave it to his daughter Gertrude, wha
5 e buJB

G E R

built a chiivch dedicated to St. Amand, bifliop of Tongr? s j
but the place afteru-ards becoming cekbrated by tlit death
Mid pretended miracles of St=. Gertrude, it has fince been
called «' Moritde St'. Gertrude,'' or Gertnidenberg. The
ealllc was built in ,1321. After palTing through nwny
vicifiitudes, it was fummoncd by the French in February
1793, and taken ; but foon after evacuated. The French
took it again in 1795. It is diftant 10 miles S.E. of Dort,
and 7 N.E. of Breda. N. lal. 51 ' 40'. E. long^. 4' 44'

GERTZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of
WurzburT ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Munerftat.

GERVAIS, Armaxd Francis, in Biograf-hy, was bom
at Paris about the year 1660: he was educated with the
Jefuits, and at fifteen years of age he entered among the
bare-footed Carmelites. At the age of twenty-two he was
appointed by his fuperiors to teach theology to the younger
members of the order ; and he was at the fame time diftin-
guilhcd as a pulpit orator. Some years after this he witli-
drcw into the monaftery of La Trappe, where he fuccef-
fively filled very important offices belonging to that order.
The changes which he introduced, and the reforms which
he m.edilatcd, created an alarm ; and in 1 698 he refigned his
offices, and quitted liis refidence in the monaftery. From
this period he wandered about, from folitude to folitude,
following the fame afcetic courfe of life which he had been
in the habit of praftiling in tiie college. Havuig, in 1745,
publiihed the firft volume of an interefting " General Hif-
tory of the Ciftercian Order in France," in which was a
fevere attack upon the Bernardins, he was arrefted and
imprifoned in the abbey of Notre Dame des Reclus, in the
diocefe of Troyes, where he died in 1751, at the age of
ninety-one. He pubhfiied, befides the work alluded to,
" The Life of St. Cyprian," with an abridgment of hi«
works, including notes and differtations : " The Lives of
Peter Abelard and of liis wife Heloife ;" " The Hillory
of Suger, Abbot of St. Denys," in three volumes, I2m<).
'♦ The Life of St. Irenaeus,'" in two vols. l2mo. Alfo lives
of St. Paul, Epiphanius, Ruffinus, aiid other eminent per-
fons. He was dilLinguifhed as a controvcrfialill, and was
the opponent of Father Courayer on the fubjeft of Englifn
ordinations. He is charafterized as a man of great learning
and fingular virtues, but his manners were aullerc, impetu-
ous, and forbidding. Moreri.

GtRVAls, Si. in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Puy de Dome, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of Riom; 15 miles N. W. of Riom. The
place contains 21 80, and the canton 9204 inhabitants, on a
territory of 282^ kUiometres, in 1 1 communes.

GEK\AK-Je-Mnffy, St. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tricl of Domfront; 9 miles N. N. E. of Domfront. The
place contains 1068, and the canton 17,228 inhabitants, on
a territory of 132-!^ kiliometres, in 14 communes.

GBR\-j\zs.Iti-Fil/e, S(. a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Beziers. The place contains 1263, and the canton
8641 inhabitants, on a territory of 1371 kiliometres, in lo-
communes.

GERVASE of Tilbury, in Biography, an hiftorian of the
thirteenth century, a native of Tilbury, inEffex, and nephew
lo king Henry IL He was, through the intereft of Otho
IV. Blade marflial of the kingdom of Aries. He wrote
a commentary on Geoffrey of Kfonmouth's Britifh Hiftory,
and alfo a tripartite Hiftoiy of England. His otlier works
are " A Hiilory of the Holy Land ;'' " Origenes Bur-
gnndionum :" " Mirabilia Orbis," and a Chronicle ; entitled
«' Imperialium Otiorum.'' The compilation of the ex«

GE R

cUeqacT book, entitled " Liber Niger Scaccarii," tva*
afcribed to him ; but Mr. Madox, who publiflied a corretl
edition of it, gives it to Richaid Nelfon, bidiop of Lon-
don. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

GERVASIO Gath, the nephew of Bernardo; was alfo
a painter of confiderable merit in the fame ftyle of colour-
ing, as is evident in a piclure of Si. Seballian, in the
church of St. Agatha at Cremona, where it is united to-
the deugn of the antique; and alfs in the Martyrdom of
St. Ceciha, at St.Pietro, in the fame city.

GERVASO, St. in Geography, a town of Italyj in the
department of the Mela; 15 miles S. of Brefcia.

GERUMA, in Botany, barbaroufly corrupted by Forf-
kall from an Arabic name Djerrum. Forlk. ^Egyptiaco.
Arab. 62. JulT. 264. Lamarck. Did. v. 2. 702.—
C\:\kzn&ovim-, Pentandrla Monogynia. Nat. Ord. " Jlle/'ae,
or ferhz^s Alalvaceie," JufiT. — "■ Rhamtii ?" Lamarck.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one liaf, flat, five-
toothed, fmall, green, permanent. Cor. Petals five, lan-
ceolate, abrupt, fpreading, thrice as long as the calyx,
white. Nectary, a thick ring furrounding the germen,
bearing the ftamens on its outer edge. Starr.. Filaments
five, ereft, half the length of the corolla ; anthers ered,
triangular. Pift. Germen globofe, deeply immerfed in the
neftary ; ftyle thread-fliaped, faall ; lligmas three, widely^
fpreading, red, wedge-lliaped, emarginate at the extremity. -
Pak. Capfule fuperior, oval, of four, or perhaps IWe, cells,
and as many valves. Sieils, two in each cell, oval, iwferted
into a trianguUu- white pulp ; one of them oft«n abor-
tive.

Eft". Ch. Calyx witk five teeth. Petals five, abrupt.
Neftarv, a ring round the germen. Stigm.as three, emar-
ginate. Capfule fuperior, ovate, of four or five cells.
Seeds two, affixed to a pulpv receptacle.

I. G. alba. Leaves alternate, oval-oblong, fomewhat
lerratcd.

This is all that can be gathered from Forfkall's account,
and it forms a botanical enigma. Some circumftanccs in-'
dicate au affinity to Juffieu's EiijAcrblie. The accounts of
the ftigma.-) and of the fruit are the molt remarkable. No-
thing is faid of the habit, duration, or fenfible qualities.

GERUND, in Grammar, a fort of tenfe, or time, of
the infinitive mood : rery like to the participle, but inde-
clinable.

The word is formed of the Latin gerundivus ; and that
from the verb gerere, to beer.

The gerund exprelTes not only the time, but alfo the
manner of an aftion ; as, he fell in running poft.

It differs from the participle, in that it e.xprefTes the time,
which the participle does not. And from the tenfe pro-
perly fo called, in that it exprefles the manner, which the
tenfe does not.

Grammarians are much embarraffed to fettle the nature'
and charjfter of the gerunds : it is certain they are no verbs,
becaufe they do not mark any judgment or affirmation of
the mind, which is fuppofed to be the effence of a verb :
and befides, they have their feveral cafes, which verbs have
not.

Some, therefore, will have them to be adjeftives paffive,
whofe fubilantive is the infinitive of the verb : on tliis
footing they denominate them verbal nouns, or names
formed of verbs, and retaining the ordinary regimen there-
of.

Thus, fay they, tempus ejl legendi lilros, or Mrorum, is as
much as to fay, tempus ejl To legcre libros, vel librorum. But
others difpute this deciiion.

The Greeks have neither gerunds nor fupines j but ioftead

of

G E S

G E S

of tlicm tliey make ufe of die infinitiTt, in the fame manner as
the French ; r:;o;:QTtu.,pour boire. When the articlehappens
to be made ufe of, then its genitive is put for the gerund in di,
as Ttf ■z-oi^xttfacifttdl, of doing ; the dative or ablative tk is put
for the gerund in do ; and the neuter for the gerund in diim.
But the infinitive in this fenfe is often exprefled witliout the
article, as "A^irot aV.wiJnv, jaculand't perilus, an excellent
archer; Ai'-= 'f'-^ir;, ferendiim dedil, he gave it to carry. In
Greek, however, the termination ts'ov correfponds to the
■Latin gerunds ; thus, from x/-/!-, to fay, is deduced X-x'sor,
dicendum, it mult be faid. Thefe verbal adjectives, as thev
may be called, fometimes denominated gerunds, are ufed
occafioiially either in an active or a paffive fenfe; Tr,:yry
m Sf{acr-uT!<», it is for thee to cultivate the ground : rri yvvuvi
TR vK'.^fiT^ii sOir^a* 70 ^xuvy xat *) 'juva-rEiv crvv -ro/oir xsti ic^-jTuy the
body fiiould be accultomed to obey the underftanding, and
be difciplined with toils and fweat. Xenophon.

An ingenious grammarian obferves, that the Latin ge-
runds in di, do, and dtim, are but the participle in dus in the
oblique cafes ; and at this is taken from the prefent parti-
ciple, they have its fenfe, namely, an adinie fejife. On the
fame principle that participles exprefs powers or hallts in
a<Etion, and their tendency is to fignify thofe powers, and
not their operatien, i. e. to become abllradt nouns ; the oblique
cafes of the participle in dus, when alone, become in their
nature al>iiract nouns. Hence gerunds, being thus nouns
in reality, are governed like other nouns in the genitive,
dative, accufative, and ablative, either with or without a

tprepofition ; as ratio fcribend;, the art of writing ; chaj-ta
uj'iHs /..riLmdo, paper is ufeful for writing ; promptus ad aud'i-
endum, ready for hearing,' or to hear ; memoria excokndo
augdur, the memory is increafed by cultivating. Gerunds
alfo, having the nature of nouns, may govern a genitive ;
2& fjcidtas a^orum Jms lalronibas condonandi, the power of the
beftowing of his lands on his thieves. The germids, how-
exTr, as retaining in a degree their verbal ckarafter, govern
the cafe of their refpecti\'e verbs, as infendi domum poteflas,
veii'tt ad recipiendum pcciinuis, parando liidis. As adjecti\-es
affume the nature of nouns when ufed alone in tlie neuter
termination, fo the gerunds in dum, the neuter of partici-
ples in dus, become fubftantives, denoting, with ejl, neccf-
ijty or obligation, as vivsridum e/} mihi recfe, living well mull
be to me, or I muft live well. Jones's Grammar of the
Latin Tongue, 1800.

GERY, St. in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partmeBt of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in tlie
diitrift of Cahors, 5 miles N. W. of Cahors. The place
contains 125c, and the canton 6^35 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 180 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

GERYON, a name given by foms of the affected che»
mical' writers to quickfdver.

GERZAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Puy de Dome; 4 miles N. E. of Clermont.

GERZEN, atown of Bavaria; 11 miles E. of Landfhut.

GESAN, atown of the Arabian Irak; 8 miles S. E.
of Mendali.

GESAS, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Neifle;
3 miles S. E. of Patfchau.

GESEKE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Weilphalia; 9 miles E. S. E. of Lipitadt.

GESERICH, a lake of Pruffia, in Oberiand^ near Dutch
Evlau.

'GESERVAGHERD, atown of PerCa, in Chorafan;
30 miles S. of Esfenan.

GESHEN, Roch and rivers of. See Amhara.

GESHURITES, in Scripture Geography, a people who
dwelt beyond Jordan, in the half tribe of Manaffeh,

GE3IS, in Guigraphy, \ town of Gi^fmany, 111 the county
of Feldkirch ; 4 miles E. of Fcldkirch.

GESKENDORF, atown of Pruflla, in Obcrland : 7

miles S.S.E. of Salfeldt.

GESMOLD, a town of Germany, in the bilhopric of
Ofnabruck ; 12 miles S. E. of Vordeii.

GESNER, CoNKAD, in Biography, " the grcateft natu-
rahil the world had fetn linco Ariilotle," the firft who
ever collected a mufeum of natural hillor)-, and the difco-
verer of tlie only true principles of botanical arrangement iii
the flower and fruit, " to wliith the very exigence of botany
as a fcience is owing," was born at Zurich in 1516. Like
mofl of thofe who have rendered the moil eminent fervici.*
to fcience or their fellow-crcaturcs, he had to coiiteud with
the greatcft difficulties, efpecially with poverty in his youth,
and with a feeble and Cckly conftitution to the day of hij
death. He very early imbibed an ardent love of plants
from his mother's brother, named Friccius, and this feems
to have led him to the ftudy of aninuls, and even of foCils.
He was educated for the medical profeflion, which he fub-
fequently practifed in his native town, and to the emolu-
ments of which he was indebted for the means of purfuing
and promioting, by various expenfive means, his darling
lludies. He founded and fupported a botanic garden j
kept a painter and an engraver in wood ccnftanlly in his
fervice, and acquired a ver)- extcnfive library. He exercifed
the pencil himfelf with great fuccefs, to which the excel-
lence of the botanical cuts he has left us, with refpect to
the habit as well as fruiftification of plants, is owing. Many
of thefe appear in the Epitome of CamerariuP, and a large
collection of the whole has been publiflied in more recent
times by Trew and Schmiedel, printed from the original
blocks. Gefner undertook various laborious journeys in
purfuit of plants, efpecially on the Alps; and while he was,
perhaps, the moil learned naturalill of his own or any age,
he rivalled the moll experienced of his contemporaries in
pradlical obfcrvation. He united to the inveftigation of the
external characters of plants, the m.oil affiduous attciition to
their medical properties, and his own health and lif- were
frequently endangered by the experiments he made for the
good of others. He was reported to liave killed himfelf
with a dofc of two drams of the root oi Doromcum, but th.~ugh
hij ilomacfi was at firft debilitated, he fpeedily recovered,
and amufed his friends with a narrative of his cafe. At
length this great man fell a victim to the more inmediate
duties of his profeflion, having caught the plagtje> of which
he died on the 13th of December, 1565, aged 49. AVhcn
be found his end approaching, he requefted to be carried into
his mufeum, where he expired amid the monuments of his
labours, thankful for what he had been able to accoinphlli,
and fupported by all the pious hopes and confolations of a
Chriiiian philofopher. His pietv and benevolence were no
lefs eminent than his talaits. He was the general peaco
maker among fuch of his literar)- acquaintances as wire
more irafcible or lefs candid, and he laid .Tfide, for a while,
his own immediate em.ployments, to devote his fervices to
the family of a deceafed friend, Moiban, wliofo work on
Diofcoriiies he fupervifed, and publiilicd for their emolu-
ment. He was much attaciied, by fimilarity of tafle, to
Valerius Cordus, who died in IJ44 at Rome, on his tra-
vels, at the early age of 29, and wh.ofe " Hilloria Planti-
rum'' was fubfcquently edited bv Gcfcer. Thefe able
botanifts had never had a perfonal interview, and Ge'.ner
was more intimately acquainted with a young man named
David Kyber, v,ho died, at nearly the fame age, of the
plague at Stralburgh in 1553, and whofe " Lexicon Rei
Herbari-.e Trihngue" (Latin, Greek, »nd GermaB) he pub-
E e 2 tflied

G E S N E R.

lillied the Cdme year, with a vtiy :i/l'tc?uonate and confolatory
cpiftle to the father of the author.

The principal works of Conrad Gefner are tlie following,
not to mention various little treatifes relating to Botany, or
to the Materia Medica, which from lime to time came from
his ready and jirolific pen, fonie of them accompanying the
books he edited for other people.

" Bibllotheca univerfalis,' or a catalogue of Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew book?, printed at Zurich, 1545, in one volume
folio, with crilicifms, and often fpecimens of each. Thii
feems to liave given Haller the idea of his own '• Biblio-
theca Botanica," and " Bibl. Anatomica.''

" Hiftoriae Animalium,'' comprifed in five books, mak-
ing tliree great folio volumes in a very fmall type, "ith
numerous wooden cuts. The firfl was publiflicd at Zurich
in 1551, the lad in 1587, after the deceafe of tlie author.
There is alfo an edition in German. This is a vatl compi-
lation, and critic.il ri-vlfal of all that had been done Ix-fore
him in Zoology, with every thing that he could fay of his
own knowledge to illuftrate the fubjecl, and many inciden-
tal botanical, as well as medical remarks. Inftead of being
?he work of a phylician, who raifed and maintained hlinfelf
by his pradlice, and who was cut off in tiie middle of a moll
aAive and ufeful life, one would fiippufe it the labour of a
reclufe, (hi;t up for an age in his ftudv, and never diverted
from his objcit by any other cares. 'I'his work is aiTanged
according to the plan of Ariftotle, only the oviparous qua-
drupeds are feparated from the viviparous. It does not ei:-
teud to infecls or (hells. The former however had not
«fcaped the attention of Gefuer, for his labours refpeCting
them make a part of the work of MoufTet, entitled " In-
feftorum five Minimorum Animalium Theatrura,'' pub-
lillied at London in 1634, the earlieft book on entomology.

The " Icones Animahum," with their nomenclature,
form a feparate publication from the above, conliiling of the
wooden cuts and names only.

" Aquatilium iVnimantium Enumeratio juxta Plinium,"
a little Svo. printed at Zurich in 1556. A lilt of the Ger-
man and Englilh names is fubjoined.

A little work in Latin, " De Lacle,'' treating of milk
and its preparations, from various authors. Zurich, 1541,
in 8vo.

" De Secretis Remediis Thefaurus;" a Pharmacopccia,
which has gone through a number of editions iu various
languages.

" De raris et admirandis hcrbi:, qu:s five quod noftu
luceant, fire alias ob caufas, Lunari;e iiominantur." A
curious and learned little v.-ork, with wooden cuts, in 410.
Zurich, 1555. It is accompanied with a dcfcriplion of the
celebrated mount Pilat, or Mons Fnifliu, the northern ex-
tremity of the Alps, which Gefner vifited in 1555. Several
alpine plants are here, for the firil time, noticed.

" De omni rerum FofTdium genere.'' Zurich, 1565, Svo.
Alfo " De rerum Foflilium, Lapidum et Geremaruta
jnaxime figuris,'' with wooden cuts, more curious than
ufeful.

The botanical remarks relative to the fcientific arrange-
ment of plants, on which the fupcremineiit merits of this
great man afc founded, are chiefly to be gathered from liis
Utters, which were publiflied after his death. From the
■lumber of wooden cuts, and of drawings, which he had
prepared, it is probable he meditated a general botanical
work, the future arrangement of which frequently occupied
his thoughts, and prompted many of thefe letters.

Gefner married at the early age of 20, for which he was
accafed of imprudence, but it does not appear that he had
awy reafon to repent. His wife furvired liim, and notwith-

ilanding the dangerous nature of Ms difeafc, whicFi was ac-
companied \Tith a pcftilential carbuncle, flie did not defcrt
his death-bed, for he expired iu her arms. He left no ofF-
fpring. His remains were honourably interred, the day-
after his deceafe, in the cloiHer of the great church at Zu-
rich, near thofe of his intimate friend, Fryfius, who died
the preceding yrar. Abundance of Latin, and fome Greek
verfes, were compofed to his honour, and his hfe, written
by his countryman .lofias Simler, was publiflied in the en-
fuing year. From this work, and Haller's Biblioth. Bot.
much of the above information is derived. Haller mentions
Gefner as probably the firll perfon who, being Ihort-fighted,
found the advantage of concave glaffes. S.

Weliave received tlic following additional account of C.
Gefuer, in relation to his medical profefiion.

His father, who v.as a v.-orker in hides, was killed in the
Swifs civil war, and left him in fuch poverty, that he went
to Stralburg, and entered into a iituation as a fervant. His
mailer, having obferved his greiit inclination to reading,
allowed him to employ the time, which was not abfolutely
neceiTary to his icrvice, in lludy ; and he made fuch progrefs
wliile at Stralburg, that, having acquired a little money, he
went to Paris, where he firlt attained an ample knowledge
of the Latin and Greek languages, and of rhetoric, and
afterwards applied to the ftudy of philofophy and medicine :
but as he foon found the means of fubfillence fail, he was
under the neccffity of returning to his native country, and
of teaching the languages and philofophy for a livelihood.
This expedient was fuccefsful, and even procured him the
means of vifiting Montpellier, where he rcfumed the lludy
of medicine, which he completed, by taking the digree of
doclor at Bafil in the year 1540. He then determined to
fettle at Zurich, where his ment procured him the appoint-
mer.t of proftflor of philofophy, and he difcharged the
duties of that oifice, with univerf.d reputation and efteem,
during twenty-four years. Thefe duties, and his ftudies in
the cloiet, prevented him from entering largely into the
praftice of medicine ; in whicli, iiowever, his extenfive know-
ledge furnidicd him v.ith fuch numerous refource*, that his
practice was extremely fuccefslul, and he rofe fuperior to
the prejudices of his contemporaries. Gefner had always
a decided prcdileftion for the (lydy of botany, which he early-
conceived and retained tlnough life, as we have already
mentioned in the former part of this article. It was not
without great trouble and difficulty that he became a
fcientific man ; for he w?,s of a delicate and fickly conllitu-
tion ; but his fpirit and coiu-age gave him ilrength to fup-
port the fatigues of body and mind. Notwithllanding the
delicacy of his habit, he traverfcd the Alps in fearch of
plants ; and among other journeys over thofe mountains,
he made one with Jean Bauhin in 1561. He even culled
plants from the waters, and has been known to plunge into
the lake of Zurieli to procure thofe which grew there.
Ever animated by the fame fpirit, he vifited Paris again,
travelled through the fouthcrn provinces of France, and
thence pafied into Italy. In order to ftudy the nature of
fifties, he went to Venice with a view to invettigate thofe
of the Adriatic, and fometimc afterwards he repaired to
Straftiurg to examine thofe of the Rhine. From thefe
fources of information, from a conftant perfonal oblervation,
conjoined with the ftudy of the vv-rilings of the ancients, he
obtained the means of accomplifning that immerility of trea-
tifes, which a man, who only attained to 49 years of age,
could hardly -be fuppofed capable of producing.

Gesneu, JojiH Matthias, '.vasbornat Roth, in Anfpach,
in 1691, where his father was a clergyman. He received
the fij-ft part of Lis education at the gymnafium of Anlpach,

G E S

and was quickly Jifljnguiflicd by Iiia progrefs in the ancient
and orintal languages. From Anfpach he went to Jena,
where he exhibited his learning and talents in feveral pub-
lications. In lyij he was appointed co-reclor of the
<:fymnali!iin of V/eimar, and keeper of the public library.
In I 730 he accepted of the reftorfiiip of Thomas's fchoul
at Leipllc, and on the eflabhfhment of the univerllty- of
Gottingcn he was invUed to be the profefTor of rhetoric, an
office in which he was fo greatly diftinguiflicd, as to acquire
the repntation of being the moll able philulogill of the ap-e.
He was at the fame time made librarian and pi-eiident of the
German fociety, and to his infpection all the fchools of
Gottingen were given. On the appointment of the Royal

G E S

patriam." In thcfe he treats of the life and ftruflure of
veg;'tedjles, their propagation, fexcs, clallic motion of fome
of their llamens, and thcirmcthodicalclaflilication. He review!
the experiments and obfcrvations of Lceuwenhoeck, Mal-
pighi, Grew, Hales, &c. announces the liien novel fylLm of
Linn32us, whom, with a kind of prophetic fpirit, he calls " a
man dellined to reform all natural hillory." Thcfe dini-rta-
tJO}!3 are the bed and moll compendious epitooic poffiblc of
all the botanical fcieiicc of that day, in which the improve-
ments ot each writer are fet in the moll juil and inttrucUvtt
point of view for their mutual illullration.

With all Iiis knowledge, the fubjed of our prefent ar-
ticle, and even his friend H:d]er, were impofed on by one

Society at Gottmgen he was the hril member of tlie hillo- of tlie groffeft deceptions. A pcrfon prefented him with a

rical clafs, and was afterwards appointed a couufellor of common meadow Crowfoot, on fome branches of which

ttate, and perpetual du-eftor. He died m 1761. His were ftuck flowers of the common Daify. He imme-

works are much too numerous to be named m this place, diately pubhihed, in 1753, a learned dilTertation on vege-

but they were fuch as to entitle him to abnoll the highell table monilers, entitled " de Ranuncido bellidiP.oro," in

rank in the literary world. Among others may be noted which he exhibits a figure of this llrange anomaly. As

his " Ixidex etymologicus Latinitatis :" and his " TFie- Haller had given his fandion to the difcoverv, botauitt*

faurus Latinx Lmgui et Eruditioms Romance," 4 vols, could fcarcely fuppofe it ivas an evident millake, till f.r

fol. Gefner, in this elaborate work, followed the order of Jofeph Banks obtained tlie original fpecimen after Gcfner's

Stephanas, but^addedjfuch notes and otlier improvements as death. On its being foftened with boiling water, iu tiie

appeared neceflary. Thefe additions confift chiefly in the
number of remarkable phrafes and paffages from the Roman
claffics with illullrations. Gen. Biog.

Ge-SXer, Solomon", was born at Bolefiau, in Silcfia, in
the year 1559. Having received tlieeaiiy part of hiscducation
at his native place, he was ftut to Breflaw to purfiie the ftudies
cecefFai-y to his future profelFion. From this place lie went
to Strafburg, where he was fo fortunate as to obtain an aca-
demic exhibition for five years, which he cmploved in tlie
fludy of philofophy, the mathematics, and tlie learned lan-
guages, as well the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac, as thofe
of Greece and Rome. He now became private tutor to a
noble Livonian, and when he vras 24 years of age lie was
admitted to the degree of M. A. In 1592, he was invited
to fill the theological chair in the univerlity of Wittemberg,
and almoll immediately entered upon the duties of his
office, and was at the fame time admitted to the degree of
D. D. He alfo occupied the important pofls of dean and
teAor of the univerlity, affeffbr in the ecclefiailical confillory,
and firll preacher in the church. His clofe application to
bufinefs injured his health, and he fell a facrifice to a com-
plication of diiorders in 1605, when only in the 46th year
of his age. His works are a Latin tranflation of " The
Prophecy of Hofea,'' " Difquilitions on the Pfalter," treat-
ing of the dignity, the ufe, the argument, and the connection
of the Pfalms, and many other works of a
coDtrovenlal nature. Gen. Biog.

Gesxes, John, a canon of Zurich, and profcffor of
natural plulolopiiy and mathematics in that univerfity, pro-
bably belonged to the fame family as the great Conrad.
He was the intimate friend of Haller, in v.'hofe fociety he
ftudied at Leyden and Bafle, and with whom he maintained

thcologicid and

prefence of fevei-al botanills, amongll whom was the writer
of this, the Hera of the Rar.unailtu came out of the bafe of
the daify, as from a flicath ; and indeed the different pubef-
cence of each was very diilinguilhable before their feparaUon,
A hillory of the whole is given by Mr. Kouig, in his Annals
of Botany, v. i. 36S, with a plate drav.n for fir Jofepii
Banks by JMr. Bauer, and figned by all the v.'itnelTes.

Gefner publilhed at different times eleven differtations ia
quarto, from 1759 to 1773, under the general title of
" Phytographia Sacra." Some of the latter only are illuf-
trative of the plants of fcripture, the reil being of a general
nature, containing various aintomical and phyliologlcal, aa
well as botanical and economical matter.' He adopts the
Linnaean fyllem, and funiilhes many remarks coutirminsf
the fexual doiflrine.

He meditated a very extenfive work on the charaiScrs
of plants, for which he had prepared a confidetable number
of exqnilitely engraved, though too much crowded, plates,
fome of which are in our hands ; but tiiis publication never
took place.

He wrote alfo on extraneous foffils, and compofcd aa
index to Weinmann's Phytographia, printed in 17S7 in 8vo.
A catalogue of his hbrary for fale was pubhihed in 1 798,
by which it appears to have been one of the bell coUedlions
of botanical books ever offered to the public. S.

GE3NERIA, in Botany, named by Plumier in memory
of the great Conrad Gefner ; fee that article. Linn. Gen.
308. Schreb. 404. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 230. Mart. Mill.
Dicl. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 33I. Juff. 165. Plum.
Gen. 27. t. 9. Lamarck lUullr. t. 536. Girtn. t. 177.—
Clafs and order, Didynam'm Angilfperm'ta. Nat. Ord. Per'

a clofe correfpondence during the ■ hfe of that dillinguilhed /"natt, lAnn. Campamilactt, Jull.

man. Tbeir t.iile for botany was the fame, and their
characters fimilar. His letters make an intereiling part of
the " Epiftolae ad Halleruui,'" and abound with folid and
curious botanical crilicifm and information. He paid much
attention to the cryptogamic clafs, and other difficult
branches of tUe fieienci-, as well as to the anatomy and piiy-
fiology of plants. He furvived his learned frieud 12 years,
dying in J 790, at the age of 81.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fupcrior, in fivff,
deep, acute fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, in-
curved and recurved ; tube tiiickifli, with a contraction at
the neck and a funnel-fhaped throat ; limb tive-eleft, obtufe,
its upper fegments concave, or erecc, tlic three lower flat
and fpreading. Stam. Filaments four, raollly Ihorter than
the corolla, two longer than tlie others ; anthers arrow-
fliaped, fimple. Pyi- Germen inferior, deprefled, roundilh ;

This author publifned two phyCological differtations on ftyle thread-fhaped, parallel to the llamens; tligraa capitate
plants in 1740 and 1741, reprinted at Leyden in 1743, Perk. C.iplule rountliih, crowned with the fpreading calyx,
along with Liunseus's " Oratio de peregrinatione jutra imperfedly two-jcellcdj the partiti«ii being longitudinally

ioterrupteii

G E S

irtemiptcd in the middle. S/rHs very miinerous, minute.
Rccept<irla altachcd to the paj-lition at each fide.

Eif. Ch. Ciilyx five-clefr, crowning the gcrmcn. Corolla
incurved and recurved. Capfiilc inferior, imperfei^tly twO-
cellrd. Seeds numerous.

Obf. We pn-fer, with LinnTUS, the name Gefncna to
Cefiicra, as the moil correft in its conllrudlion, and lupported
by the bell analogies, though Plnmier originally wrote the
latter. In fuch cafes it is ncedlefs to burthen the reader
with prccife quotations, and we merely adopt the orthogra-
phy that appears the beft, except there be any difference
wortli commemorating.

Linnsus has given but three fpecies of this genus, to
which Swartz has added fcven nc->¥ ones, bcfides the Lin-
nxan Cranialarla fruticofa, in his Prodromus Fl. Ind. Oec.
where he alfo made the CjT;7,'rj of L'Heriticr z Grfneria ;
fee CviuLLA. But in his FI. Ind. Occ. 1032 hcfubmitsto
the opinion of thofe who reckon it diftinft. All the Gifrieria
are of Weil Indian origin, and very little known in Em-ope,
except the tomaUofa, kept in botanic gardens for its rarity
rather than beauty. Several of the fpecies firil dcfcribed by
Swartz are eminently handfome, and well dtferve to be in-
troduced into our lloves, efpecially his •vcnliicofa, which
bears tubular curved fcarlet flowers, with projecling ilamcns,
like fonie of the finell Erlce. All the fpecies are flirubby,
rxcept G. pu!ii':!a of Swartz, whoijs leaves referable a Pri-
viiila or yljiiga, and G. acaul'ts of Linn^us, Sp. PI. 850.
(llapunculo affinis, &c, Sloane Jam. v. I. t. 102. f. i.)
Loth which are herbaceous, and fcarcely rife above the
ground. Tlie leavei in all are fimple, alternate, moftly.
tlalked, more or lefs crenate, toothed, or ferrated, rongU
or fmooth. Fb-ujers corymbofe, moftly on a long common
Jtalk. Corolla varioufly (liaped in different fpecies, but
always more or lefs curved, from above one to two inches
long. They chiefly grow in rocky, fliady, mountainous
places in Jamaica, or in Hifpaniola. Full defcriptions oi
all that Dr. Swavtz has obfervcd may be found in his Fl.
Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1015 — 1031.

GESORIACUiVI, in ylndciit Geography, a town of
Gaul, belonging to the Morini ; now Boulogne.

GESSENE, in Geography, a town of liohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau ; nine miles N. E. of Turnau.

GESSERIT, Qu,\MDIU. See Qu..\MDIu/f lene gejferlt.

GESSES is the furniture belonging to a hawk. See
Je.sses.

GESSI, Fkancesc'o, in Biography, a favourite difciple
and imitator of Guido Rheni in the art of painting, forae
of whofe works are little inferior to thofe of his mailer, and
are often fold for his. He is generally known by a want of
fulnefs of execution, and of energy in his aftions.

GESSIGO" Point, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, in
the county of Sligo, at tlie nol-tliern extremity of Sligo bay.
N. lat.-54° 22'. W; long. 8=" 33'.

GESSO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra ; 15 miles
N. E. of Civitsr Borella.

GESSOPS, a town of the ftate of Maryland, in America ;
eight miles E. S. E. of Fort William.

GESSOR, a name ufed by fome of the Arabian writers
for galbannm.

GESTA) in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Wefl
Gothland ; 23 miles N. E. of Uddevalla.

GESTATION, Uteiune, or ntero-gejiation, in Mid-
tuifiry, the bearing or containing a foetus in the womb. See
Conception.

GiiSTATioN is alfo a term in the Ancient Meilicine, ufed
for a fort of exercife, by us called carriage.

It confifted in making the patient ride on horfeback, qr

G E S

in a chariot, or a boat ; or even in rocking him in his beJ,
if he coidd not endure a move violent agitation.

Afclepiades firll brought friftions and gellation into prac-
tice. The defign of gellation was to recover llrength, after
a fever, &c. was gone.

GESTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne and Loire ; 12 miles N. W. of ChoUet. —
Alfo, a river of Germany, wiiich runs into the \Vefer, near
its mouth ; called alio Geijle.

GESTICULATION, the making of affefted, indecent.
or unfnitable geftures, or even of proper ones in too great
number. Ciefticulation is a grievous fault in an orator.

GESTINEN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, \a
the canton ofUri ; 15 miles S. of yVltorff.

GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, about 51 -miles-
long and 10 wide ; bounded on the Ni by Helfingland, 011
the E. by the gu'.f of Bothnia, on the S. by Upland, Weft-
manland, and Ualecariia, and on the W. by Dalecarlia.
The inhabitants do not concern themfelves with agriculture,s>
but derive their chief fnpport and wealth from mines, forges^
forcils, lakes, and rivers. The capital of this province is
Gejle, which fee.

GESTUf/FrtW(7, \nLatv, anancientwritj where aperfon'*
good behaviour was impeached ; now out of ufe.

GESTUNGSHAUSEN, or Gesiiau.'^ex, in Geogra-
phy, a tov^Ti of Germany, in the principality of Coburg ;•
feven miles E. ai Coburg.

GESTURE, a motion of the body, intended to lignify.
fome idea or paffion of the mind.

Quintilian defines gellure, tot'uu. corporis nioius 'tSj conforma-
tic. Geftures are a kind of natural language, which fupplies-
the ufe of fpeech in thofe naturally dumb. The mimes and.
pantomimes were very great proficients in die ftyle of-
irr-lli'.rc.

Gellure coufifts principally in the ailion of the hands and
ff.ce ; and may be defined, a. fuitable conformity of the'
motion of the countenance, and of feveral parts of the body,
in i'peaking ef the fiiUjeft matter of the difconri'e. (See
A-CTioN. ) With regard to oratory, gefturc ma-y properly
be called the fecond part of prouunciatron ; in which, as the
voice fhould be fuited to the impreffions it receives from the.
mind, fo the feveral motions of^ the body ought to be ac-"
comraodated to the various -tones and infleiSlions of the voice.
When the voice is even and moderate, little gellure is-'
required; and nothing is more unuatur.U and difgulling tharj
violent mution, in dilcourfing upon ordinary and familiar'
fubjedls. The motions of the body (liould, therefore, rife
in proportion to the veliemenee and energy of the e.^preflion,-
as tlie natural and genuine efft-tl of it.

Gellure is either natural, or from imitation. The former-
denotes fuch aiSlions and motions, either of the whole body,
or of lome particular part of it, as naturally accompany our"
words, jull as tliefe refult from the impredions of our minds.'
As to the whole body, it (hould not continue long in the'-
fame pofition, but be conlhintly changing, with a gentle and'
moderate motion. As to the feveral parts of the body, the'J
head is the moll confiderable : to lift it up too high, has-
the air of arrogance and pride : to llretch it out too far, J
or throw it back, appears clownilli and unmannerl)' ; to han^-t
it downwards on tlie breall, Ihews an unmanly ba{hfulnele>
and want of fpirit ; and to fuffer it to lean on either flioulder,,i
argues floth and indolence : in calm and fed;!,te difcouries,^
the head fliould keep its natural ftate and upright poltureyit
occafionally moving, and turning gently, foraetimes on one^
fide, and lometiraes on the other, as occafiun requires, rnd'
then returning back to its natural pofition. It fliouldl
always accompany the other alliens of the body, except in*

averfion.

G E S

G E T

averllon, wliicli is expreHed by ftretcluiig out tine riglit
hand, and tuniiBc; the licad to tlie left. But nothing is
more indecent than violent motions and agitations of the
head.

The pafnons are principalK" rcprefentcd by the counte-
nance ; and the feveral parts of the face contribute to the
proper and decent gelliire of the whole. In a calm and
fedate difcourfe, all the features retain their natural fituation.
In forrow, the forehead and eve -brows lower, and the
cheeks hang down ; but in expreflions of joy and chearful-
nofs, the forehead and eye-brows are expanded, the cheeks
contracted^ and the corners of the mouth drawn upwards.
.Anger and refentmt-nt contract the forehead, draw the brows
together, and thruft out the lips ; and terror elevates both
the brows and forehead. To thefe natural figns of the
paflinns, the orator fliould endeavour to conform.

The motions of the eyes require the moil careful manage-
inciit ; becaule, as Cicero obferves, (De Orat. lib. iii.
feap. 59.) other parts of the countenance have but few
TOotions ; whereas all the paflions of the foul are cxpreffed
in the eyes by i"o many dift'erent aftions, that cannot poffibly
be rcprefented by any geilures of the body, if the eyes be
kept in a fixed pofturc. Thus, in fpeakiug on pleafant and
delightful fubjedls, the eyes are brifk and ciiearfu! ; but
they fink and are languid in delivering any thing melanciioly
and forrowful. In anger, the eyes difcover a certain vehe-
mence and intenfenefs ; hi exprefiions of hatred and detella-
tion, the eyes are turned either afide or downwards : thus
VJrgil has exprefled Dido's refentmcnt and dil'dain of
jEneas,

" Ilia fulo ft-xos oculos averfa tenebat."

^n. lib. vi. ver. 469.

The eyes are alfo fomctimes turned downwards, to ex-
prefs-modeily ; and they (liould be always turned towards
the object which is addrefled. A gentle and moderate
motion of the eyes is commonly moil fuitable, whereby they
may be direftcd to fome of the audience with an air of
refpect and modcfty ; but their motions ought to vary, ac-
cording to the different nature of tlie pafTions which they are
defigned to difcover ia the fpeaker, and convey to his
hearers.

The fhoulders fliould neither be elevated nor depreffed :
a continued motion of the arms fltould be avoided ; their
atlion fhould be very moderate, and follow that of the
hands, which need never be idle : Quiutilian Iws great ffirefs
on tlie adlion of the hands, when he fays, " The hands,
without which all geilure is lame and weak, have a greater
variety of motions than can well be exprefled : for they are
almoll equal to our words. Do we not deiire with them,
proinife, call, difmifs, threaten, befeech, deleft, fear, en-
quire, deny ? Do not they exprefs joy, forrow, doubt,
confeffion, penitence, meafure, plenty, number, and tune ?
Do not they excite reftraint, prove, admire, and fhame ?
That in fo great a variety of fpeech among all nations and
countries,, this feems to me the common language of man-
kind.'' Inft. Orat. lib. xi. cap. 3.

As all bodily motion is either upward or downward, to
the right or left, forward or backward, or circular, the
liar.ds are employed by the orator in all lliefe, except the
laft ; and as they (liould correfpond with our ex.preffions,
they ought to begin and end with them. In admiration,
and addreifes to heaven, they mul be elevated, but never
railed above the eyes ; and in fpeaking of tilings below us,
they are direfted downwards. Side motion fliould generally
begin from the left, and terminate gently on the right ; in
Aimonllraticg, addrellJDg, and en icveral other occalions,

they are moved forward; and in threatening, fometimeS
tlirown back : when the orator fpeaks of iiimfelf, liis right-
hand fliould be gently laid on his breaft. Wlien no other
motion is ncceflary, the hands fliould be kept about as high
as the breaft, fo as to make nearly a right angle with the
arm. They fliould never be fuffercd to hang down, nor to
loll upon the cufliion or bar. The left-hai:d fliould ncTcr
move alone, but accommodate itfclf to the motions of the
right : in motions to the left, the right-hand fliould not be
carried beyond the left flioulder : in promifes and exprcf-
fions of compliment, the motion of the hands fliould be
gentle and flow ; but in exhortations and applaufe, more
Iwift. The hands fltould be generally open ; but in cx-
preflJions of conipunftion and anger, they may be clofcd.
Neither the breaft nor tlie belly Ihould be thruft out ; the
trunk fliuuld be eafy and flexible, fuitlng itfelf to the mo-
tions of the head and hands ; and the feet- fliould be kept
Iteady.

There are other geftures, which arifc from im'itaUon, as
when tlie orator defcribes fome ai'.tion, or perfonates an-
other Ipeaking : but here he iiiould be careful not to overact
his part, by running into any ludicrous or theatrical mimi-
cry, or changing his aClion or voice in a manner unfuitable
to his own character. See fartlv.n- on this fubjeft. Ward's
Oratory, vol. ii. p. 344, &c. p. 360, &c. Sheridan's LeCt.
on Elocution, led. vii. p. 113, Sec. See alfo Action',
Imitation', Pkoxunciaj'iox, and Voice.

GESTIIS Bonus, in Laiu. See Good a-Ltar'ing.

GESVALDO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Principato Ultra ; 13 miles N.W. of Conza.

GESVES, a river of Africa, which runs into the Atlan-
tic, a little to the north of the ifland of BifTagos.-

GESULA. See Gezula.

GETA, Septimil'S, in Biography, fecond fon of the
emperor Severus, and brother and partner of Caracalla, was
born at Milan in 1S9, and was raifed to the title of Au-
guftus. Ih the eighth year of his age he was moved with
companion at the fate of fome of the partifans of Niger and
Albinus, wh» had been ordered to be executed, and his-
father, ftruck with the humane feelings of his child, remit-
ted the fentences. Though he was not free from the viccb of
an heir to the empire, yet the mildnefs of his difpoiition
made him a greater favourite with the people than his brother,
and this circumllance inflamed their mutual hatred. On the
death of Severus both princes fucceetled to a joint fovereigrrt.y,
but their union was of fhort duration. Caracalla, jealous
of his brother's popularity, ordered him to be poifoned, and
when he found the infamoue aft could not be cflccled, he
murdered him with his own hands in tiie prefence of his mo-
ther Julia, who, in tlw attempt to defend lu-r favourite fon,
was feverely wounded in the arm by Car?.ealla. Geta had
not reached the twenty-third year of his age wlven he leli a
victim to thebrutality of ins brotlier. Before his de.ii.ii, Se-
verus had, in the anguifli of a difappoinled father, foretold
that the weaker of his fons would fall a facriiice to the
ftronger, who, in hi.s turn, would be ruined by iiis owii
vices. Univer. Hift. Gibbon's Rom. Hill. Sec alfo the ar-
ticle CiiRACALI.A.

Gfta, in Geography, a town of Sweden, on the N. coall
of the ifland of Alan. N. lat. 6o' 25'. E. long. 9^

5°'-

GETiE, or Getes, a tribe of Scythians, who, accord-
ing to Herodotus (1. iv.t, inhabited tiv. part of Thrace
which is near the lilcr or Danube. Strabo fays (1. vii.)
that tliey had the fame language with the Thracians, and he
rcprefents them as occupying thoi^e arid and uncultivated-
plains wliich lie along the fea-coaft between tbe fn«utbs of

the

GET

■'the Itloi-anJ that of the Tyi'as, in whkh the army of Da-
rius, in its march agaiiift the Scythians, was in clang?r of j -c-
lilhiii^ for want of water. Phny (1- iv. c. ii.) fays, that
ihoy inhabited that detlivity of Mount Hxmus whidi is
turned towards the Danube. Under tlic empire of Trajan,
the Gct.E were fubjeCted to the Roman dominion. Herodo-
tus fpeaks of Zamolxia as the legiflator of the Gets, and he
fays that from him they derived the dogma of the foul's im-
nuirtahty ; and Trajan attributed to this principle the intre-
pidity with wl'.ich they encountered death in the perils of war.
The Get:E podelTed only a fmall fpace along the coaft, but
their territory extended to a coiifiderable diftance in the inte-
rior of the country. Thofe who inliabited the v.-efltrn part
in afcending the Danube, were called " Dacians ;" but thofe
who were more appropriately denominated Get;e, occupied
the eallern parts near tlie Euxine fea ; and thofe who inha-
bited the banks of tiie river Tyras, were called " Tyrige-
tes." They had all the fame language. Tliefe people
were continually intermixing themfelves with the iScythians,
Ballarna;, Sarmatians, Mcefians, andThracians. The Getx
were without doubt the fame people with thofe wlio were
called Goths, and whofe migrations were fo extenfive. See
GoTii.s.

GE-TCHAO, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chang-tong ; 27 miles E.S.E. of Lu.

GETE, part of the country of the Eluts, in Chinefe
Tartary, fo called even to the time of Timur, is regarded
by fome geographers as the country of the ancient MaiTa-
getiE, towards tlie lakes of Palkati, Balkafli or Tengis, and
Zaiien. The contaifch, or great Khan, ufed chiefly to re-
fide at Harcas, or Erga, on the river Hi, which flows from
the S.E. into the lake of Balkafh. .See Jat.s.

GETHSEMANE, in Scripture Geography, a village in
the mount of Olives, whither Jefus fometimes retired,
artd in a garden of which he endured his agony, and was
taken by Judas. Matt. xxvi. 36, &c.

GETHYLLIS, in Botany, (-/li-SuX^i?. is an ancient
Greek name for fome fore of pot-herb of the onion-tribe,
and is therefore well-enough applied to this bulbous plant,
as it appears to be derived from yi^'j:, gaiety or joy, and
may allude to the beauty of its blofToms.) Thunb. Nov.
Gen. 13. Linn. Gen. 235. Suppl. 27. Schreb. 228. Willd.
Sp. PI. v. 2. 104. Mart. MiU. Dift. v. 2. Jufl". 54. (Papi-
ria ; Thunb Aft. Lund. p. I. feft. 2. 1 1 1.'* — Clafs and or-
der, Nexandria Monogv/iia. Nat. Ord. Spntbaceir, Linn.
Narcllfi, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cnh none, except an obliquely truncated cylin-
drical ftieath. Cor. of one petal, fuperior ; tube very long,
thread-fhaped ; hmb widely fpreading, regular, in fix deep,
elliptie-cblong, equal fegments. Stam. Filaments fix, in-
ferted into the mouth of the tube, fliorter than the limb,
often divided ; anthers linear, vertical, rolled inwards, often
two to each filament. Pi/l. Germen inferior ; ftyle fimplc,
capillary, longer than the fl;amens ; ftigma capitate. Peric.
Berry chib-fliaped, obtufe, radical, feffile on the bulb itfelf,
fomewhat flefhy, of one cell. Seeds imbedded in pulp, glo-
bofc, fmooth, lying over each other in a triple feries.

Efl". Ch. Corolla with a very long thread-fhaped tube ;
limb in fix deep fegments. Berry radical, club-fhaped, of
one cell. Seeds numerous.

Obf. Linnxus, mifled by the occafional luxuriance of the
ftamens, placed this genus in the clafs Dodecandria.

Four fpecies are defined in Willdcnow, befides his and
Jacquin's G. pUcatn, Hort. Schoenbr. v. j. 42. t. 80,
which is Hypvxii piicata of Linnaeus, and we are at a lofs
to difcover w'ly it is removed to GethyU'is, for which no rea-
fon i» given, nor docs the deftription in Jacquin fuggeft any,

G E V

except the length of the tube. The fruit, when known
muii: decide t'is q'.ielUon.

G. cH'uiris, Linn. Supp. 198. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. j.
41. t. 79, is a good example of the genus. The l/nUi is glo-
bofe, with a very ftrong tuberous bafe, and tliick fibres.
Stem none. Lea>oes k\Qra\, three or four inches high, linear,
obtufe, fringed, I'pirally twilled. Flower the height of the
leaves, greenifli-white, the fize of a daffodil.

G. Jpiralh, Gawler in Curt. Mag. t. ic88, has a white
flower, externally purnliili, and very narrow, flat, fmooth
leaves. It is diftinguifhcd in that work from the original
fpecies G. afra, Linn. Sp. PI. 633. Herb. Linn, on tlie
aut!)ority of fome fpecimens and drawings of the late excel-
hnt Mr. MafTon, in the hands of Mef.rs Lee and Kennedy,
in v.hich both plants are well defined. According to this
authority, G. afra is faid to have properly twelve ilaraens.
Thunberg certainly contounded thefetvvo.

All the fpecies of GethyU'is have the habit of a Colcklcumt
but the berry, faid to be very pleafantly fcented and well-
tailed, is their ilriking charaftcriftic. They are natives of
the Cape of Good Hope, rarely feen in our gardens, where
they do not eafily bloffoin.

GEl'ONIA, a name given by Dr. Solandcr, and, as we
prefume, derived from ■j-i'i-j a rujlic, but of its application
in the prefent inftance we have no information. Roxb. Co-
rom.and. v. i. 61. (Calycopteris ; Lamarck Illullr. t. 357.)
— Clafs and oixler, Decaiulria Monogyiiia. Nat. Ord. Holo-
raceit, Linn. Ehagni, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fuperior, deeply di-
vided into five equal, elliptical, obtufe, fpreading fegments,
permanent. Cor. none. Slant. Filaments ten, fliorter than
the calyx, iuferted in two rows into the lower part of its feg-
ments, capillary, creCl ; anthers incumbent, roundifii. P^.
Germen inferior, ovate, furrowed ; ftyle thread-fliaped,
(liortcr than the ftamens ; ftignia fimple. Perk, none, except
the cruft of the feed, which is ovate, furrowed, crowned
with the large withered calyx. Seed folitary, ovate.

Efl. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments, fuperior. Corolla
none. Seed coated, crowned witli the enlarged withered
calyx.

1. G.JIoribunJa. Roxb. Corom. v. i. 61. t. 87 Native

of forefts on the coaft of Coromandel, where it was firfl no-
ticed by Koenig, flowering in February and March. '1 lie
_^ftem is woody and chmbing, with long, round, leafy
branches, downy like the whole plant. Leaves oppofitc,
ftalked, ovate, acute, entire, about two inches long. Flowers
in axillary and terminal, compound leafy clufters, with op-
pofite ftalks, inodorous, greenifli-white. Seetl anA perma-
nent calyx of a rufty hue. — The natives call this flirub Ban-
dy-moorroodoodoo.

We have no doubtof the propriety of Lamarck's fyncnym,
which our lasnented predeccfl'or, the Rev. Mr. Wood, not
knowing the Getonia, could fcarcely afcertain. (See Ca-
LVC'OPTEiti.s.) If we be right, the main branch in La-
marck's plate is diminiflied, the fcparate fruits only, and
permanent ftamens, being of the natural fizc.

GETTYSBURGH, in Geography, a fmall poft-town of
America, in the ftate of Pennfylvania and Adams county,
iituated at the head of Rock creek, one of the head-watt ra
of the Monococy ; containing about 30 houfes ; 9 miles N.
of the Maiyland line, and 118 W. by S. from Philadel-
phia.

GETZENDORFF, a town of Auftria, feated on the
river Raifenpach ; 12 miles S.E. of Vienna.

GEVASI, a town of the Arabian Irak, ontheTigrifi;
95 miles S.E. of Bagdad.

GEVAUDAN, a mountainous cotintry of France, fo'

G E U

called before the revolution, fituated in Langucdoc ; of
which Mende was the capital.

GEVES, a town of Africa, fituated on a rircr of the
fani',' name, S.of the river St. Domingo.

GEUL, ariver of France, which runs into the Moufe,
about 5 miles below Maeilricht. — Alfo, a town of France,
ill the department of the Lower Meufe ; 5 miles N. of
Wyck.

GEUM, in Bo'.anv, is mentioned by Pliny, though we
learn nothiiip' from that author relpecling the derivation of
its name. Ambrofinus con'icdlurcs that it comes from ', a:.,
to bcfph-ndid, bccnufe its bi.'autiful flowers and feeds are the
bor.il and sjlorv ot the Alps. — Avcns, or Herb-benr.et. —
Linn. GeiK 25(5. Schreb. 343. Willd. Sp. PL v. 2. iii^
Lamarck. Illullr. t. 443. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 554. JuiT. 33S. Giertn. t. 74. (Caryopliyllata ; Tourii.
t. 151. Lamarck. Diet. V. 1.39!'.) C'afs and order, Ico-
funilria Poh'gynia. Nat. OrJ, Stulicofx, Linn. Rnjacciz,

j«{r.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in ten fegments, ra-
ther uoricrht ; the alternate fegments very fmall, acute.
Cor. Petals five, rounded; cb.v.-s narrow, the length of the
calvx, into which they are inferted. Slam. Filaments nu-
rneroiis, awl-ftiaped, of an equal length with the calyx, and
inferted into it ; anthers fliort, broadifli, obtnfe. Pi/?. Ger-
mens numerous, collefted into a head ; llyles infurted into the
fide of each germen, hairy, long ; lligmas fimple. Perk.
none ; common receptacle of the feeds oblung, hair)-, placed
on the reflexed calyx. Seeds numerous, comprelFed, rough ;
each tipped with the long geniculated ihle.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in ten fegments, inferior. Petals live.
Seeds with a jointed awn. Receptacle columnar.

Only fivefpecies of Geum are defcribed by Linnsus in the
lail edition of his Sftecies Plantanim, though in Willde-
now's edition we meet with eleven of this genus, of which
number G. iirbaiium and livale are the only Lritifn ones, and
to which we are enabl-d, by the afTillance of Dr. Smith, to
adj t'.\'0 nondcfcripts from his herbarium.

1. G whcintiin. Common Avens, or Herb-bennet. Linn.
Sp. PL 716. Engl. Cot. t. 14CO. — " Leaves ternate. Sti-
pulas rounded and cut. Flowers ercft. Awns of the feeds
hooked, naked.'' — Frequent in woods and hedges, perennial,
flowering from i\'Iav to Augiift. The rocl is fibrous, and
fljgl'.tly aromatic. Stem crett, about t-wo feet high, branched
at the upper part, clothed with deflcxed hairs. Leaves un-
equally ternate, hairy, lobed and cut. St'ipulas very large.
Flo'u.'crs terminal, folitary, erect, yellow, with petals fliorter
than the c;Jvx. Seeds rathi-r hairy, with naked purplifli
awns.

2. G. r'vnle. Water Avens. Linn, Sp. PL 717. Engl. Bot.
t. ic6. — '^ Radical leaves lyrat-e. Stipulas ovate, acute,
cut. Flowers drooping. Av.ns tv.'iiled and leathery." —
Found in meadows and moifl woods more commonly than is
ufually imagined, perennial, flowering in June and July.,
i? ■;■£// fprcading, woody, aflringentand aromatic, fometimes
of ufc in intermittent fevers. Stem about a foot high, dr6op-
iifg at the top. Leaves Urate, or confufedly pinnate, fer-
rated, hairy. Petals ereil, never fully expanding. The
_general appearance of thi.s elegant fpecies, an un ivcrfai favourite
umongft botanills, is thus juitlv defcribed in F.nglifli Botany,
" the rich con-bination of the dark-green wniikled leaves,
v.itJ! the glowing red-brown of the ifem and calyx, and fin-
gularly delicate colour of the petals, added to the graceful
jjofition of the flowers, render this, one of tlie nsoll plclu-
refque of our native plants ''

3. G. vir^inianiim. American Avcns. Linn. Sp. 'PL 716.
/G. canadenfe; Jacq. Hort. v. 2.^2. t. 175.} — " Stem-

Voi. XVL

G E U

leaTCS ternate ; the upper ones lanceolate. Slij)uLis oblong.

h'lovvers ereft. Awns of the feeds naked, hooked." — Na-
tive of North America, from whence it was ii.ticducc-d by
Mr. P. Miller in 1739. It is nearly allied in liabit to G.
vrbaimm, but the petals, which are fliorter than the calyx,
are white, and the whole plant is of a greener hue. Its
leajlets are alfo more altiniiated towards the bafe. It flowers
in June, and is a hnrdy perennial. Rmt inoduroius. Ra-
it'ical-leaves generally bipinnate. ^eeds fmootli.

4. G.Jinaum. U])riglit Avcns. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.

1 1 13. (G. alcppicum ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. i. 10. t. 93 ) —
" Stem-leaves pinnate ; leaflets ar.d liipulas cloven and cut.
Flowers erccl. ■ Petals longer than the calyx. Awns of
the feeds naked, hooked." — Native of North Am.crica. A
hardy perennial, flowering in June and July. Flo'd-'crt
yellow. Frmt hairy. The whole plant is covered witW
whitifli hairs.

5. G. japonicum. Japan Avens. Willd Sp. PI. v. z.

1 1 14. Thunb. Japon. 220. — " Leaves fimple, moftly threc-
lobed, fliaggy. Flowers ereft. Fruit hairy. Awns naked."
— There is no figure of this fpecies, which is perennial,
and grows in Japan. Stem round, rather more than a foot
high. Flc-.ucrs terminal, with petals as long as the calyx.
Seeds ovate, covered v>ith greyifh iiairs.

6. G. fyrenaiciiin. Pyrenean Avens. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.

11 15. (Caryopliyllata pyrenaica, amplifilm.o et rotundiciri
folio, nutanteflore; Tourn. Inll. 295.) — " Flowei-s drooping.
Petals longer than the calyx. Awns hairy. twifU-d at th»
bafe.'' — This is taken up by Willdenow from Tournefort,
and is perennial, found on the Pyrcnte.?. Its appearance if
fimilar to G. nva.'e, but differs in the large fixe of its radical
leave.";, and fliape of its awns, which ate thinly covered
with hairs, and naked at the top. Stem ercft, about a foot
and half high. Seeds very woolh-.

7. G. allaaliawi. Avens of Mount Atlas. Willd. Sp.
PL V. 2. 1 1 16. Desfont. Atlant. v. i. 402. — "Lower-
leaves pinnate. Stem generally fingle-flowered. Fruit hairy.
Awn; twilled." — A native of Mount Atlas, perennial.
Stem nearly two feet high, fimple. Stipulas large, ovate,
cut. Fh-zcers yellow. This is nearly allied to G. v.onlanum,
but differs in having fewer leaflets, a taller ftem, and twilled,
not bearded, awns.

8. G. poteniilloides. Siberian Avens. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. 1 1 16. (Dryas gcoides ; Jacq. Hort. v. 3. 38, t. 68,)-—
" Leaves pinnate, toothed. Stem with about two flowers.
Calyx of the fruit erect. Awns ilraight, naked.'' — Native
of the mountains of Siberia, and introduced into Kew gar-
dens in 1780 by Dr, Pallas. We have it from Chelfea gar-
den. It flowers in June, and is a liai-dy perennial. Roi:! in-
odorous, but \v ith an aromatic tafte. Petals yellow, largec
than the divifions of the calyx. Seeds v.ith long awns.

9. G. monlamim. Great Mountain Avcns. Linn. Sp.
PL 717. Jacq. Auftr. v. 4. t. 373 — "Leaves pinnate,
luiiry ; the outer leaflet very large, round ; the lower ones
regularly decreafing. Stem iingle -flowered. Awns upriglit,
fliaggy.'' — This, and the following fpecies (G. replems) are
found moll abundantly on the liigheft alps of Auilria acd
Switzerland, where they are extremely ornamentjj during
the months of July and Augull. Mount Cenis is defcribed
by travellers as a favourite habitat of thefe beautiful plants.
The root of G. monlanum is fibrous, aihingent. and fojr.ewhat
aromatic. Stnn round, leafy, from three or four ijiches t«

■a foot in heiglit, erecl, generally fingle-flowered, fimple.
Petals roundi(h, yellow, Ixmger than the culyx. Seeds oval,
bn)wii, with a long feathery art'W.

10. G. replars. Creeping Avens. Linn. Sp. PI. 717.
Jacq. Auih-. t. j. 38. t. app. ii. — « Leaves piiniate, cut,

F f Lairjr,

G E U

hairy. Runners of the Hem c.-ccphig. Stem finglf-flowci-ed.
Awns upright, (hag-gy.'' — Place of growth and time of
flowering fame as in llie preceding fpccics. Root ycllowifli.
Runners long, rcddifli, Flowsr-Jlalks ereft, reddifii, fliaggy.
Petals five or eight, foinetimts ten, large, yellow. Seeds
retaining the 7?)7f, which is broken off in the middle and
looks like a jointed aiun.

II. G. anemonoides. Anemone Avens. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. Ill 7. — "Leaves pisnate, fmooth ; leaflets wedge-
ftiaped, tot)thed at the top. Stem fingle-flowercd. Awns
upright, ftiaggy.'' — There is no figure of this rare fpecies
extant. Wllldcnow has very properly reduced it to Geum,
tiiou'-ii the plant was formerly known as Dryas pcntapetala.
(Linn. Sp. PI. 717.) Native of Kamtfchatka. /?oo< pe-
rennial, throwing f-'it fdifonii, woody cnY/rrJ-. St'.pulas i\zx-
row. Petals live, large, round, white, fpreading. Seeds
numerous, tipped with an hairy awn, and longer than the
fotver. It appears by the Linnxan Herbarium to be a very
elegant fpecies.

I 2. G. pai-viflorum. Small White Avens. — Radical leaves
lyrate, taller than the flem. Stipulas cut. Flowers nearly
feffilc. Petals fhorter than the calyx. Awns feathery. —
Gathered by Commerfon in the ftraits of Magellan.
The radical Icn-ves are interruptedly lyrate, hairy, bluntly
cut and crenate, about three inches long, moll refembling
thofe of G. r'lvak. Stem folitary, fcarcely two inches high.,
clothed with (hort denfe hairs, and bearing two or three
ternate wedge-fliaped leaves, and as many fmall, nearly fei-
{\\e Jlo-wers, which appear to be fomfcwhat drooping, but
this can fcarcely be determined by the dried fpecimen. The
ptta's, faid by Cpmmerfon to be white when frefii, are
fmallcr than the fegments of the calyx. Germens hairy as in
G. rfuale.

13. G. calihifolium. Marfh-marigold leaved Avens. — Ra-
dical leaves kidney- iliaped, almoil circular, tliarply crenate;
on {lightly leafy ftalks. Calyx turbinate, Avith lanceolate
fegxients. Awns hairy. — Gathered by Mr. Mcnzies on the
well coaft of North America — This is remarkable for the re-
femblance of its radical leaves in fhape and fize to thofe of Cal-
tha palujlns, except their being ilightly hairy, and their
long footHalks being furnidied with a few little oblong or
three-lobed leaflets, indicating an approach to a lyrate leaf
altogether. Stem above a foot high, erect, bearing three or
four fmaller, feffile rounded leaves, more deeply crenate or
jut, and terminating in about t\w£eJloivc>-s, on ilender llalks.
Calyx hairy at its bafe, turbinate ; its fegments oblong-lan-
ceolate, obtufe, at length eretl, the larger ones equal in
length to ihe pt tab which are yellow and broad, like thofe
©f a common Crowfoot. Awns llraight, bliiutiih, hairy in
the lower part, poflibly becoming hooked at an advanced
period.

Geum Urhanum, in the Ma'eria Medicn, is a common
Britifli plant, called ylviiis, in woods and hedges, flowering
from May till Auguil. The root, which is the part medi-
cinally employed, has an aromatic and lomewhat aftringent
tafte, and a pleafant fmcll of the clove kind, efpecially
when it is produced in dry and warm foils. It gives out its
aftringent matter equally to water)- and ipirituous menftrua ;
but its aromatic part moll perfectly to the latter. In dif-
tillation with water it yields a fmall quantity of uiiitilh con-
crete oily matter, of a very grateful fragrance. This plant,
though little ufed in Britain, is held in great eftimation for
Tarious virtues on the continent ; but the character,, under
which it has been received fince the year 178c, is that of
a febrifuge ; many inflances having been adduced of its ef-
ficacy in obftinatc intermittents, after the P-rnvian bark
kad failed. It is faid that a tin<3urc of the root, made in tlic

i

G E X

proportion of four ounces of the root dlgefted witli a quart
of brandy in a fand heat, and given in the quantity of half
an ounce or more, two, three, or four times a day, feldom
fails to cure agues. Others have given it with equal fuccefs
in decoftion, powder, or eleftuary, in the proportion in
which the Cinchona bark is commonly employed. This
root has alfo been found ufeful in feveral chronic diforders,
as a general tonic and afl;ringent ; and experiments made bv
Buchhave evince its antifeptic power to exceed that of Pe-
ruvian bark. Woodville, Med. Bot.

GEVOLLUNG, in Geography, a town of Auflria > .
cigiit miles S. of St. Polten.

GEVREY, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Dijon ; 7 miles S. of Dijon. The place contains
1 128, and the canton 7894 inhabitants, on a territory of
260 klliometres, in 36 communes.

GEVUINA, in Botany, a barbarous Chili name, adopt-
ed by MoHna. — .Tuff. 424 — C'lafs and order, Didynamia An-
^'I'ljpermia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals four, placed crpfs-
wife. Slam. Filaments four, two of them very rtiort. P;y?.
Gernicn fuperlor, funplo ; ilyle one; ftigma thickidi. A-
ric. Capfule nut-lhaped, coriaceous, of one cell. Seed foli-
tary. A tree, native of Chili, where Dombey and Molina
have gfthered it. Tlie leaves are pinnated, compofed of
four or five pair with an odd one. Flo-wers terminal, fpiked,
two together, many of tliem abortive. Frmt eatable, like
a hazel-nut, whence the Spani^ds call it A-vellano. Seed
deftitute of albumen. Cap>fale much hke that of the Calo-
phyllum. Jufl".

GEUSS, .loiix Micn.\EL, in Biography, was born in
H'jlilein in 1745. His father undertook the care of his
education, and found in his fon a turn for mathematical
and philofophical purfuits, which he encouraged, and by
which he became diftingniflied, and was chofen profelfbr of
the mathematics in the univerfity of Copenhagen. His
principal work was the " Theory of the Art of conftrufting
Mines," in the compofition of which he was aflTifted by the
MSS. of Belidor, which he had the good fortune to ob-
tain, though they had been fuppreffed in France, after the
death of that able engineer. He pubhfhed alfo a " Trea-
tife on the Art of con.lrufiing Mines.'' He gave a tranf-
lation in the German language, from the Danifli, of Olaf-
fen and Povclfcn's voyage to Iceland, which was printed in
two volumes 410. He fent feveral valuable papers to Brchm's^
Ingenieur-und-Artillerie Magazin, and publifiied a fet of
logarithmic tables.

GEUTZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Anhalt-Cotheu, near Cuthen.

GEWICZE, Giiwn z, or Geevitfeh, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Olmutz ; 24 miles weft of Olmntz. N.
lat. 49 45. E.lcng. 16 35.

GEVv'OLD, Chrlstopiikr, in Bigrnp.'.y, flourilhed in
the fcvcnteenth century. He was one of the aulic counfel-
lors of Maximilian, firil elcftor of Bavaria, v.h.o confidi'd to
his care the archives of the duchy, in order that he might
make ufe of them as an hiilorian. His works relate ch.iefly
lo the hiflory of his own country ; of thefe we may men-
tion " Genealogia Serenifiiinorum Bojaria: Ducum, 1C05."
" Chronicon Monafterii Reicherfpergenfis.'' " De!ii:eatJo
Norici veteris, ejufque Conliniura ;'' and " Commentarius de
Septem viratu Roman! Imperii." Moreri.

GEX, in Geography, a fmall territory of France, in
the cidevant provnice of Burgundy, extending from Fort
dEclufe to the village of Croflay, and from the town of
Gex to Geneva, bei.ig fcvcn leagues in length and three in

breadtb.

G E Z

treadth, watered by the Rhine and other ftreams, and tound-
cd on the well by mount Jura, which yields Lxcellent paf-
tures. The principal .nrticles of trade are cheefe, win-, and
coal. It now forms a part of the department of lake Le-
nian.

Gex, a town of France, in the department of Leman,
and chief place of a canton, in the diftritl of Geneva, fitu-
ated at the foot of mount St. Claude ; 9 miles N. N. W. of
Geneva. The place contains 2461, and the canton 9209 in-
habitants, on a territor)' of 2i2:j kiliometres, in 14 com-

N. lat. 46' 20'. E.

6 8',

GEYER, a town of Germany, in the circle of Erz.ge-
burg, fituated in the midft of mines, and having manufac-
tures of vitriol, fulphur, alum, and arfenic ; 6 miles W. S.
W. of Wolkenllein.

GEYERSBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 28 miles E. N. E. of Chrudim.

GEYRACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 9 miles
S. S. E. of CiUey.

GEYSS, or Geysa, a town of Germany, in the biftop-
ric of Folda, fituated on the Ulller ; i^ miles N. E. of
Fulda. N. lat. jo'' 43'. E. long. 10^.

GEYas Ruchai Jajfeleh, a mountain of Germany, which
feparates Upper Carniola from the county of Cilley ; 6
miles N. E of Stein.

GEYSZING, New, a town of Saxony, in the margra-
viate of MeifTen ; 12 miles S. E. of Pilnitz.

GEZAEL, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Euplu3-
tes ; 1 20 miles W. N. W. of Baflbra.

GEZAN, or D,SJESAK, a fea-port town of Arabia Felix,
in the principality of Abu-Arifch (fee Abu-Kv.\%cn) ; 23
miles W. of Abu-Arifch, the capital of the principality.
This province of Gezan, fituated on the Arabic gulf, and in
a fertile country, carries on a confiderable trade in fenna, of
which great plenty is furniflied by the circumjacent territory,
and alfo in coffee, which is brought liither from the moun-
tains of Hafchid-u-Bakil. It has a trade likewife with the
ports on the oppofite fide of the Arabic gulf; but has no in-
tercourfe with the fubjecls of the Imam.

GEZEID, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of tlie
Nile ; 27 miles N. N. W. of Cairo.

GEZIR.^., or Jassf.era, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
and capital of a pachalic, in the province of Diarbekir, on
the right bank of the Tigris. The wh.ole province of Diar-
bekir is alfo called " Al Gezira ;'" 75 miles S. E. of Diar-
bekir. N. lat. 37~ 16 . E. long. 40 42'.

GEZIRA CuBRO-S, in the Materia MetCca of the Anci-
ents, a name given to talc by Avicenna, Serapion, and
others. Thefe authors do not give any explication of what
fort of fubftance they mean by this name, but feem to fup-
pofe it a thing univerfally known, and only give a hil of its
qualities.

GEZIRAT AL Dahab, or Gezirnt JdJahah, or the
Golden IJland, in Geography, an iflaad in Lower Egypt,
formed by canals cut from the left bank of the Nile, oppy-
fite to Faoua.

Gezir.\t al Teik, or IJland of Birds, an ifland in tlie Red
fea. N. lat. 22' 18'. E. long. 37" 56'.

GEZULA, or Ge-SULA, an inland province of the empire
of Morocco, E. of the province of Suz, and N. of Vledde
N'^n : this, together with the province of Dra, lies iu the
vicinity of mount Atlas which, in this foutliern part of the
country, extends almoll to the fea. The inhabitants of this
province are confidered as the moft ancient people of Africa.
The country produces a great quantity of baik y, and affords
•pafture for cattle : it has mines of iron and copper, of which
are made various uteniils, that are exchajiged for cloth, fpices,

G H A

horfes, and other necefTarics. It has every year a fair, whick
lafls two months, for the fale and exchange of cattle and
merchandize in general. Tlie people are free, being allica
rather than fubjefts of Morocco. Th-'ir arms confift -of
fibres, large (harp two-edged fwords and knees. Thty are
numerous, but have no towns, and they generally live in
camps and villages.

GFOLL, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles W. N. W. of
Cren-.?.

GHALESKA, a town of Arabia Fe!ix> which was once
a famous city and fea-port, but now fu:ik into decay, about
20 cottages only remaining to (hew the phce wiiere it ftood,
and the inhabitants are provided only with dates, and the
milk and fledi of a few (hecp ; 20 miles S. of Hodeida.

GHALGHULUWA, in Zoology, the Ceylonefe name
of a fpceies of Eaft Indian (erp^nt, a (nake of a pale brown,
variegated with tranfverfe ftreaks of white, and found amonfj
rocks and ftones.

GHAN is a name given in Mufcovy to caravanferas.

GHANA, as Edrifi and Abulfeda tall it, or GiiiSWY.
in Geography, a city and capitr.l of a kingdom in Africa, fitu-
ated nearly midway between the Indian fta and the Atlantic
on the E. and W. ; and between the Mediterranean and tlir
Ethiopic fcas on the N. and S. ; and, therefore, confidered
by major Rennell as the point on whicii tlie ceutral and
eajlcrn pofitions depend. Tliis country lies on the border*
ot the Neel-Abeed, or Guin river, and is bounded on the
N. by Calhna or Kaffina, on the E. by Wangara, on the S. by
Melli or Lamlem, and on the W. by Mekzara and Kallina.
The city is placed in Rennell's map on the portii bank of the
river. According to Edrifi, Giiana is di(lant 37 joumies
(each day's journey of Edrifi being about 19.06 geogra-
phical miles) from " Gcrma,'' through Agadez, or Agadoft.
Germa is an ancient and ruined citv of Fezzan, about four
journies E S. E. of Mourzouk, in N. lat. 27 25'. E. long.
16^ 20'. Agadez is 25 of Edril'i's journies from Gcrma,
bearing S. by W. or S. S. W. from the capital of Fezzan.
Ghana is 12 days of Edrili's fcide to the foutliwaid of Aga-
dez, or about 229 geographical miles. It appears that Ghana
lies fomewhat to the ealt of the line whieh paffes through
Agadez from Germ.a, and Mr. Renn^U has taken 700 as the
gcu.ral line of diftance from Germa to Ghana. Mr. Matra
was told, at Morocco, that Ghinny (Ghana cf Edrifi 1 wag
40 joumies from Kabra, tiie port of Tombutloo, along the
bank of the Niger. Thefc, taken at '.he caravan rate between
Fezzan and Egypt, Morocco and Jarra, See. that i«, at 16.3
per day, produce 652 geographical mile?;. The interfec-
tiou of this line with that from Gerir.a pl;:ces Ghinny in N.
lat. i6" id. E. long. 1 3" 2' ; in which polition it ftands at
760 miles from the citv of Benin, on the coail of Guinea.
For th...- further fettlement of this important point in adjuil-
ing the rr.ap of Africa, fe'e Rennell's Proceedings of th«
African AiTociation, p. 119, 8:c

GHANARA, a city of Africa, the capital of Wan-
gara, fituated <m a river, wliich runs into the Niger, or rather
into a lake (the Lybia Palus of Ptolemv) formed by tliff
Niger. N. lat. 13' 40'. E long. 15 40.

GHASSA, or Gassa, capital of a diftricl in the nor-
thern part of Bootan, in the Eail Indies, and the ftation of
a zinnpoon, or provincial governor. The higheft ir.ouiitaw
in its neighbourhood, whofc head is ctenislly covei-cd with
fnow, fends forth a fpring of water at its bareof fo great a
degree of I-.eat, that few uiv found capable of bearing, even
fora (hort time, 3;;y part of the body iinmerfed in it. It
is fituated near the fprinx-liead of Pa-tchicu river. N, lat.

27- 53'. E. lon^. Sy' iS'.

rt

GHAT,

G H E

G H E

GHAT, a fir.nll idund in tbe river St. Lavwcncc. K.
lat. 3 J ;^,o'. W. Umg. 93" 20'.

GHAVKANI, a town of Pcrfia, in the pi-ovincc of"
Irak ; 27 mil.-s E. ut" Ifp:i!inn.

GHEBAN. See GiiisAx.

GHEDRABA. a tuv.n of Perfia, in the provincj of
Irak; 5 miles N.W. of Ifpahan.

GHEDI, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Mcki ; 10 miles S. of Breiei,!.

(jHEDEMIS. See Gadamis.

GHEDEN, a town of Ailatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Sivas ; 15 miles S. of Amaiioh.

GHEDMAN, a town of Perfia, in Chorafan ; iS miles
S. of Herat.

GHEIRA, a town of Af.atic Turkey, in Natolia ; 38
miles N.N.E. of Moj-la.

GHEIVE, a to\vn of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 20
miles E.N.E. of Ifnik.

GHELA, a town of Arabia, on the Coaft of the Red
fea, anciently called" Ocalis ;" 48 miles S.S.E. of Mo-
vlia.

(iHELEN, SiGisMOXD, in Biography, was born of a
refpechtble family at Prague When he had attained to a
proper age for improvement by foreign travel, he went into
I'ra'ice and Italy, and acquired an accurate knowledge of
the languages of thofe countries. On his return he paded
through Bahl, and made himfelf known to Erafmus, at
whofe recommendation Froben engaged him as his correftor
t)f the prefs, by wliich he gained a fmall but competent
nwintenance. He foon alTumed a higher office than that
of correttor of proof-fheets, and joined to it the dii-
: ties ot a critic and trandator. He publiftied a diftionary
of the Greek, Latin, German and Dalmatian languages ;
and annotations upon Pliny and Eivy. He tranflated from
the Greek iato Latin the Antiquities of Jofeptius, fome
Homilies of Chryloilom, and many otlier learned works.
Juil before his death, which happened in 1554, he had em-
ployed his talents on, and nearly finiflied, a verlion of Juflin
Martyr's works. Behdes thofe already mentioned he was
edttor of many other works. He was acute and ingenious,
and wrote with elegance and fluency. In his private character
ke was mild and placid, iimple and fmccre. Moreri.

GHEMARA. See Gemaha.

GHEJ^vlE, in Gei^rnphy, a town of Italy, in the depart-
.ment of the Gogua ; 13 miles N.N.AV. of Novara.

GHEMISH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the go-
^crnmei^f of Sivas ; 24 miles W. of Amafieh.

GHENNA. Sec G:nvNA.

GHENT, a city of France, and chief place of a dif-
tricl, in the department of the Scheldt, formerly capital of
Aiiilrian Flanders, fituated on the conflux of the rivers
Scheldt, Lis, Moeze, and I^ieve, which, together with a
number of canals, interfect it in a variety of dlreftions, and
divide the town into 26 fmall iilands. It is encompaffed by
■jvalls about 15 miles In circumference, and includes gardens
and corn-fields. Siace the French revolution it has been di-
\ided into four quarters, viz.. North, South, Eaft, and
V/eft, and as many cantons. "The former contains 15,000,
and the correfpoiiding canton 17,454 hiiiabitants, on a terri-
tory of 22^ kilioraetres, in two communes ; the fecond, or
fonth, contains 15,000, and its canton 16,469 inliabitants, on
a territory of 35 kiliometres, in two communes ; th.e third,
or eall, includes 13,000, and its canton 1-6,073 inhabitants,
on a territory of 35 kiliom.etres, in three communes; and
the fourth, or well, contains 13,000, and its canton 18,319
inhabitants, on a territory of fifteen kiliometres, in thi-ee
«o;runune8 This city was firft chofen for tlicir habitatioii

by tha Nervii, and afterwards occupied by the Vandals, w{\«
gave it the name of " Wanda," \vhencc the prefent appella-
tion of Gaud, or Ghent, is fuppofed to be derived. If
was oncompafTed with walls by Odoaccr, gra'r.d forefler of
Flanders, and has iince been frequently enlarged, particular-
ly in the year 1397, by order of Philip the Bold, 25th
count of Flanders. The inhabitants were always warlilic,
and often engaged in mihtary contells with their own princes,
and with their ncighbcSins, which were conducted in many
intlanccs with favage cruelty, and terminated in extenfive and
fanguhiary flaughter. Ghent was the birth-place of Charles
v., of whofe nativity in their town the inhaliita-.jts h.^d little
reafon to boall, as he loaded them with frequent and heavy
impofitions, challil'ed ihera with rigour for their occafional
revolts, and fii'jjecled the magillrales and feveral of the
chief citi/,ens to the moll; humiliating treatment. This con-
diU^ on his part inflamed their difpolilion to revolt, and tlie
confequence was, that one of the . iinell cities in Europe
was reduced to a ftate of ])erfecl folitude. However, it af-
terwards regained fome fnmll portion of its ancient fplendour,
and became, atleafl jirevioufly to ijmes of itcent confulioii,
eonfiderable. In November 7676, was concluded in this
city the famous treaty called the" Treaty of Ghent,'' con-
fifting of 25 articles, and amongfL others fome of them fli-
pulating' that the Spanifliand foreign troops fliould leave the
country, that the provinces of Holland and Zealand fliould
remain united with the others, that tlie Catholic religion
fliould be maintained, and that the ancient privileges of the
country (huuldbe fecurc ; and this treaty was approved and
ratified by Philip II., king of Spain. In 1678 Ghent was
taken by Louis XIV., king of France, but reftored to
Spain at the treaty of Nimeguen in the fame year ; and it
remained in their poffefiioji till it was taken by the allies
in 1706, after the battle of Ramillies. It was feized by thff
French in 1 708, but recaptured by the allies under prince Eu-
gene and the duke of Marlborough, in the fame year. Ghent
was erefted into a bifliopric in 151; 9 by pope Paul IV., at ths
folleitation of Philip II., king of Spain, fiilijeft to the arelibir
fhop of IvTalines. It had, bcfules the cathedral, fix parifh
churches, and many religious houfes- : fome of the lireets
are broad aiul well-paved, and the market places fpacious, in,
the midH of one of which is a flatue of Charles V., ifi
his imperial habit. Ghent carries on a eonfiderable trade in
cloth, linen, lace, and filk manufactures, and is much
alliiled, in favourable times, by two navigable canals ;
one to Sas-de-Ghent, and auothw- t« Bruges, Ollend,
&c. The magiilracy " confifls of burgomalters, echevins,
pnd common-council. John, the third foil of Edv,~ird III.,
king of England, was born in this city, and from this cir-
cumllance called Jolui of Gaunt. In November 1792, the
French took pofleflion of this city', but evacuated it on the-
retreat of Dumourier ; however, they afterwards regained
it in their progrefs through the country : 30 miles S. VV. of
Antwerp. N. lat. 51" 3' 15". E. long. 3 ' 43:20".

GHER, a to\rn of Africa, in the county of SugulmcfTaj
or SijilnifTa, on the Ziz, near mount Atlas; 90 miles N.W.
of Sugulmcffa.

GHERANGOL, a town of Africa, in the country of
the Foulalis, on the S. fide of the river Senegal. N. lat.
:6 40'. W. long. 14'.

GHEREDE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
28 miles E. of Boli.

GHERGISTEN Mountain-.'^, a chain of montains of
Aifia, fituated on the N. of the country of Candahar, 15
miles N. of Candahar.

GHERGONG, or KliiKASt-, a town of Afam, and
capital of the country, on the Degoo, 160 geographical

tuilea

•GH E

-miles nearly E. by N. from Goali)iir;ili, Tiio houfes are
conllnidled of wood, and each of them lias a garden, or
fome cultivated ground in front, whicn gives the place a
great extent. It i;; fortilicd, and has four gales, encoinpnired
with a fence of bamboos, and incloring villages and tilled
fields ; it is conftriifted of Hone and earth. The rajah's
palace is furroundcd by caufeways, planted witii bamboos,
and the ditch on theoutlidc is full of water ; the palace con-
tains many lofty and fpncious apartments, particularly a
faloon 150 cubits long and forty broad, fupported by 66
pillars of wood at certain intervals. In the town there is a
fmall market, which, however, contains no Ihop-kccpcrs,
but the fellers of betel ; as the inhabitants lay up a Hock of
provilions fufficient to lall them a year, and have no occa-
fion to purchale any for daily ufe. N. lat. 35' 30'. I£. long.
93 ' 10. See AsA.Nr.

. GHERIAH, a fca-port of Hindooftan, on the well of
Pirate colift, in the county of Concan ; late the capital
and principal port oi Angria. It was llrongly fortified by
the pirate Angria, from whom it was taken bv admiral Wat-
fon and colonel Chve, in the year 1756 ; 80 milts N.N.W.
of Goa. N. lat. 16' 37'. E. long. 73' 8'.

GHERKINS. See Gukkkins.

GHERMA, or Ge:!MA, in Geography. See GiiA-

KA.

GHERMANSIK, a town of Afialic Turkey, in Na-
tolia- ; 1 5 miles E. of Scala-Nova.
. GHERRI. See Geiuu.

GPIERUA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
.I.achfa, or Hadsjar ; 43 miles W. N. Vv''. of El Ca-
tif.

GHERZE', a town of Africa, in Tripoli ; 50
.miles S. of Mefiu-ada. N. lat. 31- 28'. E. long. 14°

. GHESILPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in the cir-
.car of Rantampour ; 28 miles S.S.W. of Suifopour.

GHEUK SHA, i. e. Blue IVnUr, a lake of Perfian
Armenia, 60 m.iles long, and 6 broad ; 50 miles E.N.E. of
. Erivan.

GHEUREL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolla ;
28 miles W.N.W.of Angara.

GHEUTSI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
I (5 miles E. of Cogni. ^

GHEYSSIOUAS, a tribe of Hottentots, inhabiting a
diflricl of South Africa, bordering on the country of Caf-
fraria. M. Vaillant, being at no great dillance from Orange
river, found fome of thefe people, who pointed out to him
a chain of mountains to the eall, which was occupied by
their principal tribes, and which feparated them from the
.CafFres, or at leaft from the Briquas and Bremas, conhder-
ed by tliein as tribes of Caifres. The chief difference be-
tween the Gheylhquas and the nations that furround them
confiils in the colour of their ornaments, to which they im-
part a dazzling whitenefs by proceifes peculiar to themfelves.
Tile women are well-made, lively, and prone to laugh or
dance ; but at the fame time modell and referved. The
people, in general, are faid to be very hofpitablc and gene-
rous. The prafticc of femi-cailration prevails in all their
hordes without exception, and they are the only tribe among
the Hottentots who adopt it. Different accounts are given
by travellers of the reafon of this fingular operation. Kol-
ben, ilating it to conhil in the extraction of the leftteHicle,
reprefents it as a religious ceremony, prevailing among all the
Hottentots, but this is not true in faft. Others afcribe it to
a defireon the part of the Gheyffiquas to remove every-im-
pcdiment in vunrjing, and others again aflign as its caufe a
wjih to prevent the too abii:idant propagatioa of the fpccies.

G H I

But neitlier of thefe caufcs produce.'! the effort afcritied t*

tiiem. Vaillant fuppofcs tliat it is a mark of diltinction,
adopted by their anceilor.';, when at war with neighbouring-
nations, by which they might know one anolhtr ; but this
account is no Icfs fanciful and improbable than any other.
Whatever is the caufe from which this practice origiftati-s,
it is performed by tlie fatl^cr, comii'.only at tlie birth of the
child ; though it is fonietimcs deftrred till the child has com'
pletcd his third year.

GHEZ, a town of Grand Buchsria ; 24 miles S.S.E.
of Balk. N. lat. 36 16. E. long, Gy 40'. ■ '

GHEZAN. See Gkxav.

GHEZZI PlKii Lko.vk, called Cavalier Glrazi, in
B'logriijihy, a painter who was a pupil and imitator of Pic-tra
Cor'ona. He was felectcd with Luti Trevifani, and other
artills of the fame ityle, to paint the prophets in St. .John
Lateran ; and executed many other works of lefs conft-
quence ; but he obtained moll celebrity by his ikill in carica-
ture, which he freely indulged.

GH I A BUNDER, in Geography, z town of Bengal; 2^
mile.- S.S.W. of Goragot.

GHIBELINS. See GruEi.ix.s.

GHICKERS, an appellation given to thofc who inha*
bited the northern and largell divilioa of the hilly traA
iituated between the Behul, the Sindc, and Cuflimere, in
Plindoollan, by way of contrail to the .loudis^ wha oc-
cupied the fouthern and leall diviliou.

GH I DO R E, in Ceognipbf, a province of Bengal, bounded
on the N. by Bahar, on the N.E. and E. by Qirruckpour,
on the S. by Birboom, and on the S.W. by Curruckdeah
and Moy. The chief place is Ghidore ; which is 70 miles
S.E. of'Patna. N. lat. 24 53'. E. long. 86' 23'.

GHIEZ, a fortrefs of Perfia, in the province of Irak,
taken by the Afghans in 1723.

GHILAN, or KiLAN, fvnonvmous with the ancient
Gela, a province of Wellern Perfia, boun<'.ed on the N. by
the provinces of Aderbijaii or Aiderbeitzan and Schirvan,
on the N.E. by the Cafpian fea, on the E. by the C;iipian
fea and the province of Ma/.anderan, on the S. by the
Perfian Irak, and on the W. by tlie provinces of Aderbijan
and Curdiflan ; about 2CO miles from E. to W., and 150
from N. to S. This is one of the moll beautiful and fer-
tile provinces of Perlia, producing filk, ohve.s rice, to-
bacco, and moil excellent fruits of all kinds, and in fuch
abundance, asno'to-dy to fupply the wants of its inhabitants^
but fufficient to provide for a great part of Perfia and
Armenia. The manufaftures and iilk of Ghilan are cltcem-
ed the bed in Perfia, and have been in luch repute for many
years, that Raflid, its capital, is become one of the lirlk
commercial towns in this part of Afia. The finell lort is
ufually white, and chielly fent inti) the interior cities of Perfia,.
or fold to the Turks ;the inferior kind is yellow, and prin-
cipally difpofcdoftothe Ruflianp. Ralhd fupplies the bolder--
ing provinces of Perfia, and the inde|)endeiit iwighbouring
Hates, as far as Georgia", with European merchandize, excej.t
the goods which are tranfported immediately frojn Atlrakan,
through Killar and Moftok, to the ncarell part of Georgia,
and of the neighbouring mountains ? and ihofe fent from
Shamakeeto the Lcfgue Tartars, aiidothcr independent tribes-
In this province are feen whole foix-lls of mulberry, box,
and walnut trees. Every peafant has a garden to bis .«()t-
tage, planted with orange-trees, citrons, iigs,. and vines.
For a further account ul' the trade and government of this
province, we refer to the articles Caspian Sta and Persi.\.
We fhall here only add, that in the year 1792 Akau, called
by Dr. Pallas Aga Mamet, colledcd an army, aud purfued.
his conquelts in the. vicinity, of -Gk'lan, till at lenqtli he luJ

a*

G H I

oo rival, except Hfdact, khaii ol'Gliilan, whom he forced to
fly from RatUt or R,i!hd, liia V'l.ice of refidcncc, and who wns
killed near the port of S;:ilili. In coiifequencf of thefc
events Akiu bi.-o.ime moiiarcli of the whole of Wcilern
Perfia ; and having been made an eunuch in his infancy by
order of Nadir Shah, he nominated for his fucccil'or his
nephew Baba Serdar.

GHIjjDI, a town of Africa, on the Senegal ; 30 miles
N.V/. of Oallam.

GHILON, a town of Curdiftan ; 50 miles S.S.W. of
Erbil

GIIINAL A, a town and territory of Africa, on the
river Rio Grande, near its mouth. N. lat. ii" 15'. W.
long. 14' ij'.

GHIML\, in Botany, fo named by Schreber in memory
of Luca Ghini, who, in the i6th century, was profefTor of
botany at Bologna and Pifa, in each of wliieh univrrfities
he, greatly improved, if he did ii;)t entirely found, the
botanic gardirn, and was the iird who made the fludy of
•botany an eflential part of mctlical education. He publiflied
no book himfclf, but Haller mentions the exilience of a
mSnufcript copy of his lectures, and he communicated many
things in correlpondencc to the writers of his time. Schreb.
19. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 114. Mart. Mill. Pift. v. 2.
Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1087. (Tamonea ; Aubl Guian.
659. .TuIT. 109. Lamarck, Illuftr. t. 542. Swartz. Prod.
94.) — Clafs and order, Dulynamia ^ii^iofpermia. Nat. Ord.
Pcrfonata, Linn. J'il/ces, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianthof one leaf, tubular, permanent,
inferior, its orifice with five pointed fpreading teeth. Cor.
of one petal, irregular ; tube long, narrow ; limb of two
lips, the upper one largefl, roundifh, concave, alcending ;
lower in three deep I'oundiih fegments, the n.iddlemoil
larger, defle-Ked, emarginate. Stmn, Filaments four, in-
ferted into the tube above its bafe, two of them lunger than
the reft ; anthers each of two feparated oblong cells, one
of them terminal, fertile in the longer ftamens only, the
other like a little fcalc in the middle of each filament. Pi/}.
•Germen roundifh, fupcrior ; ftyle thread-iliaped, the length
of the t\ibe ; lligma four-lobed. Perk. Drup-i turbinate,
angular, diy, projecting beyond the permanent calyx. Nut
angidar, of tour or five cclb. HfeJs iolitary.

Efl". Ch. Calyx with five (liarp fpreading teeth Corolla
ringent, two-lipped; tlie lower lip threc-lobed. Nut coated,
four-celled, inveiled with the calyx. Seeds folitary. An-
thers of two diilant lobes.

Obf. We think this genus ought to be placed in Didy-
nam'w, along with Verbena, to which it is nearly akin, though
only tlie longer tlameMs appear to be perfetl ; but this may
be V;ariable, and cannot well be determined without repeated
examinations of wild Ipccin-.ens.

1. G. fpinofa. Willd. n. 1. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
^.1.45. (G. verbenacea ; S.v. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1089.
Verbena curaiiavica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 28. Veronica: fimilis,
&c. Herm. Parad. t. 240) — "Fruit with four thorns.
Leaves fmooth." — Native of feveral parts of the Well
Indies, where Houlton and Swartz have gathered and
examined it. This is an annual and rather humble herba-
ceous plant, with a branched /ffw, ovate deeply ferrated leaves,
and long iooCe fpikes of fm,\ll whiti(hy7owfr.r.

2. G. mulira. Wdld. n. 2. Sw. Ind. Occ. v. 2. T090.
(Tamonea fpicata ; Aubl. Guian. 660. t. 268.) — " Fruit
without thorns. Leaves downy." — Native of Guiana and
Cayenne. Much like the former, bi:t with downy leaves,
and an unarmcd_/>-;/i/, and the middle fegment of the lower
Jip of the corolla, according to Swartz, is emarginate in
this, eutire iu the preceding. Neither of them have mucii

G H I

beauty, nor any other qualities to recommend them for
cultivation with us in the ftove, though perhaps they might
be planted out for the fummer, if defirable, like other
tender annuals.

GHINNA, or Ghen>.t;', in Geography, z town of
Egypt, on the E. fide of the Nile, oppofite to Kuft, or
Coptos, on the other fide, and diftant from Cofl'eir, or
Kofire, on the Red fea, about 90 geographical miles. N.
lat. 26^ 11'. E. long. 32^45'.

GHINUE, a town of Aliatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 24
miles N.W. of Sinob.

GHIO. See Kemuk.

Gh o, a town of Africa, belonging to the Foulahs, on
the Senegal ; 12 miles S.W. of Goumel.

GHIR. S -e Gin.

GHIRGIN. SeeGuiNGUiN.

GHIRLANDAIO, DoMENiro, in .ff/ci^ra//^,^ a painter,
of whom Vaf-iri fpeaks as being of the firll rank in his
time. His real name was Corradi. He at firft was em-
ployed by his father, in his own profefiion of goldimith, at
Florence, who obtained the name of Ghirlandaio, by having
been the firft to make little metallic garlands ( GhirlanH: ) for
children to wear. Domenico continued to paint, after he
had adopted painting as his profefiion, for the churches and
convents in Florence, both in frefco and in oil. He, like
other artifts of the time, introduced into his piftures the
portraits of his friends, but gave them more charafter ap-
pertaining to the f'lbjedl, than had hitherto been done there ;
and he was the firft who left off gilding in pidlures, and
attempted to imitate its effcfts by colours. He was called
to Rome by Sixtus IV. to affift other mailers employed in
painting his chapel. His works there were afterwards
fpoiled to make room for thofe of M. Angelo. He was
highly honoured, and employed nobly ; but his greatell
glory is, having had the great liero of the art, M. Angelo,
for a pupil. He died in 1493, at the age of 44. His
brothers, David and Benedetto, finiftied many of his works,
and educated his fon RidoUo to the art, who afterwards
made great progrefs, and obtained efteem from Raphael
himfelf, who invited him, but not fuccefsfully, to work in
the Vatican. In Ridolfo's piftures, Mr. Fufeli fays, "there
is fomething analogous to the genius of Raphael ; the com-
pofition, the vivacity of the face, the choice qf colours,
fomething ideal in the ufe of nature, betray fimilar maxims,
with inferior powers." He died in 1560, aged 75.

GHIRNAH, in Gen^r.'iph\<. a river of Hindooftan, which
runs into the Taptce ; 36 miios S.W. of Bin-hanpour.

GHISCIOLA, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po ; 15 miles E. of Cremona.

GHISTELLES, a town of France, in the department
of the ^ys, and chief place of a canton, in the diftricl of
Bruges ; 1 1 miles S.W. of Bruges. The place contains
2500, and the canton 1 1,404 inhabitant?, on a territory of
182! kilioiTietres, in 18 communes.

GHIVIRA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona ; 30 miles N.W. of Milan.

GHIZNI, or Gazx.^, ail ancient empire of Hindooftan,
founded by Abiftagi, governor of Korafan, A. D. 960,
who revolted from the kiny of Bucl:aria. Ghi/.ni con-
fifted chiefly of the traft which compofed the kingdom of
Baftria, after the divifion of Alexander's empire ; that is,
the countries lying between Parthia and the Indus, and
fouth of the Oxus. T!ie Cjhi/uian empire, fubjeel to the
fame caufes of decay with olher unwieldy ftates of rapid
growth, was, in 1 1 51^, forc'i:!y' divided ; the weftern,' and
largeft part, and which flill r^ lained the ancient name of the
empire, being feized on by .he family of the Gaurides, (fo

denominated

G H Y

denominated from Gaur, or Ghor, a province and city lyiag
beyond the Indian Caucafus), while the provinces contiguous
to both iliores of the Indus, remained to Chufero, or Cufroe,
who fixed his refidence at Lahore ; and even his poilcrity
vere, in 1 184, driven out of their kingdom by the Gaurides.
The death of the emperor Mahomed Gori, in 1205, occa-
lionsd a new divifion of the Ghiznian empire ; the Pcrfian
part remaining to Eldoze, and the Indian part to Cuttub,
who founded the Patau, or Afghan dynafty, in Hindooftan.
In 1 22 1 Gengiz Cawn, among his extenfive conquefls,
accomplifhed lliat of the empire of Ghizni ; putting an end
to the dynaily of Charafm, which then occupied that throne,
und driving before him the unfortunate Gelali, fon of the
reigning emperor ; who fwam the Indus to avoid his fury.
The ancient enipire of Ghizni is nearly comprehended by
the kingdom, known at prefeut by that of Candahar. See
Candauar.

Ghizxi, or Gazna, a city of Candahar, once the reputed
capital of the Ghiznian empire, and pkced among the
wellern fources of the Indus, and not far from the Indian
Caucafus. The pofition of Ghizni is erroneoufly fixed by
1*1. D'Anville in the N.W. extreme of Cabul ; whereas it
appears to be almoft in the very heart of that province.
It is termed the " Second Medina,'' on account of the great
number of illuftrious perfons whofe remains have been in-
terred there. Wonderful ftories are related concerning its
extent and population in ancient times ; neverthelefs, Baber
exprefles his furprife at its having ever been pitched on for the
feat of any empire. Ghizini is diftant about 56; gcogra-
pliical miles S. by W. from Cabul, about 167 A fiich
miles from Candahar, and about 88 miles from Bamian.
N. lat. 33^ 35'. E. long. 68' 22'.

GHOBAN. See GoBAN.

GHOER, a town of Holland, in GveryfTel, oil the
Rigge ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Borkeloe.

GHOR. See Gauii.

GHORAIB, a town of Arabia, in the country of Ye-
men; 15 miles E. of lambo.

GHOUP, a mountain of Southern Africa. This, and
alfo Nieuweld, are a continuation of the Roggeveld moun-
tain, and join the divifions bearing the fame name in the dif-
tridl of Graaf Reynet. They have lately been defeated, on
account of the number of Bocsjefman Hottentots, who
dwell clofe behind them.

GHOURBUND, a town, and diftrift of Cabul ; 43
miles N.W. of Cabul. N. lat. 34''' 55'. E. long 67"

GHOURI, a town of the kingdom of Balk. N. lat. 35^
40'. E. long. 66 56'.

GHULE EI. Ai.JAiB, a town of Arabia Felix ; 10 miles
N.N.E. of Chamir.

GHULPAIGAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
I-rakj taken by the Afghans in 1723; 100 miles N.N.W. of
Ifpahan. N. lat. 33° 45'. E. long. 50 ' 40'.

GHUMISCHKANA, a town of Aliatic Turkr)-, in
tbf government of Trebifond ; 50 miles S.S.W. of Trebi-

fvnd-

GHUNFUDE, a fea-port of Arabia, or. the Red fea,
belonging to the (heriff of Mecca. All vc'ills which carry
coffee to Jidda are compelled to anchor here, and pay a duty ;
145 miles S. of Mecca. N. lat. 29° 7'.

GHUNI, one of the finaller Cape Verd iflands, being
little more than a rock.

GHURMAN, a town of Pcrfia, in Segeftan ; 30 miles
i^.E. of Ferah.

GHYASPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 20
fciksW.S.W. o/Chuprah.

G I A

GIABBAR, in Geography, afortrefs of Afialic Turkey,
in the province of Diarbekir ; 120 miles S.S.W. of
Diarbekir.

GIACOMELLI Ge.miniano, in Biography, of Parma,
compofedfor the theatr-s of Venice, between the years 1704
and 1736, feven or eight different dramas, written chiefly by
ApofioloZeno andMctaaafio. He was the fcholar of Capclhj
but adopted a more liigli and flighty ftyle, with which the
Venetians were much captivated, l;efore they heard the more
graceful and expreSnve airs of Vinci and Ha(R.

GIACOMO, St. in Geography, a town of Italy ; ihree

miles S. of Verona Alio, a town of the Valtelinc ; two

miles N.W. of Ciiiavcnna.

Giacomo, St., ValLy of, a valley of Switzerland, which
is part of the county of Cliiavenna. It is narrow, and wa-
tered by the torrent Lira ; contains about 10 pariflies, is under
the jurifdi£tion of tlic commiHary, and pofilfTes feveral import-
ant privileges that prcfervc the inhabitants from the oppref-
fion which their neighbours endure. All c-aufes are tried in
the valley. The criminal ftatiites are thofn; of Chiavenna, with
this difference, that inftcad of the affeffor, the valley chufcs
four perfons, who are always prefent at the examination ;
and without whofe concurrence, torture cannot be inflicted,
nor fentence paffed. The valley has its own code of jiirif-
prudence, and courts independent of the commiffary, from
the decifion of which an appeal lies to tiie diet.

The lower part of the valley prode.ces vines and com ;
the upper, rye, barley, and pailure, mixed with large .groves
of fir and pine.

GlACO.MO Arkadelt, in Biography, a Netherlander,
and a difciple of .lufquin, enumerated by Adami among the
fingers and compofers of the pontifical cliapel ip the l6tli
century. He was maeftro di c.^.ppella fome time to the car-
dinal of Lorrain. and had acquired great fame by his madri-
gals, of which he publiihed at Venice, between the vears
1539 and 1575, five books. In one of which is the celebrated
madrigal, " II bianco e dolce Cigiio cantando muore,'' which
was in high favour all over Europe.

GIADEN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, 60 miles W.
S.V/. of Mecca.

GIADILA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed, 90 miles S.W. of Kariatim.

GIADRI, a town of Alb^mia, on the Drino ; eight
miles N. of Alelfio.

GIAG AS of Africa. See Jaga-;.

GIAGH, or Jfiiagii, a cycle of twelve years, in ufe
among the Turks and Cathayans.

Each year of the giagh bears the name of fome animal ;
the firft that of a moufe ; the focond, that of a bullock ; the
third, of a lynx or leopard; the fourth, of a hare ; the fifth, of
a crocodile ; the fixth, of a forpent ; the feventh, of a horfe;
the eighth, of afhcep ; the ninth, of a monkey ; the tenth, of
a hen ; the eleventh, of a dog ; and the twelfth, of a hog.

They .ili'o divide the day into twelve parts, which they
call giaghs, and diftinguilh them by the name of tlie famt
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hour?, and is di-
vided into eight kch, as many as there are quarters of hours
in our day.

GIALAKOVA, in Geography, a town of Eurovean
Turkey, in Romania ; 60 miles N.E. of Filippopoli.

GIALLOLINO, in Natural Htfimy. See Naplb*

I'elkw.

GIAMANI,

C I A

ETAMAMI, in GoTir.iphy, atiwnof Perfia, in the pro
vi^icp oF Cluilillan ; 28 miWS.S.W. of Suik-r.

G[AMB.-\SH, a town of Afiatic Tarkey, in Natolia ;
20 milos S.S.E. of Smyrna.

GIANAH, a town of Perfia, in tlic province of Kcrman ;
50 miles E. of Sin-^ian.

GIANCAZZd, St. a town of Naples, in ihe province of
Otranto ; 12 miles SAV. of Brindifi.

GIANNONE, Petku, in niography, was born at or
near Naples about the year 1680. He was educated for,
ana pracUfed in, the law, but was much more dillinj^aiidied
ss an hillorian. In 172;, he wrote a " Hiftory of Naples,"
in four volumes 410. The ftyle is pure, but the freedom
v.-ith whicli he difcuffed feveral topic'4_ relating to the origin
<if the papal power gave fo much offence to the court of
Rome, that he was obliged to exil- himfelf from his native
country. He found an afylum with the king of Sardmia,
who did not, however, dare to avow himfelf his proteftor,
hut chole rather to reprefent his fituation as that of a prifonor.
Giannone died in Piedmoiit in 1740. Extracts from his_
iiillory were afterwards printed in Holland under the title of
" Anecdotes Ecclefialliques." His pofthumous works were
given to the world in a quarto volume, containing, amon.g
other mifcellaneous matter, his profclfiun of faith, and a juf-
tification of hisl.illory.

GIANOTTI, a performer on the double -bafe in the
opera at Paris, from the year 1739 to 1767, who publilhed,
in 1 759, a treatife built on the principles of Rameau, entitled
" Guide du Compofiteur," the Compofer's Guide ; a
work much elleemed by the followers of Rameau. The
author of this tract having been long in the practice of ex-
plainino- the fyftem of the fundamental bafe to his fcholars,
has drawn up his own work in a clear and intelligible
manner.

GIANNUTI, in Geogrophy, a fmall idand in the Medi-
terranean fea, near the coalt of Italy. N. lat. 42' 24'. E. long.
11° 20'.

GIANT, ySy.<:, a man of extraordinary, enormous ftature
»nd bulk.

The reality of giants, and of nations of giants, is much
controverted among the learned. Travellers, hiftorians, and
relations, both facrcd and profane, furnifli various inilances
of them ; a great part of which naturalifts and antiquaries
fet afide.

Thofe among the ancients who fpeak of giants, as hifto-
rians, and aihrm there were fncli beings, ai-e Cs;far, de Bello
Gallico, hb. i. Tacitus, de Morib. Germanor. and Annal.
lib. ii. Florus, lib. iii. cap. 3, St. AuguUine, de Civit. Dei.
lib. XV. cap. 9. and Saxo-Grammaticus, at the end of his
preface: among the moderns, Hieron. Magius, Mifcelhui.
de Gigantibus; Chaffagonus, de Gigantibus ; Kircher,
Mund. Subterran. lib. viii. fedf. ii. cap. 4. and fo many others,
that Stephanus, in his notes on Saxo-Grammaticus, afFirms,
nothing can be more extravagant than to deny or allegorize
the authorities we have concerning them.

Dr. Derham obferves, that though we read of giants be-
fore the flood. Gen. vi. 4. and more plainly after it. Numb,
xiii. 33. yet it is highly probable the fize of man has always
been the fame from the creation'; for as to the Nephilim,
Gen. vi. the ancients vary about lliem, fome taking them for
monllers of impiety, atheifm, rapine, tyranny ; as to thofe.
Numb. xiii. who were evidently fpoken of as men of a gi-
o-antic fize, it is probable the tears of the fpies might add to
their bulk.

Be this as it will, it is manifcft, that in both thcfe places
jriants are fpoken of as rarities and wonders of the agCj not of
djc eommon ftature: and fuch inilances wc have had iu all

C ! A

Jigcs. "But it is not at all improbable, thut the firft men were of
a ftrcncrth and llature fuperior to thofe of mankind at pre-
fent, hncc they lived a mucli longer time ; long life being
commonly the effcd of a ftrong conllitution. There are many
fabulous relations : fuch as we take to be that of Thcuto-
bocchus, who is faid to have been dug up anno 1613, and to
have been higlier than the trophies, and twenty-hx feet in;
height : and no better we fuppofe the giant;; to have been, of
wliom 01. Magnus gives an account in liis iifth book ; fucli
as Harthen an.d Starchater, among the men ; and among the'
women, " reperta eft (faitli he) pueila — in capite vulnerata,
inorlua,induta chlamyde purpurea longitudinis cv.bitorum 50,
latitudinis inter lumv.ros quatuor." 01. Mag. Hift. hb. v.
cap. 2.

But, as for the more crcdib'e relations of Gohah (whofe
height was fix cubits aiid a fpan, (i Sam xvii 4.) wiiich, at-
tording to- bilhop Cumberlar.d, is fonicwhat above eleven feet
Englifh, of Og, king of Bafan, (Deut. iii. 11.) whofe bed
was nine cubits long and four wide, of Maximinus ll;e cmpe- '
ror (v. ho was nine fctt high), and others in the reign of y\u- '
guftus and other Roman emperors, of about the fame height ;,
to which might be added the dimenfions of a flccleton, dug up-
in the place of a Rom.an camp, near St. Alban's, by an urn;
ir.fcribed Marcus Antonintis, of which an account. is given by-
Mr. Chefcldcn, who judged, by the dimenfions of tlie hones,
that the jierfon was eiglit feet high, Phil. Tranf. N"' 333 ;■
thefe antique examples and relations, we fay, may be match-
ed, nay outdone, with modern ones; ot wliich we have
divers in J. Ludolph. Comment. inHift. jEthiop.lib.ii.cap. 2.
feft. 22. Magius, Conringius, D. Hakcwel, and others;,
the laft mentioned writer fpeaks from Nanne/, of porters!
and archers belonging to the emperor of China, fifteen feet ■
high, an<l of others trora Purchas, of ten and twelve feet
high, and more. See that learned author's Apol. p. 2cl?.

The exiftence of a race of men -jbovc the common ftature,"
on the coaft of Patagonia in South America, has been *he
fubjecl of difpute for the two laft centuries. In one century
almoft all navigators, of every country, affirmed that there ■
were fuch perlons ; and in the next the faft is denied by the
greater number, and their predeccffors are treated as timid or "
boaiting fabulifts. The Ynca Garcilaflb de la Vega, initio-
hiftory of Peru, relates, that according to a tradition univer-
fally received, a number of veffels or junks came to St. He-'
lena v.'ith a company of giants on board, of a ftature fo'
enormous, that the natives of the country were not higher
than their knees ; that their eyes were as broad as the bot-
tom of a plate, and their lim.bs proportionably large. But.
thefe are fables, fimilar to thofe relative to^lie fame fubjedi
in other parts of the world. See Giant.s' bcnes,

Turnei-, the naturalift, reports that he had fceii, near the
river Plata, on the coaft of Brafil, a nice of giantsj wha.
went ftark naked, one of -vvhom was tw elve feet liigh ; but
he acknowledges that he faw no others fo tail. 1';ie ocular
witneffes on the affirmative fide of the qucftion are, Magel-
lan, Loaifa, Sarmiento, and Nodid, among tlie Spaniards ;
Cavendifti, Hawkins, and Knivet, among the Englifli ; Se-'
bald, De Noort, I^e Maire, and Spilberg, among the.-
Dutch ; and among the French, thofe wlio went in the
expedition from Marfeilles and St. Maloes, in the year 1704.'
Knivet affirms that he meafnred feveral dead bodies, v.'hicli ■
he found buried at Port Dellre, which were from fourteen to
iixteen fpan« high ; and that he had frequently feen at Brafil '
one of' the Patagonian.";, who, though a youth, me-afured no :
lefs than thirteen Ipans ; and that the Englifii priioners at
Brafil aftured him, tliat they had lern niany men of the fame-
gigantic ftature upon the coafts of the ilrait : this account is
alio conlirmed by Sebal de AVcit, arid Oliver dc Noort. Aria '

Clai/,

GIANT.

Clafz. a commifTary on board LeMaire's fleet, declares that
he found, in tlie fepukhres on the coaft of Patagonia, tlie
bones of men who were between ten and eleven feet lilgh.
Nodal and fir Richard Hawkins merely relate, th.U tliefe fa-
vages were a liead taller than the inhabitants of Europe, and
of f'.ich a ftature, tliat the people on board their vefiels called
them giants.

Thofe who bear tefthnony to the contrary, are Winter,
the Dutch admiral Hcrmite, Froger in De Geinics's Nar-
rative, and Cr John Nf.rborough. Sir Francis Drake
alfo is illent with refpett to the llature of the inhabitants
of Patagonia ; but Winter pcfitively affirms, that tlie
accounts of their being giants are falfehoods invented by the
Spaniards. Narborough meafurjd the Ikulls and the print
of the feet of the favagcs on the coait of the llrait 6f
Magellan, which, he fays, were of the common fize : and he
had often feen companies of them at Poi't St. Julian, who
were neither taller nor bigger than other men. However,
it may beobferved in general, that the greater part of thofe
v.hu hold the affirmative in this quellion, fpcak of people
that inhabited the defert coafts of Patagonia to the eaft and
we'*: ; and that, on the contrary, thofe who hold the nega-
tive, fpeak of thofe wlio inhabit the ftrait upon the fides
of the utmoil point of America to the north and fouth.
Frezier relates, not from his o-.vn knowledge, but from the
tjilimoiiyof eyc-witnefTes, that there was, at a confiderable
diilance within the country from tliecoafl of Chili, an In-
dian nation, called by their neighbours Caucohues, who
fome imes came down to the Spaniili fettlemep.t.<!, that were
more tlian nine feet hig'i, and v.ere the fame race with the
P.itagonians v.'ho live on the eaftern coaft. It appears from
various relations, that the inliabitants of th.e two borders of
the llrait are of the common ftature, and that the race,
dillinguiflied by the name of Patagonians, make their con-
ftant refidence upon the defert coafts, fcarcely acceffible to
any but themfelves ; and when European ftiips frequented
the ftrait, they removed and fettled in the interior part of
the country : howev.er, the current teftimony of late navi-
gators, particularly commodore Byron, captain Wallis, and
captain Carteret, will put an end to the doubts that have
been hitherto entertained ot the exiftence of fuch perfons.
Commodore Byron, who vifited the coaft of Patagonia, in
1764, fpeaks of the inhabitants as of a gigantic ftature ; but
he did not meafure any of them, and only concluded, by
the proportion of their ftature to his own and that of his
companions, that they could not be lels than fix and a halt,
or feven feet in height, and proportionably ftrong and bulky.
Captain Vfalhs had an interview v,-ith tliefe people in 1766,
and found, by meafuring them, that the ftature of the
greater part of them was from five feet ten inches to fix feet,
thongh there were fome v.ho v.ere fix feet five and fix feet
fix inches, and one who was fix f^-et feven inches. Captain
Carteret, who attended captain Wallis on this occafion, con.
firms the above account in his letter to Dr. Maty. See Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ix. art. 2. p. 20, &c. See Hawkciv.'ortli's
Voyage, vol. li. Introd. and p. 28. 154.

Gl.\NTs, Rtlel, in jincieiit Ulythology, were the fons of
Terra, or the Earth, by Ctclus, wlio made war againft Ju-
piter and the cekftial deities, to avenge the defeat cf the
Titans. Thefe giants are reprefonted as of an enormous
height and fize, having a wild and dreadful afpecl, and
poftefied of ftrength proportioned to theif bulk : each of
them had a hundred hands, and ferpenls iQl'lead of legs.
Being determined to dethrone Jupiter, tliey reared Mount
OiTa upon Pelion, :«id Olympus upon Offa, and from thc-cte
attacked the gods with huge rocks, fon\e of v\ hieli fell into
the fea and became jllands, and otiicrs fell cu ti.e earth and

VuL. XVI.

formed mountains. Jupiter fumtr.oned a council of the god»,
and being infonned that it was ncceflary to obtain the aflift-
ance of lome mortal, with the advice of Palla.s he called up
Hercules, and with the aid of this hero, extergjinated the
giants Enccladus, Polybotes, Alcyon, Porphyrion, the two
Ions of Ala;u3, Epliialtns, Othus| Eurytus, Clytius, Ty-
thyus, Pallas, Hippolitus, Agriiis, Thoon, and Typhon,
the Lift of whom it was more diflicult to vanquifli than all
the others. Jupiter having thus gained a complete viclory,
caft the rebels down to Tartarus, where they were to receive
the full puiiifi-.ment of their enormous crimes : according to
the account of fome of the poets, he buried them alive under
Mount Etna and different i.Oands.

For the explication of this fable, fome have fuppofed that
Jupiter (for whofe hiftory, fee Jumtek) dellroycd the
robbers that infefted Thefialy, and that thefe are the pre-
tended giants ; for v.e have already obfervcd (in the prc-
cedin;^: article) that the appellation « Nephilim," occurring
in fcripture, and tranflated giants, fignifies people addided
to all kinds of licentioufnefs and violence, or robbers and
rufnans. Jupiter, when he left Crete to vifit the other
parts of Grf.-ce, ufually refided on mount Olympus, where
he had probably built a ftrong citadel. Tills mount Olvm.-
pus, highly elevated, was afterwards taken for heaven iticlf,
and the nioft ancient poets, efpecially Homer, fo dcfcribc
it. The banditti now mentioned, determined in their attack
on that prince, befiege him in his citadel, which afterwards
gave rife to the fiftion of their having attempted to fcale
heaven, and of tlieir having made an a'.Tault upon it. It ii
added, that with this view they piled Ofta upon Pelion,
inijiorting, as it is conjedured, that they had forti.tied thefe
two mountaii;s, which are alfo in Theflaly, and at no great
diftance from Olympus, whither they retired after their cx-
cuifions, and kept Jupiter's ganifon in awe. For other
particulars, fee Banier's Mythology, vol. iii. See alfo

TiT.V.NS.

Giants' Bones, a name too haftily given bv the vulgar t»
certain bones and parts of ftceletons, of an enormous fize,
found in England and other places. Of aU the numbers of
thefe, which have been publicly ftiewn about as wonders in
nature, not one but has proved, on examination, a bone of
an elephant, or elfe of a whale, or of fome other tcrreftrial
or aquatic animal now perhaps extinft ; the firft, however,
is ulually the cafe, as the bones of elephants are much more
frequently found buried: in the earth than thofe of the
whale.

Sir Hans Sloane mentions a vertebra of the loin of a whale
fent him from Oxfordft-.ire, where it was dug up under
giound, and afterwards ufed as a ftool to fit upon, and vul-
garly fuppofed part of a human back-bone. Now, if the
whole fize of the body had been calculated from this piece,
the account would have prcft nted fuch a fize as would hav*
far exceeded all llie fabulous ftories of giants' ikeletons ex-
tant in the world.

Many (keletons of this kind have been found wliich haT«
bct-a called the (keletons of giants : fuch are thofe of Phi-
loftratus, which are find to be the bones of meu of twelve,
twenty, and even thirty cubits high ; that found iu a moun-
tain of Crete,, and mentioned by Pia'o and Pliny, forly-fiu
cubits high; another cf fixty cubits, found near Tangier
in Mauritania, mcntioHed by Plutarch and Strabo, and iup.
pofed to be the ikelrtou of Anteus ; the (lieleton of Pallas,
the ion of Evander, found in Rome, and laid to be taller
than tlie walls of that city ; another, found in England i.i
nyi, fifty feet long. St. Aullin alleges, in proof of tlie
exiilencc of giants before the flood, a grinder tooth, w liich
lie fa.v on the ftiores of I'tica, which was in reality that of
G jj iia

G I A N T.

an ekph:iit. TRe tooth in tlic cluirdi of St. Chriilopher,
at Hi^P"'-';") 3"'^ ll"-' ll'.<Hii('-fi" V>»>"'-' oi St. Chriiloplu'r, prc-
f.-rvcd in a cliurch at Venice, arc of the fame kind. The
tooth prcfcrvtd and fhcwn at Antwerp is only the grinder of
an clephiint ; and another, belonging to a tkelcton which
vns dug up near Tunis in 1630, was fent to the learned
Pierefc, who took the impreflion of it in wax, and comparing
it with the tooth of an elephant (hewn near the place, found
it to be of the fame (hape and fize. Sir Hans Sloane has
given an accurate and learned account of feveral other mif-
takes on this fub;eil, for which we mull refer to the
Philof. Tranf;ia. "N 404. However, Monf. Le Cut, in
a memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at
lioiien, recites a number of inllances, in which flceletons, or
parts of /ktlelons, of an uncommon magnitude, have been
found ; thefe have been examined by anatomills, he fays,
and have been by them reputed real bones ; and hence he
infers the exiftence of giants.

Giants Cavftivay, a name given in the county of An-
trim, on the north ceaft of Ireland, to a vail: quantity of
that kind of bafaltes, (fee Basai-TES,) which (lands in co-
lumns, and runs out a great way into the fea.

The ignorance of the vulgar as to the nature of this ilone,
lias occaiioned this great pile of it to be luppofed artilicial
and the work of giants, once inhabitants there. But who-
ever confiders this amazing feries of columns, will be foon
convinced no human hands could have formed them, and
will iind an accuracy in their figures greater than could have
been expefted from the moil curious hand. The length of
the feveral cohimns, and their joints fo regularly placed in
firics, and the niccnefs of their articulations, by wliich no
fnace or vacuity is left between, are wonderful.

This cav.Teway forms a kind of mole, or quay, projecling
from ihebafe of a fteep promontory fome hundred feet into
th.e fta ; and the perpendicular columns of which it is formed
exhibit an appearance not unlike a folid honey-comb. The
fmgle columns are irregul.ir prifins of from four te eight
fides ; but the oentagonal and hexagonal are bv far the moll
numerous, and, when examined, they are found jufl fiich as
mull neceffarily be required in the places where they ftandto
fill up between others, fo as to leave no vacuity. Each of
thefe columns is leparable into a feries of joints, eaoh of
which is fo well fitted to the place, that the joining appears
only a crack or crevice in the Hone : yet thefe are regularly
articulated, there being always a convexity on one part, and
a fockct in the other to receive it, fo that the joints cannot
flip oft from one another ; befides which, the angles of one
frequently flioot over thofe of the other, fo that they are
completely locked together, and can rarely be feparated
without a fracture of lome of their parts. The depth of
the concavity is generally about three or fWur inches. Thefe
hollows are of great ufe to the neighbouring poor, for they
make a kind of fait pans of them, and thus very ealily pro-
cure themfelves a kind of bay-lalt in fummer. They till
thefe little bafons with fea-water at high tides, and the heat
of the fun and of the Hone contributing greatly to the
evaporation, as well as the (haliownefs of the bafon, the
wlicle humidity is found evaporated in the time of four
tides, and tliey take out the fait ready for ufe. The length
of thofe joints is various ; they are from eight to four and
twenty inches long, and for the moll part longer towards
the bottom of the column ; they are generally from fifteen
to "twenty inches in diameter.

The triangular and fquare columns are fewer in number
than the others, but they (land principally in the inner part
of the large feries, and are feldom feen, uiilefs fearclvid after
by a ciirious eye.

The regular figure of the ftorie, compofmg this caufc»
way, is not more wonderful than its quantity. The whole
country for m«ny miles being full of it, and a vail mafs
running far into the fea : for, befides what vulgarly goes by
the name of the Giants Caufeway, which is itlelf of vafl ex-
tent, there are great numbers of the fame pillars at dillances
in other places.

There are two other fmaller and imperfeft caufeways to
the left hand of the great sne, and farther in the fea, a
great number of rocks fiiew themfelves at low water,
which appear plainly all to confill of the fame fort of
columns. In going up the hill from the cauleway there
are found, in difterent places, a vail number of the fame
columns ; but thefe do not Hand eredl, but are laid flant-
ing upwards in diflerent angles and direftions. Beyond
this hill, eallward, alfo, at feveral dillances, there iland
a great number of the fame pillars, placed ftraight and
eretl, and in chillers of different fizes. Thefe are feen
fcattered, as it were, over the feveral parts of the hills.

One parcel of them is much admired, and called by the
country people the looms of the organs. It Hands in an
elegant form, and faces the bottom of the hill. The co-
lumns, of which this duller coniills, are about fifty in num-
ber, and they are fo nicely put together, that tlie tailed
Hand in the middle, and the ihorter gradually on each fide
of it to the end, fo that they look like the pipes of a church
organ viewed from the front. The taileH one of all thefe,
which Hands exaftly in the centre, is forty feet high, and
confirts of forty-four diftinft joints.

What is emphatically called the Giants Caufeway is, in
faft, aimall portion of that vail bafalticarea, of which tliepro-
montories of Bengore and Fairhead confill, and vuhich extends
over a great part of the neighbouring country. Tliefe twa
great promontories, which have been examined by Hamilton
and lately by Dr. Richardlon, iland at the dillance of eight
miles from each other, a«d are the leading features of the
whole coafl of Antrim. The former ^jf them, fituated
about feveu miles WeH of Ballycadle, reprefcnts itfelf at
a dillance, and in profile, as an extenfive headland, running
oiit from the coall a confiderable length into the fea ; but,
flricily fpeaking, it is made up of a number of lefiTer capes
and bays, the wliole of which forms what the feamen deno-
minate the headland of Bengore. Thefe capes are com-
pofed of a variety of different ranges of pillars and a great
number of Hrata, which , from tlie abriiptnefs of the coaH,
are very confpicuous, and form an unrivalled jjile of natural
architecture, in which all the neat regularity and elegance
of art is united to the wild magnificence of nature. The
promontory of Fairhead raifes its lofty fummit more than
500 feet above the fea, forming the eaHern termination of
BallycaHle bay. It prefents to view a vaft compaft mafs
of rude columnar Hones, the forms of which are extremely
grofs, many of them being near 150 feet in length, and of
a coarfe texture. At the bafe of thefe gigantic columns
lies a wild waHe of natural ruins, of an enormous fize, which,,
in the courfe of fucceffive ages, have been tiuiibled down
from their foundation by Horms, or fome more powerful
operations of nature. The maflive bodies have fometimes
withllood the Hiock of their fall, and often lie in groups and
clumps of pillars, refembhng many of the varieties of arti-
ficial ruins, and forming a very novel and Hriking landfcape.
Befides thefe two promontories, there are feveral other parts
of the county of Antrim which exhibit a fimilar columnar
bafaltic Hrudlure. Thus the mountain of Dunmull, be-
tween Coleraine and the river Bufii, abotmds in fuch bafalt,
particularly at the craigs of Iflamore, where two differen!:
ranges of coluiinis may be difcovercd j they may be feen

7 alfo

G I A N T

alfo at Dunliice-hill, neaf ttie eaftle of Dunluce ; in the bed
of the river Bulb, near the bridge of Bufh-mills ; on the
fiimmit of the mountain of Croaghmore ; in many parts of
the high land over Ballintoy ; in the iiiand of Raghery, op-
pofite Bailycaftle, and various other places, through an
extent of coaft about fifteen miles in length and two in
breadth. Beyond this trad, which abounds in perfect pil-
lars, an attentive obferver will be able to trace the fame
materials and ftratification in very dillant parts of the coun-
try, as far as the northern fhore of Loughiieagh, and the
mountanis of the county of Derry ; in many places of which
imperfect columnar forms may be obferved ; fo that the
great caufe which generated this fpecies of lloi* has been
exerted through a fpace of more than forty miles in lencrth
and twenty in breadth ; that is, through above eight hun-
dred iqua;e miles.

Of the different varieties obfervable in the column* that
compofe the Giants Caufeway and thofe of the other parts
of the coaft, the following comparative view has been given
by Mr. Hamikon. i . With refpeft to form and magni-
tude : the pillars of the caufeway an- comparatively fmall,
not very much exceeding one foot in breadth and thirty in
length ; fliarply defined, neat in their articulation, with
coavex or concave terminations to each joint. In many of
the c-apes and hills they are of larger ilze, more imperfect
and irregular in tlieir figure and articulations, having often
fiat terminations to their joints. At Pairhead they are of a
gigaiitlc magnitude, fometimes exceeding five feet in
breadth and a hundred in length ; often apparently deftitute
of joints altogether. 2. With refpeft to fituation : the
pillars of the Giants Caufeway iland on the level of the
beach, from whence they may be traced, through all degrees
of elevation, to the lummit of the higheft grounds in the
neighbourhood, as at the old fort of Dunmull, and on tke
top of Croaghmore, fix hundred feet at lealt above the level
of the fea. 3. With refpect to dilpofition and arrange-
ment : at the caufeway, and in moll other places, they
Hand perpendicular to the horizon ; in fome of the capes,
and particularly near Uihet harbour in the ide of Ragheiy,
they lie in an oblique pofition ; at r>oun-point, in the fame
ifland, and along the Ballintoy (hore, they form a variety of
regular curves. 4. With regand to colour and grain :
the Giants Caufeway bafalt is blackifh, dole, and uni-
form ; its varieties of colour are blue, reddifli, grey ; and
of grain, all that can be fuppofcd from extreme finenefs to
the «oarfe granulated appearance of a ilone, which refembles
imperfeft granite abounding in cryilals of fhorl, chigfly
black, though fometimes of various colours. 5. With rc-
fpcd; to texture : though the Giants Caufeway bafalt be
in general compaft and homogeneous, yet the upper joint
of each pillar, where it can with cei-tainty be alcertained,
is always rudely formed and cellular. The grofs pillars alfo,
in the capes and mountains frequentty abound in thefe air-
holes through all their parts, which fo-mctimes contain iiiie
clay and other apparently foreign bodies : and the irregular
bafalt beginning where the pillars ceafc, or lying over
them, is, in general, extremely honey-combed, containing
in il s cells cryitals of zeolite, little morfels of fine brown
clay, fometimes very pure lleatite, arid in a few inltances
bits of agate.

The inland pillars, upon the whole, differ from thole
whicli run into the fea, and are called the caufeway, oiJy in
the following particulars ; fome of the inland pilars are
much larger than thofe of the caufeway, being two feet
and a half in diameter, and am.ong thefe there are only
found fuch as have three, four, five, and fix fides, none of
ihem having yet been found lo have feven or eight tides, as

many of thofe of the «ufeway itWi liave. An J, /IraDv
theie mlard pillars, though compofed <;f as many joii.l's
as thofe of the caufeway, yet have not that turioiis" arti.
culation of the ball and focket, but are only joined bv
the laying one fmooth furface on anotlu.r ; fo tliat a joint
of a lingle colunni may be l!ij;ped off from the rel», by
a conhderablc force prcffing againft it. There is fumi-
tliing like this obfervable alfo ii, fome of the columns of
the caufeway itfelf; for among llit- nnii.bers which are
jointed by the bail and focket, there are fome which only
ad here by being applied furface to furface. This is found
only m a few of the colum.u, however, and they always
Iland within the chifters, and are con-.pofed of 'lefs thau
feven fides. In thefe alfo the joint is not made by tl c
apphcatwn of two hori/onul planes, but by fuch as flant,
fo that It looks very hke the breaking of 'an cntrochus or
aileria.

The joints, as we fee the pillars above the furface, arc
ufually as many in number as the pillar is feet high; but
they are net regularly each of a foot long, for they arc
jhortell at the upper part of the columns, and run gradually
longer and longer as they approach the bafe. This is ob-
ferved both in the inland columns, and in thofe of the caufe-
way ; but though tbe length of the joints differs, their
convexities and hollows are niuch the fame in all parts of tlie
column.

Ti:ere are other bafaltic columns, fimilar to thofe above
defcribed, in our own ifland ; particularly at Staffa, one of
the weflern illands of Scotland ; in the mountain of Caderi-
dris, near Dolgelly, in Mcrionethlhire ; whcie they proba-
bly form a group as in other places. Mr Strange has o-iven
an account of two groups of prifmatic bafiJtinc columns,
which he difcovered in the Venetian flate in Italy ; one ia
Monte Roffo, about feven miles nearly fouth from Paiiua,
and the other in Monte del Diavolo, near San Giovanni
Illarime, about ten miles north-weft of Vicenza. The form
of the latter is nearly circular, refetnbhng that of the Giants'
Caufev.ay ; that of the former approaching more to an ob-
long or oval figure : the columns of San Giovanni are much
about the fame fize, and mcafure about a foot in diameter ;
thofe of Monte Roflb are very unequal, fome being a fool,
while others fcarcely exceed three inches in diameter : thofe
of both thefe Venetian groups manifefl all the varieties of
prifinatic forms obfervable in the Giants' Caufeway, and
other fuch groups ; but they are commonly of live, fix, or
fcveii fides, and the hexagonal form fecn-.s moftly to prevail.
The texture of the former fort is folid and miiform ; the fur-
face fmcotlu and the internal parts of a dark iron-grey
colour ; thofe of Monte RolTo have a rough and kiio'lr
furface; and, when broken, manifella v^'riegated colour,
and unequal texture of parts ; refembhng an inferior fort of
granite, of which the mounttJn is formed, and which ferr.n
as a bafe for this range of columns. Oilier groups of arti-
culated bafaltine columns liave alfo been cbfcrved in the pro-
vince of Velay and Auvergne in France ; particularly by
M. De Varennes, at Blaud near Langeac, aud by M. D.;'-
marets, near le Mont d'Or ; and M. Sage mer.tions another
near St Alcon, in the fame province. Kircher has long
ago defcribed a group of the fame columns near Viterbo iii
Italy. Mundus Snbterran. lib. viii. $ i. cap. 9, S:c. And
Mr. Strange mentions another at Caflel Nuovo, in the Eugn-
nean hills, about four miles fouth-well of that of Monte
RofTo. . .

For the various controvcrfies with regard lo the origin of
thefe bafaltic columns, and of the fletz-trap-rocks iu general,
fee Tkap.

GlASTs' lltad, in Gcorrtifly, r. c.tnc «n tl:e e^ft coaJl
"G g 3 ' ' of

G I A

of tlie ifland of St. Chriftopher, a little to the eafl of Ragged
Foint.

GIAR, a town of Perfia, in the province ofFarfiltan;
70 miles E. of Scliiras.

GiAlt, yll. SeeD^iJAR.

GlAn Almhar, in Botany, a name given by Avicenna, be-
rnpion, and the reft of the Arabian writers, to the potaino-
•reiton of thofe times. This is tranflatcd by fome tlic water-
riifh, but that is founded on an error : it is certain that the
plant thus called by the Arabians was very different from
the pofaniogeiton of our times. Avieenua tells us, it had
flowers refe^mbling thofe of the water-lily ; and it fecms
either to have been the fagitta aquatica or water arrow-head,
or clfe the butomus, or fome of the fmaller fpecics of
nymphsa.

GIARAF, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the coalt ot
Tripoli. N. lat. 34^. E. long. ir.

GIARDINI," Felice, in Biography, m many rcfpeas
the greateil performer on the violin during the lall century.
He was a native of Piedmont ; and when a boy vyas a choi-
rifter in the Duomo at Milan, under Pakdini, of whom he
learned fuiging, the harpfichord, and compofilion ; but
having previoufly manifefted a difpofition and partiality for
the \?olin, his father recalled him to Turin, in order to
receive inllruftions on that inllrument of the famous Somis.
But though his preference of the violin, upon which he foon
became the greateft performer in Europe, feems a lucky
circumilance, yet he had talents which would have made
him a fuperior harpfichord player, had he continued to
praftife that inllrument ; but he ufed to fay, that he was
perfectly cured of that vanity at Paris, by the performance
of Madame de S. Maur, a fcholar of Rameau, vv-ho played
in fuch a manner, as not only made him afhamed of his own
performance, but determined him never to touch tbe inllru-
ment again in ferious praftiee. He went to Rome early in
his life, and afterwards to Naples, where, having obtained a
pla:c among ripienos in the opera orchellra, he ufed to
flouriib and change pafiages much more frequently than he
ought to have done. " However," fays Giardini, of whom
we had this account, " I acquired great reputation among
the i<niorant for my impertinence ; yet one night, during the
onera, Jomelli, who had compofed it, came into the
oivhelba, and feating himfelf clofe by me, I determined to
give the maeftro di cappella a touch of my talle and execu-
tion ; and in the fymphony of the next fong, ■,\hich was in a
patlietic Hyle, I gave loofe to my lingers and fancy ; for
which I was rewarded by the compofer with a — violent flap
in the face ; which," adds Giardini, " was the beil lefTon I
eiiXr received from a great inafter in my life.'" Jomelli, after
this, was however very kind, in a different way, to this
young and wonderful m.ufician.

Giardini came to England in the fpring of 1750. His
*r(l public performance in London, at which we were
prefent, was at a benefit concert for old Cuzzoni, wJ-.o fung
in it with a thin cracked voice, which almoll frightened out
of the little theatre in the Hay-market the fons of thofa
who had perliaps h.eard her at the great theatre in the faiwe
■ftreet, with extacy. But when Giarthid played a folo and
concerto, though there was very little company, the applaufe
was fo loud, long, and furious, as nothing- hut that bellowed
■on Garrick had ever equalled. We had met him the night
before at a private concert, wiih Givid^gni and Frafi, at the
houfe of Napthali Franks, efq. vv-ho was himfelf one of the
beil dilc:tanti jierformers on the viohn at that time ; and we
were all equally furpriied and delighted v.ith the various
powers of Giardini at fo early a period of liis hfe ; when,
befidis folos of hiSt own compofitioa of the moll brilliant

G I A

kind, he played fcveral of Tartini's, in manufcript, at figlif,
and at five or lix feet dillancc from the notes, as well as if
he had never prailifed any thing elle. His tone ; bow ;
execution ; graceful carriage of himfelf and his inllrument ;
perf<n-ming a M S. piece of a young compofer in the room,
he declared that Giardini had fo improved it as to make it
better than he intended, or iiad imagined it to be in the
warm momen's of conception ; and lauly, playing variations
extempore, during half an hour, upon a new but extra-
ordinary kind of birth-day minuet, which accidentally lay
on "the harpficiiord — all this threw into the utmoll allonifli-
ment the whole company, wlio had never been aecuflomed
to hear better performers than Felling, Pirown, and Collet !
Of his academy, feholars, manner of leading at the opera
and oratorio, p;-rformance in private concerts, compofilion*
vocal and inllrumental, we flrall fay nothing here, left our
praife (liould be too much for others, and too little for
ourklves.

He foon got pofTefTion of all the ports of honour in thi»
country. He was engaged and carefl'ed at moll of the
private concerts of the principal nobihty, gentry, and
foreign minillers ; at the CalHe and Iving's-Arms concert in
the city; and in 1754, he was placed at the head of the
opera band ; in which he introduced a nc\T difcipline, and a
new ftyle of playing, much fuperior in itfelf, and ir.ore con-
genial with the poetry and muhc of Italy, than the languid
manner of his predeceffor Felling ; who, except one or two
feafons, when Veraeini was at the head of the orchellra, had
ltd the opera band from the time that Caflrucci was dif-
niiiTcd, till the arrival of Mingotti.

In 1756, on the failure and flight of the Imprefar'to or
tmdertaker of the opera, Vanefchi, the Mingotti, and
Giardini joined their intcrefls, and acquired for a while the
fovereignty of the opera kingdom, by which gratification of
their ambition, thefe two great performers were foon brought
to the brink of ruin, as others had been before them.

But though great applaufe was acquired, and appearances
were favourable, yet the profits to the managers were fo
far from folid, that they found themfclvcs involved at the
end of the feaion in fuch difficulties, that they were glad to
refign tlieir Ihort-lived honours, and llirink into a private-
llation.

Giardini, while in the opera management, befides arrang-
ing pafliccios, fct fevoral entire dramas ; but though lie had
fo great a hand on his inllrument, fo much fancy in hi«
cadences and folos, yet he had not fufficicnt force or variety
to fupply a whole evening's entertaiiiment at the Lyric
theatre. Yet after he had rengned his throne in the
creheilra, he frequently threw in a llngle air or rondeau into
the operas of otlier mailers, which was more applauded than
all the rell of the drama ; of this kind were th.e favourite
airs of " Voi amanti," and " Ah non fo pcrche tu fei, &c.''

In 1762, on Mattel quitting the management of the opera,
ill fpite of former mifcarriages, Giardini and Mingotti
again rcfumed the reins of opera government. But after
ftruggling two years again ll the ftream, during the decline of
Mingotti s favour, and after an inaufpicious feafon, at the
end of 1763, Giardini 'and his partner again abdicated their
thrones. From this period, Giardini, always hovering over
his former Lyric kingdom, v.itliout the power of invading
it, or bringing about a relloration, was forced to content
himfelf Avitli tcacliing ladies of rank and falliion to fing, and
the produce of a great annual benefit. He continued here,
unrivalled, as a leader, a folo player, and a compofer for his
inllrument, ftil! augmentirig the importance of his inllrument
and our national partiality for the taile of his country, till
the auj'nir.ibk' produftioiis a::d great performers of Germany

began

G r A

began to form a Teutonic intereft and Germanic body Iierc,
which, before Giardini's departure from London, became
very formidable rivals to him and his Roman legion.

At the end of 1784, he went to Italy, and refided a con-
fulerablc time at Naples, with fir William Hamilton, one of
his firil fcholars on the violin after his arrival in England.

Remaining on the continent till the fammer of 1789,
Giardini returned to this country, bringing with him a
female pupil and her whole family, attempting a burletta
opera at the little theatre in the Haymarket, while the great
opcra-houfe, which had been burned down, was rebuilding ;
but his prima ilonr.a not being approved, their fpeculation
failed, and he iiad her and her whole family on his hands.
During his al^ fence the public had learned to do v.-ithout
him, and reeonciled themfelv -s to his lofs ; his health, hand
and eyes were impaired ; lie was dropfical, his legs were of
an enormous fire, and little of his former fiiperiority on his
inilrmnent remained, but his line tone. He compofed
quartets that pleafed very much, but in which he never
played any other part in public than the tenor. The ftyle
of mufic was changed ; he printed many of his old conipofi-
tions which ufed to pleafe ; but now could gain neither
purchafers nor hearers, fo that about the year 1793, ^^''
went to Peterfturg with his burletta troop ; which fcems to
have pleafed as little th -re and at Mofcow, as in London ;
and he is faid to have died in this laft city in great wretched-
nefs and poverty !

But before we try to account for this melancholy termina-
tion of To brilliant a career, let us endeavour to do jullice
to his profefiional abilities.

It is the bufinefs of every artifl to endeavour to arrive at
the head of his profeffion during the age in which he lives,
but no one can beexpeiiled to afpire at fuperiority over all
mankind, part, prefent, and to come. Homer, our own
Shakefpeare, and Miltop, have, perhaps, fucceeded in that
wi(h, if ever they foi-med it, and Dryden and Pope have
gained two out of three of thefe eras. If Giardini has been
furpaffed by a few in talle, exprefflon, and execution, his
tone and graceful manner of playing are ftill unrivalled, nor
does any one, of all the admirable and great performers on
the violin, furpafs all others fo m.uch at prefeiit, as Giardini
did, when at h:s bell, all the violinifts in Europe.

That a man with fuch talents and intellects as art and
nature fcarcely ever allowed to the fame individual, who might
liave realized 40 or 50,000/., iliould, by extraN agance, ca-
price, and a total want of benevolence and retlitude of
heart, die a beggar, unfriended and unpitied, is fcarcely
credible ! It is painful to probe the private character of
fuch a man ; yet it (hould not be concealed. Truth and
morality require it to be recorded. The kings of Egypt
ufed to be tried after their deccafe.

And if young muficians of great talents, who are prone
to deviate from propriety of conduft, (Tiould chance to read
this article, it may ferve as a beacon, and remind them of
the poilibility of furviving favour and talents, hov.ever
great, and terminating their ejiiftence in mifery and mortifi-
ca:ion.

A refpeclable profeiTor, who, from Giardini's firft arrival
■in England, was conftantly attached to him, and a finccre
admirer of his talents, his wit, and even the ingenuity of his
fpleen and fpite ; before he quitted this country in 17S4, de-
lineated his tharaclcr in the following manner, a copy of
which came lately to our hands, accidentally.

SkfUh of ths prrjatc charoMir of a great mnfician. — " There
cxiils a man who would rather gain half a crov.Ti by fivperior
ftlbtilty and cunning, than a guinea by ufual and fair means ;
who is of fo difficult a commerce, that the utmoil circum-

G I A

fpcftion, attention, and complaifance, can only prevent an
open rupture, but never put liim oft' hio guard, or warm
l.is heart with t'lefainteil glow of friendftiip ; fo capricious
and f[)lriirtic, that he has had di'.agrcements and quarrels
with all the tirfl perfonages, as v.'ell as profflTors of the fame
art, in tlie nation, with wlioin he has had any intcrcourfe ;
ye'- fuch are his talents, and entertaining qualities, that, in
a {liort time, all elfc is forgotten, and thofe whom he had
offended, arc as ready to court his a.-qUaintancc as ever;
though Ids rank in hii; profeflion and great abilities Iliould fct
him above the envy and petulance of indigent inferioiitv ;
yet the fuccels of any one of his acquaintance is as torturing
and intolerable to his mind, as the gout or ilone could be to
l;is body. He can bear no raufician who d^cs not folcly de-
pend on his favour, whom he can lift up and put down with
a coup de bagiictU, bring into light, or extinguifli, at pleafurc.
He feems, hiinfclf, to deipife all favour from fupcriors or
even equals, yet he is coi.llantly at war with favourites of
every kind, public and priv.ite. His difpof.ticn is fo truly
dii'.bolical, tiiat, preferring the evil principle of the Maiii-
cheans to the good of the Chriftians, if it is a matter of in-
diiference to his intcrcll, v, hether he ihall ferve or injure an
individual, he would always chufe the latter. He has con-
Itaiitly trifled witii tortune as well as favour, and having, m
the coiufe of his life, acquired great fums, is indigent, and
though fo much courted, has not one friend ; with the
brighteft intellects, and the clearell head for bulinefs, liis
temper renders it fo impoflible for any enterprize to thrive
under his direction, that tlie moll favourable and aufpicious
beginnings conllantly ended in enmity and misfortune. He
13 as inveterate and powerful an enemy to the opera, oratorio,
pantheon, and public and private conceits, when they arc
not under his direction, as an cx-miniller ufuallv is to tlir
government ; and yet, iiotwithilandiiig the attractions of liis
performances, abilities as a compofer, and experience as a
mani'gcr, lo much are his tricks and tyranny held in ab-
horrence by patentees and proprietors, that they would (hut
their fliops, rather than open them by his aliillance. His
intereil is nuw as totally annihilated in the nation, as that of
the Stuart family, who, whatever convulfions or revolutions
were to happen in the ftatc, would never be called imt>-
po'.ver."

GIARECAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Buclia-
ria ; 45 miles N. of \'elhgerd.

GliVRGA, a town of the ifland of CorCca ; nine miles
E. of Calvi.

GIARITCHAS, a group of fmall iflands, among tl:p
Moluccas. N. lat. o 3'. E.iong. 127' ifJ'.

GIARM.-i.L, a town of Hungary; :o miles E.S.E. of
Levcns.

GIAROLA, in Ornid'ohgy. See .^l..\UD.\ f/rtAV.-i.

GIAROLO, a niiin.e by which a fm.iU bird of the fnipfe
kind, remarkable for ito v,-hite tail, is known in the nnrkcts
of Italy. Aldrovandus has called it the r/nf/« /<T/n«. Srt;
TKiX(i.\ olhroptis.

GIARUD, 'u\ Gfograpby, a town cf Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman ; 20 miles W.of Rauand.

GTAH-UllA, a town of the kingdom of Gandahar;
25 miles S.W. of Candal.ar.

GLvSAN, a town of l\Tlla,iii the province of Segeftan %
25 miles N.E. of Kin.

GIAT, a town of France, in the depaitmcnt of tlic
Puy-de-D6me ; 27 miUs W. of Clermont.

GI/vVENNA, a town of France, in the department of
the Po, fituated at the fv>ot of the Cottian Alps, nciu- the
Sangou ; furrouuded » j'.h an ancient -.Tnil having four gstec,

a..il

G I B

^«d diftinguidioil by its agreeable fitiiation nnd falubrlous
air ; ly miles W. of Turin.

• GIAUF, Al, adillrid of Egypt, in the S.E. part of
the Delta.

GIAVI, H town of the idand of Sardinia; 21 mile*
E.S.E. of AJgcri.

GIAUKIRI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
anciently " Sigeum," chiefly inhabited by Greeks.

GIA'ZA, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe ; 14 miles
N.N.E. of Verona.

GIB, in Agriaihnre, a fort of ftick with a hook at the
end, whicli is fonietimes ufeful in making and rcpainrg
hedges, and for various otlier purpofes.

Gib, in Mechanics. See Craxe.

Gibs, or Tohhigs, in Mining, are pieces of wood from
two to four or more feet long, with a bird's-mouth or notch
cut in each end, that are placed as ilruts between the four
upright poles, at the corners of fquare or redangiilar fliafts,
which are fupported with wood, inftead of being ginged or
bricked.

GIBAU, in GfOgraphy,z town of Moravia, in the cir-
cle of Olmutz ; eight miles N.E.of Olinutz.

GIBBAWAYS, an Indian tribe refiding in Upper Ca-
nada, on tlie E. fide of Detroit river, oppofite to fort Gib-
raltar.

GIBEEN, a town of the duchv of Couvlnnd ; 32 miles
N.E. of Piltvn.

GIBBETHON, in Scripture Geography, a city of Dan,
allotted to the Levites (Jodi. xxi. 23.) ; probably the
fame as Gabbala; 12 miles from Eleutheropolis. Here
they fhewed th.e tomb of the prophet Habbakuk.

GIBBON, EowArai, in Biography, was born at Put-
ney in 1737. His father was a gentleman of fortune, and
fome years member of parliament. The iubjecl of this
article was a very delicate and fickly cliild, inlomuch that
his parents had but httle hope of rearing him. From nine
years of age to twelve, he was under the tuition of Dr.
Woodefon at Kingfton-upon-Thames. Here he acquired
the elements of claffical learning, and he mentions his tweltth
year as particularly "propitious to the growth of his intel-
leftual itature," becaufe at this period he read a variety of
Englifh books of poetry, romance, hiftoiy and travels.
«' He then went to Weftminftcr fcliool, but his ill ilate of
health prevented him from making a regular progrefs in the
itudies of the place. For feveral years he was chiefly the
obieft of medical care, till at length, and, as it were, very
fuddenly, his conftitution acquired firmnefs, and his father
immediately fent him, as gentleman-commoner, to Ivlagdalen
college, Oxford. He was probably ill prepared to receive
the benefits of an univerfity education, and he ftigm.atifes
the fourteen months tliat he fpent there as the moll idle and
unprofitable of his whole life. To a total neglect of reli-
gious inllruclion he has attributed a very remarkable inci-
dent which took place at this time. He had from an early
age been addifted to difputation oh topics of divinity. His
leifure from other purfuits induced him to turn his attention
to the controverfies between the Papifts and Protelbmts.
His mind was overfet by the arguments of the former, and
in 1753 he had an interview with a popifh prieft in London,
■when he folemnly abjured the errors of Proteftantifm. He
immediately wrote an elaborate letter to his father, in which
he avowed the change in liis fentiments, and juftified the
raeafure which he had taken. With all the zeal of a new
convert he has fince declared, " I am proud of an honefl; fa-
crifice of intereft to confcience : I can never blufli if my
tender mind was entangled in the fophiftry that feduced the
acute and manly underltandings of Chillingworth and

G I 6

,B:iyle." lie was lent by his fatlier to Laufanne, and placed
with a Calvinill minifter, by whofe judicious efforts, aided by
his own found reafon and mature refleftions, his faith in the
Romifli articles gradually gave way, and on Chriilmas day
1754, he received the facrament in the Proteftant church.
During the time he fpent at Laufanne, he laid the foundation
of that knov/ledge in the languages, and in the art of logic,
which enabled him to make fo confpicuous a figure in the li-
terary world. To the "Hillory of the Decline and Falli
of the Roman empire,'' we have had occafion frequently to
recur for an elucidation of facts, we may therefore be
aUowed to fpeak fomewliat at large of the author of
that work. His riding pafTion, that of reading, com-
pL'tely developed itfelf in Switzerland, and he wanted no
excitements to induftry, from a tutor. Belles lettres, and
the hiftory of man, and the human mind, were his favourite
objefts of iludy ; for the mathematics he had no inchnation,
and what he did not, and perhaps could not purfue, he was
ready to condemn, and congratulated liimfelf that he efcaped
from them " before his mind was hardened by the habit of
rigid demonftration. fo dellructive of t!ie finer feelings of
moral evidence." That this view of the effect of mathema-
tical ftudies was unjuft, might be proved from a variety of
inftances in which tl>e ableft mathematicians have been equally
celebrated for tlicir fine tafte and excellent judgment in other
branciies of literature. In the year 175S he returned from
Laufanne to London, where he was kindly received by hjs
father, and he found in a mother-in-law, a new relative,
who in time conciliated his good will and confidence. He
now began laying the foundation of a copious library,
and foon fct about preparations for appearing before the
public as an author. In 1761, he printed his " ElTai fur
i'Etude de la Littcrature," in one volume i2nio. It was a
very refpettable juvenile performance, and was highly praifed
in the foreign journals. At home it obtained but a fmall
(hare of public notice. While he was compoling this work,
at leaft before it was publiflied, he was engaged in the mili-
tary profeffioii, whicli was but ill calculated for a perfon of
his turn. The peace, in 1763, fet him free from a commif-
fion which he had Iield in the militia, and he immediately
paid a vifit to Paris, and having fpent fome months in that
capital, he went to Lauianr,e, where he paCed a year in cul-
tivating fociety, and in collecting nwterials for a profitable
journey into Italy. This he undertook in 1765, and it was,
as he fat mufing amidft the ruins of the capitol, while the
friars were finging vefpers in the temple of Jupiter, that the
idea of writing his great work, i/'^. " The Hiflory of the
Decline and Fall of this City,'' ruflied into his mind. He had,
previoufly to this, proceeded fon>e way in another interett-
ing defign, and compofed, in tiie Frencli language, the firfl
book of a Hillory of the Swifs liberty; but this, perliaps
on account of its ilyle, was condemned by a literary fociety
of foreigners in London, to whom it was read, and lie com-
mitted it to the flames. In 1767, he alTiiled in compiling a
critical work, entitled " Memoires Litteraires de la Grande
Bretagne," the fuccefs of which was but trifling. In 1 770.
he publifhed, in his native tongue, a pamphlet, entitled
" Critical Obfervations on the fixth book of the JEneid,''
whicli was intended as a refutation of Dr. Warburton's
hypothefis concerning tiie meaning of the defccnt of jEneas:
and in the fame year, by the death of his father, he fuc-
ceeded to an eftate confiderably involved, and from tiie per- I
plexities of which he fcarcely ever extricated himfelf. His 1
circumftances were, however, well fuited to the taflc he had :
undertaken as an author: for he thought himfelf, that had
he been either much poorer or much richer, he fhould never
have accomplilhcd it. Leifare and books were neceffary on ;

the .

G I B

G I B

the one hand ; on the other, the ftimulus of a handfoiiie in-
creafe of property. His acquaintance was large, but he
conipenfated the hours devoted to them by early rifing and
clofcapplicatioa. In 1774) he was, through the intereil of
Mr. Eliot, introduced to a feat in parhameiit, wliich he
occupied during eight years, and gave, fays he, many a
fdent vote in fupport of the rights, thougli not, perhaps,
the intereil of the mother country. Early in 1776 the full
volume of his " Hiftory'' made its appearance; its fuccefs
was very great, and far furpafied the moll fanguinc expec-
tations of the author: " The liril impreffion," fays he,
" was exhaufted in a few days; a fecund and a tliird edition
were fcarcely adequate to the demand, and the bookieller's
propiTty was twice invaded by the pirates of Dubhn.'' It
was received with general applaule, but the praifes of none
were fo keenly relilhed by Gibbon, as thole of tlie two
celebrated hiftorians, Hume and Robertfon, who, initead
of vic-iving his riling fame with jealonfy, promoted it with
liberal commendation. In the midll of his triumph, his two
chapters, concerning the growth and progrefs of Chrilli-
anity, raifed a ftorm againll him, wliich, as he had not
forefeen, he regai^ded with fonie alarm. He was attacked
on all fides, but as he profeffed to have written only as a
hiilorian, he declined entering the lifts as a controvedialill.
In one inllance his fidehty, as an hiilorian, was attacked ;
here he felt that he was called on for a " Vindication," in
which it was admitted that he fuccefsfully repelled the prin-
cipal charges, and returned them on his antagonill. It was
fuggelled, in the two chapters referred to, tliat the progrefs
of Chnilianity was peculiarly favoured by fecondary caufes,
and of courfe that its origin was not divine: though this
theory had not been deftitute of advocates among fincere
believers in the truth of the Chriftian fyllem, yet there is
little doubt that Gibbon was an unbeliever, and he wrote
in this part of his v/ork under the mafli of a friend. His
pretentions were unveiled by many e>;celient writers, wlio
ranked high in the eilabliined church, and by others who
were not in the church, but who were equally alive to the
fpread of fceptical principles, and aftive in oppofing their
propagation. After he had refumed his work, he was foli-
cited Ijy miniflers to write an anfwer to the manifefte of tlie
court of France, on its declaration of hoftilitics. On this
oecafion he pubhlhed his " Memoire Jullificatif ;'" it was
written in French, and much admired for its llyle and its
reafoning, and was delivered, as a ftate paper, to the courts
of Europe. For this fervice he was rewarded with the ap-
pointinent of one of the Lords of Trade, bv which a hand-
fome addition was made to his income, and little to his en-
gagements. In 1 78 1 the fecond and third volumes of his
Hidorv appeared, which fupported th.e reputation which
he had already acquired. Upon the diffolution of lord
North's ir.inillry, the board of Trade was abolilhed, as
occaficning only an ufelefs expence to the ftate. The defal-
cation in Mr. Gibbon's income no longer permitted him to
fupport the fame llyle of living in liis ov.-n country, and he
removed his rciidence to Laufanne: here, in an elegant re-
treat, he iinilhed his Hillory, in three other quarto volumes,
uhich were publifhcd in 1788. It was with real regret
that he difmiifed an occupation, which had given to many
years of his life that zell which an interellingobiedl of pur-
fuit can alone impart. He came to England to fupcrintend
the printing of his work, and then returned to Laulanne, to
fpend, as he hoped, the remainder of his days; but the
ftonns of the French revolution, which menaced the quiet
and happy regions of Switzerland, gradually loofened his
attachment to Laufanne, and he began to look towards
E'g'and for a refuge. He regarded the events that were

taking place in France with the utmoft. abhorrenco, and l\e
either was, from habit, or had become fo from the occur-
rences of the times, a decided enemy to every fpccics of pub-
lic reform. He avowed .his alTent to Mr. Burke's creed,
wliich he had vindicated in iiis " Reflections:" •' I admire,''
fays he, " his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore hi*
chivalry, and I can almoft excufe his rcvertHce for church
ellablilliments.'' Mr. Gibbon returned to England in 1793,
but after a fev.' months refidcnce his attention was forcibly
called to the progrefs of a difeafe, wliich had fubfifted in 4
fmall degree for thirty years, and wliich now terminated hi*
exiftence, Jan. 16, 1 794. He has characterized himfelf ia
the following words: " I am endowed with a chearful tem.
per, a moderate feniibility, and a natural difpofition to re-
pofe rather than activity ; fome mifchicvous appetites and
liabits have, periiaps, been corrected by philofophy or time.
The love of lludy fupplics each day, each hour, with a per-
petual fource of independent and rational pleafure.'' " He
was,'' fays his biograjihcr, " eafy in fociety, and fond of it;
he was beloved by his friends, and Iiad, in an eminent do-.
gree, the manners and habits of a gentleman. Early indul*
gence and habit had made the conveniences and elegances of
ciiltui-ed life elTential to his comfort, and he was not one; .
who could have been content with the cunfcioufnefs of men-
tal fupej-iority in an humble ftate. His great work, which
will long be a monument to his fame, is a performance of
vail and accurate refearch, and of enlarged and philofophical
thinking; it abounds in fplendid pafTages, and its llyle dif-
plays a tiioiough mallcry of the whole compafs of the Eng-
lifli language." After his death two quarto volumes of his
milcellaueous works were publiflied by lord Shcfiield, con-
taining, among other things, memoirs of Iiis life and writ-
ings, compofed by hinifelf ; to which the rei-d-r is referred
for more particulars relating to this cel'brated man.

GIBBONS, Orl.vxdo, without exception, the bell com-
poler for the chureli during the leign of king Jamis I.
and though not blelt with longevity, vet, daring hie.
fhort hfe, he contributed .imply to the mullc of tiie church,
which lie enriched with numerous compofitions, that are
ftill frefii and in conftant ufe among the beil productions
y.ithin its pale.

This excellent mufician, a native of Cambridge, was bro-
ther of Edward Gibbons, bachelor of Mulic, organiii of
Briftol, gentleman of the Chapel Rcy;J, and mailer of
Mathew Lock ; and of EUis Gibbons, author of two ma-
drigals in " the Triumphs of Oriana," who is lliled bv.
Ant. Wood, " the admirable organift of Saliftiury." In
1604, at the age of twenty-one, Orlando was ajipointed
organiii of the Chapel Royal, in the room of Arthur
Cock. In 1622, he was honoured at Oxford with a doc-
tor's degree in mufic, at the fame time as Iiis friend Dr.
Heyther, when both were countenanced and favoured with.
indulgencies in the univcrlity in confequence of letters from,
the learned Camden, who recommended tliem with friendly-
zeal to its notice. According to Ant. Wood, the acade-
mical exercife in fix or more parts, performed at this time
for Heyther's degree, was compofed by Orlando Gibbons,
" as one or more eminent mulicians then living h.^.d feveral
times told him. " So tYi^t ^rozun-^ailkmfn, as well as boys,
through idlenefs or ignorance, are fomctimes reduced to the
humiliating neceflity of having recourfe to the cLirity of
friends, before they can exhibit an exercife.

A manufcript copy of the exercife performed for Dr.
Heyther's degree, is laid to have been found, figned witlL
the name of Orlando Gibbons. It is an anthem for eight,
voices, taken from the forty-fcventh pfalm ; and appears to.
be the very fame compottion as the qntheni of Orlanda

Gibbons,

G 1 B

Giiiboiis, to die words " O clap )'Oi!r hands together all
yc peopif." Printed in Boyci^'s Catli. Muf. vol. ii.
p. 59-

T!ie harnioriy in Gibbons's fervlce in F, printed by D4-.
Jjoyce, is pure, clear, and gratcfn! ; and the melody more
accented and flowing than we have found in any choral mufic
of equal antiquity.

The two parts in one, of the G/orin Palt'i, though they
mar be the caufe of fome confulion in the words, difcover
no rellraint or ftiffnefs in thj melody, whicli continues to
move with the fame freedom, as if no canon had exiftence.
And tliough XhQ piir'ifls, on account of the confufion ariling
from ail the parts ilnging different words at the fame time,
pronounce the ilyle, in which his full anthems are conipofed,
to be vicious ; yet the lovers of fugue, ingenious conlri-
va.ice, and rich, fimple, and ple-ifing harmony, mull regard
them a"; sdinirable productions, iiHa Pulijirinn, a ftyle in
which Tallis and Bird acqiiired fo much renown.

Bcfides his admirable choral compolilions, O. Gibbons
was author of melodies in two parts to the hymns and fpi-
ritual fongs of the church, tranllated by George Withers,
and of feveral other works which are mentioned elievvheve.
See Fantasia and Pautiien-ia.

Dr. Tudway, in the dedication of the firft volume of his
manufcript " Colleflion of the moll celebrated Services
and Anthems ufed in the Church of England," addreifed
\.o Lord Harley, for whom it was made ; after a ju'l and
warm eulogium on the abilities of Tallis and Bird, fays
that " none of the later compofers could ever make appear
fo exalted a faculty in compolilions for the church, except
that moil excellent artill, Orlando Gibbons, organiil
and fervant to king Charles I. whofe wliole fervice, with
feveral anthems, are the molt perfedl pieces of church
compolitions which have appeared fince th.e time of Tallis
S'.nd Bird ; the air fo folemn, the fugues and other em-
bellifliments fo jufl: and naturally taken, as mutl warm
the heart of any one, who is endued with a foul tilted
for divine raptures." To this encomium every candid
judge of harmony will readily fubfcribe ; but when tlie
"doctor tells us, that the celebrated fervice in F was coni-
pofed by Orlando Gibbons in 1635, he furniflies no very
favourable proof of his knowledge in chronology ; as it is
recorded on the monument erefted to his memory by his
widow, that he died ten years before that period. For in
1625, being commanded, e:< officio, to attend the tolemnity
of the marriage of his royal mailer, Cliarles I. with the
princ-'fs Henrietta of France, at Canterbury, for which
occalion he had compofed the mufic, he was fei/.ed with
the fmall-pnx, and dying on ^Vhitfunday, in the fame year,
n-as buried in that cathedral.

GiiiBOSs, Dr. CiiRisroi'liKl!, was the fon of Orlando
Gibbons, and Icholar of his uncle Ellis Gibbons, organifl
of Brillol. He had been honoured with the notice of
Charles I. and was of his chapel. At the reftoration, be-
fides being appointed principal organiil of tiie Chapel Royal,
private organiil to his majeily, and organiil of Weltmin-
ller Abbey, he obtained his doctor's degree in mufic at
Oxford,' in cnnfequcnce of a letter W'ritten by his majelly
Charles II. bimfeif, in his behalf, which is inferted by
AiTt. Wood in the Fafti Oxon, vol. ii. Col. 158 ; who
fays, that he completed his d-'gree in an adl celebrated in
St. Mary's church, July xi, 1664.

The compofitions of this mailer, which were not nu-
merous, feem never to have enjoyed a great degree of fa-
vour ; and though fame of them are preferved in the Mu-
feum colleftion, they have long ceafed to be performed in
Ova catliedrals. His abiiitiej on the organ, however, mufl

C I B

Jiave been confidcrable, to entitle him to the ftations he
filled, at a time when the Ilyle of playing that inllrumcnt
was fo much more complicated and elaborate than at pre-
fent. Dr. Blow, who, in fiiiglirg and compofuion, was
educated by Captain Cook, is laid to have been a fcholar
on the organ of Dr. Chriftopher Gibbons, who died 1676.

Oidarido Gibbons had two brothcjs, Edwartl and Ellis,
tlie one organiil of Brillol, and the other of Salifbury.
Edward was a Cambridge bachelor of mufic, and incor-
porated at Oxford, 1592. Belides being organiil of Brif-
tol, he was priell-vicar, fub-chantcr, and mailer of the
choirillers in that cathedral. He was fworn a gentleman of
the chapel, March 21, 1604, and was the matter of Mat-
thew Ijock. In the Triumphs of Oriana, there are two
madrigals, the one in live, and tlie other in fix parts, com-
pofed by Ellis Gibbons. V/ood ftyles liim the admired
organiil of Salilbury. Of Edward Gibbons, it is faid, that
in the time of the rebellion l;e afhlled king Charles I.
with liie fum of one thouf-.nd pounds ; for v.-hicii inllance
of his loyalty, he was afterwards very fcverely treated by
thofe in power, who deprived him of a ccnfiderable ellate,
and thrull him and three grar;d children out of his houfe,
though he was more th?.n fourfcore years of age.

GIBBOSITY, in Surgery. See Stine, Curvature of.
GIBBOUS, in AJlrmomy, is ufed in reference to the en-
lightened parts of the moon, while (lie is moving from full
to the firll quarter, and from the kill quarter to fall again ;
for all that time the dark part appears horned, or fal-
cated, and the light one bunched out, convex, or gib-
bous.

Gibbous _yf/Z', gillojus p'ljcis, in Ichthyology, a name given
by Mr. Ray to the li!h called by the Dutch Ironirugh. It
is a fmooth lilh wiihout fcales, its belly is white, its fins
and tail black. It grows to a confiderable fize, fometimes
to four feet. It is caught all over the Eall Indies, near
the fea lliores, and is very firm, and much eftcemed at table.
It has its name from the remarkable rifing of its back,
v/hich is like that cf the perch, but much higher. Ray's
Ichthyolog Append, p. 4.

GIBBY, in Geogrophy,'7i. duller of finall iO.-'nds, in the
Eall Indian fea, about twelve leagues in circumference,
well inhabited, fituated on the equator. E. long. 126° 5'.

GIBE', a town of Arabia, in the province of Ncdsjed j
130 miles E. N. E. of Hajar.

GIBE AH, in Scripture Geography, a city of Benjamin,
the birth-place of Saul, the iiril king of IlVael. (Jufli. xviii.
24 Ezra ii. 26. Nth.em. vii. 30. ) Gibeah was about two
leagues N. from Jerufalem. In Jerome's time it was en-
tirely deilroyed.

GIBEL-EL-TOR, a mountain of Palefline, anciently
called Mount Tabor, which fee.

GIBELET, or G.vnvLE, a fea-port of Syria, anciently
called " Gabala" and " Gabulon," fituated on the coall of
the Mediterranean, at the moulh of the river Jebilee ; 12
miles S.S.W. of Tripoli.

GIBELIN, a town of Palelline ; eight miles E. of
Gaza.

GIBELINS, GiBF.i.Lixs, GiMlngs, or Ghibdim, a fa-
mous failion in Italy, oppofite to another called the
Guelphs.

The Guelphs and Gibelins ravageS and laid waftc Italy
for a long feries of j'ears : fo tliat the hiilory of that coun-
try, for tlie fpace of three centuries, is only a detail of their
mutual violences and mortal wars.

The Guelphs ftrenuoufly afferted tlie power of the f^'e of
Rome, as tlie Gibelins did t.hc emperor's rijjut of love-
reignty.

G I B

We liave but a very obfciire account of tlicir origfn, and
the reafon of their names : the generality of authors affirm,
that they arofe about the year 12^0, upon the emperor
Frederic the lid's being excommunicated by pope Gregory
IX.

That prince, fay they, making a tour- among the cities
of Italy, gave the name Gibchns to fuch as he found well
affefted to lum; and that of Guelphs to tliofe who adhered
to the pope. But as to the reafon and ilgiiiiication of thefe
words, there is a deep I'llence ; Gibelin might be polTibly
formed of gebieler, inipirator ; whence ^eh'iclerifch, mpcr'wfe.
Oi geiieter, the Italians might make, by corruption, Gibe-
lin ; fo that Gibelins, in this light, thould be the fame with
Imperiales, or fuch as followed the emperor's party.

By the way, fome vn-jters maintain, that the two faftioiw
arofe ten years before ; though ftill under the fame pope and
emperor.

Other hiftorians relate, that Conrad III. marching into
Italy, in the year 1 139. againll the Neapolitans, Roger,
count of Naples and Sicily, in order to defend his Hates,
called to his affiftance Guelph duke of Bavaria ; and that
one day, when the two armies were ready to join in battle,
the Bavarians cried out in High Dutch, /«, Giiell>h ! or, as
others fay, in Fleniilh, hier, Guelph ! that is, here, Giwtph !
2nd that the Imperialiils anfwered on their fide, witli the
words i/V, or hier, Gibelin! here, Gibslin ! calling the em-
peror by the name of the place where he had been bred.

Hornius refers the names to the war in 1 140, between
Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Con-
rad III. duke of Suabia ; the two princes preparing to
engage near the town of Winlberg, the Bavarians began to
cry out Guelph, which was the name of duke Henry's
brother ; and the partifans of the emperor Weibelingen,
which was the name of the place where that prince was
born and bred, in the duchy of Wirtemberg, whofe fur-
name he bore : from which Weibelingen the Italians at
length formed Gibelin.

Tliis account is confirmed by Martin Crufius : " Initium
Gibehnx (Wibelinas a patria Coiiradi regis) et Welficx
concertationis.'' Conrad being of Weibelingen, that word,
fays Crufius, gave rife to gibellingue, and that to jibe/ling,
Gibelins, GibeUim.

Platina, on the other hand, affures us, that the name
Gibelins arofe from that of a Gorman at Pilloya ; whofe
brother, named Guelph, gave likewife his name to the
oppofite faftion : the two brethren, it feems, bearing an ir-
reconcileable hatred. Others maintain, that the emperor
gave the appellation Gibelins to thofe of his party, from
the German worCi gipffe', fignifying n'o^i', or top ; becaufe
the empire refted on tliem, as tlie rafters of a houfe leans
on the ridge, which joins them a-top.

Karus, a learned canon of Stralbourg, in the lives ot the
emperors of the houfe of Brunfwick, is of tiie fecond
opinion above related : in a battle, lays he, between
WelfF, or Gueltr, and Frederic, the army of the liift
cr)-ii)g out, hie, IVclJ, hie, IVrlf! the fecond commanded
his to cry out hie^ Cibeli.-ig ! hie, GibeUng ! the name of
his birth-place : and the French and Lomhards alking the
fignification of thofe words, they were anfwered, that by
tVelff was meant the pope's party ; and, by Gibelin, the
emperor's.

'Y'et others contend, that the word Gibelin is only a foft-
ening of the word gibertin, or guibrrlin ; and that it arofe
from Guipert, an antipope, fet up by the emperor Plenry
III. in the year loRo.

Among many other conjectures, Mainibourg, in Iiis
liift- de la Decad. de I'Emp. advantxTS Jinothei- opinion,
V9i. XVL

G I B

that the two faftions, and their names, arofe from a.
quarrel between two very ancient and illuflrious houfes
on the confines of Germany, that of the Henrys of Gi-
beling, and that of the Guelphs of Adorf. Sec Ma.
chiavcl.

ft is faid by fome, (hat the Gibelins, when driven cat
of Italy long after the year 1 229, at which period the
contell between them and the Guelphs ran very high, and
fettled at Amllerdam, were the inventors of tlie mercan-
tile praftice of re-change, or re-exchange, on bills of ex-
cliange, on account of the damages and charges they were
put to, and the interelt of the money of their bills proteft-
ed, whicli liad been given to them for the effecls they had
been obliged to leave behind them. Andcrfon's Hilt. Com-
merce, vol. i. p. 110. See Gtixrus.

GIDELLO, in Geography, a town of the ducliy of
Parma, on the right bank of the Po ; 16 miles N.W. of
Parma. N. lat. 45 1'. E. long. 10° 7'.

GIBEON, in Scripture Geogniphy, the capital city o^
tlie (libeonites, who availed themlelvcs of the oaths of
Jolluia, and of the elders of Ifrael, on an artful rcprefenta-
tion which they made of their belonging to a remote coun-
try. (Jofli. ix.) Jolhua and the elders made an unadviftd
league with them ; but upon a difcoverv of their midake,
they fpared their lives, and condemned them to the fcrvile
office of carrying wood and water to the tabernacle, and
other work of a iimilar kind, in token of their pufillanimily
and duphcity, as ilaves and captives. In this Hate of fervi-
tude they remained till the entire difperfion of the Jewifh
nation, AM. 2553. The Gibeonites were defccnded from
the Hivites, the old inhabitants of the country, and pofTcn"-
ed four cities, I'iz. Cephira, Beeroth, Kirjath-jearim, and
Gibeon, the capital, afterv.'ards given to Benjamin, except-
ing Kirjath-jearim, which was afiigncd to Judah. The Gi-
beonites fubmitted to the burthens impofed upon them by
Jofhua, and continued faithful to the HVaehtes. Neverthc-
lefs Saul dellroyed a very great number of them (2 Sam.
xxi. I, 2, 3, &c.) ; but God, as a puniflimcnt of his cruel-
ty, in the reign of David, caufed a great famine, which
lalled three years (A.M. 2^83. B.C. 1017); and David
was informed by the prophets, that this calamity would con-
tinue as long as that cruelty, whieh Saul had excrcifcd
againft the Gibeonitee, remained unretaliated. The Gi-
beonites, being afked what fatisfaftiou tliey require', an-
fwered, " Seven of Saul's fons will we put to death, to
avenge the blood of our brethren." Accordingly the Gi-
beonites crucified them in the beginning of fpriug, when,
in Paleflinc, the barley-harvell conunenced. From this time
v.e find no mention of tlie Gibeonites, as forming a feparat*
people. But tlicv w ere probably included among the " Ne-
thinim," wiio were public llaves appointed for the ferviceof
tlie temple, (j Cliron. ix. 2.)

Gibeon was feated on an eniinence, as appears by its name,
denoting a hill; it was 40 furlongs N. from Jerufalem, ac-
cording'to Jofephus. It is called " Gabia" (fee 2 Sam. t.
2 J, compared with 1 Cliron. xiv. 16.) We find mention of
tlie foiinlain and pool of Gibeon. (2 Sam. ii. 13.) The taber-
nacle and alf.u- of burnt offerings, made by Mofes in the
wildernefs, were riinovcd to Gibeon. (I Cliron. xxi.
29, 30.) When Solomon was feated on the throne, he
went to facrifice at Gibeon, becaufe this was the moil con.
fidcrable of all the higli places wheiv facritkes were then
tolerated, the temple not being yet built. (I Kings, iii 4.)

GIBERT, Baltiivsak, m Biography, was born at Aix

in 1662. He was educated paitly at Paris and partly at

Soiflbns. At the age of twenty-two he was appointed to

teach philofophy at the college o{ B«fau>-ai8, and in 16S8 he

li h obtaijicd

G I B

•btaincd tlie rrofi-frcrflup of rhetoric in ttie college of Ma-
Zariii at Pnris, which office he filled with great reputation
jiiore than fifty years. He was a zoalous defender of tlie
privileges of the imiverfity, of which he wai fevcral time';
shofen rc^uu-. He obtained c-her preferments connected
Tvith the univerfity, but on account of his oppofition to the
revocation of an appeal made by the univerfity againll the
hull Unigenitus, the court, in 1740, exiled him to Auxcrre.
He died in the following year at the age of fevcnty.inne.
He was author of many 'works, in which arc diiplayed
much erudition and folidity of judgment, but the llylc is
fomewhat involved. Among his publications are " De la
Teritable Eloquence ;" " Reflexions fur la Rhetorique ;"
'« Jugemens dcs Savans fur les Auteurs qui ont traitc dc la
Rhetorique," in three volumes 1 2mo. Moreri.

GIBERTI, GlAMMATEO, a very learned prelate of the
«hul-cli of Rome, was born at Palermo towards the clofe
•f the fifteenth century. He vifited Rome w^lien he was
but twelve years of age, where he was difiinguillied for
the brilliancy of his talents, and was introduced to pope
Leo X. who entertained a great regard for him. He had
a thirll for polite literatute, but was, at an early age, taken
from the purfuit, and placed in the fervice of a perfon
•1 high rank. By pope Clement VII. he was employed
ifi fome very important legations to tlie king of France
and other potentates. In 1523 he obtained from his
patron the goverament of Tivoli, and in the foUownng
year he was created bifhop of Verona : he was not, how-
ever, allowed to take pofleflion of his fee, but was kept
at Rome as the advifer and friend of the pope. In 1527
Giberti was given as one of the hoftages by the pope to
the Imperial army, on which occafion he underwent much
ill treatment, and was more than once threatened with a
Jhameful death. He was, at length, through the inter-
pofition of his friend. Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, reftored
to his liberty, and retired to his bilhopric, on which he con-
tinued to refide till his death, except when occafionally
fummoncd to Rome by Paul III. He died in 1543, and
his works, which were numerous, have been publifiied col-
leftively ; they chiefly confift of his conftitutions and regula-
tions for the government of his church, which under his di-
reftion became a model of ecclefiaftical difcipline. He
eradicated many abufes, and was profufe in alms to the poor.
He was the patron of learned men who reforted to his palace,
among whom was the celebrated poet Elaminio. He
printed at his own expencc, and under his own eye, feveral
works of the fathers, and in order to render his editions
correft, he entertained fevcr.1l Greek copyills. Moreri.

GIBET, or Gibbet, a machine in manner of a gallovis
■whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are hung in
irons, or chains : as fpeclacles, in terrorcm.

The word in French, gihet, properly denotes what we
eall gallows : it is fuppofcd to come originally from the
Arabic gih-l, mount, elevation of ground; by reafon gibets
are ufually placed on hills, or eminences.

GIBLETS, the offals or entrails of a goofe ; including
the heart and liver, with the feet, gizzard, &c.

The word is fuppofed to be formed of goblets, from the
French gcieau, mouthful.

Giblets make a confiderable article in cookery : they
boil giblets, llew giblets, make ragouts of giblets, giblet-
pies, &c.

GIBLIEN, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
left bank of the Nile; 14 miles N. of Afna.

GIBLOS, a city on the coaft of Phcenicia, between
Tripoli and Berytus ; called alfo Bji'los, which fee.

G I B

GIBON, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 2i iitrles
N.N.E. of Bayamo.

GIBRALEON, a town of Spain, in the province oi
Seville, on the river Odiel, with a harbour for fmall filliing
veffels ; containing about I JO houfes in two parilhe.*, and
fituated about lo miles from the Atlantic ; 44 miles W. of
Seville. N. lat. 37' 20'. W.long. 7 i'.

GIBRALTAR, derived from Gelel, an arable word
fignifying mountain, and Tnr'tl:, the name of a Moori{h ge-
neral, who conquered Spain and difembarked here in the
yeai- 712, is a town of Spain, in the province of Andalufia,
but belonging to Great Britain, fituated on a rock, at the
fouthern extremity of Europe, and reckoned one of the
keys of Spain. This rock forms a promontory from Spain
into the fea, oppofite another promontory extending from
Africa, bounding a narrew fea, which unites the Atlantic
with the Mediterranean, called in Latin " Fretum Hercula-
neum, or Gaditaneum," ar.d in Englith the Strain of Gibral-
tar. The length is about eight leagues, and the breadth, iij-
the narrowcll parts, nearly five. On thefe two promonto.
ries are placed the famous mountains of Calpe in Europe^
and Abila in Africa, known to the ancients by the name of
the pillars of Hercules. From tbt top of the promontory
of Calpe, the eye commands an extent of 40 leagues, two
feas, and five kingdoms, ivz. Seville and Granada, in Spain,
and Barbary, Fez, and Morocco, in Africa. In endeas.
vouring to trace the town mentioned by Mela, Strabo, and
Pliny, under the names of Calpe, Cartheya, Melaria, Belo,
and Befipo, and alfo the promontory of Juno, iituatsd from
eaft to well on the fhore of the ilraits, no veilige is perceived,
except the mountain and fcite of Cartheya ; which latter
city pafled from the pofleffion of the Phoenicians to that of
the Carthaginians, and is now reduced to a mere heap of
ruins, fcarcely difcernible in the bay of Gibraltar, where
the Carthaginian tower was alfo fituated. This ground is
now occupied by a mean farm. On calling your eyes over
the kingdoms of Granada and Sevdle, you fee the lofty-
ridges of the defert del Cuervo, as well as the mountains of
Hogen and Sanorra, and towards the eaft, oppofite to
Gibraltar, the new town of Algeziras. In the middle of
this inclofure you difiinguifh the ruins of Great Cartheya ;
at a fliort dillance, on a little hill, the town of St. Roche is
iltuated ; on the eaft you perceive the chain of mountains,
called the Sierra de Ronda, abounding in fruits and aroma-
tic plants. Near thefe ftood the town of Munda, fo cele-
brated in Roman hifiory as the fcene of the battle between
the ions of Pompey and Auguftus, when they were difputing
the empire of the world. The objefts which bound the ho-
rizon on the right are the Sierra Neveda, and the Alpujarras ;
on which the fnow lies all the year. The mountains fupply
a number of fountains and rivulets of clear water, forming
the fources of the Xenil and the Darro ; rivers which water
the city of Granada and give fertility to the rich province
of Andalufia.

The promontory on the European fide is joined to Spain
by an ifthmus, or neck of land, fo narrow, that from fome
afpefls the rock has the appearance of an ifland. The length
of the ifthmus is about 200 paces ; acrofs which the
Spaniards have drawn a line and fortified it, to prevent the
garrifon from having any communication with the country.

Tiie form of the rocky mountain, on which the fortrefs.of
Gibraltar is built, is oblong ; its fummit is a ftiarp craggy
ridge, extending nearly from N. to S., almoft three miles,
and in breadth no where exceeding f of a mile. The line
of its ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fome-
what higher than the centre. The fummit of the Sugar-
loaf, which is the highsft poiat towards the fouth, is ele-

xateii

GIBRALTAR.

crated to ihe lieight of 1439 feet ; the Rock-mortar, which
is the liigheft eminence to th» north, is 1350 feet ; and the
Signal-houfe, which is nearly the central point betwe^ii thcfc
two, is 1276 feet above the level of the fea. The weilern
fide of the mountain forms a fcries «f rugged flopes, inter-
fperfed with abrupt precipices. Its northern extremity is
perfectly perpendicular, except towai'ds the N. W., where
what are called the Lines intervene, and a narrow pafTao-e
of ground that leads to the iilhmus, and is entirely covered
with fortification. The callern iide of the mountain moftly
coniifts of a range of precipices ; but a bank of fand, rilinsv
from the Medirerranean in a rapid acclivity, covers a third
of its perpendicular height. Its foutl-.ern extremity falls in
a rapid (lope from the fummit of the Sugar-loaf into a rocky
flat of conhderable extent, called Windmill Hill. The
principal, mafs of the mountain rock confifts of a grey,
denfe marble ; the difl'erent beds of which prefent to Spain
i face of 1350 feet of perpendicular height, in a conical
form. Thele beds, or ftrata, are of various thicknefs, from
20 to upwards of 40 feet, dipping in a direftion from eafl
to weft, nearly at an angle of 35 degrees. In fome parts of
•the folid mais of this rock, we find teftaceous bodies
'entirely tranfmuted into the conftituent matter of the rock,
and their interior hollows filled up with calcareous fpar ; but
■thefe do not occur often in its compofitien, and its beds are
not leparated by any intermediate itrata. This rock is
fuffering a flow, but conftant depofition ; and the uncovered
parts of it prefent holes of various fizes, hollowed out of the
folid rock, and apparently formed by tlie attrition of
gravel or pebble, fet in motion by the rapidity of rivers or
currents in the iea ; whence it is prefumed, that, however
high the furface of this rock may now be elevated above the
level of the fea, it has once been the bed of agitated waters.
On the well fide of the mountain, towards its bafe, ftrata
occur, which are of a different kind from the mountain
rock. (See Major Imrie's mineralogical Defcription of
Gibraltar in the Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, vol. iv. )

The firil, or higheft, forms the fegment of a circle, its
convex fide being towards the mountain, and its flope bi-ing
in that direclion. Tius llratum confifts of a number of thin
beds ; the outward one, which is the thinneft, is m a ftate
of decompofition, and is mouldering down into a blackilli-
brov.'n or ferruginous coloured earth. The beds below
this increafe progrcffively in breadth to 17 inches, where the
ilratification refts upon a rock of an argillaceous nature.
This latt bed, which is 17 inches thick, confifts of quartz of
a blackifti-blue colo\ir, in the fepta or cracks of which arc
found quartz cryftals, colourlefs and perfeftly tranfparent.
Thefe cryftals are compofed of 18 planes, difpofed in hex-

' nngular columns, terminated at both extremities by hexan-
gular pyramids. The largeft feen by major Imrie, did not
exceed one-fourth of an inch in length ; they generally
adiiere to the rock by the fides of the column, but are
detached without difficulty. Their great degree of tranf-
parency has obtained for them the name of " Gibraltar

' diamonds."' The rock is completely befet with batteries,
throv.Mi up at all points, where the afcent could not be ren-
dered completely inacceflible ; fo that from Europa Point,
which advances fartheft into tlie fea on the fouth fide, to
the higheil part of the rock, which is that of the north
(at about two miles diftance from the other), there is not a
fingle point, which is not ptit into a defenfible condition.
On the fide ncaroft Spain, the internal fortifications, made
fmce the time Gibraltar was befieged by the combined
■armies of France and Spain, are aftoniftiing. Thefe im-
provements are principally owing to general O'Hara, the

late governor ; a great ntimlcr of workmen having br
employed about it, for eight years, at an immcnfe cxpenc
In oroer to form fome idea of the labour expended on the

•nee.

r i- . -upended on thefe

lortifications, it will be fufficient to obfcrvc, that the exca-
vations effeded by Uie force of gun-powder, in the centre
ot the mountain, and in the folid rock, form vaults of fuch
hciglil and extent, that during a fiege they are capable of
containing the whole garrifon. Thcfc caverns, of which
the moft confiderable is the hall of St. George, communi-
cate with the other batteries, cftabliftied aloi g the moun-
tains by a winding road, paffable on horfe-back. Oo
returning towards Europa Point, as you enter the town,
your attention is engaged by confiderable fortifications,
barracks, magazine.-,, and batteries, placed wherever the
nature of the ground would admit. On the higheft point
of land the tov.-er of St. George was built, under the direc-
tions of general O'Hara, wl:o intended to raife it to a
fufilcient height for commanding the whole of Cadiz, and
obfcrving all that palled in that port ; but tliC undertaking,
being difapprovcd by the Britifli government, was left in
an unfiniflied ftate. Along the mountain are fevcral grottos,
or natural excavations the moft famous of which is that of
St. Michael; the height of tlic entrance being 437^ (varas)
yards above the level of the fea. The cavern below is at
leaft 70 feet, and coiUains columns of cryftallizations and
ftalaftites, refcmbling all the orders of architecture. About
100 paces from its gate is another beautiful cavern, 65 \-ara«
fquare, and the vault 21 varas high. On the right is a
fecond excavation, adorned with caprices of nature fimilar
to thole of the former, but fo regularly difpofed, that it
has the appearance of a temple. Perhaps this was formerly
ufod for confulting fome oracle, probably that of Hercules,
who was the principal divinity of the place, as well as of
the cave in the promontory of Ampelufia, on the coall of
Africa. From tlie entry of this cavern you difcover the
whole of the bay of Gibraltar, two leagues' acrofs from eaft
to weft, and three from north to fouth. You alfo com-
mand a view of the country-houfes, the flower and kitchen
gardens, which the inhabitants have formed one above the
other, on the fide of the mountain, up to the royal road,
and the public walk, extending for about half a mile from
the town of Gibraltar to the new town on the foutli. The
Englidi have Ipared no pains in covering the rock with trees
and fiowers, in fupporting the earth with walls and props, in
cutting a number of roads through the folid rock, and in
making them paflaMe on horfe-back and in carriages up to
the very fummit. They have even fome artificial mea-
dows for their flocks. From the grotto of St. Michael,
fituated on the foutliem part of the mountain, at an almoft
equal diftance, the Signal tower and the Sugar loaf, the
entrance of which is 5000 fcct above the level ot the fea, you
difcover the magazines, the batteries, the new town ; on
the fouth, the marine hofpital, which is a handfome and
convenient building. The view extends over a number of
country-houfes, to fome of which beautiful <iMrdcns are
attached ; in time thefe new buildings will f«rm a town ai
confiderable as that of Gibraltar. Near thefe are eight
magi:ii"icent cifterns, large enough to contain 4O,cx>0 tons of
water, and bomb-proof; they receive all tlie water which
flows down the fide of the mountain, previoufly purified ia
coppers credled for the purpofe. On the foutli fide yo«
perceive a number of mountains, called Tarfes ; and liear
them formerly ftood a very ancient tower, with a ciilern and
well. In a cave not fai- diftant feveral ftones have been
found with human bones above the common fize, fo ftroncjlr
incrufted in them as to form one folid mais. (See F^^/e
JjO.vju.) FrQin Europa Point to the gate on the land-tide
H li 2 »rt

GIBRALTAR.

are fcvcral niok-s, which facilitate the unloading of (hips,
and enable them to catl anchor in fccurity. Before you
arrive at the fouth gate you obfcrvo a handfome, large,
fquare. furrounjcd with trees, now called the Field of Mars,
formerly the Red Sand ; of fucli a fut, that the fooo men,
ufually conipofing the garrifon, cai perform their manoeu-
vres without inconvenience. Here the guard always mufters,
and on Sundays and holidays they make it tlie grand
parade.

The prevailing forms of religion in this promontory are
the Catholic, tirat of tlic church of England, and the Jewilh,
each of which has its own burying ground, among the faudy
earth of the mountain.

The town of Gibraltar is on the ivcft fide at the foot of
the mountain ; it is large, well built, fortified with ftrong
walls, ballions, and work=; to cover them ; a large fort pro-
tefts andmalks the mole, built in the form of a bridge, 300
feet long ; a church is built near it ; and on the land fide is
another mole, which covers the part fortified by a tort with a
tower, and two or three breaft-works, thrown up in front.
On entering the town by the fouth gate, you perceive on the
kft an edifice, containing the library of the officers of the
garrifon ; confiiling chielly of the works of modern authors.
The governor's houfe is built on the ground formerly occu-
pied by the convent of Francifcans ; to which is attached
a beautiful garden, which, on Thurfday and Sunday evenings,
during the fiimmer, is the promenade of the officers of the
garrifon and inhabitants of the city. The principal ilreet
Bito which you enter on leaving the governor's houfe, is the
refidence of the merchants, and on the right is the Catholic
shapel, rebuilt in an excellent llyle of architefture ; this
Ilreet extends almofl through the whole length of the city,
being more than half a mile loug, and on each fide it has
handfome flat pavements, and a number of (hops from one end
to the other. All the houfes are built in the Engliih ftyle, with
fmall deors, flat roofs, and enormous bow windows, behind
■wliich the prime goods of all forts are expofed to fale. The
inhabitants are chiefly military ; the commerce witli Africa
is neither certain nor regular ; and although the contraband
trade with Spain, both in incney and goods, is one of the
principal branches of trade, that cannot be fufficient (fays La
Borde) to indemnify England for a million and a half of
piaftres, which on an average it cofl.s annually to maintainthis
point in the Mediterranean, where in other refpefts tlie duties
coUecled are very fmall. This place is advantagcoufly fitu-
ated for victualling the fleets, and the protection of the coail
of Africa, from whence the Englifli procure their csrn, and
as a place of refuge for their privateers and floops of war.
The port is a key to the Mediterranean and to tlie Atlantic ;
confuls from all the Itates of Europe and North America
ufually reiide there. The Americans, as well as the .Swedes,
Danes, and Dutch, in time of peace, carry on a direct com-
merce with Gibraltar, by fupplying thcmfelves with the ar-
ticles they want, and leaving in exchange Inufi", cod, pitch,
and tar, mafts, rum, maize, rice, flour, fiigar, pepper,
ginger, cotton, anifeed, and the other articles of commerce,
which they procure from Afia, Africa, and Europe. The
coaiU of Granada, SevUle, and Catalonia, furnifh wine, and
Africa wax and frefli meat in great quantities ; they alfo im-
port from Spain bvar.dy, raifins, almonds, oranges, lemons,
iiiks, fait, &c. which the veffels from the north carry back
in exchange. Gibraltar contains altogether 9000 inhabit-
ants, including eight regiments, amounting to 6000 men ; fo
that this place is rather a military colony than a commercial
eltablifiiraent. The popiJation ol Gibraltar extends otie mile
to the fouth, and neaily as much towards the top of the
mountain ; and if we may judge from the new buildings

lately ereftcd, it is certainly incrcafing. All th^ houfes ar*
painted black on the outfide, with white borders or ledg(?s,
ihewing the number of llorics, which are generally two or
three. This mode is well fuited to a country where the reflec-
tion of the fun is fo violent. The police is well conducted ;
no beggars arc to be found here ; the llrects arc prefers'ed
clean and falubrious ; and though they are all well lighted at
night, no one is allowed to walk without a lanthorn, and aper-
miifiou from the general ; fentinels requiring anfwers to their
challenges being ilationed in the town, as well as patroles and
watchmen. All forms of religion are tolerated without in-
convenience, and the number of Jews, who live here more
fecurelv than in any other part of Europe, is very coiifidera-
ble. Gibraltar has a theatre, which, though fmall, is well
laid out and adorned with tafte. For want of regular aclors,
the officers of the garrifon perform, during the greater part
of the year, a number of Enghfli plays.

On the oppofite fide of the ftraits of Gibraltar is the
town of Ceuta. The traveller, who wiflies to crofs over into
Africa, may take advantage of the N.W. winds, and of the
fmall vefiels which are continually paffingand repafiing.

The origin and foundation of this town are loil in the ob-
fcurity of time. It is certain, however, that the Phoenicians, the
Egyptians, and other ancient people, landed at Gibraltar ; and
the name of the pillars of Hercules, by which this place
was known, is nothing more than a tradition preferved among
the Phoenicians, who peopled this coail, and brought their
gods and religious worfhip with them. But it is not known
whether the ilraits or colur-ins exilled in the remotefl; anti-
quity, and if the iufeription '• nou plus ultra' ' meiint that
nothing was more wonderful than the feparation of the two
continents, or, as is more probable, that no one had dared to
navigate beyond this point. However this be, it is probable
tliat the firft navigators of the Mediten-ancan landed at Gib-
raltar, or its envii-ons. This opinion is iupported by the
authority of Pomponiiis Mela, who, being born at Cadiz,
may be fuppofed to feel more intereft than others in whatever
related to this coaft. The Moors feized on Gibraltar in the
eighth century, and keld it without interruption till the
fourteenth, when, in the year 13 10, it was taken from them
by Perez de Guzman ; but they retook it in the year 1332,
and held it till the year 1462, when it was retaken by the
Spaniards, and it has continued in the hands of the Chriilians
from that time. The English took it from the Spaniards during
the war of the fucceifion in Spain ; the fort furrendcred to the
united fleet of England and Holhuid under fir George Rook,
in 1 704 ; and the alhes took poflefiion of it in the name of
Clrarles IH. The place was ceded to the Engliih bv the trea-
ties of Utrecht and Seville ; it was befieged at fcveral times
without fuccefs. Since the Englidi have been mafl;ers of the
place it h.as been fo nuich improved and llrengthened, as pro-
bably to bid defiance to the ulinoil efforts cf an enemy. In the
courfe of the American war, the Spaniards again befiej^ed it ;*
but their memorable attack witli floating batteries of up-
wards of 200 cannon, in (hips of all fizes, terminated only
in difappomtment, in the deilriii£lion of the (hips and men
employed, and in the immortal liunour of the brave defenders 1
i6 H-.iles N. of Ceuta, 70 S. of Serille. N. lut. 36 4 44".
W. long. 5° 19' 46".

GiBii.M.TAH, an ancient town of South America, in the
government of Caraeca.";, andprovinccof Venezuela, fit uated on
the E. coafl: of ihelakeMaracaybo. The country in its vicinity
is well watered with rivers, and furnifhe.i cocoa of the bell qua-
lity, and very large i-edars. The bell Spaniih tobacco is pro-
duced here, called Tobago de Marafaibo, from which is
made the valuable fnuff, vulgarly called " Mackaba" fnuff.
The air is very infalubrwus in the rauiy feafon, and therefore

{he

G I B

f)if msrcliants and planters retire at tliat time to Maracaybo,
or Mcrida ; loo miles S.S.E. of Maracaybo. N. lat. lo 4'
W. long. 67' 36'.

GlBRALT,\n Pcint, is the weftern extremity of a fandbank,
in Upper Canada, wliich forms tlie harbour of York, and
upon which block-lioufcs are erected for its defence. There
is another place of this name on the fide of lake Me/nphra-
magog, in tiie town of Colton, in Upper Canada.

GIBRIN, a town of Syria; 10 miles S.E. of Aleppo.
GIBSON, Rkii.viid, in Biography, the Dwarf, was placed
by a lady at Mortlake, to whom he was page, with Francis de
Clyne to learn lo paint, both in water and in oil ; but he in-
formed himfelf more by fludying the works of Lely, and
gained confidcrable reputation.

GIBSON, Edward, in Biography, was born at Bamp-
ton, in Weftmoreland, in the year 1669. He received the
early part of his education at the free-fchool in his native
town, and at the age of feventeen he was fent to Queen's
coUege, Oxford. In 1691 he was admitted to the degree
of B. A., and in the fame year, having already applied him-
felf moll diligently to the itudy of the northern languages,
be publilTied a new edition of William Drummond's Poleir.o-
I^Iiddiana, and James V. of Scotland's Cantilena Rullica,
quarto, illuftratcd with notes.

tion in the Latin lansruasre

00,..

" Chronicon Saxonicum ;" likewiie a work entitled " L,i-
brorum Manufcriptorum in duabus infignibus Bibliothecis,
altera Dugdaliana Oxonii, Catalogus,'' with a dedication
to Dr. Tennifon, afterwards archbifliop of Canterbury,
which proved the foundation of the author's fublcquent for-
tune under the aufpices of that prelate. He next pubUlhed
a correct edition of Quintihan " Do aite Oratoria ;" and
a new edition of Somner's treatife on the Roman ports and
forts in Kent. In 1694 Mr. Gibfon commenced A.M., and
friortly afterwards was elefted fellow of his college, ar.d ad-
mitted into deacon's and prieil's orders. In 1695 '"^ pub-
lilhed an Englilh tranflation of " Camden's Britannia."
This work was patronized by lord Somers, who offered Mr.
Gibfon a living in the ille of Thanet, which he declined, on
account of ill-health, and in the following year he was ap-
pointed librarian at Lambeth, by the archbilliop, Dr. Ten-
nifon, who received him into his family, and w ho appointed
him morning preacher at Lambeth church. His publica-
tions about this period were, " Vita Tlioma; Bodleii, Equi-
tis Aurati," together with " Hiiloria Bibliothecx Bodleia-
ns :" alfo, " Reliqin:e SpelmannianK ; being the pofthu-
mous works of fir Henry Spelman, relating to the Laws
and Antiquities of England, together with the IJfe of the
Author." He was now appointed domeftic chaplain to the
archbilliop, through whole means he obtained the leclure-
fliip of St, Martin's in the Fields, and was prefented to the
rectory of Stiiled in Efitx. His promotion hi the church
went on rapidiv, but it did not render him indifferent to the
caufe of literature, and in 17 13 he pidililhcd his celebrated
work, entitled " Codex Juris Ecclefiaftici Anglicani ; or the
ftatutes, conflitution, canons, rubricks, and ai'tieles of the
church or England, methodically digefled under tlicir pro-
per Heads, &c.'' The fchenie of church power vindicat-
ed in this volume was excepted againft, not only by dilfenters,
but by the foundell and moll conftitutional lawyers within
the pale of the church ; \%ho maintained that the principles
and ckijr.s advanced in it would be fufficitnt, if acled upon,
in their utmoft extent, to ellablifii a facerdotal empire,
which mull draw all power to itielf, and render tlie civil raa-
giftrate its miniller and dependent. In 17 15 our author,
who had taken his degree of D.D., was coniecrated bifhop
ef Lincoln, and in 1723 he was tranflated to tlie fee of Lon-

G I D

don. In this fituation, on account of the weak health of
Dr. 'Wake, then archbifliop of Canterbury, almoft every
thing relating to the affairs of the church was confided to
him. His great zeal for the eftablillied religion, and his
oppofiticn to the diffenters, who were endeavourint; to
obtain the repeal of the Corporation and Tefl acls, lefl^ned
him in thecdimation of the ])rime minifter, fir Robert Wal-
pole ; and he was, about the fame time, rendered obnoxious
to men in power, by feveral attacks on the principles in his
" Codex," which the authors contended were inimical to
the civil conilitution of this country, and favourable to a
fpirit of intolerance and perfccution. Of thefe attacks, one
of tliL- moll able was conducted by the recorder of Briftol,
afterwards Mr. Jullice Foller, at' the defire of lord Hard-
wicke, lord chief-jullice of the court of king'sbench. Bilhop
Gibfon's conilitution was naturally ilrong and vigorous, but
iie exercifed it with alraoll fir.cefiant labours, fo that, at
length, it might be faidto be fairly worn out by his lludies
and exertions. For fome time before he died, he became fen-
fibk- that his end was approaching, and in 1748 he breatiied
his lall at Bath, being in his feventy-ninth year. Befidcs
the works already enumerated, the bilhop was author of fe-
veral otiiers, highly efteemed by the learned. He wrote and
■" ------ J

)tes. In 1692, he gave a tranlla- publilhed many palloral letters, addreffed to the clergy an(
, together with the original, of the laity of his diocefe, intended to oppofe the growth of inf;

delity and enthufiafm : fome vifitation charges, occafional
fei-mons, and fmall trails againft the prevailing vices of the
age. Thefe fmaller pieces have been frequently reprinted,
and it is faid that the bilhop received more real fatisfaclion
on account of the repeated demand for his practical works,
than from the honours conferred on him by his larger and
more learned treatifes. He poffefTed the focial principles in
an eminent degree, and his beneficence and charity were very
extenfively, though privately, exercifed. An inllance of li-
berality is recorded, which redounds greatly to his honour :
Dr. Crow had left him by his will 2500/. wliich bilhop Gibfon
freely gave to Dr. Crow 's own relations, w ho were in indigent
circumllances. Biog. Brit.

GID, or Giddy, in Rural Economy, a morbid condition
occurring in fheep and fome otlier animals, in which there is
a conflant vertigo or turning round. The affeAion is gene»
rally confideredas a kind or hydrocephalus, or cncyllcd col-
kction of watery matter in the head, between the dura and
pia muter.

It has, however, been fuggeflcd by fome as depending upou
a worm or maggot under the horn on either fide of the head ;
in lupport of which Mr. Collins has been informed of cows
having the difeafe, and being cured by having a perforation
made near the horn, and the worm or maggot taken out ;
but this is no doubt another fort of diforder.

Some farmers confidcr this complaint as the mod com.
mon among fiieep that are richly fed, and know it by the
name of xXwJhirJy evil, the cure being attempted by the ufc
of fmall bleeding and alTafcctida ; and in order to guard
againil a relapfe, the flieep (hould be put into a hilly or ele-
vated pallure.

Among the graziers in the county of Lincoln the difeafe
is known by the terms_/7«;v/v, and HaJJer on the I rain, and
in its remedy a fort of trepanning procefs ii had recourfe to,
by which great numbers of flieep are fujjpoled to be favcd.
The perfon who performs the operation ra:festhe fcalp with
a Ilrong hooked knife jull over the part affeded, to the ex-
tent of about half a crown piece, after which, nearly the
fame extent of the Ikull-bone is elevated, letting it hang as
by a hinge on one fide ; then by means of a quill, cut flam-
ing to a point, in the form of a fpcar, and Iiackcd on each
Ude, the bladder is fought for ar.J brought out whole, the

boi;C

G I E

tone being immediately put down again, and covered witli a
plaller.

The South Down (hcep farmers, when the animals ai-e af-
fected in this way, fay they ?ivc paler ijh.

Various other modes of cure have been propofed, but
they do not fecm worthy of much attention. Sse SiiEi!!'.
■ GlUIy^, \\\ Jnclfnt Geography, See Jidda.
' GIDDATOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Cicacole ; i6 miles S.W. of Coflimcotta.

GIDDINESS, in Mcclldne, a fenfalion as if the objeas
■furrounjing the perfon were in a llatc of circumgyration,
or whirling motion, accompanied with an inability to main-
tain the ereft pofture, or to move forward in a llraight line :
in technical language this is denominated Vertigo ; which
fee.

GIDDRI, in Geography, a town of Albania; 8 miles
N. of AlefTio.

GIDEA, a river of Sweden, which rifes in the Lapp-
mark of Afele, and tra%-erling Angermanland, runs into the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. i6 20'. E. long. 18 54'.

GIDELI, a town of Candahar ; 50 miles S.E. of Ca-
bul.

GIDID, a town of Africa, in Dar-fiir, nearly S.E. and
about 22 miles from Cobbc, on the road from Cobbe to
Ril. This town has a competent fupply of water ; and yet
the Fukkara, who poffefs it, are fuppofed to be fo deftitute
of hofpitality, that they will hardly fnrnifli a travellei: fuf-
ficient to allay his thirft. In this town are many houfes,
and fome of them belong to merchants who derive their ori-
gin from the eaft ward,— Alfo, a town of Nubia ; 35 miles
S. of Gerri.

GIDI-SHEHRI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Nato-
lia ; 8 miles S. of Beifliehri.

G ID OLA, a town of RufTia, in the government of Wi-
burg ; 20 miles N. of Wiburg.

GIECH, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg; 7 miles N. of Bamberg.

GIEDKULISZKI, a town of Samogltia ; 24 miles S.
of RoCennc.

GIEDROYCE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 24 miles N.N. W. of Wilna.

GIEDUNGEN, a town of Norway, in the dioccfe of
Chrifiian(lac!t ; iS miles N.W. of Stavanger.

GIEGUZIN, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles S. of
Wilkom.iers.

GIEK, in Botany, the Ceylon name of afmall fruit, dc-
fcribedby Gxrtner v. 2. 486. t. 180, of which nothing
more is known. The nucleus is Angularly pitted, like a Ru-
lus, but if the figure be in all points correct, it cannot be
a grain of the fruit of that genus. The internal parts, which
were decayed, might have afcertained fomethmg decifive,
cfpecially the fituation of the embryo.

GIELLUM, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
diocefe of Aggerhuus ; 53 miles N. of Chrilliania.

GIEN, a town of France, and principal place of a dif-
tria, in the department of the Loiret, feated en the Loire ;
32 miles S.E. of Orleans. The place contain.^ 5'I7> ^"d
the canton 11,366 inhabitants, on a territory of 410 kilio-
metres, in II communes. N. lat. 48 45'. E. long. 10^

GIENE'. See Kene.

GIENSOR, a town of Africa ; 10 miles S. of Tri-
poli.

GIER, a river of France, which runs into the Rhone,
1 2 miles below Lyons.

GIERACE, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, the
fee of a bi.'hop, fuffragSn of Reggio ; contahiing 13

C I F

churches, and 4 monallerics. Near it are fome fulpluircous
baths; 34 miles N. of Reggio. N. lat. 38^ 6'. E. long.
16 30'. — Alfo, a town of Sicily, in tlie valley of Demo-
na ; 30 miles S.W. of Miftretta. N. lat. 37 '48'. E. long. 14"
22'.

GIERANONY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 20 miles N.E. of Lida.

GIERGA, a town of Bengal ; 48 miles S.E. of Doe-
fa.

GIESIM, a town of Nubia, between 'Sennaar and Abyf-
fmia ; ico miles E.S.E. of Sennaar. N. hit. 13° 16',
E. long. 35-^ 15'.

GIESSEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Upper Hefle, fituated in a fertile country, on
the Lahn. It is defended by a good citadel and arfenal.
An univerfity was founded here in the year 1605 ; 36 miles
N.E.ofMentz. N. lat. 50"^ 35'. E. long. 8 43'.

GIEZIN, a town of Samogitia ; 22 miles E S.E. of Ro-
fienne.

GIFF.;E, a term in Surgery, fignifying fwellings behind
the ears.

GIFFEN, HuBEKT, in Biography, a lawyer and philo-
logift, was a native of Gueldies in France. He I'udied at
different univerfities, as thofe at Louvain, Paris, and Or-
leans, and in 1567 he took his degrees in the law. He
went to Venice in tlie train of the French ambaflador, and
from thence to Germany, and taught philoiophy and jm-ii-
prudence at Strafburg, Altdorf, and Ingollladt. He «as
educated in the principles of Proteftantifni, which he re-
nounced for the Calhohc religion previonlly to his being in-
vited to tlie imperial court, where the emperor Rodolph be-
llowed upon him fome important offices. Being fent into
Bohemia, he died at Prague in the year 1604, being abo-.it
feventy years of age. His principal works are " Comment.
de Imp. Juftiano :" " Index Hill. Rerum Romanorum ;''
and notes and comments upon Arillotlo's politics, ethics ;
alfo upon Lucretius. Moreri. Bayle.

GIFFT-MEHL, the name given by the German cie-
mifts and metallurgills to the firll appearance of arfenic,
or the grey flowers arifmg from the roafting of cobalt, and
fticking to the long wooden funnel, which they carry from
the furnaces.

The word gifft-mehl is German, and fignifies poifonous
meal or flour.

GIFHORN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Luneburg-Zell, feated on the Allier ; 19
miles E. of Zell.

GIFONI, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ; 7 miles
E. N. E. of Salerno.

GIFT, or Grant, in Law, a m.ethod of transferring
perfonal property, anfwering in fome meafure to the convey-
ances of real eftates. Gifts and grants are thus to be dillin-
guidied from each otlier, that gifts are always gratuitoi\s,
whereas grants are upon fome confideration or equivalent.
With regard to their fub]ect-niatter, they rray be divided
into gifts or grants of chatttels real, and gifts or grants of
chattels ^f/y&W. Under the former clafs may be included
all leafes for years of land, aflignments, and furrenders of
thefeleafes; and all the other metiiods of conveying an eflate
Icfs than freehold ; though tliefe vci-y feldom carry the out-
ward appearance of a gift, hov.-ever freely beilowed ; being
ufuallv expreffed to be made in confideration of blood, or
natural aff^aion, cr of five or ten fhiilings nominally paid to
the grantor; and in cafe of leaies, always referving a rent,
though it be but a pepper-corn ; — any of which confidera-
tions will, in the eye of tlie law, convert the gift, if execut-
ed, into a grant ; if not executed, into a conlraiit.

Grants

G I G

Grants or gifts of chattels perfonal are the aft of tranf-
ferriiig the right and the poflelTion of them ; whereby one
man renounces, and another man immediately acquires, all
title and intereil therein : which mav be done either in writ-
mc; or by word of mouth, attefted by fufficient evidence
(Park. 0 5".), of which the dciive.-y of pofiefTion is the
ftrongoi't and the moll cil'entiaL But this conveyance, when
inerely voluntary, is fomewhat fufpicioiis ; and is ufually
conllrned to be fraudulent, it creditors or others become
fufFerer<: thereby. And, particularly, by ftatute 3 Hen. VII.
C. 4. all deeds of gift of goods, made in truft to tlie ufe of
t!ie donor, lh;Jl be void ; becaufe otherwife perfons might
be tempted to commit treafon or felony, without danger of
forfeiture ; and tlie creditors of the donor might alto be
defrauded of their right. And by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 5.
every grant or gift of chattels, as well as lands, with an in-
tent to defraud creditors or others (3 Rep. 82), (hall be
void, as againll fuch perfons to whom fuch fraud would be
prejudicial : but, as againft the grantor himfelf, fliall ftand
good and effeclual ; and all perfons partakers in, or privy to,
fuch fraudulent grants, (hall forfeit the whole value of the
goods, one moiety to the king, and another moiety to the
party grieved ; and alfo, upon conviction, (hall fuffer impri-
lonment for half a year.

A true and proper gift or grant is always accompanied
with delivery of poflcffion, and takes effcft immediately ; as
if A. gives to B. ico/ or a flock of flieep,and puts him in
poflefllon of them direftly, it is then a gift executed in the
donee ; and it is not in the donor's power to retraft it,
though he did it without any confideration or recompence
(Jenk. 109.) : linleis it be prejudicial to creditors; or the
donor were under any legal incapacity, as infancy, coverture,
durefs, or the like ; or if he were drawn in, circumvented,
or impofed upon by falfe pretences, ebriety, or furpriz;.
But if the gift docs not take effect, by delivery of immedi-
ate pofTellion, it is then not properly a gift, but a contract;
and this a man cannot be compelled to perform, but upon
good and fufficient coniideralion. See Coxtkact.

The conveyance by^//?, " donatio,'' is properly applied
to the creation of an eftate-tail, as feoffment is to an eflate
in fee, and leafe to that of aneilate for life or years. It dif-
fers in nothing from a feoffment, but in the nature of the
eilate paffrng by it ; for the operative words of conveyance
in this cafe are do or dedi (Weil. Symbol. 256.) ; and gifts
in tail are equally imperfecl without li»ery of feifm, as feoff-
ments in fee-fimple. (Litt. 5 59.) See Feoffment. This
is the only dillinclion which Littleton fcems to take, when
he fays (j 57), " it is to be underftood, that there is feoffor
and feoffee, donor and donee, leffor and leffee ;" w's. feoffor
is applied to a feoffment in fee-fimple, donor to a gift in tail,
and lefTor to a leafe for life, or for years, or at will. In com-
mon acceptation gifts are frequently confounded with grants.
(See Gkant.) Black!>. Com. B.' ii.

QtllT-day, in Rural Economy, 1% a term implying a boon-
day, or a day's work given from the tenant to the lord, or
from neighbour to neighbour.

Gifts, New Tear's. See SXR.^K.?:.

GIG, Fisii. See FlSH-^/f.

GIGA, Ital. GiGUE, Fr. a jig, the name of a gay
dance, and of its tune. The Crufca Di't. defines this
word from Dante, par. 14. Jlrumento 7mif.caU di corde ;
a mufical infhument with firings. The Crufca, likewife,

fays, that it is an inflrumental movement, lo ca led

Walther's derivation from ©efgc. Germ, a violin, or fiddle,
comprehends both the tune and the inftnunent upon wliich,
originally, it was raofl frequently played. The time of the
fg'ta, or jig, is always quick, and in triplets of |, i, or 'j^.

G I G

CoreUi's jiffs were long in favour ; but, hcinj ,'„ the fam.?
time as moll of our old country-dances, they are aimofl all
become vulgy, except the gi^he in his 5th folo, and 4iih
fonata, op. ii".

Rouffeau fays tliat gigues arc now wholly out of fafhion
in Italy and France ; but the movement is only improved by-
new and more elegant paflagcs : for, whatever is played
quick, in triplets of 6, 9, or 1 2 quavers in a bar, is lli'll a
S'S"' or j'g-

GIGAIA, GiGUA, Cm, or Gi^o, in Geography, one of
the fmaller wellern iflands of Scotland, about 7 miles long
and 2i broad, partly rocky and partly arable, fituated in N.
lat. 55- 36'. VV . long. 5 43 , and feparated from the penin-
fula of Cant)Te, or Kintyre, by a channel 3i miles broad.
There are no trees in this ifland ; but oaks are fometime*
dug up in the mcraffcs. Near its centre is Dun-clifs, a high
lleep rock, flat at top, which appears to have been a flrong
fortification. At Kilcliattan is a rude column, 16 feet high.
4 broad, and 8 inches thick, and near it is a cairn. On the
weflern (hore, which is bold and rocky, there are two re-
markable caves ; and on the S. coafl is a fubterraneous paffage
133 feet in length. Between tlie projecting points and funk
rocks on the E. coafl are creeks, in which veffels may be
lafely moored. This ifland contains 592 inhabitants.

About i^ mile S. from Gigha, is the ifland Caray, or
Cara, near a mile long and half a mile broad, containing 22
inhabitants. The fliores are every where high and rocky,
except at the N. E. end, where is the only landing place.
The Mull of Cara, at the S. end, is a perpendicular rock.
167 feet high. At the N. E. end, the foil is a mixture of
fliells, fand, and common mould ; the reil of the ifland, at
the furface, is a ilratum of peat earth. Between Gigha and
Cara is Gigulum, a fmall uninhabited idanj.

GIGANTES, a clufler of fmall illands among the
Philippines, N. W. of Sibu. N. lat. 11" 42'. E. long.
123- 20'.

GIGANTIC. See Giant.

Gigantic Order, in Arch'ticciure, a name given by Scam-
mozzi and others to the Tufcan order.

GIGANTOMACHIA, the battle of the giants againft
the fabulous gods of the ancient heathens. See GiAxr.

The word is Greek, 7 »rx-.-7oy a;^w, formed of -, i-.a , ■> i^ a>To.-,
giant ; and ju^X'' '"'""^''/> of j.ia;^ouj',i, *i/fno, I Jight.

Several of the poets have compofed gigantomachias : that
of Scarron is the fincfl of all his pieces.

GIGANTOPHONTES, is a name given to Minerva,
on account of the alfiilance which (he gave to Jupiter in his
contefl with the giants.

GIGAY, in Geography, a fmall ifland of the Hebrides,
on the E. coafl of Barray, yielding tolerable pallure, but
difficult of accefs.

GIGERI. See .Tijei..

GIGERIjE, a term ufcd by fome writers to exprcfs
the offals of poultry of any kind, including t!ie intelHnes,
extremities, and whate^xr elfe is thrown away before the
drcfling. See Giblets.

GIGG, Giga, or Jig, in Mufc and Dancing. See

GlGA.

GiGGS, among Farriers, fmall bladders or blillers on
the iiifide of a horfc's hps. They mull be laid open, and
cleanfed with fait and vinegar, or alum-water.

GIGGE, in the Manufaclure cf Flaxy denotes a hole
made in the earth, where tire is made to dry the llax laid
OVlT it.

GiGGEO, Anthony, in Biography, a learned Italian,
v.ho flouriflicd in the early part of the feventecnth cvntury,
and was admitted to the degree of dodor by the Ambro-

G I L

G I L

fian college at Milan. Ho was author of many li-arncd works,
but that on which his rcputatien is chiefly cllabliflicd, was
entitled " Thefaanis Lingua; Arabics, feu Lexicon Aia-
bico-Latinuin;'' publiihed in four volumes folio, in 1632.
As a rccompenco for tlie learning; and iiidullry which it exhi-
bited, pope Urban VI IL nominated the author to an honour-
able poll in a college at Rome ; but he died before he could
enter upon its functions, or enjoy its emoluments. Gen.
Biog.

; GIGLIO, or Isoi.K DEC Gir.MO, in Geography, a fmall
ifiand in the Mediterranean, near the coaft of Italy, anci-
ently called jE«1/u»i, or Isi/uiii. N. lat. 42' 28'. E. long.

10 sV-

GIGMILLS, a kind of fulhng mills, for fulhng and
burling of woollen cloth, prohibited, aiuio 5 and 6 Ed. VI.
c. 22.

GIGNEE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Lodcve, feated on the Herault ; 10 miles S.
E. of Lodcve. The place contains 2785, and the canton
13,632 inhabitants, on a territory of 290 kiliomctres, in 21
communes. N. lat. 43" 39'. E. long. 3° 38'.

GIGNY, a town of France, in the departnwnt of the
Jura, on the Surain ; 7 miles S. W. of Orgelet.

GIGO. Sec GiGAiA.

GIGOT, in the Mimtge, a branch after the form of a
gigot, or leg, is a branch, the lower part of which is round,
and called in French gnrgoui/k.

GIHON, in Geography. See JiuON and A.MU.

GmoN, in Scrtplure Geography, a fountain, weft of .Te-
rnfaleni, where Solomon was anointed king by Zadok and
Nathan, Tiic upper channel of Gihon was ordered, by
Hezekiah, to be conveyed into .Jerufalcm, for the advan-
tage of the waters; I Kings, i. 33. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 30. —
Alfo, the name of one of the four rivers, whofe fources were
in Paradife, Gen. ii. 13. The Arabians believed this to be
the Oxus, a river which rifes in the mountains of Imaus,
and runs from eaft to weft; and after winding much, re-
turns, and dlfcharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea, weftward.
Tills river feparates the provinces of the Turks and Perfians.
Modern geographers call the Oxus, Amu; which fee.
The Arabians name it Gehon, and Neher-Balkh, the river
of Balk, becanfe it paffes through that city. Calvin, Sca-
liger, and others, think that Gihon is the moll wcilern
channel of the two made by the Tigris and Euphrates, when,
after their conflux, they feparatc again to enter the fea.
Others again maintain that Pifon is the weilern channel,
and that Gihon is the eallern. This is the opinion of Bo-
chart and Huetius. (See Edex.) Others fuppofe the Gihon
to he the ylraxcs ; which fee.

GI.ION, Jixa of the Romans, a confiderablc fea-port
town of Spain, in Afturias, formerly the capital of this
province, with an old caille, containing about 800 families,
18 miles N. of Oviedo. This infecure port, conftrufted and
maintained at a great expence, is reforted to by the Englilh
for filberts and chefnuts. N. hit. 43° 32'. W.long. 5' 42'.

GIKRI, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of Nagore;
15 miles S. E. of Catchwara.

GIL, IJlaiul of, an ifland of the North Pacific ocean,
fo called by fignor Caamano, about 14 miles long and 6
broad, between Princefs Royal's ifland and Pitt's Archipe-
lago.

GILA, a river of New Mexico. See Colo it ado.

GIL AC AN, a fmall ifland in the North Pacific ocean,
K. of the Catanduanes. N.lat. 14° 26'. E. long. 124^ 27'.

GILARZA, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 15 miles
JS. E. of Bofa.

GILATTELKE, a town of Tranfilvania, 14 mnesN.'
of Chuifenburg.

GlLBERtiA, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland; 24.
miles V\''. of Car'iladt.

GILBERT, Hu.MriiRKY, in Biography, defcended from
an ancient family in Devonfliire, was born about the year
1539. His mother, after becoming a widow, married Mr.
Raleigh, by whom flie had fir Walter; of courfe. Hum-,
phrey Cill)ert and fir Walter were half brothers, and, as
we fliall fee, both became diftinguifhed in the ar.nals of their
country. The ful'/jecl; of the prefent article was educated
at Eton, and from thence was fent to Oxford to complete
his Ihidies. He foon exiiibited a turn of mind better adapt-
ed to an acT;ivc than a literarj' life. He was early intro-
duced to the court of Elizabeth, and there acquired that
ardour of loyalty which fcemed to be the ruling paflion of
thofe who approached the queen. His iirll expedition as a
w-arrior was at Havre, in 1563, after which he was fent
over to Ireland, to aflift; in quelling the diforders in that
country, and role to the chief command in the province of
Munlter. In 1570 he received the honour of knighthood
as a reward for his fervices. In the following year fir
Humphrey Gilbert ferved, as a burgefs, in parliament, for
Plymouth; and in 1572 he failed with a reinfoixement to
colonel Morgan, then aiting in Flanders. He, about this
period, became anxious for the advancement of maritime,
difcovery, and the improvement and extenfion of trade and
commerce; with theie views, in 1576, he publiflied "A.
Difcourfe,' to prove a pafTage by the north-well to the
Ead Indies.'' He probably defigned to make attempts for
the difcovery of this paffage, but an anterior projeft was
that of fettling fome of the countries in the northern part of
the New World. In 1578 he obtained a patent from the
crown for making fettlements in the unoccupied lands of
North America, and fitted out an expedition with which
he failed for Newfoundland, where he continued a fliort time,
and returned witliout having effedlied any thing of import-
ance. He, however, perfilled in his defign, and in 1583,
in company with his brother, fir Walter Raleigh, returned
to Newfoundland, and took poireflion, in the queen's name,,
of the harbour of St. .John, and granted leafes of the cir-
cumjacent country to thofe of his company who chofe to
take them. He carried out with him a Saxon miner, in
hopes, no doubt, of finding gold, more than fuflicient to
repay them for all their trouble and labour. This man pre-
tended to have difcovercd a rich filver mine on the coaft,
and dug up fome ore, which fatisfied fir Humphrey that
the means of wealth were within their reach. He now fully
expefted that he could obtain from the queen the loan of
ten thoufand pounds, to enable them to profecute their dif-
coveries, but his voyage was truly difaftrous; the largefl:
fhip was loft in a ftorm, with all the crew except twelve
men, and the miner and the ore periflied at the fame time.
He himfelf had fortunately gone on board a fmall floop, for
the purpofe of exploring the coaft. After this he refufed
to fliift his ftation to his larger remaining velFel, being rc-
folved not to defert the little crew with whom he had en-
countered fo many dangers. He fteered homeward, in the
midft of a tcmpelluous fea, and on the ninth of September,
when his fmall bark was in the utmoft danger of foimder-
ing, lie was feen, by the crew of the other fliip, fitting in
the ftern of the veffel, with a book in his hand, and he was
heard to cry out, " Courage, my lads ! we are as near
heaven at fea as at land.'' About midnight the bark wa;;
fwallowed up by the ocean ; the gallant knight and all his
men perilhed with her. Though fir Humphrey Gilbert
UJl not effeft a fettleracnt at Newfoundland, yet the pro-

I

^e£i was foon after realized under liis patent, fo far as to be
of great advantage to the fidiery from this country. Biog.
Brit.

■ Gilbert, or Gilberd, Williajf, a phyfician, was born,

«■ in the year 1540, at Co!chcfter, of which borougli his father
had been recorder. After ftudying fomc time at Cambridge,
he travelled abroad for farther improvement in thofe branches
of fcicnce to which he was particularly addicted ; and took,
the degree of doftor of phyfic in fome foreign univerfity.
He returned to his own country with a high character for
philofophical and chemical knowledge, and was made a
member of the College of Phyficians in London, where he
fettled about the year 1573. He praftifed with fo much
reoutation and fuccefs, that he at length became firll phyfi-
cian to queen Elizabeth, in which ofhce he continued during
the life of that princefs. The vacancies from the duties of
hi* profe.Tion he employed in the purfuit of philofophical ex-
periments, particularly relative to the magnet, and in tliefe
he was afli'.led by a penlion from queen Ehzabeth. We are
informed of no other circumftances concerning the life of
thi.i learned man, who died, unmarried, November 20, 160^,
atjed 63, and was buried in his native place, where a hand-
fome monument was erected to his memory by his brothers.
He left all his books, globes, mathematical inliruments, and
cabinet of minerals, to the College of Phyficians. His pic-
ture, which reprefents him as of a tall llature and chcarful
countenance, is in the gallery over the fcliools at Oxford.

The capital work of Dr. Gilbert, entitled " De Mag-
nete, Magneticifque Corporibus et de Magno Magnete
Tellure, Phyfiologia nova, plurimis et argumentis ct expe-
rimentis demonftrata," was firll publiihed at I^ondon in
1600, and has been reprinted in Germany. Tliis is not only
the earlieft complete fyftem of magnetifm, but alfo one of
the firft fpecimens of a philofophical fyftem built upon ex-
periments, after the manner io much infilled on afterwards
by the great lord Bacon.. Aikin, Biog. Mem. of Med.
Eloy.

Gilbert, .Ioiix, the fon of Mr. Thomas Gilbert, a gen-
tleman pofieffing an eftate of about 300/. a year, was born
in the year 1724. His elded brother had a liberal educa-
tion, with a view to the bar, and became afterwards a mem-
ber of parliament for Newcaftle and Litchfield; but the fub-
jecl of this article had only fuch inftruflion as the obfcure
village of Farley, in the neighbourhood of his father's
houfe, could afford. At the age of twelve or thirteen years,
he was bound apprentice to Mr. Bolton, father of the well-
Jcnown and julily celebrated Matthew Bolton, of Soho, near
.Birmingham; between whom and Mr. Gilbert an intimacy
fubfillcd, as long as the latter lived. At the age of 1 9 he
loll his father; and as he died pofTeffed of extenlive lime-
works, they required attention. Accordingly Mr. Gilbert,
■in order to undertake the fuperintendence of them, quitted
his connexion with Mr. Bolton, who very reluftantly part-
ed with him, and devoted himfelf to the management of liis
.own family concerns. Notwithllanding the difadvantages
under which Mr. G. had laboured in early life, he polTeAed
talents, which, matured by age and experience, could not
fail of recommending him to notice. But the mod remark-
able circnm'lance in thehiftory of tins ingenious perfon, and
that indeed whicli has induced us to give a brief account of
liim, was his introduction to the duke of Bridgev>-ater, at
the time when he was projefting improvements of his col-
lieries, in the neighbourhood of Mancheiler. Mr. Gilbert's
brother was then fleward to the duke ; and deiired him to
infpeft and examine his Grace's collieries at Worlley. After
viewing the works, it immediately occurred to him, that if
she coals on that part of the duke's eftate could {56 brought
Vol. XVL

G I L

to market in fiich a populous town as Manchefter, and for
the fupply of the numerous works in its vicinity, the col-
liery, which, in the ftate it was at the time of liis infpeflion,
yielded little profit, would become extremely valuable. It
is faid, that he fecluded himfelf altogether from company
for two days, at the Bull inn at Manchefter, to confider
how this might be done by water-carriage, as that by land
was very expenfive, and, on account of the badnefs of th*-
roads, ver)' inconvenient, and almoll impratticable. Hav-
ing digeded his fchome, he communicated it to the duke,
who was no lefs ftruck with the proportion fuggeftcd by
Mr. G. tlian the projector himfelf. Accordin'^ly the work
was foon after begun. Mr. G.'s name has feldom occurred
in connexion with this very important and lucrative under-
taking ; and as he preceded Mr. Brindley in this bufincf*,
of which we have ample and fatisfadtory evidence, we thouHit
that judice required a candid and impartial itatement of the
cafe; Mr. G. was fo fortunate, in the profc-cution of this
work, as to find lime upon the duke's ellat.-, which muU
otherwife have been brought by hi.d from Buxton, at the
didance of near 30 miles ; and in a work of this great ex-
tent, this was no inconfiderable faving. The tunnel wa*
entirely executed, as well as planned, by Mr. G. ; who, be-
ing acquainted with Mr. Brindley as a neighbour, and know-
ing him to be a very ingenious and excellent mill-wrigl.t,
engaged his afldance in the conduit and completion of tlii«
arduous undertaking, and introduced him to the duke for
this purpofe. The duke was fo well fatisHed with his agent
and projector, that at firft they lived together for two or
three months in tlie year, and for feveral of the lall years of
Mr. Gilbert's life, he fpent half his time with him. In Jur.e,
1757, he removed with his family to Worfiey, that he
might, with greater convenience, attend the profecution of
the bufinefs he had undertaken. As a farther e^Hdence of
the duke's regai'd for Mr. G. we may here add, that he
gave his fon, wlio was educated for the church, the fecond
beft preferment at his difpofal, to the amour.t of about
1200.A, per annum. We might mention many other con-
cerns in which Mr. G. was engaged, and in which he had
an opportunity of ir.anifefting his ficill and judgment, in the
conduft of canals, mines, and other improvements relating
to rural economy. We Ihall merely add, that he is faid ti»
have been the firll perfon who fugge'.ledthe ufe of gun-pow-
der in obtaining rock-falt. Mr. G. was probably io modeft
and unalTuniing, that he did not, during his life-time, lay
claim to the honour which belonged to him, witii refpeA to
the duke of B;idgewater's canals and collieries ; and we have
introduced his name into the Cyclopedia, in order to do
him judice, without meaning to detratl from the merit ot
his coadjutor and fucceffor, Mr. Brindley, to whom we have
already paid ample and deicrvcd refpcft uader his biogra-
phical article. Mr. Gilbert's general charafter commanded
the clteem of all who knew him, and his death, even after a
prolonged life of about 73 years, which happened at Worl-
ley, on the 4thof Auguit, 1797, was, whliout doubt, re-
gretted by his friends, and efpecially by the noble duke,
who was in the houfe at the time.

Gilbert's IJlanJ, in GiOgraphy, an ifland near the S W.
coaftof Terra del Fuego. N.bt. 55 13'. W.long. 71= 7'.

Gilbert's Toiun, a town of America, in tiie date of Vir-
ginia, feated on the Shenando, 30 miles N.of CharlottcfviUe.

GILBERTINES, m Ecdejlaftkol Hyiory, an order of
reli'i-ious, thus caDed from St. Gilbert, of Scmpringham, ia
the county of Lincoln, who founded the fame about the
year 114S: the monks of which obferved th,- rule of St
Auguftine, and were accounted canons; and the nuns that

of ^t. Bcnedid. ^ ■

I i Ti:c

G I L

G I L

The founder of this order crcftod a double monaftery, or
*;ither two (liiTeront onis, contiguous to each other, the
one for men, the other for women, but parted by a very
hitrh wall.

St. Gilbert himfelf founded thirteen monaflerics of this
order, viz. four for men nlone, and nine for men and women
togctlier, which had ia them feven hundred brethren, and
fifteen liundred filters. At the diffolution there were about
tweiity-fivi' hoifes of this order in England and Wales.

GILBERTUS Anc;i,icus, in 5;c>frrt//j_v> the firft prac-
tical writer on medicine, whom tliis country produced, is
placed by Bale, (who culls him Gilbtrlus Le^leus, anil fays
he was phylician to Hubert, archbilhop of Canterbury, 1 in
the reign of king John, about the year 1210. But Leland,
■without llating the grounds of his opinion, makes him more
modern. Dr Freind obfervcs, that it is obvious, from the
work by which he is principally known, (a " Compendium
of Phyiic,") that he mull have lived fcvcral years later in
the thirteenth century, very pi-obably in the beginning of
the reign of Edward I.: " For he quotes Averrhbes," Dr.
Freind remarks, " who reached to the clofe of the twelfth
century; and whofe works could not have been tranOatcd fo
early, and indeed were not tranllated till the middle, at leatt,
of the thirteenth, as Bacon, a good voucher, informs us:
and the mention he raakes of a book, " de Speculis," which,
without doubt, is that written by Bacon, and what he tran-
fcribes from Theodorick, concerning a leprofy, evidently
fhews that he lived low in this century, &c." (Hirt. of Phy-
fic, vol. ii. p. 267.) According to Leland, he maintained a
high charadler for his knowledge in pliilofophy and phyfic,
-which he had acquired by great iludy and much travelling;
and he was very fuccefsful in his praftice. His writings are
principally compiled from thofe of the Arabian phyiicians,
like the works of his contemporaries in other nations ; foine-
times, indeed, he tranfcribes whole chapters word for word,
efpecially from Rhazes. He is reprefented as the firfl Eng-
li(h phyficlan wlio ventured to e.xpofe the afcfurd practices
of the fuperllitious monks, who at that time engrolTed much
of the treatment of difeafes, and is faid to have contrafled
■with them the metiiods recommended by the ancients. The
principal work of Gilbert, entitled " Compendium Medi-
c-inaj tarn morborum univcrfalium quam particularium," was
con-ecled by Michael Capella, and printed at Lyons in
1510; and afterwards at Geneva, in 1608, under the title
of " Laurea Ang!icana, feu Compendi'am totius Medicina?."
His other treatiies were, " De viribns Aquarum:" " De
Re Herbaria:" " Thefaurus Paupcrum:" and " De tuenda
valetudinc." Eloy. DiCt. Hid. Freind, loc cit.

GILBING, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Erme-
land ; 12 miles W. of Allewlleln.

GILBOA, in Scripture Geography, a mountain of Pa-
leftine, celebrated on account of the defeat and death of
Saul, and his fon Jonathan, (i Sam. xxxi. i, 2, 3.>. Eiife-
bius and Jerom place this mountain fix miles from Bethfan,
other wife Scythopolis.

GILD, or Guild, originally fig:iilies a fraternity, or
company.

The word is fornied from the Siwon gi/Jun, to pay, bccaufe
every man wns gililarc, i. e. to pay fomething towards the
charge and fipport of the company. Hence alio our Guild-
huil, q. d. the hall of the fociety or fraternity, wh'.-re they
meet, and make orders and laws among themfelves.

The origin of gilds, or guilds, is thus related : it being
a law among the Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen
years old Ihould fiy.d fureties to keep the peace, or be com-
jnitted ; cert in neighbours, confilH.-ig of ten fainilies, en-
tered i».to an aifociatioii, and became bound for each other,

either to produce him who committed an offence, or to make
fatisfaftion to the injured party : that they might the better
do this, they raifcd a lum of money among themfelves,
which they put into a common Hock ; and when one of
their pledges had committed an ofToncc, and was fled, then
the other nine made fatisfatlion out of this flock, by pay-
ment of money, according to the offe!ice.

Becaufe this atToci.'tion confillcd of ten families, it was
called a decennary ; and from hence came out later kinds of
fraternities.

But, as to the precife time when thefe guilds had their
origin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be found ;
fmce they were in ufe long b'-fore any form:d licence was
granted them for fuch meeting;.

It feems to have been about tlie clofe of the eleventh cen-
tury, fays Anderfon, in his Hiitory of Commerce, vol. i.
p. 70. that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which were after-
wards (lylcd corporations, came flrll into general uie in many
parts of Europe. Mr. Madox, in his Firma Burgi, chap. i.
J" 9. thinks, they were hardly known to our Saxon progeni-
tors, and that they might be probably brought into Eng-
land by the Normans ; altlwegh they do not feem to have
been very numerous in thofe days. I'he French and Nor-
mans might probably borrow them from the free cities of
Italy, where trade and manufailures were m.uch earlier pro-
pagated, and where pofiibly fuch comniinrties were firll in
ufe. See Cuakteus of Ccmnmniiy, City, and CoKFORA-

TIOX.

Edward the Third, in the fourteenth year of his reign,
granted hcenee to the men of Coventry to erect a merchant's
gild and fraternity, of brethren and iiiler*, with a maftcr,
or warden ; and that they might found chauntries, bellow
alms, do other works of piety, and conftitute ordinances
touching the fame.

So Henry the Fourth, in his reign, granted a licence to
found a gild of the Holy Crofs, at Stratford-upon-
Avon.

Gild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is Hill ufed
for a company of merchants, who are freemen of the
borough.

Every roya! borough has a dean of gild, who is the next
magiilrate below the bailiff. He judges of controverfieg
among men concerning trade ; difputes betvv-cen inhabitants
touching buildings, lights, watercourfes, and other nui-
finces ; calls courts, at which his bi'cthren of the gild are
bound to attend ; manages the commtn Rock of the g'ld ;
and amerces, and colletls fines.

Gll.D, or Geld, according to Camden, alio fignilies a tri-
bute, or tax. SeeGf:LD.

GiJ-D, according to Crompton, alfo figni.'ies an amerce-
ment. As in fooi-geld, which he interprets a preilation
within the forcfl.

Hence, to be quit of all manner of gild, is to be dif-
charged of all manner of prcilations to be made for
gathering fheaves of corn, lamb, and wool, to tlie ufe of fo-
reders.

Gild, or Geld, is alfo ufed among our ancient writers for
a compenfalion, or mulft, for a fault committed. See Un"-

GELD.

Hence, zveregtLl is the price of a man ; orfg Id is the price
of cattle ; angeld, the fingle value of a thing ; tiuigeld, the
double value, &c.

There are divers other words v.hich end with gild,
and ffeew the lever.d kinds of payments ; as danegetd,
•vadfgeld, Jenegeld, horiigeld, fotgeld, pcmgild, &C. wiiich
fee.

Gild, or Guild rents, are rents payable to the crown by

ai.y

G ! L

Mty gild, or fraternity ; or fiich rents- as formerly belonged
to religious gilds, and came to the crown at the ge-
neral diflblution : beiirg ordered for fale by the ftat.
22 Car. II.

GILDABLE, or Geldable, denotes a perfon tribu-
tar\', that is, liable to pay tax, or tribute.

Camden, dividing Suffolk into tliree parts, calls the firil
gildable, becaufe liable to tax ; from wtiich the two othei-
parts were exempt, becaufe ecclefi£ donatK.

GiLDABLEis alio explained in an ancient MS. to be that
land or lordfliip which isy>/i d'tJlriShne cur'ix •uicecom.

GILDAS, in Biography, furnamed the Wife, a Britifh
monk, and the moil ancient Britifh \Triter now extant, was
boni in the year 520. He is known among many ai!thors by
the name of Badonius, by which he is dittinguKhed from
Gildas Albanius, who is faid to have lived at an eralier pe-
riod. His iumamc Badonius is derived from a memorable
viclory gained by the Britons over the Saxons, at the hill of
Badon, now Bath, about the time of his birth. Having
been carefully educated according to the manners of the
times he became monk of Bangor, where he diligently ap-
plied himfelf to the learning of that period, and particularly
to the Ihidy of the fcriptures, vviih a view of qualifying
himfelf for the duties of a public preacher. He is faid to
have vifited Ireland at the requeil of Amencus, afterwards
king of the country, where he diilinguiflicd himfelf by his
zeal and fuccefs in converting Pagans, confuting the herefies
of the age, ellablifhing monafteries, and in reforming the
corrupt Hate of principles and manners which h;-.d become
prevalent among the Chriftians in that ifiand. Upon his
return to liis native country he vifited the monaftery of Lhan-
carvan, lately founded by a pious nobleman of South
Wales, and endeavoured, by all the means in his power, to
engage other pcrfons, eminent for rank and fortune, to follow
his example. He Ipent fume time in the northern parts of
Britain ; vifited France and Italy, and then returned home,
where he acquired a high reputation as a moft indefatigable
preacher who never helitated to cenfure the prevailirig vices
of the age. He is fuppofed to have died at the abbey of
Bangor in the year 590 ; though, according to fome writers,
this event happened at Glaftonbiiry, full twenty years prior
to this. The chief work of this author is ; " Epiftola de
Excidio Britanniie, et Caftigatione Ordinis Ecclefiaftici,"
containing lamentations over the miferies and almoft total
ruin of his countrymen, and very fevere reproofs of the cor-
ruption and profligacy of manners in which all ranks were
fiiarers, and of which lie drew a moft alarming pitlure.
This curious remain of Britifn ecclefiailical antiquities was
firft printed by Polydore Virgil in 1525, from an imperfecl
copy. It was afterwards publilhed in 1568 by John JofTe-
linefrom another, and a more perfett manufcript copy, but
the bed edition was publilhed by Dr. Thomas Gale, in the
firft volume of his " Hilloriie Britannic^, Saxonies, &c."
Gildas wrote feveral "Letters," of which there are nume-
rous fragments in an old ccllection of canons preferved among
the MSS. in the Cottoni; n library. Otlier pieces have been
afcribed to him, but thefe are conlldcred by the bed judges,
as not really his, among them is the " Hilloria de Geilis
BritonuH-..'' Moreri.

Gil,n\s-d.s-Boij, St. in Geography, a town of France, in
tlie liepartment of the JLo'.ver JLoire, and chief place of a
canton, in the diilrict of Savenay. The place contains 859,
and the canton 5527 inhabitants, on a tcrritorj' of 235
kiliom.etres, in live communes.
GILDER. See GuLDER.
Gii-.DH--\LDA TtuioNiconcii was ui^ed for the fra-

G I L

tefnity of Eafterling merchants in London ; called alfo the

Jlillyard.

GILD-HALL, q. J. Gilda aula, the chief hall in the
city of London. See Cv\l.n-haU.

GILD-MERCHANT, GiUa Mcrcatoria, wasa certai«
privilege, or liberty, granted to merchants, whcr -by they
were enabled, among other things, to hold certain pkai
of land within their own precincls.

_ King John granted gildam mercatoricm to the bnrgeffes of
Nottingham.

It is held, that if the king grants to a fet of men to have
"gildain raercatoriam," a mercantile meeting or aflembly,
this is jlone fulF.cient to incorporate and ellabliih them for
ever. 10 Rep. 30. I Roll. Abr. 513.

GILDING, or GuiLDiNG, the art, or aft, of fpreading
or covering certain fubftances with gold, either in leaf or
powder, or in amalgam w itli quickClver. See an account
of thefe preparations of gold under Gold.

The art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients,
tliough it never anived among them at the perfeflion to
which the moderns have carried it. For this purpofc
the gold was beat into plates, with which the walls of
apartments, dilhes, and other veffels were covered. In early
ages thefe plates were thick, fo that this mode of gilding «
was very expenfive. (See the procefs employed for gilding,
in thij manner, the horns of the ram brought by Neflor, as as
offering to Minerva, in Homer's Odyficy, 1. iii. v. 492. ) la
procels of time, however, the expence was muth leifened,
becaufe the art was difcovered of making thefe plate*
thinner, and of laying them on with a fize.

Pliny aifures us, that the firft; gilding feen at Rome wai
after the deiiraftion of Carthage, under the cenforfliip of
Lucius Muramius, when they began to gild the ceilings of
their temples and palaces ; the Capitol being the firil place
on which this enrichment was bellowed. But he adds, that
luxury advanced on them fo haftily, tliat in a httle time you
might fee all, even private and poor perfons, gild the rery
walls, vaults, &c. of their houfes. " When we cover our
houfes with gold," fays Seneca, (Epiil. 115.) " Nvhat clfe
do we than rejoice in deception ? for we know, that coarfe
wood is concealed under that gold." We need not doubt
but that they had tlie fame method with us, of beating
gold, and reducing it into leaves ; though, it fliould feem,
they did not carry it to the fame height ; if it be true,
which Pliny relates, that they only made fcven hundred
and fifty leaves, four fingers fquare, of a whole ounce. In-
deed, he adds, that they could make more ; th.at the thickeft
were crJlcd hraclcx Prjne/Iine, en account of a (latuc of the
goddefs Fortune at Pra;nellc, gilt with fuch leaves; and
that thofe of the thinner fort were called braSte qusjiorie.

The modern gilders alfo make ufe of gold leaves of
divers thicknefles ; but there are fome fo fine, that 4
thoufand do not weigh above four or five drachms. The
thickeft leaves are ufed. for gilding on iron, and ether
metals ; and the thinneft on wood. But we have anotlier
advantage above the ancients, in the manner of ufing and
a])pl}-ing the gold : the fccret of painting in oil, difcovered
of late ages, furnifhes us with means of gilding works that
(hall endure all the injuries cf time and weather, which to
the ancients was imprafticable. They had no way to laj
the gold on bodies that would not endi:re the fire but with
whites of eggs, or lize ; neither of which will endure the
water : fo that they could only gild fuch places as were
llieltercd from the moillurc of the weather.

The Greeks called the compofition on which they «p.

plied their gildi-ig on wood, leucophxmn, or Icucofhcruv! 1

X i 2 wk.:h

GILDING.

whitli is dcfcribed as a fort of glutinous compoimd eavtli,
ferving, in all probability, to make the gold ilick, and bear
polilhing. But as to the particulars of this earth, its colour,
ingredients, &c. the antiquaries and naiuralills are not
agreed

There are fevcral methods of gilding in life among us :
viz. gilding on (in oily ft :f ; gilding an a •water fizc ; gilding
ly the Jiie, which is peculiar to metals ; gilding of booh,
(Sfc.

We may diftinguifli, in general, two kinds of gilding, one
■with, and the other without, t!ie application of heat. The
firll method is prattif^jd on tliofe fubftanccs, fucli as wood,
paper, leather, lilk, lacquered and japanned ware, &c.. which
would Iv.- injured, and even deftroyed at the temperature
reqmiite for the other fort of gilding, which is employed on
fubflanccs that are not liable to alteralion by expofure to a
moderate heat, fuch as metaL., and fonictimes gkds and
porcelain.

There are two methods of gilding on wood, viz. oil-
gilding, and burnilhed gilding

Gilding //.• oil, or an oilyft%e, is performed by cementing
the gold to the ground by means of fat oil. Linfeedoil may
be prepared for this jjurpofe, by putting fuch a quan ity of it
into abroad vefTel as may cover the bottom about an inch
deep, and adding to it as much water as will rife fi.K inches
or more above the bottom. Let the vefTel be expofed to
the fun and rain, and tlie contents be occafionally ftirred for
five or fix weeks, till the oil appear of the confillence of
treacle. Then feparate the oil from the water, and place
it in a long bottle, or feparating-funnel, ufed by the chemills,
in fuch heat as will render it pcrfeftly fluid ; pour off the
clear part, and drain the remainder tlirough a funnel, and
the whole will be fit for ufe. The water helps to clear and
bleach the oil, and improve it in other refpefts.

In order to prepare tlic wood for gilding, it mufh firil
be covered or primed with two or three coatings of boiled
linfeed oil and white lead, in order to fill up the pores, and
conceal the irregularities of the furface, occafior.ed by the
veins in the wood. If greater nicety and perfection in the
work be required, the wood (hould be iirll rubbed with
fifli-flvin, and then with Dutch ruthes.

When the priming is dry, the next operation is that of
iSzing the work, or laying upon it, by means of a brufli,
or a large pencil, a thin coat of gold fize ; care being taken
that the bruih or pencil be made to pafs into all the
cavities and projefting parts, if the fubjeft be carved.
This gold fize is prepared by grinding calcined red
ochre with a due proportion of the fat, or thickeft
drying oil that can be procured, (the older the better) ;
and this fize, in order to fit it for working more freely, is
to be mixed, prcvioufly to its being ufed, with a fmall
cuantity of oil of turpentine, till it acquires a proper cofi-
fiiience. Sometimes the work is fized with fat oil, and
the japanner's gold fize (fee Gold Si<e), ground alfo
with ochre. If a high degree of perfeftion be required, the
work fhould be fized a fecond time, and fome add a third
fizing, before the gold is laid on. In order to afcertain its
fitnefs for this purpofe, it is touched with the finger ; and
if it feelfomewhat adhefive or clammy, or, as the gilders call
it, " tacky/' but not fo as to be brought off by the finger,
it is in a fit ilate for gilding. But if it be fo clammy as to
daub, or come off on being touched, it is not fufficiently
dry ; or, if it has no clamminefs or flicking quality, it is too
dry, and muft; be fized over again before it is gih. When
the gold fize is good, it will be fufficiently dry in about
twelve hours for the application of the gold. In this

procefs, when tlio furface is fufllciently large and plain to
contain them, the gold leaves may be laid on entire, cither
bv means of a fquirrel's tail, or immediately from the paper
which originally contained them, which kill method, prac-
tifed by thofe who have acquired the neceffary dexterity, is
tlie fimplell and moil expeditious, as well as the beft, for the
perfedtion of the work. The leaves, being kiid on the
jiroper parts of the work, muft be fettled to the ground,
tjy gently comprefiing thofe, which feem to want it, with
the fquirrel's tail on a cotron ball ; and if any part of the
gold iias flown off, or has been difplaced, fo as to leave any
fpot uncovered, a piece of another leaf, of a correfponding
fize and figure, muft be laid upon it. When the parts ars
too fmall to admit of laying on whole loaves, or when
vacancies are left, after laying on whole leavts, which re-
c|uire to be covered with the flips or fragmf nts of leaves,
thofe that are to be ufed are turned from the paper ujjon a
culhion. (See Gilding Ciijhion and Cosiiiox) They
are then cut into flips, of a proper fi/.e, by a blunt pallet-
knife (fee Gilding Knife) ; and each flip is taken up on
the point of a fine brufh, or by an inllrumcnt called the
"tip," (fee Gilding Tip,) which, being moiftened by
breathing upon it, will take up the leaves, or any frag-
ments of thciii from the cufhion. When thefe are thus
applied to the parts of the work that were to be covered,
they are gently prefled down by the cotton bail, till they lie
every where evenly upon the ground ; and tlie gold will
immediately adhere to the fticky furface of the fize. Where
the work is very hollow, and fmall pieces are wanted to
cover parts that lie deep, they may be taken up, by the tip
already mentioned, or the peint of a fitch pencil, firft
breathed upon, and thus convtyed to, and fettled in, their
proper places. The whole of the work, being thus covei-ed,
ihould be fuffered to remain till it be dry, and it may then
be brufhcd over by a camel's hair pencil, or fott hog's hair
brufli, in order to clear away any loofe particles of the gold
leaf. If, after brufliing, any defeftive parts appear, fuch
parts muft be again fized ; and treated as before. The
fquirrel's tail ufed in gilding is cut fliort, and fometimes
fpread in the fan-fafhion, by means of a piece of wood
formed like a pencil-flick, but broad at both ends, and fplit
to receive the tail ; but it will equally ferve in its own form,
when the hair is cut to a proper length. The cotton fliould
alfo be formed into a ball, by tying it up in a ]):ece of fine
linen rag ; for if it be ufed without the rag, the fibres adhere
to the gold fize, and cmbarrafs the work.

This fort of gilding is chiefly ufed for domes, and the
roofs of churches, courts, banqueting-houfes, &c. and for
figures of plailer, lead, &c. that are to fland expofed to the
weather.

This oil-gilding is the moft fimple and eafy, leaft expenfive,
and moft durable, as it will not be readily injured when ex-
pofed to the open air ; and it may be alfo cleaned with a
little warm water and a foft brufh ; but, as it cannot be
burniflied, it wants the high luftre which is produced by the
method we lliall next defcribe.

Gilding, Bumi/hed, or in Dflemper, or on Walcr-Jtic, is
that kind of gilding which is generally ufed for pifture
frames, mouldings, ftucco, and luch wooden works as are
iheltered from the weather, and not fubjcft to dampnefs.
In order to prepare tlie wood for this fort of gilding, thofe
Darts that admit of it fliould be firif well rubbed with fifh-
ikin, and then with Dutch ruihes. It fhould then be care-
fully covered with fti-ong fize, made of (hreds, &c. of white
loalher, fuch as that ufed by glovers, or clippings of parch-
ment boiled in water, in the proportion of about a pound of

tke

GILDING.

the flireds or clippings, to fix qiiarls of water, to the con-
fiftence of a jelly, and then llraincd through flannel wliile
hot. Wlu-n this coating is dry, eight or ton more mull be
applied, conlilling of the fame fize, mixed with fm^- plaller
of Paris, or walhed chalk, or powdered whiting ; which
mixture mud be made by melting the fize, aad llrewing
the whiting, &c. gradually into it, (lirring them well toge-
ther, that they may be thoroughly incorporated. Tliis is
laid on with a ftift brufli, and oftencr or fcldomer repeated,
according to the nature of the work; for pieces of fculp-
ture, fevcn or eight layers fuffice : for flat, or fmooth works,
they ufe ten or twelve. In the latter cafe they are applied
by drawing the brufli or pencil over the work : in the
former, by dabbing it fmartly on, that the fize may enter all
the dents of the carving.

After the laft coal is laid on, and before it be quite dry,
a brulli pencil, dipped in water, fliould be pafTed over the
whole, to fmooth it, and take away anv inequalities that
may have been formed ; and when it is dry, the parts that
admit of it ftiould be again brufhed over till they arc per-
fectly even. The work fnould then be repaired, by freeing
all the cavities from the priming : after which a water polifli
ihould be given to the parts defign&d to be burnidied, by
rubbing them gently with a fine linen rag moillened with
water.

When the whole work is become qi'.ite dry, a moderately
thick layer mull be applied, compofed of Jize and bole, or
yellow ochre. DofTie, in the Handmaid to the Arts, gives
the following recipe for the fimpleft compofitions, ufed as
the proper cement or gilding fize in this kind of gilding :
" I'ake any quantity of bole armeniac, and add fome
water to it, that it may foak till it grow foft. Levigate it
then on the ftone, but not with more water than will pre-
vent its being of a ftiff confidence, and add to it a little
purified fuet or tallow fcraped ; and grind them together.
When this is wanted for ufe, dilute it to the confiilence of
cream, by parchment or glovers' fize, mixed with double
its quantity of water, and made warm. Some melt the fuet
or tallow, and mix it previoufly with five or fix times its
weight of chalk before it is put to the bole, to facilitate their
commixture, to which in this wet Hate they are fomewhat
repugnant. It is alfo fometimes praftifed to put foap fuds
to the bole ; which will contribute to its uniting with the
tallow." (See Gold Size.) Let this comp»fition be
diluted with warm fize mixed with two-thirds of water, and
let it be fpread with a brufii over the whole of the work, and
then fuffered to dry ; and then let the fame mixture be ap-
plied in the fame manner, at leaft once more. After the lall;
coat, it Ihould be rubbed in the parts to be burnifhed with a
foft cloth, till it be perfeftly even. Some add a little ver-
milion to the gilding fize, and others colour the work, if
carved, before it be laid on, with yellow and the glovers'
fiza ; to which a little vermilion, or red lead, Ihould be added.
This latl method is defigned to give the appearance of gilding
to the deeper and obfcure parts of the carving, where the
gold cannot, or is not thought neceflary to be laid on. But
this praflice is much dlfufed ; and inltead of it fuch parts of
the wor.k are coloured after gilding ; wliich opei'ation is
called " Matting."

The work being thus prepared fliould be fet in a pofition
fomewhat declining from the operator ; who, having at hand
a cup of clean water, and fome hair pencils, moiitens a part
of the work, and then applies the gold leaf to the part fo
moiilened in the manner already directed under the article
Oi/-GlLDlNG, till it be completely covered, or till it be
too dry to take the gold. This will immediately adhere on
being prefled with the cotton ball. The operator proceeds

to moiften the next part of the work, and apply the gold as
before, repeating the operation till the whole is completed.
If, in examining the work, any parts fhould appear to need
being repaired, they (hould be moillened as befoic, and"
covered with the gold ; but care (hould he taken that no
part be miffed in the firll operation, as it is not fo eafily
mended as in oil-gilding : nor (liould any drops of water be
fuffered to fall on the pcrfeft part of the gilding, as the "o\i
is very apt to turn black in this flatc. T!ie work being
thus far gilt, when dry, and fit for the purpofe, which it
will ufually be in about twenty-four hours, remains, cither
to be burniflied, or matted.

The proper period for this purpofe can onlv be afcer-
tained by experience, and varies at different feafons. The
mode of dillingnifliing the fitnefs of the work to take tho
burnifii, is to try two or three particular parts at a diftance
from each other ; and if tiiefe take tlie polidi well, the whole
may be concluded to be in a fit Hate. But if tl:e gold peel
off, or be difordered by the rubbing, the work muft be
deemed not fufficicntly dry ; and if the gold bear the rub-
bing well, and yet receives the polifh (lowly, it is a proof
of its being too dry, which (hould be prevented by watching
the proper time. For the work, when too drv, both re-
quires much more labour to burnifh it, and fails at lall of
taking fo fins a poli(h.

To burni(h it, is to fmooth and polini it with a burnifher,
which is ufually a dog's or wolf's tooth, or a blood-ftonc,
an agate, or a pebble, or fomcthing elfe very fmooth, fitted
iri a handle for that purpofe.

To mat, is to give it a light lick in the places not bur-
niflied, with a pencil dipped in fize, wliercin a little ver-
milion fometimes has been mixed. This helps to preferve
it, and prevent its flawing, when handled. Or, it is to cover
the liollow parts with a colour the ncareft in appearance to
gold.

Some recommend for this purpofe red lead, with a little
vermilion ground with the white of an egg ; but yellow
ochre, or Dutch pink, wath red lead, would better anfwcr
tlie end ; or the terra eli Siemiii, very flightly burnt, or mixed
with a little red lead, would have a much better effecl, and
be more durable than any other mixture fo near the colour
of gold in (liade. Ifinglafs fize will likcwife fupply the
place of the whites of eggs. Tliis operation of matting
fuperfedcs the necelfity of yellowing, which is intended to
give the appearance of gilding to the deeper and obfcure
parts of the carving where tlie gold cannot, nor is tliought
neceffary to bo laid on.

The laft thing is to apply a vermeil, or lacquei", in all the
little lines and cavities; and to (fop and amend any little
faults witli (hell-gold.

The compolition liere called lermiil, is made of gum
gutta, vermilion, and a little of fome ruddy brown colour,
ground together with Venice varnifli and oil of turpentine
Some gilders, in heu of this, content theiufclves witli line
lacca, or dragon's-blood, witli gum-water.

Sometimes, inftead of burnifliing the gold, they bumi/h
the ground or compofition laid on lall before it ; aucT con-
tent themfelves afterwards to wafli the part over witli lize.
This method is chiefly praAifed for the hands, face, and
other nudities in relievo; which, bv this means, do not ap-
pear fo very brilliant as the parts burnilhed ; though much
moi-e fo than the parts perfeclly flat, or matted.

To gild a work, and yet preferve white grounds,
they apply a lavcr of Spanifh white mixed with
a weak fi(li-glue, on all the parts of the ground where-
on the yellow, or the layer next under the gold, migiit

XT.n.

GlUilSG,

GILDING.

Gil.DiKO!, Jiipanncrs, is pcrformcil T)y means of gold pow-
der, or imitalions of it, comcnicJ to tlic frround by a kind
of gold fize : for tin* nu-'hod of preparing wliicli, ft'c Gold-
_y(2c. This kind of gildino; may be praftifcd on alinoll any
fubftance whatever, v. h.-llier wood, mt-tal, leather, or paper ;
nor is there any preparatiort neceffary, befides making the
furface on which tlie fi/.e is to be Lid, even, and periedly
clean. Then fprcad the jiipanner's lize, mixed with a due
proportion of oil of turpentine and vcnr.ilion, with a brufli
over the v.ork, if the w!-.ole furface is to be gilt ; or draw
«lth it, by means of a pencil, the proper figure dcfired,
avoiding carefully any other parts ; v.hen it is ahnoil dry, fo
as to be capable, by its clamniinefs, cf receiving the gold,
dip a piece ot wafs-leather wrapped round the Hnger in the
pold powder, dcfcribed under SheH-GoLD, and rub it
lightly over the fized work ; or fpread the powder with a
foft camel's hair pencil ; and with a camel's hair brufli clear
jivN-ay the loofe powder, after the gilded furface is dry.
When leaf gold is ufed, the method of fizing muR be
the fame as tor the powders ; but great care is necefiary
in la)'ing them on, while the fize is in a proper ftate of dry-
Eefs.

There is zfii/fe ilrid of gilding, in v.hich a colour of gold
k given by painting and varniflies, without employing gold.
Thus a very fine golden colour is given to brafs and to fil-
ver, by applying on thefe metals a gold coloured varnifli,
which, being tranfparent, (liews all the brilliancy of the
metals underneath. Many ornaments of brafs are varnifhcd
in this manner, which is called ^joW /itryum;/^, to diilinguilh
them from thofe that are really gilt. Silver leaves, thus
varnifhed, are put upon leatiier, which is then called gilt lea-
ther ; and many pitlure-frames have no other than this coun-
terfeit gilding, which may be difcovered by wafhing it with
a little rectified Iririt of uine ; for the fpirit will diiTolve tlie
varnifh, and leave the filvc:' Laf of its own whitenefs. For
plain pifture tramei, thick tin-foil may be ufed inilcad of fil-
rer ; the tin leaf fixed on with glue is to be burniflied, then
poliflied with emery and a fine linen cloth, and afterwards
with putty applied in the fame manner ; being then lacqueicd
over with the varnifli five or fix times, it looks like burnifli-
ed gold. (See Lacquering ) Among the falfe gildings
may alio be reckoned thofe which are made with thin leaves of
copper or brafs, called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made
all the kinds of what is called gilt paper. See Gilding of
Paper.

GiLDiXG of Boots. There are various methods, with re-
fpedl to the cement ufed, by which the edges of books or
paper m.aybegilt. Strong gum-water or ifinglafs fize, or
glover's-fize may be employed ; but as the guin-water, and
weaker fizes are apt to run beyond the edge, and thus caufe
the leaves to flick together, ifinglafs, melted v.itli the addi-
tion of fome common proof fpirit of wine, and a fixth part
of honey or fugar-candv is much to be preferred ; to which
mud be added a third of bole armeniac well powdered.

The foil jwing compofition may be ufed for this puruofe :
Take bole armeniac, and fugar-canJy well powdered ; mix
them with the whites of eggs, beaten to an oily confidence ;
and the cement will be fit for ufe. In applying any of thefe
cements, the paper, in quires or in books, Ihould be well cut
and poliflieioii the edges to be gilt ; and well fcrewed down
by a prefs ; in this ftate it is to be bruflied over, firfl; with a
little of the cement without the fugar-candy or the bole ;
and when that is dry, cither wiih the cement above given,
or any other fohitionof gum or fize with the proper proportion
of the bole ; after which it may be fuffered to dry ; and then
water -polilhed, by rubbing it with a fine hnen rag flighlly
jBoiftened. It is then fit for receiving the gold, provided

it be moiftened at tliat time ; and the leaves may be tlie»
laid on, being cut according to tlie breadth which they are
to cover, and preflcd clofely down by a cotton ball; and
af;er the gilding is thoroughly dry and firm, it may be po-
liflied. See Booic-iin///n^, and Gilding o/" Prt/fr.

Gn.mso on china-iviire. The gold is very much vahied
on c!iina-ware, and would be much more io, were it not that
it is very hable to lofe its luftre, and to rub oft". The Chi-
nefe have at prefent a method of preventing both thefe acci-
dents, in a great meafure, by means of a fort of pclifl-.ing,
which they give it after it is laid on. They prepare for this
purpofe a fine piece of agate, which they polifli on one fur-
face in as perfect a manner as pofiible. With this they rub
over the gold, as it lies on the porcelain, feveral times, when
it firfl comes from the baking. This gives the gold a luftre
which it would not otherwife have, and fixes it down to the
ware in fuch a manner, that it cannot eafily be got ofT. The
principal mifchief to which gold thas l?id on is fubjeft, is
the tarnifliing, or growing dull ; this is remedied by the
fame fort of means. They wet the velTel, upon which thej
would revive the luftre of the gold, in common clean v.'ater ;
and while it is wet, they rub it with the fame poliilicd agate,
adding a little fair water at times to keep it moifh If the
gold has not been well laid on at firfl, this may pofiibly raife
it or take it off in fome places; but if it was originally put
on with the help of tliis flone, as all the gold on porcclaiu
now is, the rubbing it with it a fecond time never gives it
any fcratches, but recovers its pridine luftre and -beauty.
It muft be obfervcd, that the rubbing with this flone mull
be all done one way, both in the firlt laying on the gold,
and in the brightening of it up afterwards. This may lerve
as a method for us as well as the Chinefe, not only to re-
cover the beauty of our tarniflied gilt china-ware, but alfo
to lay gold upon fome of our home manufaftures of this
kind. Obferv. fur les Coutumes de I'Afie. See Porce-
lain.

GiLDl-XG on enamel and ghfs, is perform.ed by burning or
annealing, i. e. by producing a cohefion of the gold with
the glafs or enamel, by the intermediation of a flux, or by
producing the like effett without any. In both thefe me-
thods, the gold is made to adhere to the enamel or glafs»
in coiifcquence of the fufion or approach to that ftate, either
of the flux ufed, or of the body of the enamel or glafs it-
felf, by which the gold is cemented to fuch body. The flux,
when any is ufed, ir'^.y be either fimple glafs of borax, or
any of the preparations of fluxes powdered (fee Flux);
and the gold is ufed, cither in the form of leaf gold, or in
that of powder made mechanically, or by precipitation,
(See Gold poiui/cr. J When leaf geld is employed without
any flux, the enamel or glafs may be moiflened with a very
weak folution of gum arabic, and again dried. After being
thus prepared, it ihould be breathed upon till it becomes a
little adhefive or fticky, and then laid upon a fufficient num-
ber of leaves of gold ; when the gold is thus united to the
enamel or glafs by the cementing quuhty of the gum arabic,
the work is ready for burning. If a flux be ufed, it fliould
be finely levigattd, tempered with a very weak folution of
gum arabic, and very thinly fpread on the part of the work
to be gilded: and when the gum water is ahr.oft dry, the
leaf geld fhou!d be laid on that part thus prepared for it,
which is then in a ftate proper for burning. In the prefent
practice, the aurum fulm'mans, or precipitation of gold by-
alkaline falts, is made by thefe who gild glafs in the greatelt
perfedlion; and the volatile alkali is e;nploycd for the pre-
cipitation by the cheir.ift, who prepares it for this purpofe.
But when this kind of precipitate is chofen, the ufe of any
flux mull be avoided, and a very confiderable degree cf

heat

GILDING.

heat applied. The manner of ufing tlie precipitate powders
of gold, the aiirum fiilm'iniins excepted, as well as ttie leaf
gold, may be varied, by adding to it or omitting- any flux ;
but in what way foever the powder is iifed, it is to be tem-
pered with the oil of fpike, and wcrkcd as the enamel
colours; and the quan ity of flux, when any is ufed, may
he a third of the weight of the gold. In cafes where the
glafs is very hard, or where the opportunity of a ftrong heat
cannot be conveniently obtained, the expedient of ining a
flux in the following manner may be adopted with great
advantage. Grind gl sfi of borax to a ihie powder; and
having tempered it with oil of fpike, lay it on the f^-lafs
where the gliding is to be made; then burn the glafs with a
degree of heat, that will caufe the borax to run ; ar.d when
it is cold, apply the precipitate or leaf gold, and burn it
again, as in other cafes. After the work is burnt, if it be
intended to be barnifhed, a proper luftre may be given to
it, by rubbing the gilded part v>ith a dog's tooth, or with
a fine agate, or iron burnifiiers. Handmaid to t!;c Arts,
vol. i p. 374, &c. See Ruby Glass.

Gold m-ay be laid upon white earthen-ware or glafs, bv
drawing yourdefign, upon the veffel to begilt, with japanners'
gold fize, moillening the fize, as you find nccelTary, with
oil of turpentine. Set the work in a clean place to dry for
about an hour, and then pi_ce it fo near the Ihe that you
could but juil bear the heat of it with your hand for a few
feconds. Let it remain there till it feels quite tacky or
clammy: then, having procured a cufliion and fome leaf-gold,
cut it into flips of the proper fize, and lay it on with a
little cotton-wool. When tlie gold is all on, put the v.ork
Lito an oven to be baked for two or three hours.

Drinking glaffes, with gilt edges, have been much ad-
mired in this countrj' ; the belt of thefe are brought from
Germany: thofe that are made in England, though equal
in beauty to the foreign, being greatly inferior in the dura-
bility of the gildingr. Dr. Lewis made feveral experiments
with a view of difcovering this art ; from which he con-
cludes, that the gold is cemented to them by means of an in-
tervening matter, which will adhere to glafs fo as not eafily
to be rubbed off. He tried maftich, and other reiinous
bodies rubbed warm on the glafs, and feveral fpirituous var-
nifhes : but none of thefe were found to adhere fulTicientlv to
the glafs. He recommends to the trial of the artifts in this
Vv'ay the harder oil varnifhes: and glaffes have been Since pre-
pared in England, probably on the principles which he has
pointed out, with as durable gilding as thofe brought from
Bohemia and Thuringia.

M Zeigler, in a German tranflation of the " Commercium
Philofophico-Technicum,'' defcribcs a varnilh for this pur-
pofe, with the method of ufi-.ig it, which appeared from his
experiments to be the bcft. This varnifli is prepared by
boihng fine tranfparent amber, reduced to powder, in a
brafs veiTel, to the cover of which a valve is fitted, with as
much drying oil as will juft cover" it; and by diluting the
above folution with four or five times its quantity of oil of
turpentine. This varnifh may be made to dry fooner, and
acquii-es greater firmnefs by grinding it wlt'i a little wliite
lead, or rather v.ith a mixture of white lead and minium.
It is to be applied very thin on the glafs, and the gold leaf
laid hghtly on the varnifhed part ; when the varnifh is tho-
roughly hardened, the gold may be burnifhed, by laying a
piece of fmoolh paper between the tooth or Ikcl buruifher,
and the gold. This gilding, M. Zeigler obferves, is dura-
ble, and of a fine luflre. Com. Phil. Techn. p. 65, and
614.

GiLDJNG off^ures and lett.rs on paper, and for the embcl-
Jifhment of matjufcripts, is perfornr^d with fliell-gold, tem-

pered with gtim-watcr; or the cTiaraflers may be drawp
with a milky folution of gnm-ammoniacum made in water,
and gold-leaf app'i, d upon them wh.en alinoft drv, or if all
or any part of them is become quite dry, they may be again
fufliciently moiflcncd for receiving the gold by breathin'" on
them. L'tters 1 ailed from the fuface of paper or parch-
ment, in the manner of embofFed work, inch as are feen on
ancient manufcripts, may be formed either by friction on a
proper body with a folid piece of gold, or by leaf gold.
The former method is pradifed by tempering pulverized
cryilal with flrong gum-water, and with this pallc forming
the letters ; when they are dry, they are rubbed with a piece
of folid gold, as in polifliing, and the letters will appear as
it gilt w;;h burnifiied geld. The letters are form.cd with ao
embofTed figure, cither of the feparate letters, or of whole
words, cut in flecl; and eacli letter of thefe flanips, when
they are ufed, is anointed evenly with a feather dipped in
oil. Then fi'l thefe concave letters with the above paile, and
flrike the Hamps in a pcrpendicidar dlreftion on the paper or
vellum, laid over fome flieets of paper.

When the einbolTcd letters are formed with leaf gold, the
following, or a fin-.ilar compolition mull be ufed. Thicken
beaten whites of eggs with as much vermilion as is neceffary
to give them the confillence ofpafte; ufe the flamps as be-
fore; and when the letters are dry, moiilen them by a fmall
pencil with flrong gum-water: and v.'hcn this is almoll dr^',
cover the letters with leaf gold, preffing it clofe to every
part of them with cotton or foft leather; after the gilding is
dry, polilh it with proper burnifhers. Com. Phil. Techn.
p. 64 and Handmaid to the Arts, p 450, &c.

Gilding of Iroe-fJIo, as craw-fiih, carps, &c. may be per-
formed without injuring the fidi, by means of a ccirent;
wliich Mr Hooke, in his pollhumojs papers, dire£ts to be
prepared in the following manner : Put fome Burgundy pitch
into a new earthen pot, and warm the veffel till it receives
fo much of tlie pitch as will flick round it; then llrew fon-e
finely powdered amber over the pitch when growing cold ;
add a mixture of three pounds of linfced oil, and one of oil
of turpentine: cover the veffel, and bvjil the contained in-
gredients over a gentle fire; grind the mixture as it is want-
ed, with fo much pumice-flone in fine powder as will reduce
it to the confillence of paint. When the filh has been wiped
dry, this mixture is fpread upon it, and the gold leaf laid
over it, and gently preffed down ; after which, the filh may-
be immediately put into water, and the cement will harden,
and be in no danger of falhng off.

GiiDixG on hatha: See Lacqvkrtxg.
Gilding ef nuials may be done by cleaning the furface
of the metal, and apjilying gold leaves to it, which, by
means of rubbing with a polilhed blood-llone, and a certain
degree of heat, are made to adhere perfectly v.-eil. In this
manner filver leaf is fixed and burnifhed upon brafs, in mak-
ing French plate ; and fometimes alfo gold leaf is Ijurnilhed
upon copper and upon iron. For this purpofe, the metal,
being previoufiv polilhed and quite clean, is heattd to about
the temperature cf melted lead, and covered with a double
layer of gold leaf; then a blood-flone burnifhor, apphed
gently at iiril, and gradually increafing the pnffure, «-iIl
caufe the furfaces of gold and copper to touch each otlier in
almofl every point, and then adhere with a force provortion-
ed to the completenefs of the contact. The firil layer being
thus bornilhed, a fecondis made to adhere in the fame man-
ner, and fometimes a third, if the gilding is intended to be
very folid. This method of gilding is tedious, and is fubjecl
to the alniofl impollibility of ufing a fuffieicnt prcffure with-
out injuring the cvennefs of tlic gilded furface. In tafei
where thefe objedions do not apply, there cannot be 3 more
J ' riled ual

GILDING.

GiLDiXG on Wood. See the three fiift articles in Gild-
ing.

(JiLDiNG on Mcicils ly ihe Fire. There are two ways of
jfikliiig by lire ; -viz. that with liquid gold, and that with
leaf gold. For the latter, fee Gilding of Metals, fupra.

The former, technically called " water-gilding,"' is pcr-

efFcftual iv.cde of gildir, j, as we perceive in the manufaiflure
of gilt filver and copper wire. The bar, before it is comn-.it-
ted to th.e wire-drawer, is plated with gold, by having fevcral
leaves of gold fucceiTively burniflicd dow ii upon it, and be-
ing then fubjccted to the llrong comprefTion lliat takes place
in wire-drawing, the gold and the other metal become fo

perfectly united, as to form, in a manner, one fubftance. See formed with gold amalgamated with mercury, in the pro
Gold IVlre.

Some metals, and particularly filver, may be gilt in the
following manner : dip pieces of linen in thefolution of gold
by aijuaVegia, and then burn them to aflics ; rub thefe adies
on the furfacc of the fdver, well cleanfed from any undtuous
matter, with a wet linen rag, dipped in fait water, and the
particles of gold contained in them will thu? be -■:;)plied to
the iilver, and adhere to it, v.ithout the apphcation of heat,
or intervention of any other body. Burniih the filver with
a blood-ftone, till it acquires the colour of gold. Mod gilt
ornaments on fans, fnuft-boxes, and other toys of much flievv
and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in this manner.
Beclcmann (Hift. of Inventions, vol. i ) fuggells, that this

portion of about fix or eight parts of mercury to one of
gold.

In order to tliis operation, they heat fome pure quickfil-
ver in a clean crucible, and, wlieu it is nearly boiling, put
about a fixth of its weight of fine gold in thin plates heated
red-hot, and ftir ihem gently about, till the gold be found
melted and incorporated into a rnafs with the mercury. It
if- then allowed to cool ; and when cold, it is to be put in a
piece of foft leather ; and by j;radual prefTure, the fluid part
of the amalgam, confifting alinoll wholly of mercury, may-
be forced through the pores of the leather, while the gold,
combined with about twice its weight of mercury, will re-
main behind, forming a yellowifli filvery mafs, of the con-
jnethod of gilding, fometimes called dry. and fometimes cold fiftence of foft butter. This, after having been bruifcd in a
o-ilding, is a German invention ; and that foreigners, at leatl mortar, or {haken in a ftrong phial with repeated portions of
the Englifli, were firft made acquainted with it about the end fait and water, till the water ccafes to be fouled by it, is fit
of the I 'jth century ; for Robert Southwell defcribes it in the for ufe, and may be kept for any length of time, without in-
Pliil. Tranf. for 1698, and fays, that it was known to very jury, in a corked phial. It is of indifpenfible importance
few goldfmiths in Germany. See Gilding cf Melals by that the materials of this amalgam fliould be perfeftly pure;
the fire. and therefore, the mercury- employed in the preparation of it

Gilding on paper, parehmenl, and vellum. Thei-e are va*' fliould be procured from the diftillation of the red precipitate
rious methods uled for this purpofe, according to the feveral (nitrous red oxyd of mercury), either alone, or mixed with
ends which the gilding is defigned to anfwer. But for the a little charcoal po^vder,

jnoll part, fize, properly fo called, and gum-water, are ufed
as the cements, and the powders are more generally employ-
See the three firft articles in GiLD-

ed than the leaf gold

The gilding proper to be ufed with water-colours may be
either with the leaf-gold or powder ; the leaf-gold may be
laid on the defigned ground by means either of gum-water,
or ifinglafs fize ; obierving, that the gum-water or fize be
of the weaker kind, and laid fparingly on the ground, and
that proper time be allowed for it to be dry ; and then the gold

When filver is the metal to be gilt, it is prepared for the
operation by foaking it in warm dilute muriatic acid, fo that
the furface may be rendered perfeftly clean ; it is next walh-
ed in clean water, which (hould be two or three times chang-
ed, in order to free it from the whole of the acid ; and being
afterwards dried, and made moderately warm, a little gcjld-
amalgam, alto warm, is to be evenly fpread upon the iilver,
to which it will immediately adhere. In applying the am.al-
gam, the operator ufcs a little knife, or a brufli made of
brafs wire, for the purpofe ; and giving the work a gentle

is applied to it, as in the articles above recited ; and it may heat before the fire, he dabs or fpreads the amalgam with the

be polifhed, if neceflary, by the dog's tooth, or other kind
of burnifher. In gilding larger furfaces, it will be found
iifeful to colour the ground with the gall-ftone ; and when
colours are to be laid on the gilding, the gall of any beaft
brullied over the gold will adapt it for receiving the colours.
When the gold powders are ufed along with paintings in
water-colours, they are previoufly formed into fliell-gold.
The gilding proper for the coloured paper ufed in binding
books, and for other fuch purpofes, is performed much in
the fame manner : only that the gum-water and fize may be
much ftronger, and that they are generally conveyed to the
ground by means of a wooden plate or print, or by an en-
graved roller, which make an impreflioii of the intended
figure or defign. In this kind of gilding, the japanner's gold-
fize may be alfo commodioufly employed ; and this iTiould
be always ufed when the embofled appearance is wanted in
the greateft degree ; and for this purpofe it Ihould be thick-
ened with yellow ochre, mixed with as much red-lead as the
proper working of the print will admit. Inftead of the ge-
nuine leaf-gold, or gold powder, the German powder, form-
ed of the leaves called Dutch gold, is commonly ufed in this
iind of gilding. The edges of books or paper are gilt in
the manner direfted under the article BooK-linJin^ and
tjILDING of looks.

Gilding on Thread and IFire. See CoLo-thread, and

brufh farther and more evenly upon it.

Thus far advanced, the metal is fet over the fire, upon a
grate, or in a fort of cage, under which is a pan of char-
coal, yielding a heat juft luflicient for e\'aporating the mer-
cury ; by which means the mercury is raifed in fumes, and
leaves the gold alone adhering to the work ; in propor-
tion as the mercury, evaporating and flying ofF, difcovers
places where gold is wantiiig, they take care to fupply
them, by adding new pieces of amalgam with the knife or
brufli.

If a thicker gilding be required than can refult from fo
much of the amalgam as is applied at once, the metal, after
the firft quantity has left its gold fixed on the furface, has
more of the amalgam fpread upon it. After the evapora-
tion of the mercury from this, another quantity may be ap-
plied in the fame manner. When the mercury- is evaporated,
fo that the furface becomes uniformly of a pale yellow colour,
the metal is made to undergo other operations, by Avhich its
colour and luftie are heightened. For this purpofe, it is firft
rubbed with a fcratch brufli, compofed of fine brafs wire, till
its furface is made clean and fmooth, but the pale yellow
colour ftill remains ; then it is covered over with a compo-
fition called gilding wax, and again expofed to the fire till
the wax be burnt off" ; and this application is i-epeated till the
gold appears of a proper colour. This gilding wax is com-
pofed of bees' ivax; mixed with the following fubftanccs ;

5 ^''^

GILDING.

«/2.. re3 oclire, verdigris, ^eefi vitriol, or alum. Thus the
colour of the gilding is heightened by a perfeft diflTipation of
fome mercury remaining r.fter the foriner operation. The
gilt furface is then covered over with a faline conipofition,
confifting of equal quantities of nitre, fal ammoniac, green
vitriol, and verdigris, iincly powdered, and mixed up into a
pafte with water or urine ; or, this is iifcd inftead of the gilding
wax. The piece of metal thus covered is heated till the mix-
ture fmokes, and quenched in water cr urine. This cfietl
feems to be produced by the acid of nitre, which is difen-
gaged by the vitriolic acid of the alum, or other vitriolic
felt, during the expofure to heat, afting upon any particles
of copper which may happen to lie on the gilded furface.
If the colour of the gilding be not fufficieutly heightened
by the firll application, a fucceeding one will complete the
idefircd effeft. Some artills think they give an additional
luftre to their gilt work, by dipping it in a liquor prepared
by boiling fome yellow materials, as fulphur, orpiment, or
turmeric. The only advantage of this operation is, that
a part of the yellow matter remains in fome of the hol-
lows of the carved work, in i;!iich the gilding is apt to be
more imperfedl, and to which it gives a rich and folid ap-
pearance.

Copper, and the alloys formed by its combinations with
zinc, are gilded much in the fame manner as filvcr ; but their
affinity for mercury being confiderably lefs than that of fil-
*-er, it is not eafy to produce a complete aJhefion of the
amalgam of gold to the burnifhcd furface of thcfe metals
by the fame means, and with the fame evennefs as in the for-
mer cafe. Advantage is here taken of the nitric acid for
facilitating the adhelion of the copper and mercury in the
following manner. The piece of copper, e. g. a button, is
firll cleaned by fteeping it iu acid and fubfequent wafhing,
and it i« then burnifhed in a lathe, or by other means : after
this, it is dipped in a neutrahzed folution of nitrat of mer-
cury, and in a few feconds, on account of the flrong affinity
of nitric acid for copper, the mercurial fait is decompofed.
The copper takes the place of the mercury, and at tht;fame
time the mercury is dcpofited in the metallic Hate, on the
furface of the copper, covering it entirely, and ftrongly ad-
hering to it. The gold amalgam is now applied, and the reft
of the procefs is the fame with that which has been already
defcribed. Thus a given quantity of gold may be made to
•cover a larger furface than in any other way of gilding on
metals ; five grains of gold completely gilding both the up-
per and under turfaces of 144 copper buttons, each of them
an inch in diameter. (Phil. Mag. ix. 20.)

Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs it be previ-
oufly coated with copper, by dipping it in a folution of blue
vitriol, or rubbed with the vitriol itfelf a little moillened.
Iron may alfo receive a golden coat from a faturated folution
of gold in aqua regia, mixed with fpirit of wine ; becaufe the
iron, having a greater affinity for the acid, precipitates the
gold from it.

In thegilding of iron, or rather fteel, bv means of an amal-
gam, peculiar difficulties occur. If rceourlebe had to the me-
thod of fimple burnifhing down, tjie heat requifite for this pur-
pofe will, in many cafes, bring the temper ot ihe fteel too low ;
on fuch occafionsihe mode already defcribed of gilding copper
is fometiines praclifed : that is, the parts of tlie Heel to be gild-
ed are pencilled over with nitrat of mercury, by which they
are covered with a fiightly adhering coating of mercury ;
th.-n tlie amalgam is applied, and the gilding fmiflicd in the
■U ual way. The objccllonn to this procefs are, firft, that a
con iderable heal is required, though inferior to that requifite
fur burnilhing down ; and, fecondiv, that even with all pollible
f;>re, the giU^ng is apt to be rough and to fcale off. A very

V(^ xvx.

confiderable improvemMit on this mtthod is to Knc: ^' figvjr*
of the gilding on tiie fteel firft of all with a brufh charged
with a ilrong folution of fulphatcd copper, in confequcnce
of which a pretty thick plate of this metal is depofited on
the fteel to which it may be made to adhere with confiderable
firmnefs by means of llie burnidier ; thus the gilding is, in
part, performed upon the copper.

A new method of gold gilding upon fteel has lately been
publiflied (fee Phil Mar. xi. p. 144), podeffing many ad-
vantages over the others, and capable of ultimately attaining
a very high degree of perfection. This method depends upon
the well-known faft, that if fulphuric etlier and nitro-miiriat
of gold are mixed together, the ether will, by degrees, fepa-
rate from the acid nearly the whole of the gold, and retain
it for fome time in folution in nearly a metallic ftate. If
ether, thus charged with gold, is fpread, by meant of a pen or
fine brufli, on the furface of highly poliffied fteel, the ether
prefently evaporates, leaving the gold behind in clofc contaft
with the fteel, and the adhelion is confiderably improved by
the fubfequent application of the burniflicr. The dearnefs, and
efpecially the rapid volatility of ether, are objeiElions of fome
moment, but may be got over by ufing tiiebeft oil of turpen-
tine inftead of the ether, which has nearly the fame efficacy
in decompofing the nitro-muriat of gold, and is both cheaper,
and not fo very quickly evaporable.

On the fubject of gilding by amalgamatia^i. Dr. Lewis hai
the following remarks : " There are two principal inconveni-
encies in this bufinefs ; one, that the workmen are expofed to
the fumes of the mercury, and generally, fooner or later, have
their health greatly impaired by them ; tl>e other, the lofs of
the mercury ; for though part of it is faid to be detained in
the cavities made in the cliimnies for that purpofe, yet the
greateftpart of it is loft. From fome trials I lia%'e made,
it appeared that both thefe inconveniencies, particularly the
firft and nioft confiderable one, might be in a good meafure
avoided, by means of afurnr.ce of a due conftruftion."

If tlie communication of a furnace with its chimney, in-
ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate, the
alh-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate, clofed,
and tlie mouth of the furnace left open, the current of air,
which otherwife would have entered beneath, enters now at
the top, and paffing down tl-.roHgh the grate to the chimney,
carries with it completely both the vapour of the fuel, and
the fumes of fuch matters as are placed upon it. The back
part of the furnace ftiould be raifcd a little higher above the
fire than the fore-part, and an iron plate laid over it, that
the air may enter onlv at the front, where the workman
ftands, who will be thus efieclually fecured from the fumes,
and from being incommoded by the heat, and at the fame time
have full liberty of introducing, infpedting, and removing
the work.

If fuch a furnace is made of ftrong forged (not milled)
iron plate, it will be fufficiently durable. The upper end of
the chimney may reach above a foot and a half higher than
the level of the fire ; over this is to be placed a larger tube,
leaving an interval of an inch, or more, all round between it
and tlie chimney, and reaching to the height of ten or twelve
feet ; the higher the better. The external air, paffing uj»
between the chimney and the outer pipe, prevents the latter
fiom being much heated, fo that the mercurial fumes will
condenfe againft its iides into running quickfilver, wliich fall-
ing down to the boLtom, is there catched in a hollow rim,
formed by turniisg inwards a portion of the lower part, and
conveyed by a pipe at one fide into a projier receiver.

Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding upon

metals, and aHb upon earthen-ware and glafs ; which is, to

f ufc gold with regulus of antimony, to pulverize tliis maft,

JiL k and

G I L

G I L

nd fpi\-ail the powder lipon ihc piece to he gilt ; afterwards
to cxpofc it to luch a fire thnt the regulus may be evaporated
vhile the gold remains fixed. But Dr. Lewis mentions the
following inconvciiiencies to which this method is fiibjcdl :
the powdor docs not adhere to the piece, and cannot be
equally fpread ; jiart of the gold is ditfipatcd along with the
rcgulns ; glafs is fnllble witli the heat neccfl'ary for the evapo-
ration of regains of antimony ; and copper is liable to be
cornnled by the regnhis, and to have its lurface rendered un-
even. Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. p. 77, &c. p. 81. 88.
and ic8. Macquer's Dift. Chcm. Eng. edit. 1777; and
Aikin's Dift. of Chcmiilry, art. Gilding.

GlLniNG Cn/hioti, is formed by a few folds of flannel, or a
quantity of tow or wool, fccured on a piece of wood of any
li'/e from eight to fourteen inehes fquare by a light- covering
of leather, and fallened tiglit round the edges. The furtace
lliould be pcrfedly flat and even, and it is ufually furniflied
nith a handle. See CusHlox.

Gilding Kii':f\-, a flip of the hollow Spanifli cane, cut up
to a fniooth and (liarp edge, with a good penknife : this cane
knife cuts the g(-ld leaf betti r than one of ftecl, as it is apt
to ilick to this la!l. 'I'his knife may in all refpefts be the
fame as thofe ufed in painting, called " pallet knives ;" the
blade of which may be four or fix inches long, and fomewhat
more than half an inch in breadth, with a proportionable
handle. •

Gilding Pallet, a flat piece of wood, about three inches
long, and an inch broad, covered with a piece of fine woollen
cloth.

By breathing upon tlus pallet, to moiften the cloth a little,
and then claj-)ping it gently down upon the gold leaf, this
may be raifod from the cufiiion, and conveyed to the work to
be gilded.

Gilding 7V/), a tool made by faftening the long hairs of a
fquirrels tail between two cards, and ufed for taking up the
gold leaf after it is cut, and applying it to the arti.le to be
gilded.

Gilding Wax. See Gildixg of Mdah.
GILDO, in Bio^vaph^, a powerful lord in Mauritania,
ferved the emperor Theodofius, in his brother's revolt in 37^,
with fo much fidelity, that he was raifed to the chief coin-
wand in Africa. During the reigns of Arcadius and Ho-
norius he maintained a kind of independence, and ruled, at
his pleafure, the provinces under his command, which he
opprefled by every fpecies of tyranny In the diflenfions be-
tween the eailern and weftern empires, he was perluaded by
the minillcr Eutropius to acknowledge Arcadius : for
this he was condemned as a public enemy by the Roman
feiiate. About the fame time a deadly quarrel had arilen be-
tween Gildo and his younger brother Mafcezel, in which the
latter had taken refuge in the court of Honorius. Gildo,
with a brutality that can never be fufnciently execrated,
fatiated his diiappointed vengeance upon tlie two children of
his brother, whom he barbaroufiy murdered. !Mafcezel, an-
xious for revenge, landed a body of troops in Africa, and
encamped in the face of a numerous army of Moors collefted
by Gildo. Thefe, intimidated by the fuperior difcipline of
tiie Europeans, fled almoft; without a blow. Gildo efcaped
to the fea-fliore, where he embarked for a foreign country,
but, being driven back by adverfe winds, he was feized by tLe
inhabitants and thrown into a dungeon. There a voluntary
death favtd him irom the cruel fate, which his confcience
told him he niiglit expedl from his injured brother. The
revolt ol Gildo, fays the hifl.orian, was confidered as an event
of fo much importance to the empire, that the poet Claudian
made the " Giidonic war'' the fubjeft of one of his pane-
gyrics, to the honour of Stilicho, who was the coniranuder in

it, agaiiift the fubjeft of this article. Gibbon. Univer.
Hill.

GILEAD, Balm of. See Balsam. ;

GiLEAD, Falfe Balm of, in Bolaiiy. See Dracoce-

PIIALUM.

GiLEAD, in Scnpture Geography, mountains of Palcflinc,
which lay E. of .Tordan, and I'eparated the lands of Ammon,
Moab, Reuben, Gad, and Maniin">h from Arabia Delerta. Ac-
cordingto Eufebius mount Gilead reached from Libanus north-
ward to the kingdom of the Amorites, which was ceded to
the tribe of Reuben ; fo that it muft have extended above
70 leagues from north to fouth. This moimtain, or rather
chain of hills, was much celebrated for its excellent balm.
.Ter. viii. 22. xlvi. 11. li. 8. Gen. xxxvii. 25. See Bal.sam.
Gilead derived its name from Gael-hacd, q. rl. the heap of
witnefs, in reference to the heap of Hones raifed as a monu-
ment of the covenant between Jacob and Laban. Gen.
xxxi. 21.

GILES, in Biography, a learned Italian pivlate, and
cardinal of the fixteenth century, diftinguiflied himfclf by
the progrefs which he made in different branches of litera-
ture; and was appointed profeflbr of philofophr, and then
of theology, in his order, that of the hermits of Auguiline,
In 1507, he was raifed to the pod of general of his order, and
was employed by pope Julius II. to open the council aflem-
blcd at the Lateran in the year 1 5 1 2 ; and, in 1 5 1 7, wms fent
legate into Germany bvLeoX.,onwhichoccafion I'.ewaspro.
moted to the office of cardinal. After this he was fent
into Spain, and employed in many difficult negociations.
He was nominated bifliop of fcveral important fees at dif-
ferent periods, and alfo patriarch of Conflantinoplc. He
died at Rome in 1532, and left behind him a very high
charafter for learning. He was, during his life, perpetu-
ally contnlted in difficulties that occurred to the literati
in the Oriental as well as tlie Latin and Greek languages.
He was the author of many works that bear tellimony to
his reputation, among thefe are. Remarks on the early
Chapters o.' the Book of Gencfis, Commentaries on fome
of the Pfalms of David ; Dialogues, Epiftles, Poems, &c.
In the third volume of " Anipliflima Colleftio veterum
Monnmentorum," many letters of this prelate and his cor-
refpondents arc inferted, which contain numerous fafts as
well relating to his own hiftory, as to that of the period in
which he flourilhcd. Moreri.

GILFORD, in Geography, a fniall pofl; and market
town of the county of Down, Ireland. The river Bann
runs throngli the centre of it, over which tliere is a very
handfome bridge, highly ornamented with hewn flone, of
twenty-two arches. It is a haudlome neat town, and the
country about it is highly improved; the houfes are good,
and chiefly inhabited by wealthy and reputable linen-drapers.
The linen trade is carried on very extenfively here, and the
cloth is as remarkable for the finenefs of its texture, as the
river is for giving it an excellent bleach. Nothing can ex-
ceed in beauty the vale from Banbridge to Moyallen through
Gilford, on the borders of the Bann, for a continuance of
fix miles ; the river in delightful meanders, tlie rifing
grounds furrounding it adorned with woods, and the bot-
toms variegated with bleach-greens, aff^ord views the moft.
beautiful and pitlurelqne. Gilford is 62^^ miles N. from
Dublin, and 11 miles from Armagh.

GILGAL, in Scripture Geography, a celebrated place, W,
of Jordan, where the Ifraelites encamped after their paflage
of this river, and where a confiderable city, famous for
many events, was afterwards built. It was about a league
from Jordan and from Jericho.

GILGE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the circle of
7 Samland ;

GIL

Samland ; 28 miles N.W. of Konigfbcrfr.— Alfa, a rirf r of
Prufiia, which branches off from the Memel about ■; miles
below Tilfit, and runs into the CurifcU Haff, N. lat. ^^*
to'. E. long. 21- 24'.

GILGEN, St. a town of Auftria, 10 miles N.W. of
EfTerding. — Alfo, a town of Stiria ; 5 miles N.N.E. of
Marburg.

GILGENEAU, a town of Pruffia, in Oberlaad ; 15
milesN.N.W. of Seldau.

GILGENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 60
miles E. of Culm. N. lat. 53^ 17'. E. long. 19- 57.

GILGUL Hammetiiin', a Hebrew phrafe, literally fig-
nifying the roiling of the dead. To conceive the ufe of this
exprcflion it is to be obferved, that the Jews have a tradi-
tion that, at the coming of the Mefliaii, no Ifraelite fliall
riie a.ny where but in the Holy Land. What, then, fiiall
become of all the faithful interred ui other parts ? Shall they
periil!, and remain in the ftatc of death ?

No, fay the Je.vifh doftors ; but God will dig them fub-
terranoous canals, or cavities, through which they fliall
roll from their tombs to the Holy Land ; and, when they
ai'e arrived there, God will blow on them, and raife them
again.

This imaginary paffage of the carcafos, or aflies, of the
Jews from their tombs to the Holy Land, by rolling under-
ground, is what they call gilgul hammdhin, the rolling of
the dead.

GILIBERTIA, in ^o/jry, named by Prof . Gmelin of
Gottiiigen ill his faulty edition of the SylL Nat. of Lin-
nasus, v. 2. 682, in honour of John Emanuel Gilibert,
author of a Flora Lithuanica, printed in 1781, oclavo,
which was fupprefTed by authority of the government of
Poland, on account of its alleged imperfections, but which
was re]irinted by its author afterwai'ds at Lyons, where he
alfo edited various works of Linnaeus. — Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 2. 551. (Quivifia ; Cavan. Diff. 367. Juff. 264. La-
.marck. lUuilr. t. 302.) — Clafs and order, Decandr'ia Mono-
gyn'ta. Nat. Ord. Trihilatic, Linn. MeTut, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
with four or five teeth, permanent. Cor. Petals four or
five, ovate, obtufe. Neftary of one leaf, cup-(hapcd,
{horter than the petals, embracing the germen, with ten
marginal teeth. Stam. Filaments none ; antliers eight or
ten, ovate, ered, feffile on the teeth of the nectary. P\jl.
' Germen fuperlor, globofe, furrowed, fliorter than the nec-
tary ; ftyle fnnple, rifing above the nectary ; ffigma glo-
bofe, thick, furrowed. Psrk. Capfule ovate, coriaceous,
fplitting half way down into four acute recurved valves,
with longitudinal central partitions, feparating it into four
cells. Seeds one or two in each cell, ovate, ftr.ooth, affixed
10 the columella.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with four or five teeth. Petals four or
five. Nectary cup-fliaped, bearing the anthers on its mar-
gin. Capfule ovate, of four cells. Seeds mollly folitary.

I. G. dtcar.dra. (Quivifia decandra; Cav. n. 531. t. 21 1 .)
— Leaves alternate, elhptic-lanceolate, undivided. Flowers
five-cleft, decandrous, racemofe. — Gathered by Commerfon
in the ifiand of Mauritius. An evergreen fiirub, with nu-
merous, alternate, zig-zag branches. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, an inch or inch and half long, elliptic-lanceolate,
entire, more or lefs acute, fmooth, with one rib and many
tranfverfe veins, without ftipulas. Flo'irers from five to
nine in each axillary duller, with downy ftalks and calyx.
Petals while, elliptical, thrice as long as the calyx, filky
at the back, each about a quarter of an inch in lengtli.
A'iff^/Try white, about half as long. The habit of the IKrub
aad afpe£l o f the flowers, refemble a Limoiila.

G I L

2. G. heterophylla. (Quivifia ovata } Cav. u. ^^^1. t. 212-
and Qu. heterophylla ; n. 533, t. 2M.j_Leavei obo%aie ,'
undivided, finuated, or pinnatifid. Flowers four-cleft, oc-
tandrous, fomewhat umbellate — Gathered bv Commerfon
in the iflands of Bourbon and Mauritius. The lavet a.-e
rather fmaller than in the lall, and remarkable for tiic;r
variety of ftiape,-., being either obovatc and blunt, or fome-
what pointed, and either undivided, or more or lefs flighll/
waved or finuated, or deeply and accurately pinnatifid like
an oak-leal ; all tliefe varieties are found on the fame fpte:-
mcn, nor can we feparate (luhifJa ovata, though all the
leaves of one plant happened to be undividij, for the ori-
ginal fpecimens accord in every other particular. The

flowers are much fmaller than in the firft fpccies, and grow
from two to four together in rather an un.bel, than a clufitr.
6'rt^u/<>thefize of a pea, pointed, (lightly filkv.

3. G. oppofit'iJ'rAia. ("Quivifia oppofilifolia ; 'Cav. n. 534.
t. 214.) — Leaves oppofite, elliptical, undivided. Flowers
fomewhat umbellate. — Native of the Mauritius. Lcav s
broadly elliptical, obtiife, uniform, two inches long, all
nearly oppofite, as well as the branche,'!. We have not fen
xS.\f:flo'wers. The //•,/;/ is rather umbellate than racemofe,
tlie fize of a large pea, furrowed, depreffed, clothed with
(hiniiig tawny down, and opening into four or five parts on
the fame branch.

4. G. ruttlans. — Leaves alternate, ovate, pointed, undi-
vided. Flowers fomewhat racemofe Gathered by Com-
merfon in the Mauritius with the f )rmer, but not de-
fcribed by Cavanilles or Willdenow. The kavs are almoft
as large as the kill, but more pointed, often oblique, and d-
ways alternate. Branches zig-zag. Cluflcrs fliort, raccmof.?,
though appearing like httlc umbels, about the len'rth of the
footftalks, each of from three to fix flowers, their italks very
flightly downy Petals filky at the back, a line long. Fruit
of four cells, globofe, four-furrowed, the fizeof apea, clothed
with ihort, denfe, rigid, golden-coloured pubcfcencc.

Commerfon, the only botauifl. who has gathered any fpc-
cies of this genus, feems to have intended naming the decan-
drous ones Baretia, and the octandrous Abakllj, but thcy
cannot be feparated on any botanical principle whatever. All
go by the name of Bcis de Owlvi among the French in the
iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon, whence Cavanilles con-
trived his barbarous name Quivi/ia. Of their qualities or
ufcs nothing is mentioned. The names of Baretia and y/irj-
iel/a were both intended to commemorate a young wcma'i,
who, being defirous of failing round the world, put on men's
cloaths, and engaged herfelf as a failor, her real fcx being
concealed from all on board, except Commerfon, to whom
flie devoted herfelf, pafTing as his fervant. At length, on
the an-ival of the fiiip at Otalieite, the more intelligent na-
tives difcovered the fecret which had efcaped the penetra-
tion of her companions, to their no fma':! ailoniflimcnt.
Commerfon contrived the word lor.afdia as a fpecific name,
to exprefs her fidelity. The Otahrit.ins, had they undor-
ftood Latin, would probablv have invented a better.

GILIMER, or Gei.i.m.\i{, in Biography., latl king of the
Vandals in Africa, a defcendar.t of Genferic, fuccceded to thp
throne of his depo.'ed co\ifin Hilderic. The emperor .Tuftinian
joined tl'.e caufc of the dethroned fovereign, Li-.d determined
do annex the African provinces once more to the Roman
tominions. Belifarius was chofen to cxceute the defign,
who failed in 533. Zano, the brother of Giliir.er, was, at
this time, engaged in the conqneil of Sardinia, by which
circumllanee the force cf the Vandals was divided, while a
coiiliderable party at l>.ome fliil adhered to the lite kirg
Hilueric. Giliir.er aCln-.bkd his troops to refi;! the invader,
but being defeated with grc.it flaughter he war. glad te xe-
K k 2 tirp

G I L

tire to the Numidian dcfertj, Kaxing tirft exercifed tlio ty-
rant's policv, liy commanding the execution oi" Hildericand
his captive 'friends. Carthage fnbmitted to the viclorious
Celifarius; ,but Gllimer cullracd his tVattered force?, and
being joincd'by Zano, who had returned from Sardinia, a
fecoud atlion enfued, in wliich Zano loft his life, and Gili-
iner ac^aiii retreated. Tlic lofs of the African provmces iuc-
cceded, and the defeated king was forced to take rcfuj;c m
the inacceflible mountains of the interior of Nuraidia. Even
here, he was furrounded by a part of the Roman army un-
der Pharus, and reduced to the utmoll dhlrcfs, which to Inm
was pecuharly affliaive by its coutra'l with the luxury and
effeminacy in which ho had been accullomed to hve. So de-
plorable was his fituation, that he is reported to have applied
to Pharus for a lyre, a fponge, and a loaf of bread : the
firtt he faid was to footh his forrows ; the fecond to dry up
his tears : the third he alked as an humble delicacy, of which
ho had not tailed for a long time. His diftreffes at length
obliged him to fubmit to the conqueror ; he dcfcended from
the mountains, and followed Belifu-ius to Conftantinople,
marching in the train of iiis triumph ; on which occafion,
he fuffered neither tear nor figh to efcape, but frequently
exclaimed, in the language of Solomon, " Vanity of vani-
ties all is vanity!" The emperor received him with re-
fpeft, and fhewed him much attention and kindnefs : he
would have raifed the fallen monarch to the dignity of pa-
trician, could he have be?n perfuaded to renounce the Arun
doftrine, in which he had been educated. He was put in
poffeffion of a large eftate in Galatia, where, in the bofom
of his family, he ended his days in peace. The extinftion
of the Vandal kingdom in the perlon of Gilimer is to be
dated from the year 534. Gibbon. Univer. Hill.

GILION, in Geography, an ifland in the Ealt-Indian fea,
about 36 miles in circumference. S. lat. 7- 6'. E. long.

114 37'. ... r

GILIS, St., a town of France, m the department ot
the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Termonde. The place contains 3228, and the canton 16,770
inhabitants, on a territory of 95 kiliometres, in fix com.-

munes. .

GILITZSTAIN, a town of the duchy of Cann'.hia ;

10 miles E.N.E. of St. Veit.

GILL, in Jgricu/lun, a term fomctnnes applied provni-
cially to the pair of wheels and frame on which timber is
conveyed. ^ • .

Gill, John, in Biography, was born at Kettering, m
Northamptonlhire, in 1697, and difcovering, when very
young, an uncommon capacity for learning, his father, who
was a diffenter of the Baptill perfualion, fent him to a
grammar-fchool in the neiglibourhood, where he foon out-
ilript his companions in clafiical attainments. When he was
but eleven years of age he had read feveral of the common
fchool book's in Latin, and made a confiderable proficiency in
the Greek. Owing to the narrow circumftances of his pa-
rents he was put to bufinefs, but he did not fail to improve
his leifure moments by an attention to clafiical literature, fo
that bv the time when he had attained his nineteenth year he
had read all the Greek and Latin authors that had fallen in
his way, and had diligently ihidied logic, rhetoric, moral
and natural philofophy. He had likewife Hudied Hebrew
fo as to be able to read the Old Teftament in the original
with pleafure. In 1 716 he was baptized, and foon after
commenced preaching in private. He now removed to
Hio-ham Ferrers to profecute a regular courfe of lludies
under Mr. Davis, a man of cpnfiderabie learning, and
paftor of a baptill church in that place. His flay here was
Ihortj and after about a year he returned to his native town,

G I L

and became affiilant preacher to the congregation there;-
and in 17 19 he received and accepted an invitation to be-
come pallor of a baptill congregation in Southwark.
The duties of this fituation he difcharged with great fidelity
and ufefulnefs more tiiau half a century. He died in 1771
in the feveiity-fourth year of his age. His fentiments in
rehgion were llriftly Calviniftic ; and his moral conduft
was unimpeachable and truly exemplary. He was author of
many works, particularly of " An Expofition of the Old
and New Teftament ;" in nine volumes folio : " A body of
Divinity," in three volumes 410. ; " A Supplement to Mr.
Whifton's Elfay towards reftoring the true text of the Old
Teftament." In the year 1748, when he had publifhed the
third volume of his " Expofition of the New Teftament,"
the degree of doftor of divinity was conferred upon him by
the univerfity of Aberdeen without his felicitation or know-
ledge : information of the fadl was communicated to him by
two of the learned profefibrs, who declared that his diploma
was prefented to him, " on account of his great knowledge
of the fcriptures, of the oriental languages, and of Jewidi
antiquities, of his learned defence of the fcriptures againft
Deifts and infidels, and the reputation gained by his other
works." Dr. Gill had, indeed, from the time of his fet-
thng in the metropolis, paid a moft unwearied attention to
the oriental languages : he had ftudied the writings of the
fathers, ecclefiallical hillory, the accounts of the rites and
curtoms of the eaftern nations, all which he knew were
adapted to enrich his ftores of biblical learning, and to
qualify him for the duties of his protelfion. Gen. Biog.
Gill, in Botany. See Glechoma.

Gill, in Geography, a townftiip of America, in the Hate
of Maftachufetts and county of Hampftiire, fituatcd on
tlie W. bank of Connefticut river, 90 miles from Bofton ;
containing 700 inhabitants.

Gill, or Btch, is a name in feveral' Enghfh counties for
a brook, rivulet, or fmall ftream of water.

Gill, a meafnre of ale or beer, is i-4th of an ale
pint = 8.8125 cubic Englifli inches = 1.220779 "'i"*^ g'll*
:= .0169084 cubic links.

GiLi, of wine, cyder, oil, &c. = I -4th of a wine pint
= 7 21875 cubic Enghfh inches = .8191490 ale gills =
.0145307 cubic links.

Gill, Scotch mcafure, = i-4th of amutchkin = i-i6th
of a Scotch pint, the cubic content of which varies mucb
in different places. See Scotch PiKT.
GILLAROO, Trout. See Tkout.
GILI>KM's Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S. coafl
of the ifland of St. Chriftopher ; two miles W. of Bafie-
terre.

GILLE-LE-VICOMTE, St , a town of France, in
the department of the North Coafts ; fix mileS N.N.E,
of Guiuganip.

GILLE-S-LES-BOUCHERIES, St, a town of
France, in the department of the Gard, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftritt of Nimes ; 10 miles SS.E. of
Nimes. The place contains 5374, and the canton 6557 in-
habitants, on a territory of 180 kiliometre.'!, in two com-
mune.s.

GILLES-SUR-VIC, St., a town of France, in the
department of tiie Vendee, and chief place of a canton, in.
the diclricl of Les Sables-d'Olonnc ; 13 miles N.N.W. of
this latter town. The place contains 7 So, and the canton
12,335 inhabitants, on a territory of 432^ kiliometres, in
1 7 communes.

GILLES, Peter, in B'logrnptjy, was bom at Albi in
1490, and became diltinguilhed as a fcholar and travelkr.
Having acquired an extenfive knowledge of the learned lah-

giiage*

G I L

G I t.

Tuagcs and the philofophy of tlip times, he fet out on hi4
travels with a view of making obi'crvatioiis in natural hif-
torv and antiquities. On his return lie was introduced to
the notice of George d'Armagnac, bifiiop of Rhodes, who
engaged h.ini to compofe his bou'.i " De Vi ct Natura Anima-
lium." This work, which conlilled of extrafts from AL\hn
and others, with obfervations of his own, he dedicated to
Francis I , who fent him to travel in the Levant, but with-
out furnilhing him with proper fupplijs, fo that he was re-
duced to great diftrcfs. and was obliged to enlill in the troops
of the fultan Solinuin II. for fubiillencc. He left Conllan-
tinople in 1550 and went to Rome, where he died 1555.
He was author of two geographical works, " De Bofphoro
Thracio," and "De Topographia ConlHntinopoleos,'' wliich
are elleemed for their learning ; and alio of lome tranllations
from the Greek. Moreri.

GILLESAY, or Gillsay, in Gc-o^iaphy, one of the
fmaller Hebridei', between Lewis and North Uill. N. lat.
57 4J'. W. long. 6 59'.

GiLLE.fw Point, a cape on the S.W. coaft of the hland
of Celebes. S. lat. 5" 15'. E rang. 119 48'.

GILLESKAAL, a town of Norway, in the diocefc of
Drontheim ; 240 miles N. of Dronthelm.

GILLETTE, a town of France, in the departnirnt of
the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Pnget-Theniers, The place contains 646, and the
canton 1712 inhabitants, on a territory of 105 kiliometres,
in foiu- communes.

GILLIAN, GuLSLAlK, or Ghl/lr.ln, St, a town of
France, in the department of Jemmappe, fituated on the
river Haifne and furrounded by marlhes, and deriving its
name from a celebrated abbey founded in the year 651
by GuiOain, the friend of St. Amand. Having been fuc-
ceffively in the pofrefiion of the Dutch, the French, and the
Spaniard;, and of the allies, it was taken by the French in
1793. St. Gillian was called the key of Mons, and is
diltaiit three miles W. of it.

GILLIFREE. See Jid.ifree.

GILI>1NGHAM, a parifh in the hundred of Chatham
and Gilllngham, Kent, England ; is fcatcd on the river
MedvN'ay at the diilancc of two miles from the town of
Chatham, and ■52 from London. It contains 715 houfes
and 4133 inliabitants, the greater part of whom are imme-
diately or indiredtly employed in the bufniefs connefted with
the neighbouring doek-yardi. This vil!a:re, tl'.ough now
deprived of its confequence by the iiicreaie of Chatham,
was formerly of much note. In the time of queen Eliza-
beth here v.-ere four quav.-:, and twenty-feven Ihips and
boats ; the largefl of thefe, however, was only twenty tons.
The archbifhops of Canterbury f^irmerly had a jjalace here ;
one of whom, .John Strafiord, in the tenth year of Ed-
ward Illd's reign, obtained a charter for a weekly market,
and an annual fair to continue eight days ; but thefe have
been long difcontinned. Wiiliam of Gilhnghara was a na-
tive of this place. He was a monk of Canterbury, in the
time of king Richard II , and wrote a hillory of Britain ;
alfo one of his ov.-n monadery. Haited's Hillory of Kent,
vol. iv. 8vo.

GILLORI, aniHand on the coafl of Weft Florida, di-
vided from Dauphin idand by a very narrow channel,
through which a boat c.innot pafs without fome difficulty ;
and between GiUori and the main land, on the weft fide of
Mobile bay, there is a chain of fmall illands and oyfler
fliells, through which is a paftage of four feet, called
"Palfe au Heron."

GILLS, BriANCm,?:, in Lkhjalogy. Sec Fisii, Organs
ef R:jy>ratloa.

Oii.L.s l.cafof iht. See Foliim li\i!.ch'mrum.

GILLY-FLOWER, in Canlctun^, the coran-.on name
of a line fragrant flowery plant, tominon in gardens, &c
See DiANTiiL's.

Gii-LV-iLowEii, Quern's. See HwpEias.

GiLi,Y-j-r.owER, S.'Oii. See Ciikikantiiu.s.

Gu.l.\-Loiiq/j, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in the
co'.nuy cf Sligo ; and on the river by whicli its waters are
difcharged into the fea ftands the town of Sligo. Tins
lake exliibits that variety of charming profpc6ls which bold
hills, wooded lawns, and large iilands clothed with verdure
and crowned with tree.;, united with a great extent of water,
cannot f^il to produce. Beaufort.

GILMANTOWN, a poft-town of America, in
Strafford county, New Hampfliire, S.W. of lake Winni-
pifcogec, and 52 miles N.W. of Portfmouth i incorpo-
rated in 1727, and containing 3752 inhabitants.

GILMARQUEY, a t .wn of Hiudooftan, in Dowla-
tabad ; 13 miles N.E. of Nander.

GILOH, or Gklo, in Scripture Geography, a town of
Palelline, fituated in the mountains of the tribe of Judali.
Jofli. XV. 51.

GILOLO, in Geography, one of the Molucca idandi!,
in ihe.Eaft-Indlan ocean, of confiderable extent, and in its
irregular form refcmbling Cihbej, which fee. Its length is
about 230 Britifh miles , and the breadth of each limb fcl-
dom above 40. Tiie fliores are low ; but the interior rifes tcr
high peaks, perhaps of granite. This ifiand is faid to have
been once governed by one fovercign, a flieref from Mecca ;
but the fiiltans of Ternate and Tidore now feeni to (hare it
between them, the former poifeinng the northern part with
Mortay, Bakian, Motir, and fome Cekbef.an iflands, and
psrt of Papua ; while the fnllan of Tidore hclos the
fouthern part with Myfol, and fome other ifles. One of thf
chief towns is Tatanay, fituated on a point or promontory of
the eaftern limb, faced with precipices, fo as to be accefTiblc
only by ladders. Gihlo abounds with oxen, buffaloes,
goats, deer, and wild hogs ; but the fhecp are few. The
bread-fruit and fago-trce arc common ; and, in fpile of the
Dutch extermination, there are probably cloves and nutmegs.
The natives are indullrious, particularly in weaving; bi;t
their exertions are fupprefl'd by Batavian jealoufy. The
cquino£lial runs throiigh the fouthern part of the ifiand.
E.long. 128^

GILP Locii, in Argylefliire, Scotland, is a kind of
gulf branching from Loch Fine on its. W. fide, which is
navigable for veffels to the entrance of the Crinan canal,
through which they pafs to Loch Crinan, and the Irillv
f;.a. See Canal.

GILPIN, BEU\.\nn, in Biography, was born at Kent-
mire, in Weftniorcland, in the ye..r 1517. He was del'ined
by his parents for the church, and educated with that view.
At fixteen years of age he was entered at Queen's coUcg?,
Oxford, where he became di(lingui(hed for the diligence with
whicli he applied to his academical ftudics. He was led to
think for himfelf, and freely, by the writings of Erafmus ;and
as he determined to apply himltlf to the Ihidy of theolog)-,-
he let about acquiring a thorougii knowledge of the Greek
and Hebrew languages, in order that he might invclugate
tlie fcriptures in their original tongues. In IJ39 i.e look.
his degree of B.A., and in 1541 that of M..\., and about
the litme time he was eleifled fellow of his college, and ad-
mitted into holy orders. Shortly after he was invited to K'-
come a member of cardinal Wolfey's new foundation at
Chrift-church, which he accepted. Here he continued his.
former lludice, but it does not appear that his courfc of
reading had produced any doubts in his' mind refpcCing

the

GILPIN.

Hie popular religion, for he even cntorcJ into a vii-.d;cati«n cf
tl.c Catiiolic cUidriiics in a dil'|)ute with Hooper, afterwards
iiilliop of AVincheftcr. Tiic difcuir;on was however favour-
able to hi.i improvement ai)d candour, ai it ajTorded him th.c
opportunity of difcovering that his own opinions were not
fo well fup'portcd by icripture as lie imagined. Upon ih.o
iieceflion of Edward VI.,* Peter Martyr was fent, wider the
patronage of that prince, to Oxford to read divinity lectnreJ,
a dutv whicli he performed in a '.Irain to which tliat uni-
verfity had been but little accullomed. He attacked many
cllabl'i'.hed doclrines, which had been long regju'ded as the
truth, and the only truth. Gilpin was looked up to, as ca-
pable of defending the ellablillicd doctrines in oppofition to
modern innovations, but his faith was Ihaken, and he chcie
to remain an unprejudiced fpcdator, ready to embrace^ what-
ever iliould appear the truth, after deliberately weighing the
arguments which the difcuflion might proyok:. At length,
howerer, he confented to enter the lills with Peter, and the
difpute ended in the conviftion of Gilpin tliat there were
o-reat corruptions in popery, and that there was need of a
total reformation. He continued at Oxford till ho was thirty-
five, and took his bachelor's degree in divinity. In 1552
he was prefented with a living in Durham, but before he
went to rcfide tiiere, he was appointed to preach before his
majelly at Greenwich. The king was not prefent, but
Gilpin's difcourfe was a ferious and very hollile attack
on the prevailing avarice and corruption of the age ; he
fparcd neither the court, clergy, magiftrates, nor gentry.
The freedom which he made ufe of at this time recommended
him to the notice of many perfons of the firft rank, parti-
cularly of fir William Cecil, afterwards lord Burleigh, who
obtained for him a general licence for preaching. While
Mr. Gilpin was in London, he freqriently vifited his uncle
Tonftal, bifhop of Durham, at that time a prifoner
in the Tower, under a fentence of mifprifion of treafon.
When Mr. Gilpin was fettled in the country, he felt many
doubts how to proceed in the inftrudlion of his people ; he
had not made un his own mind on many important doc^imes,
and therefore felt but ill qualified to teach others, or indeed
to guard them from tlie prevailing errors. He actordingly
refigned his living, and determined, at 'he advice of Tonftal,
to fpend fome time abroad. He had now an opportunity of
re-examining all his opinions ; he began to have jull notions
of the doftrines of the reformed ; faw things in a clearer
light, and felt a fatisfattion in the change that he had made,
to which he had hitherto been a ftranger. On the death
of king Edward, Tonftal was releafed and reinftated in his
bifhopric ; he immediately offered his nephew a good living,
which was refpeftfuUy rcfufed on conicientions principles.
He returned from the continent in the year 1556, and imme-
diately vifited biiliop Tonftal, who received him with great
friendfliip, and prefented him with the archdeaconry of Dur-
ham, to which he annexed the living of Eafmgton. He now
repaired to his parifti, determined to do what good lie was
able in reproving vice, and encouraging virtue. His zeal
and affiduity in the good work of reformation made him
many enemies, and the cry of hercfy was continually founded
againft him, but by the fl<ilful management of his uncle, the
charge, though formally and publicU' brought, was difmified.
After this, he refigned his prefer'r.ojt i n the church, and be-
came domeftic chaplain to the biiliop. Mr. Gilpin did not
remain long without a benefice, but was inducted to the li-
ving of Houg!iton-le-Spring, and upoi. his arrival at the
place, people crowded to him from all quarters, perceiving
that he was a teacher very different from thofe to whom they
had been accuftomed, and by his truly afFedtionate treatment
«f .them, he quickly gained their confidence, refpeft, and

attachment. The bifliop v/as ftill anxious for the advancc-
mcrtof his ncphev/, and prefented to liim a vacant prebend
in the cathedral of Durham, wliich Mr. Gilpin modeftly,
but firmly declined, and told the prelate, " that by his bounty
he had already more wealth than, he was afraid, he could
give a good account cf, and he hoped his lordihip would
rather beflow this preferment on one by whom it was more
wanted." A frefli let of articles of impeachment were drawn
up and prefented againft him, and he was again protefted by
his up.clo, but from this period the bilhop's favour to him
manifeftly declined, and he ftruck him out of his will. He was
exceedingly concerned to have in any way offended fo good
a benefactor, but he could not compromife the matter ; he
was bound to fatisfy his confciencc, and Tonftal was vexed
that he lliould carry his piety and zeal to what he thought
an excefs. The malice of Mr. Gilpin's enemies was not
fatisiied with the lofs which he had experienced in his uncle's
efteem ; they accufed him before the favage Bonner, who,
in tlie moir.ent of Iiis frantic zeal, declared that he would
bring him to the ftake in a fortnight. Gilpin refufed to ■
h'ften to the entreaties and interceiuons of liis friends by
leaving the country, but was prepared to fufferfor the truth,
a» he had been zealous in propagating it. He accordingly
waited with great compofure for the arrival of the biftiop's
mcftengers. He v.-as apprehended, but fortunately, before
he could reach London, au account of the Queen's death met
tliem on tl e road, an event not more favourable to our
worthy paftor, than important for the country at large.
The mercilefs favage raiglit now gnafli his teeth, but he
could no longer inlHct the venom of his m,align:ty upon the
unoffending ri-formcr.i. Gilpin, thus almoft rairaculoufty de-
livered, returned to Houghton through crowds of people,
who regarded liim as a father, and who expreffed their ut-
inoll joy, and offered up th.eir thanks to Almighty God for
his deliverance, Mr. Gilpin was foon nominated to the
bilhopric of Carlille, which he declined, giving as a reafon,
that in this diocele he had many friends and acquaintance,
of whom he did not think very highly, and that he mull
connive at many irregularities, or draw upon Limfelf fo nuith
hatred as to prevent his ufefuln-.-fs. In 1561 he v.-aio.Tered
the provoftftiip of Queen's colle^je, Oxford, which he like-
wife declined : contentintr himfelf with the liviiu' of
Houghton, the duties of which he performed in the molt
exemplary manner. He employed much of his time in en-
deavouring to improve the minds of the younger part of his
parifti, fuffering none to grow up in an ignorance of their
duty, but urging all to intermix religion with labour, and
amidft the cares of this life to have aconftant regard to the
next. He was affiduous m preventing lawfuits among his
parilhioners, and his hall was frequently thronged with peo-
ple of his own or neigliboiiring pariflies, who came to fettle
their differences. He had a tender concern for all under
affliction, and was a much readier vifitant at the houfe of
mourning than at the hoiifc of fcafting. To ftrangers and
travellers there was always a generous welcome at the houfe
of Mr. Gilpin, and he could fuit himfelf to perfons of all
ranks in life. Once he received an unexpedted vifit from
lord Burleigh, and the reception of the noble ftranger
was fo liberal, that his lordfhip was accuftomed to
fay, that he could not have expeftcd more at Lambeth.
AVhcn the great flatefman left his hoft, and had travelled
about a mile from his refidcnce, he turned his h(nfe to take
one more viev/ of the place in which he had experienced
fo much content, and having kept his eve fixed fome time,
he exclaimed, •' There is the erjoymcnt cf life, indeed ! Who
can blame that man for not accepting a bifliopric ! What
does he want, or what can he poflefs to make him greater

or

G I L

or happL-r, or more uli'fid to mankm J." Mr. Gi'.pin's la-
bours extended beyond Ins oivn piirilh ; he every vear
vi;lted divers ncglerted pariflies in Northumberland, York-
fhire, Chcfliire, Wcllmoreland, and Cumbt-rlaiid ; aiij tiiat
his own flock, might not fuiTer, he was at the ex pence of a
conSant afri;l;a:il. In all his journijs he did not fail to vlfit
the gaols and places of confinement ; and by his labours
and affeiflijnate manner of behaviour, he is faid to have re-
formed many abandoned pcrfons in thofe abodes of human
mifery. He had let places and times for preaching in the
different parts of the country, v/hich were as regularly at-
tended as the affize toivns of a circuit. If he came to a
place in which there was a church, he made ufe of it ; if
not, of barns, or any other large building, v.-aere great
crowds of perfons were fure to attend him, fome for l)i«
inftructions, more, perhaps, to partake of his bounty ; but
in his difcourfes he had a iort of entliuliaftic warmth, which
roufed many to a fenfe of religion who had never thouglit
of any thing ferious before The dangers and fatigues at-
tending this employment were, in his eilimation, abundantly
compenfated by the advantages which he hoped would ac-
crue from them to his uninllrucled fellow-creature-. He
did not fpare the rich ; anJin a difcourfe before the bifhop
of Duiham, who had already conceived a prejudice againll
him, he fpoke v.-ilh fo much freedom, that his bell friends
dreaded the refult ; they rebuked him for giving the prelate
a handle againfl him, to which he replied, " If the difcourfe
fhould do the good lie intended by it, he was regardlefs of
the confequences to himfelf." He then waited on the
prelate, who faid, " Sir, I propofe to wait upon you home
myfelf." When they arrived at the reftory, and entered
the houfe, the bifliop turned fuddenly round, and grafped
him eagerly by the hand, faying, " Father Gilpin, I know
you are fitter to be bifhop of Durham, than I am to be
parfon of this church of yours. I alk forgivenefs for pall
injuries. Forgive me, father, I know yoa have enemies,
but wliile I live bifliop of Durham, none of them (liall caufe
you any further trouble." Upon queen EUzabeth's recom-
mending the eftabliflimentof free-fehools, Mr. Gilpin under-
took to build and endow one, a defign which he immediately
put in execution. This fchool was no looner opened than
it began to flourilh ; and there was fo great a refort of young
people to it, that in a little time the town was fcarcely able
to accommodate them. He procured able mailers from
Oxford, and took every method to encourage thofe of his
pupils who were moll diligent in their ftudies. In the
latter part of his life Mr. Gilpin went through his various
duties with much difficulty : his health was impaired, and
his conftilution broken down by the great fatigues which he
had undergone for many years. In addition to his infirmi-
ties, he met with an accident which had nearly proved fatal
to him, and from the effefts of which he never perfcAly reco-
vered. As he was crofling the market-place at Durham, lie
was thrown down, and almoil trampled to death by an ox.
After a long and tedious cc nfinement, he was able to get
put, but continued lame as long as he hved. He died in
1583, in t!ie 66th year of his age. Such were the life and
labours of Bernard Gilpin, who, for his exemplary piety,
laborious virtue, and unbounded benevolence, deferves to
have his name tranfmittcd to poilerity with refpecl and
reverence, and who obtained, and moll defervedly among
his contemporaries, the title of the Northern Apoille. By
his unwearied application he had amaflfed a great ftock of
knowledge, and was indeed ignorant of no part uf learning
. at tliat time in cilecm. He had given moi-e than common
attention to the lludy of the dead languages, to hiftory and
.divinity ; he is faid to have excelled ia poetry, but he ex-

G 1 M

p;iided little lime in the purfuit of any thing tliat wak
f.)re;gn to his profeffion. His temper was naturally warm,
but, by degrees, he fuccecded in obtaining an entire command
of hnnfelf. His difpofition was ferious, yet, among hii
particular friends, he was cheerful -ind even facetious. Hit
fcyerity had no other objedl but himftif : to others he wai
mild, candid, and indulgent. Biog. Brit.

Gji.pix, S.vw.iey, who lately praclifed horfc j)ainting with
fo n-.uch fuceefs, was born at Carlitle in 1733, from whence,
after having acquired fome relidi for the art irom his father,
who was a captain in the army, he came to London, and
was articled to a fliip-painter. His firil interelling works
were compofed of fome market groups which llruck his eye
from his v.indow. Soon after he went to Newmarket, being
encouraged by the late William, duke of Cumberland, where
he executed many compofitions which might have vied
with Hogarth in point of charafter. In the duke's flud
he acquired that knowledge of the horfe, whicii he has
difplayed with fuch fuperior fpirit ard beauty, and when
we fee with what felicity he applied it to the liigher depart-
ments of the art, zo hilloric compofitions in the triumph of
Camillus, the eleftion of Darius, the ftory of PhaetO!;, we
mult lament that fucli tdents (hould have been drawn allde
to the meaner employment of horfe-portrait-painting, which
occupied too much of his valuable life.

His drawings of animals, in pencil and water-colour<;,
dilplay a degree of tafte and (kill feldom att?ined. As a
man he was equally efteemed for probity of charafter and
fimplicity of manner, and, as a member of the Royal Aca-
demy, he added honour to the inllitution. Fufeli's Pil-
kington.

GILSON, in Geogrnphy, a towndiip of America, in
Cliefhire county. New Hampfhire, containing 484 inhabit-
ants ; fituated on the E. fide of Afhuelot river, and joining
Keene on the fouth.

GILT, in Rural Economy, a term fignifving a'youna-
female pig, whether in an open or fpaycd llate.

Qu.T-Head, in Ichthyology. See AuR.\TA and Sparvs.
GIMAR, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba ;
6 miles E. of Havannah.

GIMBLET, in Carpsntry, a fmall boring tool, which
enters the wood with a fcrew ; the part above is cylindrical,
both infide and out : its ufe is to make a way for nails, in
order to drive more eafily, or to prevent the wood from
fplitting.

GIMBLETING, in Sea Language, is applied to the
anchor, to denote the aftion of turning it round by the
Hock, fo that the motion of the llock appears llmilar to that
of the handle of a gimblet, when it is employed to turn the
wire.

GIMBOLS, denote the brafs-rings by which the fea--
compais is fufpended in its box that ufuallv ftands in the
binacle.

GIMESCH, in Geography, a town and caflle of Him-
garv ; 10 miles W. of Bukans.

GIMIGLIANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; ..
10 miles E. of Nicaftro.

GIMMER, a town of Africa, in Dar-fur; 40 mile*
N.N.W. of Cobbc.

Gi.MMER Hog, in Rural Economy, a name applied to a
female fheep of the lirft year.

GiMMER l.amb, a term applied to a female lamb.
GIMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Auch; 12 miles E. of Auch. I'he place con-
tains 230c, and the canton 8413 inhabitants, on a territory
of 230 kjliermctrcs, in 13 communes.

ODfZO,,

G I N

GIMZO, in Scnpiur: Gergraphy, a city of .Tiidali, wliich
the Philillines took from Aliaz. 2 Chroii. xxviii. 18.

GIN, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Pc-tcheh ; 10 miles S.E. of Chun-te.

Gin, formed probably by corruption from ens'mf, in Jrtil-
hry and Mechanics, is a machine for railing great weights,
compofed of three long legs, two of which are kept at a
proper diftance by means of two iron or wooden bars fixed
to one of the legs by means of a bolt at one end, and by
the other end to\he other leg with a bolt and key, fo that
it may be put on or off at pleafnre. At three feet from
the bottom is a roller moving in checks, that are failened to
thefe poles by two iron bands and two iron bolts. The
three legs of this machine are joined together with an iron
bolt, about which they move ; to this bolt is fixed an iron
half ring to hook on the windlafs, containiug two brafs pul-
lics. When the gin ftands upriglit, and its legs arc at a
proper diftance, one end of the cable is fixed to the dol-
phins of a gun or mortar with anotlier vwdlafs, containing
likewife two brafs puUies, and the other pafTes thro;;gh tlie
pullies and round the roller, which is turned round by
means of handfpikes paffuig through the holes in the ends
of the roller : while a man holds the cable tight, the gin
is vaifed to fuch a height as to admit a carriage being put
•under it. . . . '

The gin is ufed in loading a timber-carriage with timber ;
it confilts of an acute triangular frame, in the lower part of
which is a roll or windlafs : at the apes is a fet of piilhes,
and a hole to receive the top of a ftrong pole, which is fet
up oppofite the triangular frame, which by this means forms
a fort of tripod (or triangle, as it is commonly called
among workmen) ftanding acrofs a tree to be railed and
loaded : the gin-rope is then reeved through a moveable
block of pullies, fattened by a chain to the tree, through
that in th.e top of the gin and round the roll ; and then, by
means of hand-fpikes or levers ufed to the roll, the tree is
drawn up to a fufficient height for the timber-carriage to
be paffed under it. Long trees ai-e raifed at one end firft,
and two of the wheels of the timber caiTiage are pafled
under them ; when the other ends are raifed in like manner,
and the other two uiieels (which are made to feparate for
this piirpofe) are paffed under them, and thcR are joined
to the other wheels by the long ndjullable pole with which
the carriage is furnilhed. See Ti.MBER-CarW/Tg-f.

An ereCl axis or drum, turned by the force of horfes
walking in a circle, and ufed for raifing coals and other
weights, is alfo called a gin ; the buckets being attached to
the oppofite ends of a rope, which paffes round the drum,
and which is drawn by means of its adhefion to the drum.
One of the buckets defcends empty, while the other is
drawn up full } and when the motions of the buckets are to
be changed, the horfes are turned, or the wheels are made
.to impel the axis in a contrary direction, when any other
moving power is employed.

For Ihallow mines or {hafts, thefe are worked by
liorfes, and are called horfe-gins ; and in deep mines
thus worked, it is ufual to have two levers pro-
jecting frem ihe (haft, fo as to employ two horfes, avid
even four in fume cafes, with a boy to each pair, or
fui'^le horfe, to flop and turn them, fo as to draw from the
other fide of the lever, as often as a corve or baiket arrives
at the top of the fliafth. See the article Co.\i,.

The increafmg depth of the pits, and demand for
coals at Newcaille, occafiosied Mr, Smeaton, the en,-
gincer, to be applied to in the year 1777, by the pro-
prietors of Long Benton colliery, to contrive them a
node of drawing more expeditioully, and Jargrr bailicts of

G I N

coals than the hor.'e-gins then in ufe, and he accordingly
erefted for them a water-gin, the fupply for which was
raifed by the fleam-engines employed at the pits. Since the
above period, fmall ftcam-engines, called wimfeys in many
places, have been applied to the winding of coals, and other
minerals, and have already fuperfeded all other modes of
drawing at the large collieries ; thefe fevcral modes of
drawing or winding we fliall defcribe particularly in the ar-
ticle WlNDlNG-.E7;^(nf.

Gin, in Mining, horfe -gin, or coal-gin, is a machine ufed for
drawing buckets or corves of earth or minerals up a n-.ine.-
fhaft or tunnel-pipe of a canal : it confiflsof a large vertical
drum or barrel, on which a rope winds, which is condudlcd
to pullies over the fliaft ; and ufually as one bucket or corve
defcends another afccnds. See the preceding article and
Mine Winding Engine.

Gis-driver, is the man or boy who attends tlie gin-horfe
and turns him, when a full bucket or corve has arrived at the
top of the mine-flia't.

GINAIRI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kumbo.

GINANNIA, in Botany, fo called by Scopoli and
Schreber in memory of Count Jofcph Ginanni, a native of
Ravenna, whofe polthumous works in Itahan, compofing
two folio volumes, with above 90 plates, were publifhcd at Ve-
nice in 1 755. Tliey chief'y relate to the m.arine produdlions of
the Adriatic, as corals, fuci, a few fhells, S;c. but are perhaps
not too fcverely charaftcrized by Linnreus, in a letter to
Gerard, as " of no manner of ule." The author was re-
commended to the ftudy of natural hiflory by his friend
Valifneri, as a cure for hypochondriacal dilordcrs, but this ii
hardly a fuflicient reafon for the publication of his book.
Haller appear^! to have fecn the firll volume only. Schreb.
271. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 2. (Paloue; Aubl. Guian. 365.
t. 141. Palovea ; Juff. 351. Brownea pauciflora ; Willd.
Sp. PI. v. 3.716) Sec Brownf...\, to which genus we are
perfuaded this plant is rightly referred by Willdenow at the
fuggeftion of Schreber, Addend, 829. The J!em is fitrub-
by, 15 feet high, branched, the branches alternate, flraight
or dechning. Leaves fimple, alternate, nearly feffile, ovate,
entire, pointed, fmooth and fhining. Stipulas minute, acute.
F/ozvcrs terminal, few, red, large, and handfome, their
(hort ftalks enveloped in large concave imbricated IraBeas. Le-
gume reddifh, linear, comprefled, three inches long, fome-
what like that of Ccrcis Jiliquajlrum. Native of the forefls
of Guiana, tlowering in February, and bearing fruit in May.

GINASSERVLS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Var, and chief place of a canton, ia
tlie diflrict of Brignolles ; nine miles N. W. of Barjols. The
place contains 782, and the canton Scoo inhabitants, on a
territory of 302^ kiliometres, in fix conimuBes.

GINDARUS, m ylncient Geogrcphy, a town of Afia, in
Syria, lituated on a mountain, E. of the gulf of Iflicus.

GINDELI, in Geography, a town of Candahar, on the
Behat ; 48 miles E.S.E. of Cabul.

GINUERE, a town of Cevlyn ; five miles N of Point
de Galle.

GINERCA, a town of the ifiiind of Corfica, fituated in
a fmall bay to which it gives name; 13 miles S. of Calvi.

G1NE6TAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the dil'ridt of Nar-
bonne ; ieven miles NAV. of Narbonne. The place contains
501, and die canton 6753 inhabitants, on a territory of 167^
Jii'lometres, in 15 communes.

GINETO, St. a town of N.iples, in Calalwia Citra ; 16
miles N.W, of i^^fignano.

GINETTA, Genetta, or Genet, m Zoology, ihe VjVeR*
KA ^metUi of Liunxus, which fee.

GINGEE,

I.

G I N

GINGEE, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of Hln-
doolian, in the Carnatic, once the capital of a kingdom
of t!ie fame name, fituatfd on a mountain and defended bv
three caftles ; 33 geograpliical miles from Pondi';herry anil
23 from Trinoiiialy. N. lat. 12 16. E long. 79 36'.

GINGER, in Botany. See Amomim.

GiKCiER, Zingiber, in the Maleriu Medica, &c. Gin^-er
is cither black, or white. In Jamaica this plant attains its
full hei;;lit and flowers about Auguft or September, and
fades abont the clofe of the year. When the ftalks arc- en-
tirely withered, the roots are in a proper {late for diggin>r,
■which is generally performed in the months of January and
February. After being dug, they are picked, cleanfed, and
rradually feeth^-d, or fcalded in boiling water : they are then
prcad out, and expofed every day to the fun till fufiiciently
dried ; and after being divided into parcels of about loolb.
weight each, they are packed in bags for the market : this is
called the " black ginger." " White ginger'' is the root of
the fame plant, but inllead of fcalding the roots, by which
they acquire the dark appearance of the former, each root
is picked, fcraped,feparately wafhed,and afterwards dried with
great care : by this operation more than double expence is in-
curred, and the market price is proportionably greater. Black
ginn^er is laid by Jacquin to lofe part of its efTtntial oil by
being thus immerfed in boiling water ; and on this account
it is lefs uiVful for medical and other purpofes than the white,
^vhich is always good when perfectly found and free from
Avorra-holes : but that imported from the Eall Indies is
Jlronger than any we have from Jamaica.

This warm aromatic root appears, fays Lewis, to be
much lefs liable to heat the conllitution than might be ex-
peded from the penetrating heat and pungency of its tafte,
and the fixednefs of its adlive principles. But Dr. CuUen is
of opinion, that there is no real foundation for this remark.
It gives part of its virtue to water, and the whole to rectifled
fpirit, tinging the latter of a deep, and tlie former of a pale
yellow colour. This latter property it polfeffes in fo confi-
derable a degree, that if a watery infufion of this root be
boiled down to a thick confiflence, diflblved afrelh m a large
quantity of water, and llrongly boiled down again, the heat
and pungency of the root remain, but with little or notiring
of its fmell. It is ufed medically as an antifpafmodic and car-
minative. The cafes in which it is more immediately fer-
viceable are flatiJent colics, debility and laxity of the ftomach
and intelHnes, and in torpid and phlegmatic conllitutions to
excite briiker vafcular aclion. It is feldom given but in eom-
binadon with other ingredients.. In the Pharmacopceias it is
directed to be adminirtered under the form of a fyrup and
tinclure ; it is alfo prefcribed as a condiment, and as a
fubfidiary ingredient in many compoiitions. The fyrup of
ginger is prepared by macerating two ounces of the ginger
root diced in a pint of boiling water for twenty-iour hours,
and then ftraining, and adding two pounds of relined
fugar, as in other fyrups. The tinfture of ginger is formed
by macerating two ounces of ginger root fiiced in two pints
of proof fpirit for 14 days, and then ftraining the liquor.
The dietetic qualities and ufes of ginger are well known ;
and it is employed under various forms.

It is not uncommon to candy the root, when green, with
fugar and honey ; having iirft fteeped it fome time in water, to
takeaway part of its acrimony, and to difpoie it to let go
the outer ikin. Tiiis candied ginger, brought from abroad, is
moderately aromatic. They alfo make a marmalade of it,
and dry cakes. _

The northern people make great ule of this confection,
as holding it fovereign againll the fcurvy. The Indians eat
the root, when green, by way of fallad, firft ehoppuig it
Vol. XVI.

G I N

fmaJJ, mixing it with other herbs, and fcafor.i.ng It with oil
and vmegar.

Ginger may be prefcrvcd by wafliing it, and laying it to
iteep for ten or twelve days in white wine and water, ftirring
them every day ; then boil a pound of roots with two quarti
of white wine, and about a pint of lemon juice, for a quarter
of an hour ; then add two pounds and a half of fine fu"ar,
and boil it to a fyrup, fcumming it a. it rifes ; fct it by*'liU
the next day in a glazed pan ; then boil it for half an hour,
and repeat this boiling at the fame interval till the ginger ii
clear. Put it into glaffes, and cover them with paper, and
It will afford a fine fwecimeat for the winter. A wine is
made of ginger, which is a pleafaiit and falubrious bevtrag-

GiNouK, in Geography, one of the fmaller Virgin iflcs in
the Well Indies ; 10 miks S S.Vv. of Virgin Gorda N lat
18 5'. W. long. 62 53'._Alfo, a town of Egypt, on the
t. branch ot the Nik-, oppolite to Manforali.

GINGERBREAD, a richer kind of bread ; the flavour
and tafto of which are heiglitened and improved with fpices,
and particularly ginger ; v.-hence the name.

There are various forms and preparations of gingtrbread
we fliall content ourf.>lveS with the following receipt, whic

is well recommended

Into
penny

hich

a pound of almonds, blanched and pounded, grate a
white loaf; fift and beat them together ; to the mix-
ture add an ounce of ginger, fcraped fine ; and liquorice,
and annifeed in powder, of each a quarter of an ounce ;
pour in two or three fpoonfuls of rofe-water, and make the
whole into a parte, with half a pound of fugar : mould and
roll it, print it, and dry it in a ftove. Others make it of
treacle, citron, lemon, and orange-peel, with candied ginger,
coriander, and caraway-feeds, mixed up with as much flou'r as
will make it into a pafte.

GINGERO, or Lendero, in Geography, a kingdom of
Africa, fituated on the S.W. of Abyfllnia. N. lat. 6 . L. long,
about 3, '.

GINGHAM, a town on the north coaft of Sumatra. N.
lat. 5° 10'. E. long. 96 10'.

^ GINGIDIUM, in Boiany, a name adopted by Forfter,
Nov. Gen. t. 21, for an umbelliferous plant, found on tlir
hills of New Zealand, which he himfelf fufpefted to be a
Ligujlicum, and which has been fo confidered by following-
botaniils. It is Liguficum Gingidium of WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i
1428. See L1GU.STICLM.

The ',i>-,i^>o> of Diofcorides appears to be likewife of tliis
natural order, but the fpecies can fcarccly be determined with
certainty. Dr. Sibthorp fuppofed it might be Davcvs Gin-
gidium of Linnsus, merely from the coincidence of the names,
for it agrees better with D. Vijnnga, Jwmi Vijr.aga, Prod.
Fl. Grxc. n. 650 ; not that any thing can be gathered, frora
the defcription of Diofcorides, to quote him, in Inch a cafe,
with any propriety. He fays it is " by fome called Lrfidium,
and grows very abundantly in Cilicia (now Caramania) an J
Syria. It is a little herb, Hke wild carrot, but more flender
and more bitter, with a whitifii and bitterilh root." Thi«
will be found to accord equally well wftli many plants of thole
countries. Mattbiolus, milled, as it feern*, either by a-Latia
verfion, or by the opinion of thofe who take th.e ri.:\.h>-i of
Diofcorides for the Pii/limicd, or Parfnip, w htreas it is evi-
dently by the defcription a Ddueus, or Carrot, took for the
yiyyiiir,/ a Syrian plant, llril defcribed by himfelf, and wLick
indeed is'fmaller and llenderer than the Parfnip, tl.ougli larger
and broader than the Carrot. Hence he ceiifures tnofe \vlio
have taken the Chervil, Scandix Cerefo/ium, for the herb iii
quellion, though they really appear to be more in the riglil
than himfelf. However this may be, the plant of Mattiiioliii
is the Dauiuj Gingidium of Linnaeus, as well as his Dducidtu :
L 1 LimurvA

G I N

Linmus having in the firft inllance defined it from tlic uoodtn
cut of Mattliioliis, and in the latter dofcribcd it from a fpe-
timen in the Upfal garden. The liiflory of this millake is
i;iven at length, by the writer of the prefent article in the
Tranfaftions of the Linnx-an Society, v. 9. 131.

GINGING, in Mn/n?-, Reining or ftainii.g, fignifies the
lining of amine-fhaft with Hones or bricks for its fupport.
Shallow fliafts, where the meafiires are adapted to Hand, are
funk firft, and the lining of them with Hone, or glnging, is be-
gun from the bottom and carried up at once to the top : but
in finking deep (hafts, after as great a depth is done at once
as the nature of the mcafures will permit, a further depth is
funk in the bottom, beginning firll withinfide the ginging,
and continuing the (haft of that dimini(hcd diameter for
12 or 18 inches, according to the foundnefs of the mca-
fures in that place, when it is gradually enlarged to the full
fize as the finking proceeds, and funk fome yards lower, until
upon reaching a bed of ftone, or as great a depth as is judged
fafe, according to the nature of the finking, the ginging is be-
gun, and carried up to where the dimiiiilhing of the fliafts
begins ; when the fame is picked out to admit the fucceffive
courfes of ftone or bricks, as high as is judged fafe, then the
removal of the remainder of the fupport for the firll ginging
is commenced, by cutting out a piece, wide enough to admit
of one or two courfes of Hone or bricks, being built up like
a pier, which is firmly keyed or underpinned to the ging-
ino- above by means of tile-flieds or thin flate if neceiiary :
-a fim-.lar piece is then cut out and underpinned on the oppolite
fide of the fhaft, and then another between each of thefe,
and fo on, urtil the ginging of the lower and upper part is en-
tirely joined all round the (hafts.

■ The (liaft is then deepened withinfide thelaft ginging, and
funk, firft narrow and then of its proper width, as far as is
judged fafe, when a new ginging is begun, and carried up,
;ind joined to that previoufiy finiflied, as above defcribed.
iaolid iione-beds or permanent rocks, which ai-e met with in
iiiiking, are not ginged, but the (haft is funk through fuch
rocks, of the fame diameter as the inlide of the ginging,
v.-hich ftands upon their top and is pinned up beneath their
bottoms.

GINGIVA, in Anatomy, the gum ; a hard fort of flefii,
invefting the alveoli, or fockets, of the teeth. See Gnv/j
under Ch.inium.

GINGLARtJS, in ^t Ancient Mujic, a fmall Egyptian
flute, which, according to Jnl. Pollux, was proper for a
fur.ple melody, perhaps from Iiaving but fev.- holes

GINGLYMOID, in Anatomy, from •)..j'/?vuuo;, a hinge,
and u'-o:,fnrm ; a term applied to certain joints of the body.

See DtARTHRO.'-IS.

GINGLYMUS. See Diartii-o.vis.

GINGO, GlXGOUX, QX G'mgoi'.p, in Geography, a town of
'tie Valais ; lo miles W. of Aigle.

•GINGRA, in Ant'iqmty, a kind of dance uftd at fu-
neral?,

GIKGRAS, or GlXGROs, in the Anckr.t Miifc, a dance
perfjrm»;d to the lound of fiUtcs.

GINGRINA, in Antiquity, a name gi/jn to a fmall kind
of fliite !^t for beginners.

GINGROS, and GlxcaiAS, Mnjcal Inf.mmnits of the
AnAcnts. The Phoenician:, according to jithcnxus, had
flutes of only a palm, in length, which produced acute, but
plaintive founds. The Carians made ufe of them in tlicir
funerals: perhaps by Carians the Phoenicians sremcar.t here,
as in Corinixi and Bathyllides. Tliofe (lutes derive tlieir
names from the lamentations of the Phcen'cians at the death
of Adoiiis, «hom tl.:-y caL'ed G'mgns. Encycl. Suppl.

G I N

GINHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Hanau Mun/.eiiberg ; 11 miles \V. of Haiiau.

GIN-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Qiiang-tong ; 22 miles N. of Chao-tcheou.

GIN-HOAI, a town of China, of the third rank, iir
Se-tchuen ; 32 miles S. of Tche-li-leou.

GINIPALIAGARUM, a town of Hindooftan ; 25
miles E. of Calicut.

GINKGO, in Botany, Linn. Mant. 313. Kxmpf. Amoen,
811. t. 813. — The Japanefe name of a tree, as large as a
AVahiut-tree, with leaves rcfcmbling an Ailhmtum. The
male fiowcrs are in catkins, the female folitary, on ftalks,
producing a drupa, wliofe nut refembles that of a Pijlacia,
with a white, fomewhat aftringent, kernel, which is eaten in
Japan, being fuppofed to aflift digeftion. This tree is hardy
in our gardens, fometimes bearing catkins, but no fruit.
The late Mr. Gordon fent a living plant to Liiinxus, who
mentions it in an appendix by the above appellation, not be-
ing able either to define the genus, or to name it properly,
till he knew the fructification. Mr. Salilbury having with
great affiduity determined its cffential characters, it was de-
dicated to him, by Dr. Smith m the Tranf. of the Linn.
Soc. v. 3. 330, and his botanical merits will ever juftify the
appropriation. See S-\r,isr,ui!iA.

GIN-KIA-CENTZE, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
Tartsry. N. lat. 41 45'. E. long. 123'^ 29'.

GIN-KIEOU, a town of Cliina, of the third rank, in
Pe-tche!i ; 17 miles N. of Hc-kien.

GINLIA, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; I2miles
N. E. of Teram.o.

GINNANI, Francis, in Biography, was born at Ra-.
venna in 1716. He was educated in his father's houfe, and
at the age of fourteen was placed at Parma, as page to the
duke of Antony Farnefe. The duties of this fituation did
not prevent him from purluing liis ftudies, and he was parti-
cularly attentive to natural hiftory, under the direflion of
his uncle Jofeph Ginnani, who was well known for his re-
fearches into marine productions. He dtvotcd himftlf to a
retired and ftudious life, and was the inventor of divers agri-
cultural inftruments and other machines, ufeful as well as
curious. His writings, which relate to almcft all the de-
partments of natural hiftory, obtained for him an admiffion
into the learned locieties of London, Paris, Bern, and Peru-
gia, and he held a literary corrcfpondence with many o the
moll eiriinent natural philofophers of the age. In private
life he was courteous, modeft, and benevolent, and he was
particularly cbfervant of the duties of religion. He died
at. the age of forty. His principal work was a treatife on
the difeafes of corn, with obfervaticns on the caufes and
remedies. He publifhed an account of the natural producr
tions in the mufeiim of Ravenna, and he greatly interefted
liimfelf in the iniTItution of the fociety of that town. H?
left behind him fome m.anufcripts, an-ong which v.-as a " Na-
turi.l and Civil Hiftory of the Pine Forefts of Ravenna."
Gen iMog.

GIKNIS, in Geography, a town of Turki(h Armicnia ;
21 miles W. N. W. cf Erzerum.

GINNiSH, a town of Hindooftan, in Gnzerat ; 36 miles
S. of Amedabad.

GINONDAYAN, a town on tlie E. coa?! of the illand
of Leyta. N. lat. lo'^ 27'. E. long. 125 10.

GINORIA, in Botcny, was named by Jacquin, to ccm-
mcmorate a patron of fcience and cf himfelf, the marquis
Charles Ginori, governor of Leghorn, wlio was extremely
liberal in fupportmg a botanic garden at Florence. Linn.
Gen. 240. Schreb. 323. Jacq. Am.ci-. 148. Willd. Sp.
P!. v. 2. 87 J. Mar.. Mill. Dicl. v. 2. Lamarck Dicl.
1 V. 2,

\

GIN

■». t, 712. JufT. 331. Clafsand order, DoihcanJria Mono-
gynia Nat. Ord. CalycanlheiDte, Linn. Salicari^, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf : tube bcll-
fliapcd ; limb fix-cleft : fej^ments lanceolate, fpreadinfr, co-
loured, permanent. Cor. Petals fuc, roundifli, fpreading, long-
er than tlie calyx, with long claws infci ted into tlie neck of
the calyx. Slam. Filaments 12, a\vl-(haped, the k-nnh of
the calyx and infertcd into it ; anthers kidnev-fhaped Pi/}.
Germen roundifh, deprcfied ; (lyle awl-fhaped, as long as the
corolla, not deciduous ; ftigma obtufe Perk. Capfule
roundilh, depreffed. (hilling, coloured, with a])out four far-
rows and four valves, ef one cell, gaping at the top. Sc.Js-
numerous, minute; receptacle roundifh, lar^e.

EiT. Ch. Calyx fix-cleft. Petals fix. Capfule of one cell,
with four valves, coloured, with many feeds.

I. G. aKir'uaua. Lion. Sp. PI. 6.;.2. Jacq. Amer. t. 91. —
Native of the rocky and gravelly banks of rivers in the
ifland of Cub.i. This beautiful flirub has mucli of the af-
pecV of a myrtle, and bears its flowers and ripe fruit in
December. It rifes erecl to the height of three or four
feet, and its branches are round, fmQoth, and woody.
Leaves lanceolate, entire, fmooth, fpreading, on ihort foot-
llalks, oppofite, an inch and half long, numerous. Stalls
finglc-flowered, {lender, axillary and terminal. Flczuers
inodorous, witii a reddifh calyx, blue corolla, and dark-red
capfule, containing a moil beautiful berry. Seeds whitifh.
The capfule remains entire for fome time after the feed is
fhed, together with the calyx and part of the ftyle. The
natives call this plant Rofa del rio, or river Rofe — It has ne-
ver been introduced into the gardens of Europe, nor have we
even feen a dried fpecimen.

GIN-PIN, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Chan-tong ; 17 miles N E of Tong-chang.

GIN-SENG, or Nix-SEXG, in Botany. See PiXAX.

GiN'-SEVG; in the Materia Medica, is one of the prin-
cipal medicines of the Chinefe and Tartars ; and their
mofl; erain.ent phyficians have written many volumes concern-
ing its virtues.

It is known among them by divers other names, exprefllng
only Jjiirit, or the pure fpirit of the earth ; the plant thai gives
immorlalily. Sec. It makes, in efFeA, the whole materia me-
dica for the people of condition, but is too precious for the
populace.

AH the writers of the Chinefe affairs make mention of the
gin-ieng : as Martinius, in his Atlas ; F. Kirclier in his
China Illuftrata ; F. Tachard, in his Voyages ; and F. Le
Comte, in his Memoirs.

And yet we knew but very- little of this plant before F.
Jartoux, a Jcfuit, and miffionary in China ; who, being em-
ployed, b V ovdirr of the emperor, in maldng a map of Tartaiy,
in tlie year 17C9, had an opportunity of ieeing it growing in
a village "bout four leagues from the kingdom of Corea, in-
habited by Tartars, called Calca-Tat'ze.

Tuat father took this opportunity to make a draught of
the pL-.nt, and give an accurate deicription of it, with its
virtues and manner of prepari.ig it. The giu-feng, accord-
ing to his defcription and drawing, has a wliitc root, fome-
■what knotty, about thrice the thicknefs of the item, and
which g.'-ows tapering to the ep.d ; at a few inches from the
head it frequently p;uts into two branches, which gives it
fome refcmbla;icc of a man, v.hofe thighs the branches repre-
fent ; and it is hence it takes the denomination giu-feng,
^hich figniiics a figure of a man.

It is h.-ird to fay, why the Chinefe fliould call it gin-feng,
a word which fignified [figure or reprefeni alien of a man: nei-
ther that father, nor any he enquired of, could e?er find', that
;t bore more refeinblance to tin; figure of a man than is grdi-

G I N

narily /l-en among other root.. The Tarurs, with more rea.
Ion, call It orhota, that is, the f.rft of plants. It grows to
the height of about eighteen inches.

The plant dies away every year : the number of its yearn
may b« known by the number of ftalk3 it has (hot forth, of
which there always remains fome mark.

Thofc who gather the gin-feng preferve only the root ,
and all they can get of it in ten or fifteen days time they bury
together, in fome place under ground ; then they take care
to walh It well, and fcour it with a brufli ; then dip it in fcald-
ing water, and prepare it in the fumes of a fort of yellow mil-
let, wh;c!i gives it part of its colour. The millet is put in
a veffel, with a little water, and boiled over a gentle fire ; the
roots are laid over the veffel, upon fmall tranlverfe piece's of
wood, being firft covered with a hnen cloth, or fome other
veffel placed over them.

They may alfo be dried in the fun, or bv the fire ; but
then, though they retain their virtue well enough, they have
not that yellow colour which the Chinri'"e fo much admire
When tiie roots are dried, they mull be kept clofe in fome
very dry place ; otherwife t!u;y are in danger of corrupting,
or of being eaten by worm.s.

As to the place where this root grows, it is between tlie
thirty-ninth and forty-feventh degree ef north latitude, and
between the tenth and twentieth degree of ealUongitude,
reckoning from the meridian of Pckin. Here is found a
long tract of mountains, which thick forefls, that cover and
encompafs them, render almoll impaffable : it is upon tlic
declivities of thefe mountains, and in thefe thick fonjfts,
upon the banks of torrents, or about the roots of trees,
and amidft a thoufand other different forts of plants, that
the gin-feng is found : it is net to be met with in plains, \-al-
leys, mardies, tlie bottoms of rivulets, or in places too much
expofed and open

If the foreft takes fire and be confumed, this plant does
not appear till two or three years after ; it alfo lies hid from
the fun as much as pofTible, which fliews that heat is an ene-
my to it.

The places w here the gin-feng grows are, on even" fidf,
feparate.; from the province of Quang-tong by a barrier of
wooden flakes, which encompaffes this whole province,
and about which guards continually patrol, to hin-
der the Chinefe from going out and looking after this
root.

Yet, however vigilant they are, greedinefs after gain in-
cites the Chinefe to lurk about privately in thefe dtferts,fome-
times to the number of two cr three thoufand, at the hazard
of lofing their hberty, and all tlie fruits of their labour, if
they are taken either as they go out of or come into the
province.

The emperor, in order that the Tartars fliould reap all
the advantage that is to be made of this plant, rather thin
the Chinefe, gaveorder.% in 1 709, to ten thoufand Tartars,
to go and gather all they could find of the gin-feng, upon
condition that each perfon fliould give him two ounces of tlie
befl, and that the rell fhould be paid for, weight for weight,
in pure filver. ',

It was computed, that, by this means, the emperor would
get this year above twenty thoufand Chinefe pounds of it,
which wuKld nut coll him abo\e cue-fourth part of its
value.

We met, by chance, fays F. .lartoux, «Hth fome of thefe
Tartars, in the midll of thofe fright£iil deferts ; and their
mandarins,^ who were not far out of the wav, came, one
after another, and pflercd us oxen for our. fublilleacc, ac-
cordin;r to tlie commands ihev had received from the em-

pcro

Liz

Thi.0

C 1 N

This army of licvbnlifts obferved the following order : af-
ter they had divided a certain tract of land among their feve-
ral companies, each company, to the nunihcr of a hundred
perfons, fpread itfclf out in a right line, to a certain lix.-d
place, every ten of them keeping at a dillaiice from the
reft.

Then they f.archcd carefully for the plant, gomg on ki-
X'.irely in the fame order ; and in this manner, in a certain
number of days, they run over the ^^hole fpace of ground
appointed them.

When the time was expired, the mandarins, who were en-
camped in their tents in fuch places as were proper for the
fubfirtence of their horfes, fent to view encli troop, to give
them frefli orders, and to inform themfelves if their number
■was complete

If any one of them was wanting, as it often Iiap-
pened, cither by wandering out of liie way, or being
attacked by wild beads, they always looked for him a
day or two, and then returned again to tlieir labonr as be-
fore.

Gin-feng was formerly fuppofed to grow only in Ciiinefc
Tartar)-, affecting mountainous lituations, fliaded by clofe
woods, but it has nov been long known that this plant is
alTo a native of North America, whence M. Sarrafm tranf-
mitted fpecimons of it to Paris in the year 1 704 ; and the
gin-feng fmce difcowred in Canada, Pennfylvania, and Vir-
ginia, by Lafiteau, Kalm, Bartram, and others, has been
found to correfpond exadly with the Tartarian fpccits, and
its roots are now regularly purchafed by the Chinefe,
who confider them to be the fame with thofe of eaftern
growth, which are known to undergo a cfi'tain preparation
above-mentioned, by which they affume a fomewhat differ-
ent appearance. This plant was firll introduced into Eng-
land in 1740 by that induflrious naturalift, Peter CoUin-
fon. The dried root of gin-feng, as it is imported here, is
fcarcely as thick as the little finger, about three or four inches
• loiinr, frequently forked, tranfveriely wrinkled, of a horny
texture, and both internally and externally of a yellowifli
white colour. To the tatte, fays Lewis (Mat. Med.), it
difcovei-s a mucilaginous fweetnefs, approaching to that of
liquorice, accompanied with fome degree of bitteriflinefs, and
a iiight aromatic warmth, with little or no fmell. It is far
Tweeter, and of a more grateful fmell, than the roots of fen-
nel, to which it has by fome been fuppofed fimilar ; and
differs hkevife remarkably from thofe roots, in the nature
and pharmaceutic properties of its aftive principles : the
fweet matter of the gin-feng being procured entire in the
watery as well as the fpirituous extraft, whereas that of
fennel-roots is deftroycd or diflipatcd in the infplflation of the
watery tinCliire. The (light aromatic impregnation of the
gin-feng is likewife in good meafure retained in the watery
fxtraft, and pci-fettly in the fpirituous.

The gin-feng, we have obferved, is an ingredient in mod
of the medicines which the Chinefe phyficians prefcribe to
the better fort of patients : they affirm, that it is a fove-
reign remedy for all wcaknefTes occnfioned by exceffive fa-
tigues, either of body or mind ; that it attenuates and car-
ries off pituitous humours ; cures weaknefs of the lungs and
th; pleurify ; ftop", vomitings ; llrengthens the fton-.ach, and
helps the appetite ; difperfes fumes or vapours ; fortifies the
breaft ; is a remedy for fhort and weak breathing ; ftrength-
ens the vital fpirits, and is good againll dizzinefs of the
head and dimnefs of fight ; and that it prolongs life to ex-
treme old age. Nobody can imagine, that the Chinefe and
Tartars would fet fo high a value upon this root, if it did
not conftantly produce a good eflefl : thofe that are in
kcalth often make ufe of it to render themfelves more vigo-

G I O

rous and ftrong. And I am pcrfuaded, adds father JartotixS
above-mentioned, it would prove an excellent mediciise in the
hands of any European who underllands pharmacy, if he
had but a fnflicicnt quantity of it to make fuch trials as are
ni'ceflary to examine the nature of it chemically, and to a])-
ply it in' a proper quantty, according to the nature of the
difeafe for which it may be beneficial.

It is certain, that it fubtili/.es, increafes the motion of,
and warms the blood, that it helps digeilion, and invigo-
rates in a very fenfible mannci'.

A fter I had drfigned the root, he goes on, I obferved
the flate of my pulfe, and then took ualf of a root, raw as
it v,as, and UHprei)ared ; in an hour after I found my pulfe
much fuller and quicker ; I had an appetite, and perceived
myl'elf much more vigorous, and could bear labour better
and eafier than before. Four days after, finding myfelf fo
fatigued and weary, that I could fcarcely fit on horfcback,
a mandarin, who was in company with us, perceiving it,
gave mc one of thefe roots ; 1 took half of it immediately,
and an hour after I was not in the Icall ienlible of any
wearincfs. I have often made ufe of it fince, and always
with the fame fuccefs. I have obferved alfo, that the green
leaves, and cfpecially the fibrous part of them, chewed,
would produce nearly the fame effeft. The Tartars often
bring people the leaves of gin-ferg inflead of tea : and I
always find myfelf fo well afterwards, that I fliould
readily prefer them before the bed tea ; their decottion
is of a grateful colour, and, when one has taken it
twice or thrice, its tade and fmell become very agree-
able.

As for the root, it is neccdary to boil it a little more tlian
tea, to allow time for extrafting its virtue, as is praflifed
by the Chinefe, when they give it to fick perfons ; on which
occafion they feldom ufe more than the fifth part of an ounce
of the dried root.

To prepare the root for exhibition they cut it into thin
dices, and put it into an earthen pot well glazed, with about
half a pint of water : the pot is to be well covered, and fet
to boil over a gentle fire ; and, when the water is confumed
to the quantity of a cupful, a little fugar is to be mixed with
it, and to be drank ; immediately after this, as much more
water is to be put to the remainder, and to be boiled as be-
fore, to ex:ract all the juice, and what remains of the fpiri-
tuous part of the root.

Thefe two doles are to be taken, the one in the morning,
and the other in the evening. Phil. Tranf. N" 337, or
Abridg. vol. iv. part ii. p. 314, &c.

Gin-feng has been confidered by the Chinefe as a power-
ful aplirodifiac ; but a fadt to the contrary is alleged by
Dr. Cullen in his Mat. Med. v. ii. p. 261. Highly as the
virtues of this root have been extolled by the Chinefe, and
by others, upon their authority, we know of no proofs,
fays Dr. Woodville (Med. Bot.), of its efficacy in Europe,
and from its fenfible qualities, we judge it to po'lefs very
little power as a medicine. It is reconm-.ended in decoction,
I're. a dram of the root to be long boiled in a fufficient quan-
tity of water for one dofe ; but it has been omitted in the
lad edition of the London Pharmacoprtia.

GIO, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on the N. coaft
of tlie ifland Shapinlka.

GiO, St., a town of Italy, in Eriuli ; 1 1 miles W. of Pal-
ma la Nuova.

Gio di Ftort-i St., a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
16 miles \V S.W. of Umbriatico.

Gio In Pclago, St., aniQandin the gulf of Venice, near
the coad of Ulria. N. lat. 45" 15'. .E. long. 13 49'.

GIOAR, in the Mcteria Medka of the ancient Arabians,

a word

G I O

G I O

a word applied to feveral different fubftances, and fometimcs
ni'ed as tint ditlinft names of tlu-m ; fometimcs only as an
epithet to tlicni. It is generally ufed by Avicennaas a name
for arfenic, fometimes for iintimony ; and in iSerapion, we
oftf n find it {landing for any of the mineral poifons. The
original meaning of the \v(ird is no more than what the
Greeks cxpreffcd by the word oucri», fnljiance ; but it became
applied to feveral tilings moil eminent in their way ; as lo nr-
fenie, the moll fatal of poUons ; to antimony, fuppofed at
that time the moll valuable of medicines ; and to pearls, as
the moll valuable of gems.

GIOBAIl, mGco^rjphy, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; 20 miles N.W of Tecrit.

GTOCONDO, Frax. Giovanni, in Bw^t-aphy, who
flonriflied in the fifteenth century, was a native of Verona,
where he taught the learned languages for a fubii Hence.
Among his pupils was the celebrated Julius C;t'far Scaliger.
He atterwards became a monk, and was claimed as a bro-
ther both by tlie Dominicans and Francifcans. He was ex-
tremely learned in matliematies, and contributed much to
the revival of clafiical learning, by the colleftion of ancic:it
monuments and manufcripts. He prefented to Lorenzo de
Medici a colletlion of ancient infcriptions which he had com-
piled in Rome. Giocoudo was fome time at the coin-t of
the emperor Maximilian. He vilited France, and was em-
ployed to build two bridges over the Seine. After this he
obtained the title of Architect -royal in France. The time
of his death has not been afcertained : it is fuppofed he did
not furvive, very long, the year 1 521, as he calls himfelf
an old man, eight years before this, in the dedication of a
work to Juliano de Medici. He materially ferved the caufe
of literature by fjveral works, which did him much credit
as a writer, as they likewife extended his lame as an artill.
He puhlilhed an edition of Pliny's epillles, and gave a cor-
reiit edition of Vitruvius, illullrated with ligures, which he
dedicated to pop? .lulius H. He took a part in editing
many other works of the ancients, and was the firft pericm
who gave a defign of Crefar's bridge over the Rhir-.e. In
1 506 he wrote four difTertatlons, audreffed to the magiftracy
of Venice, concerning the waters of that city. He was em-
ployed with Raphael and San Gallo in iuperintendlng the
ereAiofi of St. Peter's. His kill work was, probably, tiie
rebuilding of the Hone bridge of Verona. Gen. Biog.

GIOFAR, Al, in Geography, a town of Arabia; S
miles S. S. E. of Rabogh.

GIOGI, a town of Tranfdvania, fituated near the Ma-
ros; 14 miles S. W. of Millenbach.

GIOJA, or GiovA, Flavio, in Biography, was born
at Pafitanc, near Amalli, in the kingdom of Naples, about
the rear i ^00. Little is known of the hillory of his lite,
except that he is thought to have been the difcoverer of the
direitive power of the magnet, by which it difpofes its
poles along the m.crldian of every place, or nearly h>, and
to have aiiplied this important faft to the purpoles ol navi-
gation, under the form of a compafs. As a proof that this
inllrumeut was the invention of a fubjeCt ot tlie king of
Naples, who was a junior branch of the royal family of
France, i; is faid he marked the north point with a fleur-
de-lis, by which it is dlilir.gui.'hed by the pcv-ple of every
coantrv. As a memorial of this difcovery, the territory of
Principato, in which Gioja was born, bears, for its arms, a
compais. It mufl not, however, be concealed, that the
Frencli and the Englifh have claimed for themfelves the
honour : and many auth.ors of reputation have given It to the
Chinefe, who are reported to have known its uie long be-
fore their intercourfe with Europeans, and that the fecret

was brought to Italy by Marco Polo. Moreri. See the ar-
ticle Com CASS,

GioiA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the province

of Bari ; 14 miles S. S. W. of Convorfano Alfo, a town of

Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 7 miles S. E. of Cclano — Alfo,
a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 7 miles S. of Nicofra.
GIOMELU, a body of the fpahis, or horfe, in the fcr-
vice of the grand fignior.

CilONl PiAvo, St. in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata; 8 miles S. S. W. of Jx-hna.

GIORASH, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 60 mile*
N. W. of Saade.

GIORDANI, Vital, in Biography, was born at Bi-
tonto, a town belonging to the kingdcnn of Naples, in irt^-j.
He was intended for the church, but dcferted the Undies
neceffary for tliat profeffion, and mjrried when he had no
means of providing for tlie fupport of a family. After this
he led an idle Dfe, quarrelled with his reiations, murdered
his brother, and fought for fafety by leaving his countrv.
He entered as a comiiKni foldier on board the gallevs, v.-!,.'clr
pope Innocent X. fent agalnft the Turks in the Levant. lie
was prefenl in fi veral attions, and gave abundant prc'~fs of
his courage and heroifm. His talents led him to promot'on
and he was made purfer, a iituatlon v.hlch obliged him to
improve himfelf in aritlimetic, of which he fcarcely kn'-\v
the elements. What his duty required him to leam, his
iiiclinatiou led him to purfue with plealure and delight ;
he became an able mathematician, and was at length
chofen pnjfelfor of mathematics to Chrillina, queen of Swe-
den. Lewis XIV. appointed him ]>n;feffor cf the fame
branch of fclence in tlie Academy of Sculpture and Paintin"-.
Tills was in i66<'>, and in 1672 pope Clement X. made him
Ills engineer, and profeffor at the College of Wifdoin. By
his great prudence, regularity, and temperance, he redeem-
ed Ills characler, and died in his 78lh year. His principal
works are " Euchde Reftltuto," 16S6, folio. " Funda-
mentum Doflrinse Motus Gravium," and " Ad Hvacin-
thum Chrillophorum Epiilola." Mor-eri.

GIORDANO, LucA, an hidorical painter, born at
Napls in 1629. His father was an artiil of no great re-
pute, who, fancying his fon Lnca had an inclination to
painting, employed iiim very early m the practice ofthi*
art ; by wliicii means he acquired an uncommon ficility of
handling the jiencil, and iucceeded in imitating the works
of great mailers. By this, when very young, he gained
for his parents conlidcn.ble wealth; and fo e;iger was his
father tJ make advantage of his ingenuity, that he fcarcelv
allowed the youth time to eat iiis meals, but v.as continually
urgnig him to purfue his labours by repeating fo inccirantly
Luc.i fa preilo, ( l.uca make hi'Pe,) that fa jircllo becan-.e his
nick-name among his compmlons.

His lirft mailer of any note was .Tofeph de Ribera, called
Spignoletto; to wliofe ilyle he, for a time, fo much ad-
hered, as to puz/le the moll difcerning critics. From
Naples he rcmo\' J to Rome, where he indullrioully ftudied
the noble remains of antiquity, and the works of < minent
mailers in the art. He iixed l:imlelf uuliappilv with Pletro
Co tona, by which it is probable his brilliant inl.^gillation
wa< tauglit to expand itielf in a moiv imperfect and trifling
m inner than it was originally capable of entertaining. His
rjady liaud, and the freedom, boldnefs, and preciiion of his
touch, was exaftlv what Cortona required, and wi;h hira he
wrought on many noble works in frelco; and was fo in-
credibly expeditious in that way, tiiat he could difpatch as
much work in a day, as ajiy other painter could ni a week.
His imagination was exceedingly iertile; and tiiis, with
the readinefs of liis liand, and the confcq\ient abundance cf

G I O

G I O

bis pi-odii*lioiii, fooii fpn-ad his fame over Europe. Tlie
king- of Spain (Charles 11.) (Wfiriiig to fee him paint, and
to li'ave tlie Efciirial adoriiccl by his lumd, invited hiin lliere,
ordering h.iin to be paid 1 500 ducats de Plata for the voyage,
and allowing him to freight the fliip th:it brought him over
duty free. He alfo made- him groom of the bed-chamber,
h')nouring him witli a golden key, but difpcnfnig with his
attendance, that he might be more his own mailer.

Vclafco fivs, " that it is impofTible to exprefs the num-
ber a;'.d beauty of his compolitions in Madrid, Toledo, and
at the Efcurial : and tiiat he employed only two years to
paint ten arched cielings of the church and llaircafe of that
palace. He was exceedingly induftrious, generally painting
nx or fe-.vu hours every day; and being highly favoured by
the kinu-, b.-ca.iie exceedingly rich. It was in 1692 he firil
arrived at Madrid, and did not return to Italy till 1702,
when he accompanied Philip V. to N.-ples, and in 1704
died there.

Previoufly to his going into Spain he had executed nume-
rous works in Rome, Genoa, Milan, and other places; and
had produced a vall number of pictures in imitation of
Titian, Tintoret, Giorgiune, &c. &c. which are extremely
C'jrreft, and exhibit the amazing power of his memory, and
the verfatility of his genius. The extraordinary facility of
painting v.hich he poiTelfed, enabled him to work with great
fuceefs in frefco, as well as in oil. This very facility is,
however, the eaufe that Giordano's vvoi-ks will never be re-
o-arded as ftandards in the art of painting. Too great a de-
gree of freedom is an enemy to grandeur of llyle, and tlie
perfon who poiTedl-s it is apt to be too eafily fatisued with
hi?, produftions ; and indulging himfelf in the pleafure afford-
ed by the freflinefs and cleaniefs of colo'.u- and efTetl pro-
duced by it, is unwilling to dillurb it in order to render the
parts more poiitively correft; and thus, though ever agree-
able, vet works wrought in this manner arc too often fiimly
and weak in their effeft on the mind. Tliis is the charac-
ter of Luca Giordano, who, though a gn at mailer in the
art, ranks only in a fecond or third rate. One of his moft
confiderab'e prodnttions is the altar-piece of the church of
tl-.e Afcenlion at Naples, reprefenting the fall of Lucifer.^
And in the Durazzo Polan at Gtnoa, is a fine piclurc of
Sene-a dying in the Bath; of which, alfo, there is a dupli-
cate in the gallery at Drefden.

GIOP.GIEV, in Geography, a town of Walachia, on
the N. fide of the Danube ; 40 miles S.W. of Bucharelh
In June 1771, the Ruffians defeated the Turks near this
town, killing 5000 of tliem, and taking 180 pieces of can-
non, with artillery and baggage for 30,000 men. N. b.t.
43° 38'. E. long.' 25-' 18'.

GIORGIO Antoniotto, in Biography, an Italian
writer on mufic, wiio, having been a confiderable time in
EiK^land, had a work entitled " L'Arte Armonica," tranf-
l-.ited into Englifh, whicli he publifiied in two vols, folio, by
fubfcription, under the title of " A Treatife on the Compo-
lition of Mufic," in three books, with an bitroduftion on
tlie Hiftory and Progrcls of iVIufic from its beginning to this
time, written in Italian by Giorgio Antoniotto, and tranf-
lated into Englidi, 1760, printed by Johnfon, Chcap-
iide.

We had at this time no well digefted, clear, and ample
treatife of compofition in our language. Morley's treatife
was become fcarce, obfolete, and totally defective in every
thing that concerns modern mufic. We had indeed Mal-
colm's treatife publifiied in 1 721, and that of Dr. Pepufch
in 1731. The firil is dark and awkwardly written; the
fecond, though excellent as far as it goes, has fome preju-
dices of the old fchoal, which were totaUj abandoned in

1760, and it is too concife in many particulars to enlighten
or fatisfy the doubts of young Undents in many clleutia!
points, which were now neceflary to be explained, and
which in the year 1 73 1 had no exiftence. Geminiani's " Guida
Armonica,'' fo long expedled, and publiflied about the year
1746, puzzled the caufe, and difappointed every reader.
Much therefore was expected, even by profeflors, from a
work in two vols, folio, written by a learned Italian, and
nearly half the lift of fubfcribers confilled of the names of
the principal compofers and organills of the time.

We had a miferable trandation of Ranieau's treatife,
written originally in a mufical tcchnica, totally different from
that to which we were accuftomed, which, with the ungram-
matical and bad Englifli into which the reft was tranflated,
threw every one who attempted to read it into defpair.

The fonatas and concertos of Corelli, pubhfhed in fcore
by Dr. Pepufch, and the works of Handel and Gcminlani,
for thofe who took the trouble to fcore them, were excellent
leffoHS of counterpoint, if they had been properly ftudied.
But it is aftonilhing how lor.g even great performers on in-
ftruments remain in utter ignoranre of compofition. Jack
James, Magnus, and Kilway, though admirable organills,
never attempted comjKifition, and if they had, after a cer-
tain time, they would never have been fure of their ground,
but even in making a bafe to a minuet or country dance
would have difcovered to real judges, that they were not
regular bred contrapiuitills.

Signer Antoniotto, we believe, was a perfeft judge of
the mechanical rules of harmony ; but his method is not
clear and intelligible to a Undent out of the reach of a
mailer, plis introduction, and hiilorical account of the'
progrefs of mufic from the fyilem of the Greeks to thepre-
fent time, will amufe, though not accurately inftrufl;,
curious readers.

He afcribes to Guido the invention of harmony, and to
John de Muris the invention of mufical charafters, as had
been long done by others, wlu), trutting to tradition, had
never feen the Micrologus of Guido, nor the Compendium of
John de Muris, by which it has been lately proved, tliat the
laws of harmony v<-ere unknown to Guido, and that de Muris
himfelf afiigns the invention of mufical charafters to Magif-
ter Franco, who flourifhed 1047, near 300 years before
•Tohn de Muris was born. (See Fkanco and De Ml'UIS.)
So much for fig. Antoniotto's hiftorical part. ■

When becomes to practical mufic, his definitions are fo
far from clear to readers in the firft ilages of cosnterpoint,
that they multiply the ftudent's doubts. His plates have
prima fade fo fcientifie an appearance as to frigliten a prhici-
pianle as much as teaching geometry or algebra would do.
His examples of notation are methodically ftated ; but the
joining the old and modern characters in the fame table will
tonfufe the ftudent's ideas. He begins with three charatteri .
no longer in ufe, and the femibreve, now the firll andlongeft
note, ranks onlv as the fourth.

His general fcale and fyftem of intervals will terrify a,
young Undent by the maimer in which it is reprefented ; his '
lyftem of harmonic combinations the fame. Plates 14 and
15 of tranfpofed fcales are clear and ufeful, as are the
fcalcsin the feveral clefs.

The regie de I'oclave feems unknown to the author,
and his plain counterpoint is written entirely en a ferics 01
fcvenths to bafes rifing or falling by fourths and fifth.s totally
without modulation. No iiiftructions are given for tf.e uie
of difcords, but in examples /i due cori he gives difcords in-
difcriminately to every note, without informing the iludent
when and where to uie thcjn, or fptaking of aecmlcd or «/;-
accented 'Rial's, of a bar.

At

G I O

At plates 4S and 49 the anfvvprs to (liort examples of
rujTiie and imitation are clear and ingenious ; but no in-
flruftionsar," given for melody throughout the work. And
vhufical compofition confilling of the union of melody and
liannony, it fecms, at kail, to have merited a deiinition.
He might have told the ftudent that it confifts of a plealin^f
feries of fingle notes of various lengths, arranged with
grace, di\'ided into equal meafure by bars, phrafed and go-
verned by rhythm.

At pi. 49, ex. vii. there arc fufpkions oi fifths in abun-
dance between the fecond and third lines, unnoticed by the
aathor.

Page 106, vol. i. the author very juftly cenfures vocal
fugues and canons, in which the feveral voices are finging
different words and fyllables at the iame time ; but RouU'eau
had done this before, in his " Lettre fur la Mufique Fran-
coife," 1 75 1. His examples of fugue and canon, which
he allows to have an admirable effett in inllrum^ntal mulic,
are few and artlefs. No other examples are given of rne-
lodv than chords broken into very common palfagcs as va-
riations. Nor of harmony or melody do we llnd more than
two or three examples in triple time, and thofe of a very
common and unmeaning fort.

We remember that the public was much difappointed by
this work, which was filently put on the fhelf, and has
fcarcely ever been mentioned fince its publication.

GiOUGlo Gaxdixi, a painter, furnamed del Grano.
He was of Parma, and, if wo believe Orlandi, not merelv
one of Correggio's fchool, but a pupil, whofe works the
mailer himfelf retouched. The principal piciure in St. Mi-
chele, erroneoufly afcribed to Lelio Orfi, is claimed for
him by P.- Zapata ; a perfonnance, though in parts capri-
cioufly conceived, of an impafto, a relief, a fweetnefs of
colour and pencil, to confer honour on the beil of that
fchool. The eileem in which he was held by his fellovv-
citizens maybe conceived, from the commiflion which they
unanimoufiy conferred on liim after the deceafe of Correggio ;
viz.. to paint the Tribune of the Duomo. Death prevented
him from tlie execution of it, and the commiffion fell to a
third, to Giralomo Mazzuolo, though not yet ripe for an
enterprlze of fuch magnitude. Fuieli'sPilkington.

GioiiGio, i'/ , in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Ultra ; 17 miles S.E. of Nicotera. — Alfo, a town of
the iiland of Lefma ; 44 miles E. of Lciina. — Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Po ; lix miles N.W.
of Cliivaffo. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto j four miles E. of Tarento. — Alfo, a town of
Naples, in the fr.me province ; three miles N.N.'vV. of
Nardo. — Alfo, a town of Napl;-s, in the province of Prin-
cipato Ultra ; three miles S E. of Benevento — Alfo, a town
of Italy ; 10 miles N.W. of Verona. — Alfo, a tov.-n of
Italy, in the department of the Reno ; 1 1 miles N. of Be-
logna.

GIORGIONE D-V C.-isTEL Fu.^nckaco, or Giougio
B.vr.r.AC.DLi.i, ia Biography, was a painter of moil uncom-
mon talents, who dilputes the rank of head of the Venetian
fchool withTitian. He was born at Callel-Franco in 1477,
and acquired the name of Giorgione as well irom his iiiperior
mode of feeling in art, as from tlie beauty and elegance of
his pcrfon and manner. He at firil became a Icliolar of Gio-
vanni Bellini, but foon (hook off the minutenefs and trifiing
labour of that fchool, and fubilituted breadth and fulnels
of handling and cffciS. Vafari obferves, th.it Giorgione,
having feen forne works of Lionardo da Vinci, wherein the
grand llyle of chiarofcuro was efTecled, was ilruck by them,
and endeavoured in future to imitate lirat characl'-'r in his
ow.i piftures. If this be true, which is doubted by feme,

G I O

he, in adopting that flylc, did not fcruplc to vf.,y n, to
fuit his own more pica/ing tafle ; and ctrti.::.iy diSers ex-
ceedingly from it in line, as much at in c ' effect.

The former confines the eye almoft to a it, H-jc

latter diffnfes the lights and fiiade? ; and ti:f.i-,i ari be ap-
parent, ftill nature more truly predominates.

He painted in frefco v.ith great vigour and beauty,
but little of his labour in that way now remains. He
was engaged to paint the bridge of the RialtO
in Venice, where he almoil altogether re.'.dcd : Vafari, while
lie praifcs the beauty of the colours and execution, con-
demns the work, as wanting fubjedf. Many of his oil pic-
tures are in this cour.try, and they cannot be too much ex-
tolled for their excellence in character of colour, or fulnefs
and freedom of handling : wiui a ricli impafto, anda foftr.els
in the rounding;, that render them deliglitfully plenfing to
contemplate. One large picture of a Holy Family is in
pofTeflion of the marquis of Stafford, wliic'h is highly la-
lioured as to effect. But, perhaps the moll r.rfect work of
his in this country, is a fmall picture in the collection of the
earl of Cariifle, a portrait of Gallon de Foix, with a fcrvant
putting on his armour. We are not acqr.ainted with anv
piciture that has more truth or beauty of colour, and (lyle of
charafter to recon-.meiid it. His portraits, in general^ have
every excellence required in t!;at interefting branch of the
art, and he may be jullly ilylcd the father oi portrait paint-
ing, as fince handed down to us by Titian, Vandyke, and fir
.h>!liua Reynolds ; the three great luminaries that have at
different periods fucceeded him. It is told of i.im, that hav-
ing a difpute concerning the fupericrity of fculpture or paint-
ing ; and it being argued, tliat fculptiiro had the advantage,
becaufe the figures it prodnees may be fecn all an)un(l ; he
took the adverfe fide, maintaining, that the neceluty of mov-
ing, in order to fee the different fides, depri.ed it of its fu-
periority ; whereas the whole figure might be viewed at one
glance, in a minute. To prove his pofition, he painted a
ligure, and furrounded it witli mirrors, in which all the va-
rious parts were exhibited, and obtained great ai)plaufe for
his ingenuity. He died of tlie plague, at the early age of
34, in the year 151 1.

GIORGY, S r. in Geo^aphy, a town of Sclavonia ; 16
miles N.N.Vv . of Verovitza.

GIORNICO, called by the Germans Irn'ts, a town of
Switzerland, in the Levantine valley, famous for tlie victory
V, hlch 600 Swif; gained, in 14-8, over the troops of the duke
ot Milan, amounting to ij.cco men ; a victory wliich in-
fured to the Swifs an honourable and advantageous peace.
In the vicinity of this town, tlicre are many vineyards, and
the walnut aud chefiuit trees arc of a very large lize, fome
of them being not lefs than 30 feet in girth ; 13 miles N. of
Bellinzona.

GIOSTAH, a town of Africa, in the country of Mo-
fambique, at tlie bottom of a bay not far from Sofala.

GI01 TO, in lilngrc'ihy, a painter, confpicuous among
thofe who revived the knowledge of the art in the I3lh cen-
tury. Ills fnlhcr was a labourer, who lived at Vefpii>nano,
near Florence, and whofe name was Bondoni ; but he gave
the name of Giotto to his fon, who was bom in 12"6, and
whom, at an early age, he placed with fome (hephcrdsto aflill
in tending their flocks. Wiillll engaged in tliis employment,
he «as found by Ciniabue drawing a fiieep in the fand with
fomuch ingenuity, that that painter was Induced to alk him
of his fatiier, that he might teach him the art of painting.
In a fhort time ho not only learned to imitate his mailer, but
alfo to paint from nature ; and, throwing off the dry Gothic
manner which reigned till then, endeavoured to give the
actual imitation of nature. He fcon becinie far fuperior to

hit

G I O

his mafti-T, and arrived at a degree of art which, in grace at
leall, was not excelled before Maflaccio. M. Fufeli, in his
laft edition of Pilkiiigton's Dictionary, obferves, that "it
is not eafy to account for the rapidity of his progrcfs, \nilefs
we afcrihe it to the iUidy of the anti([ue, with which he
might h.ive become acc|uaintod at Florence, and afterwards
at Rome ; and as we know that lie was hkewife a icidptor,
and that models of his exilled at the time of I^orenzn Ghi-
berti ; tliis coHJeitiire becomes hicjlily probable, when we
confider the charailer of his heads, the fquarencfs ot his
forms, the broad and ma;e(Uc folds of his draperies, with
the grave and decorous attitudes of his llgures."

Being contemporary with Dante, it is to him we owe the
portrait of that illnftrious poet, and alfo thole of many
other perfoiis of tliat period lamed for their birth and talents.
The great work now remaining, though in a ruined (late,
which tellifics moll fully the juil ground on which he earned
the fame he receives, is at Affifi, in the church of St. Fran-
cifco, where, in 32 piftures, he has reprefented the various
actions of that faint in the courfe of his life.

They, together with many other pictures in the fame place,
are in frefco, and have ever been elleemed of fupreme excel-
lence for expreflion and beauty of compolition, and for the
grace and truth ofaclions, and proportions of the figures.

His fame reached the ears of pope Benedift IX. who fent
for him to Rome, and employed him in the Vatican, and in
iSt. Peter's. Clement V. took him to Avignon, where, and
in other places in France, he painted many pictures in frefco,
and thence drew great riches ; returning to Florence in
1 3 16. He afterwards painted in moft of the principal
cities of Italy, but more particularly at Florence, where
his works were iludied by fucceeding artills, and highly ap-
plauded even by Michael Angelo Buonarotti. He died in
1336, aged 60, having enjoyed a hfe of fame and efteem ;
and honoured by admiflion to the citizenlhip of Florence,
as a reward for the honour his great talents conferred upon
his country.

GIOVAIN, in Geograpliy, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman ; 57 miles E. of Sirgian. — Alfo, a town
of Perfia, in the province of Favllftan ; 10 miles N. of
Schiras. — Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segellan ; 55 miles W. N.W. of Zareng.

GIOVANA, a town of the republic of Lucca ; feven
miles N. of Lucca. N. lat. 44^ E. long. io"4o'.

OrOVANI Aksani, in Biogritphy, a celebrated Ita-
lian opera finger, with a tenor voice. His flrll appearance
on the ftage was at the theatre royal at Copenhagen,
where he remained three years. In 1772, w-e faw and
heard him at Hamburgh, and in 1773 he went to Amlter-
dam, where, as well as at Kamburgh, he only fung at
concerts, there being no opera eftabliflied in thofe cities at
that time. In 1775 and 17763 he fung at Turin with the
Agujari. In 1777 at Naples; with RubincUi.

In 1 779 he arrived in England, where he found Roncag-
lia, whofe bounded abilities excited an ambition in the
tenor finger to take \\\q pas of the foprano. Anfani had one
of the beft tenor voices we had ever heard on our opera
ftage. It was fweet, powerful, even, and of great compafs
and volubility. Nor could any defeft be juftly afcribed to
it, except perhaps a little want of variety, fpirit, and ani-
mation, in finging allegros, to di'linguifh joy from forrow.
For there was a natural melancholy and pathos in his toiiLS
on all occaiions, which rendered his performance fomewhat
monotonous. He was of fuch a difcontented and in-itable
difpofition, that " trifles light as air" occafioned perturba-
tion. He and Roncaglia had been at variance in Italy, and
here their enmity broke out anew, with double violence.

G 1 P

Sacchini, witli whom Anfani contrived to quarrel, took
fides in the difpute between him and Roncaglia, and from
the tenor finger's pride, impatience, and irreconeileable dil-
pofition, he was in a perpetual warfare during the two
leaions he remained in this country.

His figure and countenance on the ftage were good ; he
was tall, thin, and had the look of a perfim of high rank.
He told us, we believe with great truth, tliat he was
fmp.rs'mpKU, always in vexation. He was hufcand to the
Maeclieriiii, who came hither as firft woman of the ferious
opera, without a voice. If ever flie had a voice, flte had
loll it belore her arrival in this country. We never could
receive any plea In re' from her performance; every note,
feeble as it was, llie fquee/.ed out with fuch difficulty, and
with a look fo crofs and miferable, that after her firfl ex-
hibition we never willied more either to hear or lee the
Signora Maccherini, who was fo proper a match for her
hufband in fweetnefs of difpofition, that in Italy, when
employed in the fame theatre, if one I'.appened to be ap-
plauded more than the other, they have been known mulu-
e:lly to employ perlons to hifs the fuctefsful rival. The
Maccherini is laid to have been once a very agreeable finger,
and a confiderable favourite on the continent during her
bloom ; but foon after her firft appearance Ihe ran away
with an Engliih nobleman, from the theatre in Florence, in
her ftage drefs <hiring the middle of the performance.

GIOV^ANNI DA San Giovan;.i, a painter whofe real
name was Gio. Mannozzi. He was one of the bell Italian
artills in frefco. Poflefling a vivid imagination and a ready
hand, his works are numerous, and adorn many of the
churches and palaces of Roitie and Florence. He did not
begin to paint till he was 18 years old, his fuccefs is there-
fore the more extraordinary. The genius he was endowed
with being of an irregular nature, he frequently took great
liberties in his defigns ; but his frefco-paintings at Florence
[hew how well, when he pleafed, he could rellrain the im-
proper exubei-ancies of his imagination. He died in 1636,
aged 4.6.

Giovanni, St. in G:ograph'!, a town of Naples, in
Capitaiiata ; fix miles N. E. of Afcoli. — Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Carniola ; two miles N W. of Duiuo. — Alfoj
a town of Italy ; 19 miles N. of Bergamo, — yVlfo, a town
of Illria ; nine miles N. E. of Pola. — Alfo, a town of
Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ; 13 miles S of Celano. — Alfo,
a town of Naples, in Bafilicata ; 1 7 miles S. W. of Matcra. —
Alfo, a town of Italv, in the duchy of Piacenza ; fix miles
W. of Piaccnza. — Alio, a tov\'n of Etruria ; 18 miles S.E.
of Florence.

Giovanni, Si. or St. John, an ifland in the Mediterra-
nean. N. lat. 36 ' 27'. E. long. 26 24'.

Giovanni Rotondo, St. a town of Naples, in Capitanata;
10 miles N. W. of Manfredonia.

GIOVAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfif-
tan ; 55 miles S.S.M''. of Schiras.

GIOVELLINO, a town of Corlica; 25 miles E. of
Corte.

GIOVENAZZO, a town of Naples, in the province
of Bari, fituated near the fea, the fee of a bilhop ; con-
taining four churches, four convents, and defended by a
caftle ; eight miles W. of Bari. N. lat. 41° 17'. E. long.
16 42'.

GIOVI, a town of Etruria, on the Chieno ; five miles
N. of Arezzo.

GIPPING, a river of England, in Suffolk, which joins
the Orwell, and falls with it into the Stour.

GIPSIES. See Egyptians ; under which article the

reader will find an account of their fuppofed origin, migra-

5 tions.

G I P

tions, and charaAer, and of the treatment they Tiare under-
gone in feveral countries in which they have appeared. We
fhall h?re add, that Muratori, in !iis " Antichita Italiane,''
fuggefts, that it was not before the year 14S0 that this
fingular race of people iflued from their conceahnents, pre-
tending that Egypt was tlieir native country, and that they
■were deprived ot their fettlements by a king of Hungary.
Nothwithftanding the geographical abfurdity of this afler-
tion, it was readily credited by the ignorant vulgar. It
appears probable, according to this writer, that they drew
their origin from Walacliia, or tlie neighbouring countries,
as they are ftill found in great nuuibers in Hungary, Servia,
Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Whether tiiey were expelled from
their native dens, or left them fpontaneoufly, and we mav
add, whatever was the country from which they migrated,
it is certain that about this period they began to appear in
the weftern provinces, and by their fraudulent arts were
able to gain a footing there, though by nature ever addicted
to a vagabond life. They were neither cultivators of the
foil, nor artifans, but found an inexliauilible fupply of their
neceffities in theft, rapine, and deceit. Although their
mode of life v>-as not unknown to the Italians, their infamous
praftices were tolerated, becaufe they made the fimple
people believe, that a penance was impofed upon them of
wandering about for feven years ; and ftill more, becaufe
they pretended to the gift of divination and foretelling
future events. An opinion long prevailed, that they were
forbidden to remain longer than three days in one place, and
that they had a privilege from the pone of providing them-
felves with neceffary food wherever they flioiild be. The
time in v.hich thefe "Zingani," or "Zingari," as they were
called, firll made their appearance in Italy, may be coUefted
from the " Mifcella Bolognefe,'' publiflied in the i8th
volume of the " Rerum Italicarum." Hence we learn,
*' that on July the 1 8th, 1422, there came to Bologna a
duke of Eg)'pt, named duke Aiidrew, together with men,
■women, and children of his country, in number about 100.
They had a decree from the king o"^ Hungary, who was
emperor, authorizing them to rob wb.erever they flioidd go
for the fpace of feven years, without being amenable to
juftice. When they arrived at Bologna, they lodged within
and without the Porta di Galliera, and flept under porticoes,
except the duke, who was lodged at the king's hotel.
They remained here ij days, during wiiich time many per-
fons vifited them, on account of the duke's wife, who uuder-
ftood divination, and could tell what was to be a perfon's
fortune, what was his prefent condition, how many children
he was to have, if a woman was good or bad, and the like.
In many things Ihe fpoke the truth ; and when people went
to have their fortunes told, few efcaped without having their
packets picked, or, if women, their cloaths ftripped of
their ornaments. Their women went, by fix or eight toge-
ther, through the city, entering the houfes of the citizens
and prating with them, at the fame time filching what tl'.cy
could lav their hands on. They alfo went into the {hops,
pretending to buy fometliing, whilil fome of the party were
employed in-pilfering." Italy did not fuffice for this crew,
which was gradually augmented by acceilions from the men
and women of the countries through which they pafled.
Krantz, in his hiftory of Saxony, writes, that they began
to be feen in that country in the year 141 7, a-.id he gives a
Lvely defcription of their cuftoms and cheats, under the
name of "Zigeni,'' or " Zigeuni.'" Aventine alfo men-
tions their arrival in Bavaria, and their mal-praclices in 1 41 1.
They fpread in like manner through Flanders and France, in
which country they were called " Egyptians" ai|d " Bolie-
wiians,'' and in Spain the* were named '• Gittanos.-''- They
Vol. XVI,

G I R

are alfo found in the Turki(h dominions. Altliongh their
have been frequently banifhed from various didricti, and
fevere edids have been ifl'ued againft them, ihcy ftill coti-
trive to keep up the race, and carry on their trade of petty
pillage and deception.

GIR, or GiiiR, in Geography, a river of Africa, which
Ptolemy delineates as equal in length to the Nigir, the
courfe of each being probably about looo Britilh irWci ;
but running from call to weft, till it be loft in the fame lake/
marlli, or dcfcrt, as the Ni;i; v.hich fee. The Arabian
geographer Edrifi feems to indicate the Gir, when he fpeaks
of the Nile of the Negroes, as running to the weft, and
loft in an inland fca, in which was the ifle Ulil. Some have
fuppcfed the Gir of Ptolemy to be the river of Bornou, or
V\'^ed-al-Gazel, which joining another confidcrable river,
flowing from Kuku, difcharges itfelf into the Kubia Pilus,
or Kauga, and it is fo delineated in Ri iiiiell's map ; but
others apprehend, feemingly vrith better rcafon, lliat the
Gir of Ptolemy is the Br,!ir KuUa of Browne, in his liiftory
of Africa. This river, the Nilus Nigrorum, as well as the
Nile of Egypt, have their fource in the mountains of Kuinii,
which Brov.ne lays down i;i N. lat. 7 . Tiie banks of thi
river Kulla, according to this ingenious traveller's infortr.a-
tion, abound with pimento trees, and the ferry-boats rre
partly managed by pi.lcs, partly by a double oar. The
trees are fo vigorous, from the quantity of water and deep
clay, that canoes are hollov.cd fo Large as to contain trn
perfons. Ptolemy feems to have confounded the Nigir with
the Gir, which laft river he clearly deduces from mourtaii.»
in the S.E , fo as to coiTcfpond v.itii tiie Balir Ivuli?.,
though he be a ftianger to its remote fource. This river i* rc-
prefented by Ptolemy as receiving two tributary ftrearc*
from tv.n lakes ; and among other cities on its bank is a
metropolis called Gira. The termination of the Gir is not
a little ohfcuie, but it feems to be delineated, as paiTing
under a chain of hills, on the N. of tlie I.ybia Falus, or
central Like cf Africa, and afterw.ards joirung the Nigir ii»
its courfe to t!ie weft. The Panagra of Ptolemy, hctwjea -
the Gir and the Nig'r, n-.ay be the Wangara of ».he Awib.-: ;
and his Lybia Paluf, which f>'rms the termination <>f tl-.e
Nigir eaftward, fccn-.s to be meant, as R',nnell tilfervesj
cither for the hirgeft of the lakes, or for the lake? of that
country (of which there are feveral) coUeclively. From a«
accurate examination of Edrifi, who wrote in Sicily in the
1 2th century, and who, from his minute attention tooaltWa
Africa, has been called the Nubian geographer, it wJ! aj.-
pear, that while the Nile of the Negroes, which he fayi
runs to the weft, has been rcillakcn for the Nigir, he really
knew nothing of that river ; and his Nile of the Negrces i«
the Gir of PtrJemy, terminating in an inland lake, in which
waj the ifland of ITlil, one days fail from the mouth of
the river; and in which iliand another Arabian geographer
places the capital city of all Soudan. Beyond this lake and
ifland, Edrifi appetrs to have had no knowledge of cenU-al
Africa ; all the regions ar.d towns he mentions feeming t«
belong to the Gir, his Nile of the Negroes, running to Uic
N.W. ; and fixim his account it would iippcar tliat W.iu-
gara is the Delta of the Gir.

Gii;, in Botany, a fpccies of grafs growing p!ejilifu!!y
near Ras el Feel, on liie borders of AbyfTmia. It brgim,
fays Mr. Bruce, to fiicot in the end of April, and lpei.diljr
advances to iis full height cf about tljce f^'Ct four incLeS.
It is ripe in the beginning of May, ar.d decays naturally
foon aftervvards. Tliis fpta;ics of grafs v.-ns one of the ai-
quiiiticns of our a'ulho:-*s t.-avels. It was r.ct btfcre kiictt 1
ill Europe, nor whcii hs publiflied liis woik had the fe^'J
M ni ;rcdccii

G I R

G I R

produced a plant any wlierc but in the garden of the late
French king.

OIRA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Ma/anderan ; ;8 milts S. of Sari.

GiHA, in yli::'ifnt Geography, a metropolis of Libya in-
terior, fcated on the river Gir. Ptol. Sec GiR.

GIRAFFE, in Zoology. See Ca.mki.oi'.akd.^hs.

GIR-\GLIA, in Geography, a fmall ifland nc;ir the N.
coafl of Corfica; 23 miles N. of Baftia. N. lat. 43" i'.
E loijij. f) ^y'.

GIR.-\LD1, Gior.io Grf.gorio, in Riogmhhy, one of
ihc moil l.-arned men of his time, was born at Ferrara in
*:ie yjar 14S9. He purfueJ his lliidies at his native place,
uiid having attained to confidcrnblc eminence in the lan-
guages, he was chofi-n by the cotritefs Rangone as precep-
tor to her fc.T Herciibs, afterwards a cardinal. H« KC-
copapanicd the countifs to Rome during the pontificate of
Leo X , and had apartments affigned hiin at the Vatican.
Ho appears to have been employed in the inftruction of
other young perfons in polite literature, and continued at
Rome during the two next pontificates. He enjoyed but a
fi.-ndcr portion of health, and at the fack of Rome he loil
ill his property, and even his books. Tills was in the year
1527, when, having loll his friend and patron the cardinal Ran-
gone, he was obliged to leave the capital. In his dillref^;,
which was very T-vere, he wrnt to Bologna, and thence to
M;rando:a, where he met with a very kind friend in Gian-
francefco Pico. This patron was murdered in 1533. and
Giraldi with great difiicully efcaped to Ferrara with his
life. His poverty was now extreme, but he was not with-
out friendi, by whofe liberality, cfpecially that of the
duchefs Renata, he was enabled to lay up a ilore for tlie
future. He died, after a life of muciv torture, in the year
1552. So varied was his life, and fevcre l\is affliftions,
that towards the clofe of life he complained that he had al-
ways to combat againtl three enemies. Nature, Fortune,
and Injuftice. His great work was entitled " Syntagma de
Diis Gentium." This is the liril treatife in which mytho-
logy is difcuffed in a truly learned manner, and it is a trea-
tife which exhibits the vafl extent of the author's reading,
and for which the learned world is under very great obligations.
He was author of feveral otlier trcatifes, " On the Mui'es ;'
" Tlie life of Hercules ;" " Explications of the Pythago-
rical Symbols," and other ancient enigmas : " A Treatife
of Years and Months, with Greek and Latin Calendars,
flnd thirty Dialogues on fubjecls of Erudition." He gave
" A Hiftoi7 of the Greek aiid Latin Poets," and of " The
Poets of his own Time." He was a confiderable Latin
poet, and it is thought a fcnle of his own misfortunes in-
duced him to write two fmall pieces againft ingratitude, en-
titled " Progymnafmata adverfut Ktteras et litteratos."
Mbreri.

GIRALDUS, Silvester, Cambrek.sis, one of the
moft learned and eloquent divines of his time, wa.s born
near Pembroke, in South Wales, 1 145. Among his nume-
rous works that have been preferved, printed and manu-
fcript, we fliall here only advert to an extraordinary paffage
relative to mufJc, in his " Cambriie Defcriptio, cap. XHI."
which has been lately quoted by mufical writers, and on
which great ilrefs has been laid by Eximeno (Dubbio fopra il
faggio fond. prat, di contrap. di P. ^tartini) and by Mr.
tld. .lones, Muf. Relics of the WelHi Bards.

After all the enquiries that we have made concerning the
origin and antiquity of counterpoint, or mufic in parts,
tie paJTage to which we alihde furprifed us extremely.
Many ccclefiiftieal hiftorians tell us that the organ was firfl:
adijutted mta the church at Rjome by pope Vitalian,^ 666,

the fame pontiff who two years after fent fuigei's into Kent*
to finidi the work which Auflin, tiie firft Roman midionary,
had begun. In 6S0, according to Bt>de, John, the prs-
centor of Sf, Peter's in Rome, was fent over by pope Aga-
tho to inftrucl the monks cf Weremouth in t?ie manner of
performing the ritual, who op -ned fchools there and in otlier
places of the kingdom of Northumberland for teaching
niufic.

This ni:iv, perhaps, reconcile to probability fome part of
the following account, which Giraldus Cambrenfis gives of
the pcciJiar manner of fmging that v.-as praftifed bv the
Wellh, and the iiiiiabitants of the north of England, about
the end of the tv/elfth century.

" The Britons," fays he, " do not fing in unifon, like
the inhabitants of other countries ; but ui many different
parts. So that when a company of lingers among the com-
mon people meets to fnig, as is ufual in this country,
as many diilerent parts are heard as there are performers,
who all at length unite in conioiiance, with organic fweet-
nefs. In the northern parts of Great Britain, beyond tlie
Humber, on the borders of Yorkthire, the inhabitants uil-
the fame kind of fymphonious harmony ; except that tliev
only fing in two parts, the one murmuiing in the bafe, and
tlie other v.'arbling in the acute or treble. Nor do thefe tv.o
nations pradife this kind of fmgitig fo much by art as habit,
v.-hich has rendered it fo natural to tiiem, that neitiier in
Wales, where they fmg in many parts, nor in the north of
England, where they fing in two part?, is a limple melod)'
ever well fung. And, V\-hat iS flill more wonderful, their
children, as foon as they attempt ufuig their voices, fmg in
the fame manner. But as not all tiie Engliih fmg in this
manner, but thofe only of the north, I believe they had
this art at firft, like their language, from the Danes and
Norwegians, who ufed frequently to invade and to occupy,
for a long time together, thofe parts of the iilaud."

This extraordinary palTage i-cquircs a corr.ment. And
firfl, it may be neceflary, before we reafon upon the circum-
flances it contains, to be certain of their authenticity. Gi-
raldus Cambrenfis is indeed an author who lias been often
fuppofed inaccurate and fabulous; and the glaring improbabili-
ties in the above account, with the manitell ignorance of the
fubiecf in queflion, by no means contribute to augment his
credibility. For whoever is acquainted with the laws of
counterpoint, or with the firll difhculties attending the
practice of finging in parts, can have no exalted idea of the
harmony of an untaught crowd, turla canentium, or fup-
pofe it to be much better than the diffonant pasans of a
good-humoured mob ; in which the parts would be as vari-
ous as tlie pitch of voices of which their chorus was com-
pofed. But how all thefe united at lad in the confonance
of organic melody, and the foft fwcetnefs of B mollis, will
long remain an impenetrable lecret :

" As true no meaning puzzles more than wh."

With refpcft to what he afferts of the people in Northum-
berland finging in two parts, it is more reoincileable to
probability, from the circumftances jull mentioned, of the
cultivation of mufic in that part of the world imder Roman
mailers, who may probably have firil brought over the art
of difcant, or double finging, which the newly invented
organ had fuggefled, by the facility it afforded of founding
two or more notes at a time ; which art, when praftifed by
voices, was theuce called orgar.um, crganizare. But as to
what Giraldus lavs of children naturally finging in this
manner as foon as they were out of the cradle, the reader
will afford it what degree of weight he pleafc6_; but for

VIS

G I R

G 1 R

our own part, wc mufl own that it is not yet admitted
into our mufical creed.

GIRAN, in Geography, a town of Algiers, anciently
cailed jlr'iiia ; 4, miles S.E. of Oran.

GIRANA, a town of Abyflinia; 60 miles N.W, of
Gondar. N. lat 13'. E. long. 36" 37'.

CIRi\NDOLE, a large kind of branched candlcllick.
See Bkaxch and .Tesse.

GIRAPIATRA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Candy ; 16 miles S.W. of Settia.

GIRAR, a fortrefs of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 40
miles S W. of Chanderee. N. lat. 24' 23 . E. long. 79' ly'.

GIRARD, Gabriel, in Biography, a diilingnifhed
member of tlie French academy, known as the author of a
work entitled " Synonymes Francois," the objeft of which
is to prove that the Frencli words, ufually accounted fyno-
nymous, have, ahno'l all, certain fliades of difference,
which, in corrett fpeech, ftiould prevent them from being
ufed indifferently. No grammatical work was ever better
received by the public, and it was the opinion of Voltaire
that it will fubfift as long as the language. Tiiis work has
been imitated in Englidi, in one entitled " The difference
between words eileemed fynonymous in the Englifti lan-
guage, and the proper choice of them determined," in two
Tols. i2mo. 1766. Tiie abbe Girard alio wrote a French
grammar, entitled " Principes de la Langue Francoife,"
which has much merit in its plan and theory, but is thought
very defective in point of ilyle.

GIRARDON, Fr.\xci.s, an eminent fculptor, intended
by his father, who was a founder, for the profcirion of the
law. His inclination for the fine arts could not be con-
trolled, and he was educated as an artirt. He was brought
up at Troyes, but having acquired much reputation and
practice there, he went to Paris to improve his talle and
judgment under the fculptor Anguier. His performances
obtained for him a high dejTee of reputation ; he v, as noticed
by the king, and by him lent with a liberal penfion to Rome.
In 1657 he was admitted into the academy, and was patro-
nized by Le Brun. Girardon is reckoned to have had more
corrccincfs tlun invention ; and he is faid to have modelled
with more facility than he worked in marble. His principal
works are, four figures compofing the group of the baths
of ApoUo, aud the rapo of Proferpine in the gardens of
Verlui!k5 ; the equellrian ftatue of Lewis XIV. and the
maufoleum of cardinal Richelieu, in the church of the
Sorboune. He cultivated the friendfhip of the fine writers
of the age, feveral of whom have done h.onour to his merits
and memory. He was nominated to the chancellorfiiip of
the academy in 1695. After having adorned the capital
and many other parts of the kingdom with a number of
works, and rifen to the very head of his profeffion, he died
in 1 7 15 at the age of eighty-five. IVIoreri.

GIllBE , in Geography, a town of Egjpt, on the right
bank of the Kile ; 26 miles N. of Sycne.

GIRBEH, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the
Aar, two miles S. of Berne.

GIRCH, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
fea, near Pwllhely, Caernarvonlhire.

GIRCHSBECK, a town of the duchv of Holftein ;
fix miles W S W. of Oldeilohe.

GIRCZENI, a town of Moldavia; 3c miles K.N.E.
of Galatz.

GIRDERS, or Girding li-ami, in Ctirp,r:try.ure tliofe
large beams thrown acrofs a room, in order to Ihorten the
bearing of the joifts.

When the bearing is not very great, the girder confifts of
a Tingle beam ; wkeii it h more tliar. common, the baulk, or

piece of wood out of which the ^rdcr re made, ia fawn dowfi
the middle, and the two pieces are revcrfed ard bolted. Ia
great bearings the girder is framed like the principals of a
roof, for the conftruftion of which wo refer our reader t«
the article C.\RrL.STi(V, and Naled Fi.ooiiKr,.

No girder ought to be lefb than tt n incl;cs ir. the wall, nor
ought they, or any principal beam, to be placed over
an aperture. They ought to be of the moft hearty wood,
and as free of knots as poffible, for knoto detlioy the con-
tinuity of the fibres, and confcquently it.-.pair the ftrength.

G I R D IKG-G I RT, in Sea Language. The fcamen fay a
ffiip is girt, or hath a girJir.g-glrl, when her cable is fo tight
or flraiiied, that upon the running of the tide fne caanot g»
over it with her flern part, but will he acrofs the tidej.

GIRDLE, CiNGLi-Ls, or Zona, a belt or band of leather,
or other matter tied about the loins, to keep the part more
firm and tight.

It was anciently the cuilom for bankrupts, and other in-
folvent debtors, to put ofi"and fnrrender their girdle in open
court. The rcafon was, that our anceftors ufed to carry
all the neceffary utenfilf, as purfc, keys, &c. tied to the
girdle ; whence the girdle became a fymbol of the cftatc.
Hiitory relates, that the widow of Piillip I. duke of Bur-
gundy, renounced her right of iucctilion by putting off
her girdle upon the duke's tomb. Accordingly the girdle
nmongft the ancients was ufed for a purfc. Our .Saviour
forbids hia apoftles to carry money in their girdles. Matt. x.
9. Haggai, i. 6. Horace fays, that he who has loft his
girdle (his money) is ready for any thing. " Ibit e6 quo vi»,
qui zunara pcrdidit." Hor. Ep. 1. ii. c. I. The Romans
always wore a girdle to tuck up the tunica, when they had
occafion to do any thing; this cuff om was fo general, that
fuch as went without girdles, and let their gowr.s hang loofe,
were reputed idle, diiiolute perfons.

GiKnLE, Mahicns' or Virgins'. It was the cuRom among
the Greeks and Romans for the huiband to untie his wife's
girdle. Homer, lib. xi. of liis Odyffey, calls tlie girdle
rrzfi-.nrii i^iiiiv, ir.a-d' s girdle. Feftus relates, that it was made
of fiicep's wool, and that the huiband untied it in bed : he
add.', that it was tied in the Herculanean knot ; and that
the hufliand untied it, as a happy prefage of his having as
many children as Hercules, who, at his death, left feventy
beliind him.

The poets attribute to Venus a particular kind of girdle,
called ccfltts, to which they annexed a faculty of inipiring
the paflion of love.

Girdle, Quici/i/vcr, in Medicine, is a fort of girdle fmearcd
over with mercury, or having mercury inclofed within it.

It is made of leather, linen, cloth, cotton, ihiff, or the
like ; and the mcrcurj' is prepared or killed various ways j
as with failing fpittle, fat, or the like.

It is applied as a topical medicinif about the waift, frrne-
times with good effect ; but frequently it proves dangerous,
principally in weak conftitutions, and thofe liibjecl to con-
vulfions. Its intention is, the cure of tlie itch, diiving
away vermin, killing lice, &c.

Girdle, Qucenj, is an ancient duty or tax, raifed »t
Paris every three years, at the rate of three dcniers upon
each muid of wine, and fix for each queue : it was intended
for the maintenance of the quceu's houiliold : afterwards
they augmented and extended it to other coraraodities, a»
coals, &c.

Vigenere fappofes it to have been originally llv.u called,
becaiife the girdle anciently fervcd for a purie ; but he
adds, that a hke tax lu-.d been raifed in Perfia, and un-
der the fame name, above two thoufand years ago ; as
appear* from Plato, in his Alcibiadts, Cicero, Atlieni-us, &c.
M m 3 Girdle,

G I R

Ginm.E, Chrijlians of ihe, jNIotr.vnctol, lontli calipii of
the family of ihe AbafTak-s, enjoined the Cl'.riflians and
Jews, in tiie year of the Hegira 235, of Jefus Chiiil 856, to
wear a large leathern girdle, as a badge of their profeffion ;
which they wear to this day throughout the Ea(t : from
whieh time the Chriftians of Afia, and pai-ticularly thofe
of Svria and Mcfopotamia, who are almoft all Neftorians
or Jacobites, have l)ecn called " Chriilians of the girdle."

• GniDf.F,, Orn'rriT/'/^o the order of Cordeliers, See Cord

and COKDF.LIEK.

Girdle, in ylnhitff^ure. See ClNCxrUK.

Gjrdi.k, among-. 7'fKv//iTj, the line which encompaffcs the
■flone parallel to the horizon ; or, which determines the
greatcfi horizontal cxpanlion of the (lonei;.

• GlRDIE IVhfel, a fr.iall fpmning-wheel, made for lianging
•to a woman's girdle or apron-ftriiig, fo that fhe may ipin
with it though walking about.

GlKDLE, in Mining, is the name ufed in Cumberland, and
fomc other counties, to denote the uncertain ftrata, or chance
beds, of flone and different fubftances that are met v.'ith
in fome dillrifts ; which, inilead of occupying the whole
■fpace, of the fame or nearly an equal thicknefs throughout,
are only local, preferving, however, conftantly the fame re-
lative fituation to the other ilrata, wherever they appear ;
that is, they are peculiar to particular places in the feries of
ilrata, and feem, according to the numerous enquiries and
obfervations which Mr. Farey, fen. has made on thefe
anomalous mafTes in the gratification, to be lenticular in
their fliape, always ending infenfibly or with {harp-edges on
all fides, like extremely flattened nodules ; and, except in
ihape and fize, and their rarity, he conjeftures that they
differ nothing from the nodules winch arc fo very common
in particular ftrata, as of iron-llone in the binds and fhales
of m.oil coal-fields, and in the grit-ftones of fome; thofe
of pyrites in many coal-feams, fome of the nodules of
flint in the upper chalk ftrata, &c. &c. Particular ftrata
in the Britifh ferits are found to be fubjcft to thefe chance
beds, or ilrata, within their mafs ; fom.e of which large no-
dular mafTes aiTume a confufedly cryftaUized ftruftm-e,
and feem to occafion large hills and even mountainous tracts,
as Charnwood Foreft, in Leiceiterllure, whofe iienite and
(late, &c. have been referred, by the gentleman named above,
to the anomalous malTes of the red-ground or marie (trata.
See Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxxi. page 40.

GIRDLENESS, in Geography, a cape on the E. coaft
of vScotland. N. lat. 57 4'. W. long. 2 2'.

GIRELLI, Agqilar, in i?/cijr,7/-iv> a female opera finger,
who arrived h.ere the fame feafon as Millier, in 1 7 7 2 . Her ftyle
of fin'^ing was good, but her voice was in decay, and lier
intonation frequently falfe, when Ihe arrived here ; ht wever,
it was eafy to imagine from what remained, that flie had
been better. Siie remained here only one feafon, and was
fucceeded by Mifs Cecilia Davics.

GIREST, in Geography, a town of Perlia, in Ker-
ir.an ; 100 miles E.N.E. of Gomron.

GIRET, a town of Perfia, in Mazanderan ; 30 miles S.
cf Fehrabad.

GIPvGASHITES, in Scripture Geography. See Ger-
<;Asr.NF,s.

GIRGE', the capital of Upper Egypt, and the refi-
dence of the Bey, fituated about 400 yards from the left
bank of the Nile. This town is about a league in circum-
ference, and has feveral mofq-jes, bazars, and public fquares ;
but it has no remarkable buildings nor ancient edifices,
whence fome have inferred that it is a modern building ,
more efpcciaflyas Abu'.feda does not mention it. The Bey
'liTes in great ftatc, ar.d continues in o2ice three or fouj-
4

C I R

yfars, according to the pleafureof thedivan at Cairo. Hi»
f'oldiers commit innumerable outrages. The Copts are net
allowed to hare churches in thai town ; and therefore when
they would join in divine fervice, they are obliged to go to
a convent fituated on the other fide of the Nile. Thi;
Francifcans, who have a convent here, pafs for phyficians,
but they are frequently expofed to danger from the ini'o-
lence of the Janizaries, the mofl refraftory of whom are lent
hither from Cairo; 160 milesN. of Syene. N. lat. 26^ 30'.
E. long. 31° 52'.

GIRGEN'i'I, or AoRiGEVTr, a town of Sicily, near
the S. coall of the valley of Mazara, erefted near the ruins
of the ancient yjgrigentum (which fee), and occupying
only the ground on which the citadel of the ancient city
flood ; the fee of a bifhop, fituated on the river St. Blaife,
about three miles from tiie fea ; 47 miles S. of Palermo.
N. lat. 37° 22'. E. long. 73° 33'. Its fituation on a moun-
tain renders almoit all the ilreets in -paflable, not only for
carnages but even for mules. The population of Girgenti
falls far fliort of that of the ancient Agrigcntnm, whicli
Empedocles reckons at 8co,ooo; whereas at prcfent, reckon-
ing the city, properly fo called, whieh was the ancient
caftle, the fuburb of Camico, and that built by Henry and
Conltance in the 12th century, it is reduced to 15,000 per-
fons, generally poor and of a melancholy appearance.
The nobility here are poor, and live in great privacy ; th«
merchants, wholly taken up with their own affairs, fee no-
body but at the exchange ; without fcciety and with-
out amufements, ever)- body is, or appears to be, gloomy
and devout. The port of Girgenti, very different from the
mole of the ancient Agrigentum, which was at the mouth
of the Acragas, and of which not a flrgle trace is left, is
fubjett to the fame inconvenience with that of the harbours
of Apulia and Calabria, which is that of being liable to be
filled up equally by two oppofita winds, I'/s. the fouth-eailerly
and north-weflerly. The two piers ertdted to remedy this
inconvenience having been found infufllcient, the government
has been obhged, as at Cortona, to employ gailey-flaves for
emptying and cleanfing the entrance of this port ; nor can
their labox-ious work be abandoned on account of the import-
ance of this harbour in the exportation of commodities from
all the fouthern part of Sicily ; and the ihelter it affords to
the Neapolitan velfels in the feas molt expofed to the Bar-
bary corfiiirs, being alnioH within fight of Africa. Near the
mole are the admirable magazines of the " Caricatoria,"
the richeft in Sicily, confifting of caverns or ciltcrns cut
out of the rock, in which the corn is preferved without the
leaft injury. Thefe magazines belong to the king, and
fecure the fubfiftence of the ifland. Foreign merchants
refort hither to purchafe the furplus, after referving enough
for the home confumption. The king is accountable for
tl;e corn lodged there, and the proprietors have only a
fmall fnm to pay for itore-houfe rent.

GIRGITES, a name ufed by fome chemical writers for
a fort fif white floncs found in rivers, of which they make
a peculiarly ftrong lime. The ftones are of the fparry kind,
worn into roundnefs by the motion of the water ; and tliey
have their name glrgiles, from the word gir, ufed by tlie
chemifls for lime.

GHIGITZA, in Geography, a town of Walachia ; 40
miles N.N. E. of Bucharefl. N. lat. 45^ i'. E. long. 26^

19'-

GIRIA, a town of the ifland of Cephalonia ; 16 miles
W. of Cephalonia.

GIRKIN, among Cnrchncrs. See Guerkin.

GIRLE, or Gyrle, among Sporljnicn, denotes the rot-
buck in its fecoud year.

GIRMANO,

G I R

G I R

GIRMANO, in Geography, a town of PnifTia, in Sam-
land ; 25 mile? N.W. of Konigfberg.

GIROMAGNY, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in tlie
didricl; of Befort. The place contains 1700, and the can-
ton 9572 inhabitants, on a territory of 150 kiliomctres, in
19 communes.

GIRON DE LoYASA, Garcias, in Biography, a learned
Spanilli prelate, who flourifhed towards the clofe of the 1 6th
century, was born at Talavera. In the courfe of his fludics
he had paid a marked attention to philofopliy and theology ;
to hillory and the councils, with which he became intimately
converfant. He lived in a retired way as a canon, till his
imcle refigned to him the archdeaconry of Gindalajar,
which is one of the dignitaries belonging to the church of
that city. In 158J, Phihp II., king of Spain, fent for
him to court, made him mailer of the royal chapel and
almoner ; and likewife entrufled to liis care the edixa-
tion of his fon Philip, infant of Spain. In 1596, Car-
dinal Albert afTumed tlie government of the Low Countries,
and appointed Giron his vicar-general over the arc hbidiopric
of Toledo ; to which valuable fee he was himfelf afterwards
preferred. He died in 1599, and his dsatli has been im-
puted to the chagrin w-hich he felt for the neglect fiiewn
Iiim by his pupil, who had lately fucceeded to the throne.
He was author of a valuable collection of Spanifh councils,
"nr.der the title of " Colleclio Conciliorum Hifpania;,
cum Notis et Emendi.t'ionibus." Moreri.

GiROX, in Geography, town of Africa, on the Ivory
coaft. — Alfo, a town of S. America, in the province of
Qi;:to ; 25 miles S. of Cuenca.

Glllox, or Guiran, in Hfraldry, denotes a triangular
figure havnig a long (harp point, not unlike a wedge, ter-
minating in the centre of the efcutcheon.

The word is French, and literally fignilics the gtrniihim
or lap ; becaufe, in lltting, the knees being fuppoled fome-
what alunder, the two thighs, togetlier with a line imagined
to pafs from one knee ti the other, form a figure fomewhat
iimilar to this.

When a coat has fix, eight, or ten of thefe girons, meet-
ing or centering in the middle of the coat, it is faid tu be
^irron; or gironny.

GIRONDE, in Geography, a river of France, formed by
the union of the Garonne and Dordogne ; 1 2 miles N. of
Bourdeaux, which runs into the Atlantic, after a courfe of
about 27 miles N. N.W.

GinoNDE, one of the nine departments of the fouth-wcft,
or Garonne region of France, deriving its name from the
river Gironde. It is a maritime department, compofed of
a portion of Guienne, in N. lat. 44 ' 40', and bounded on
the N. E. by the department of the Lower Charentc, on
the E. by the departments of the Dordogne and Lot and
Garonne, on the S. by the department of the Landes, and
on the W. by the L'a. Its capital is Bourdeaux. This de-
partment contains 1 1,270 kiliometres, or about 537 fquare
leagues, and 519,685 inhabitants, and is divided into fix
dillricls; 'u'tic. VAiye, compreh.euding 4 cantons, 61 com-
munes, and 52,026 inhabitants; Libourne, including 9 can-
tons, 143 conimun'S, and 102,576 inhabitants ; La Rcole,
comprehending 6 oantOiis, 118 communes, and 53,705 in-
habitants ; Bazas, containing 7 cantons, 6'i' com.munes, and
47,549 inhabitants; Bourdeaux, comprehending 18 cantons,
153 communes, and 233,021 inhabitants; and Lclpane, con-
taining 4 cantons, 37 communes, and 30^00 inhabitants.
Its contributions amount to 5,853,053 francs, and the ex-
penccs for adminiftration, judice, and pubhc inftruft'.on te
533,643 francs. The foil of this depai'tmcnt is varicas:

the cafl and north-call diftriclG arc the mort, fertile. In the
valley between Agcn and Bourdeaux, the foil, though hVht,
is of an excellent quality. The well and fouth-wcll tracts
are fandy, marfliy, and barren, or indiSTjrentiy fruitful.
The products of the foil are grain, liemp, del;ciouj winer
and fruits, padures, confidcrable forells of pines, ftonc
quarries, mineral fprings, &:c.

GIR0NEI.,LA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia: 7 mijja
E. N. E. of Solfona.

GIRONNE. See Geron-v.

GIRONS, St. a town of France, and principal place
of a diflrict, in the department of tiic Arricge; 21 nitles
W. of Tarafson. N. lat. 42 ' 59'. E long, t ^ 13. 'J'he place
contains 2504, and the canton I4,9''3 inhabitants, en a ter-
ritory of 287.]; kiliomctres, in 16 communes.

GIRCST, a town of Pcrfia, in the province cf Ker-
man ; 125 miles S.of Slrjian.

GIRP^OCK, in Ichthyology, the common Englilh name
of the fifli called the I.accrtus, a large fpecies of gar-fifli,
caught in the Mediterranean and Englifli feas.

GIRRONNE , GiROSY, in Heraldry, is when a fliield
or coat is divided into feveral girons, which arc alternately
colour and rnetal.

When there are eight pieces, or girons, it is abfolutclr
faid to be girronni : when there are more, or f.-wer, the num-
ber is to be expreffed: glrronne of four, of fourteen, &c.
Some, inftead o( girronns, fay, parti, coupe, tranche, and
ta'ilte, bccaufe the girons are formed by fuch diviiions of the
field. Four girons form a faltier, and eight a crofs.

GIRT, in meafuring timber, is ufed for tiie circumfer-
ence of a tree. See Coggle/ball's S 1,1 ding rule and Dex-

DRO.METEH.

Some call the fourth part of the circumference the girt,
and fuppofe the fquare of this equal to the area of the fic-
tion of the tree.

Ginr, in ArcUteSure, the fame with fillet. See Fillet.

QtlTXT, g'lnlh, m Sea Langua-c. See Gi;iDl\'t;-^.'r/.

Gli{T-/y«^ is a rope pafling tlirough a fingle block, on the
head of the lower mails, to hoi'l up the rigging thereof:
this is tlie firll rope env'Ioyed to rig a Ihip, and bv means
of this all the reft are drawn up and fixed ; after which it is
removed till the fhip is to be unrigged.

GIRTHS of a Saddle, the long llraps, made of a canvas
fluff called girth-web, which being buckled under the horfe's
belly, ferve to fix the faddle.

GIRTIN, Thomas, in Ehgraphy, a draftfman of un-
common capacity, who lately adorned our days, and if he
had not been cut off bv an early death, would probably havs
exhibited unrivalled talents in the peculiar branch of the art
he adopted. He was born in 1775, and was one of thofe
who have contributed to raife almost a new fpecies of art by
the ufe of water-colours in landfcape painting. He drew
with a ready hand, in a ftyle entirely his own, and witli
great tafte and effect; though not always with a ftrift ad-
herence to truth. Pie died of confumption, brought on by
irregularit)-, at the early age of 27.

GIRU, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Mazar.deran; 5 miles E of Fehrabad.

GIRVAN, a fea-port of Scotland, in tlie county of A)t,
fitunted at the mouth of the river Girvan, wliich rifcs in the
N. E.part of the countv, asd runs iiito t!ie fea a little be-
low the town. It lias a commodious harbour, capable of
great improvement. Tlie chief employment of this town,
which is a burgh of barony, governed by bailies and coun-
fellors, annually elefted, is v.-eaving of cotton and woollen
cloths. In 1801 the number of inhubilants was 2260, of
whom 1 360 vvcre employed in trade and manufaCtiares. Tlie

ncijjK-

G I S

n-i^Wjoun-.ODil aljounds with limeftone and coal; 21 miles
S S W.of Ayr. N. lat 55 18'. W. long. 4 44'.

GISARMS, or Guis.AUMES, in our O'hl IVnkn, an hal-
bert or hanJ-ax : it comes from the I.atin bis anna, bccaufe
it wounds r.:i both fides. Sliene. " Ell aimonim gemis
lontro manubi-io et porrefta cufpide." It is mentioned in
tiic Itatute 13 Ed->v I. cap. 6.

GISBO ROUGH, in Geography, a market town and
parifii in tlj.- North Riding of the county of York, is fcated
near the mouth of tlie river Tees, 8 miles from Stokffley,
and 248 from London. By the population returns, printed
by order of parliament in 1801, this parifli contained 3S3
lioufes and 1719 inhabitants. In the time of king James I.
fome ah; .1 mines were difeovcred liere, and were worked
for feveral years with great fuccefs. The bay at the mouth
of tlie Tees forms a commodious harbour. In this town
was formerly a fpacious monallery, ot which fome confidei--
able ruins remain. Here are a weekly market on Friday,
and live annual fairs.

GISCALA, in Scriphire Geography, a town of the tribe
of Afhrr, in Lower Galilee; S. E. of Jotapa.

GISEKIA, in Bolnny, named by Linna;us in honour of
his pupil Dr. Paul .Die'trick Gifeke, profefibr of Natural
Hiftory at Hamburgh, and editor of the Prckniones hi Oril'mes
KUiiniks Phwtarum, compiled from his own notcj and thofe
of Fabricius, taken from the mouth of Linnxus, and pub-
liflicd by his leave. Linn. Mant. 554. Schreb. 207. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 1547. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. Juff. 315. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 221. (Kolreutera; Murr. Comm. Nov.
Goett. V. 3. 67. t. 2. f. I.) — Clafs and order, PciUandr'ia
Pcr.tagyma. N.it. Ord. SvccuUntis, Linn. Portulacett, Juff.

Ge'i. Ch. Cal. Perianth of five ovate, concave, obtufe,
permanent leaves, with membranous edges. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments 'i\w, (liort, awl-fliaped, ovate at the bafc ; anthers
roundilh. P'lf.. Germen fuperior, roundidi, retufe, deeply
five-lobed; ityles five, (liort, recurved; ftigmas obtufe.
Ptri:. Capfulcs five, roundifli, (lightly comprelTed, rough,
obtufe, clofe together, each of one cell. Seeds folitary, ovate,
fmooth.

Spec. Ch. Calyx of live leaves. Corolla none. Capfules
five, approximated, roundilh, fingle-feeded.

\.Q,. pharnachuies. Linn. Mant. 562. Native of the
Eaft-Indies. A fmooth annual herb, with the afpecl of an
lUecebrum or Pharnaceirm. The Jems arc proftrate, a foot or
two in length, furrowed along their upper fid'-, alternately
branched. Leaves oppofite, (talked, obovate, entire, light
jjreen, rather fleihy. F/o'Zvers fmall, green, in little axillary
umbels Fruit blackifh. On the fhort axillary branches, the
leaves, as Jufiieu well obferves, are oppofite. No other
fpecies has been difcovered.

GISELO, in Geography, an ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N.lat. 61 40'. E.long. 21" 22'.

GISGI, a town of Tranfilvania, near the Maros; 14
rmles S, W. of Millenbach.

GISHI, a town of Georgia, in the province of Kaket ;
1 1 J miles S. E. of Tcllis.

GISHUBEL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko-
nigingratz; 20 miles E. N. E. of Konigingratz.

GISING, a town and caftle of Hungary; 14 miles
S.W. of Steinam- Anger.

GISIO, a town of Sweden, in Angcrmannland, on the
Qidea; 16 miles W. of Nordmalling.

GISLaWY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma
land; 40 miles S. W. of Jonkioping.

GISON, or Geison, in the Jeiu'ijh Antiqu'a'tes, a little
wall about bread high, made round the temple properly fo
called, and the altar of burnt facrifices, to keep the people

G I V

3t a dillance. Jofephur., in his Book of Antiquities, makes
it to be three cubits high ; and but one, in his Hiilory of
the Jewidl v.-ar. Jof. Antiq. lib. viii, cap. 2, p. 262. et de
Bello .lud l:b. vi. p. 918. C;ilm. Dift. Bibl.

GISORS, in Geography, a town of I'Vancc, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Les Andelys; 27 miles N. E. of Evreux. The
place contains 3500, and the canton 9496 iiiliabitants, on a
territory of 147.I kiliomet."es, in 23 communes. N. lat.
49 17'. E. Icng. I" 50'.

GISSINGHEI?.!, a town of Germany, in the county
of Wertheim; 15 miles S. of AVertlicim.

GISTAIN, a town of Spain, in A..rragon, fituated on
a brook in the Pyrenees, on the confines of France, haviiUT
in its vicinity mines of cobalt; 15 miles N.of Ainfa.

GISTO, a fmall ifiand in the Adriatic. N. lat. ^4.^ 36'.
E. long. 14^ 51'.

GiSUND, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron-
theim ; 44 miles N. W. of Drontheim.

GITHAGO. in Boldiiy, a nair.e ufed by fome author.s,
particularly by Pliny, for the lolium or dariiel-grafs.

GITI, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 234 m.iles N E.
of Delhi. N lat. 32'- !c'. E.long. 79' 36'.

GITPOUR, a town of Mocaumpour; 47 miks S.W.
of Mocaumpour.

GlTSCHlN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko-
nigingratz; 22 miles "N.W. of Kon'gingratz. N.lat. 50" 23'.
E. long. 15 20'.

GITTITH. This word occurs frequently in the Pfalms,
and is generally tranflatcd ii'iiie-prr^es. The conjeftures of
interpreters are various conceriiiiig this word gittith. Some
think it fignifies a fort of luufical inllruniLUt; others, that
the Pfalms, wi h this title, were fung after the vintage;
lalUy, others, that the hymns of tliis kind were invented in
the city of Gath, Calmet is rather of opinion, that it was
gK-en to the clals of young women, or fungllrelfes of Gath,
to be fung by them. (Pf. viii i. Ixxxi, i. Ixxxiv. 1.) Dr.
Hammond tliinks that the Pfalms, with this title, were all
fet to the fame tune, and made on Goliah the Gittite.

GIVA, in Geography, a town of Aliatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia; 32 miles S. E. of Milets.

G I V ANI ROTONDO, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ;
9 miles W. of Monte St. Angelo.

GIUDEL, a fmall illand, near the fouth coail of Sar-
dinia. N. lat. 39^ i'. E. long. 9' 3'.

GIUDUCCA, La, or Zuecc'.\, one of the iflands ad-
joining to the city of Venice, which is faid to owe its name
to the Jews, who formerly refided tliere. It contains 10
churches, 4 nionafteries, and as many nunneries.

GIVEN, D.VTU.M, a term very frequently ufed in Ma-
thematics, fignifying a thing which is fuppofed to be known.

Thus, if a magnitude be known, or we can find another
equal to it, we fay, it is a given magnitude, or that fuch a
thing is given in magnitude.

It the pofition of any thing be fuppofed as known, we
fay, given in pofition.

Thus, if a circle be aftually defcribed on a plane, its cen-
tre is given in pofition, its circumference given in magnitude,
and the circle is given both in pofition and magnitude.

A circle may be given in magnitude only; as when only
its diameter is given, and the circle not actually defcribed.

If the kind or fpecies of any figure be given, thev fay,
given in Ipecie. If a ratio between any two quantities is
knov.-n, they are faid to be given in proportion. See I).\ta.

GIVET, in Geography, a town of France, in tlie depart-
ment of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in tlie
dillrift of Rocroy; 15 miles N. E, of Rocroy. N.lat 50' 7'.

E. lung.

G I U

IT. long. 4* 5 1 '. The place 0011101033533, and the canton
8445 inhabitants, on a territory of 130 kiliometres, in 20
communes.

GIUF, L.\, a diftrift of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjcd ; E. of mount Ramleah.

GIULA, a town of Hungary, fituatcd on the river
Keres; 52 miles N. N. W. of Tenufv. ar. N. lat. 46' 35'.
E. \oTi'^. 20 55'.

GIULAB, a town of Afntic Turkey, in the govern-
ment uf Diarbokir; 18 miles N. N. E of Ourfa.

GU'LENEI, a fmall ifland in the Cafpian fea ; ip
jniles 3. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 44 1 j'. E. long. 4'' 49'.

GIULI A Niov.i, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra,
on the coall of tlie Adriatic ; 12 miles E. N. E. of Te-
ramo.

GiULi.\, St. a town of France, in the department of the
Stura ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Acqui.

GIULIAXO, St. a mountain of Etruria, near Pifa, at
the foot of which are warm baths, known in the time of
Pliny. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 9 miles
W.S.W. of Dragonera. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in the
county of Mohfe ; 13 milei 6.S.E. of Molife. — Alfo, a
town of Naples, in the province of Otranto ; 17 miles
S.S.W. of Brindifi.— Alfo, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Olona ; 7 miles S.E. of Milan.

GIV'ORS, a town of tVance, in the department of the
Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the diitricl of Lyons ;

12 miles S. of Lyons. The place contains 3200, and the
c"nton 10,590 inhabitants, on a territory of go kiliometres,
in 10 communes.

GIVRY, a town of France, in the department of the
Saone and Loire, and chief plnce of a canton, in the dillricl
of Chalons-fur-Saone ; 4 miles W. of it. N. lat. 46 47'.
E. long. 4" 50'. The place contains 2532, and the c:inton
11.405 inhabitants, on a territory of I32i kiliometres, in

13 communes.

GIUSEPPE Aprile. See Tendlcci.

Giuseppe Arena, in Biography, an able compofer of Na-
ples, whofe rtyle had much of the briUiancy of that fchool.
In 1 741 he fet the fcrious drama of Tigrane, written by
Goldoni, to mufic, for the great theatre of St. John Chry-
follom, at Venice, which eftablilhed his character.

GIUSMARK, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan ; 80
miles S S.E. of Betlis.

GIUSTENDIL, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia ; 24 miles S, of Sophia.

GIUSTINELLI, in Biography, a fecond-rate Italian
finger in foprano, arrived here, in 1762, with De Amicis
and her family, as firft ferious man in the burletta operas.
He had a good voice, and fufScient m.erit to fupply the place
of fecond man on our ftage, in the ferious operas, for feve-
ral years after.

GIUSTINIANI, AuGusTix, was born at Genoa
in 1470, was educated for the church, and in 1514
was made bifhop of Nebbio in Corfica. He publilhed, in
1516, a Pfalter in four languages, •vi'z,. the Hebrew, Greek,
Arabic, and Chaldee, with interpretations : this was theRril
of the Polyglott editions of the books of fcripture. After
this, he was invited by Francis I. to Paris, and appointed to
the profcflbrfhip of the Oriental languages in that univerfity,
an office which he held about (ive years. During this period
he received a penfion from the crown, and was enabled to
colleft a very choice library, which he afterwards prefented
to therepuljlic of Genoa. In the year 1536, in paffing by
fea to liis bifhopric, he was loll with his (hip. This prelate
revifcd and edited the treatife written by Porchetti, entitled
*• Victoria adverfus impios Judzos.'' Some time after his

&

G I Z

death, were publiHicdhis "Annals of the Republic of Ge-
noa,'' from the foundation of the ci'.v, to the year 1528 :
this work is highly elteemed for its information, and for tlie
veracity of the faCts. Moreri.

GiLsTiNi.VNi, Beknaud, 3 Venetian nobleman, bom in
1408, was educated under the moll learned perfons of his
time, and obtained a high celebrity for his own knowledge
and eloquence. He was employed on feveral honourable oc-
cafions by the republic. In 145 1 he was appointed to re-
ce.ve the emperor Frederic III. wlien he pafll-d through the
V cnetian territories. He was afterwards f.ledcd as a ht per-
fon to be fent on cmbaffies to Ferdinand, king of Naples, to
feveral of the popes, and to Lewis XI. king of France,
who honoured him with knighthood. In 1467 he was made-
captain commandant of Padua, and admitted to almoil all
the honours of the Hate, and liiiiiUy procurator of St. Mark.
He died in 1489. He was author of many works : as pub-
lic orations : the life of his uncle "The blefled Lorenzo
Giulliniani ;" three pieces on the life, the tranflation, and the
appearance of St. Mark : a verfion of the book of Socrates
to Nicocles : foine Latin letters of his father Leonardo j
and the ancient hillory of Venice, written in Latin. This
lall was tranfl^cd into Italian by Lodov. Domenichi. It
was the work of his old age, but is highly elleemed, bccaufe
the authorities are drawn from tiic belt fources, and the au-
thor rejedts the fables handed down by fome other writers.
Moreri.

GIZE', Giz.\n, or Tiza, in Geography, a confiderable town
of Egypt, extending a'ong the v.cll bank of the Nile, on the
other lide of the illand of Roudda, or Raonda, with rcfpect to
Cairo ; 3 miles S. W. of Cairo. This town was fortified by
Ifmail Bey, who alfo built a palace there, completed and lince
inhabited by Murad Bey, who has eftablifhed a canroa
foundery. Here is alfo a manufacture of fal ammon iac. Tlie
walls of Gizc are of great extent, and have only one gate to
the country ; they are ten feet high, three feet thick, and
have fix half-moons ; but are only la to refill cavalr\-, the
original intention in railing tliem. Murad Bey has fiifiercd
the iron-work about the loop-holes to bo plundered or ruined.
The palace is in the fouthern quarter of the city, clofe to the
water ; it has numerous apartments for the Mamluks, and
every convenience for eafe or luxury. Murad Bey has, of
late years, thouglit it neceffary to inl'litute a marine ; having
purchafed fome veffels of the Europeans, and built three or
four others. The largeft of thefe veflels carries 24 guns: thofc-
that are occallonally moored before Gi.'.c cannot be navigat-
ed hence, except during the time of the Nile's increafe.
The mariners are chiefly Greeks of the Archipelago. Not
far fouth of Gize is '• Geziret-el-dahab," a fmall ifland,
which Diodorus Siculus denominated " Venus A urea."
N. E. of the city are gardens, and fome fpacious houfes, oc-
cupied by the a.fluent and great, who occallonally leave the
city to amufe thcmfelves in this retreat ; and thev have tliere
an open fpace where the Mamluks perform their mihtary
evolutions, and exercife their liorfes. The ground under
the mountains to the eaft is lilkd with tombs. The moun-
tain is of white fand and calcareous Hone, and deilitute of
verdure. The numerous date-trtes by which Gize is fur-
rounded, interfperfed with the lofty turrets of the mofqr.eSv
and tile river, whofe waves wafn the very foundation of the
houts, give it, at a diilance, a very plealing afped. Dr.
Shaw is of opinion, that the ancient Memphis ftood on the
fcite of Gize ; but this is difputcd bv Savary and otlieri.
(See Mkmphis.) Tliis is the ncareil fpot, fays Siinnini, to.
the moll valuable monuments v^'hich ancient Eg}"pt has lefr
behind of her glorj- and her power. The nearcll pyramids
are at the diilance of three leagues, and they are iodifcrimi-

oatelj-

G I Z

nately called ti;e " Pllbrs of Mi-mphis," ort!K- '• Pillars o?
Gi/.c '■ Tlii;! town was taken fr;>r.i the Fivncii by the Bri-
tifii i;i June, 1801. Jko.viic's Travels in Africa; Savary'a
Letters on Egypt, vol. i. Sonnini's Travels in Upper aiiJ
Lower Egypt.

GIZiaiNSKAIA, a g'.ilf at th.- N. W. extremity of
the Poninikoi fca, extending about 50 miles in length, and 16
in breadth. N. lat. 67 to 68 '. E. long. i6o' 14'.
GIZZARD of BliiDS. See Jiuitamy af Birds.
GIZZIELLO, GloAtlllNO, CoNTi, in B:o^raphy, one of
the greatell Italian fingers of the lail century, arrived in
England in 1736, as Handel's firil linger, at the time that he
had quitted tlie Royal Academy ii. the Hay market, upon a
quarrel with S.-nefuio, and fet up for himfelf at th(; new thea-
tre in Covent Garden. The uobihty and geiitry who feem to
liave abetted Senefnio, engaged for the opera in the Hay-
iTiarkct Porpora as a compoi'er, and Farinelli, Cuz-zoni, and
a complete comj>uny of vocal and inllrumcntal performers to
oppofe liim. Handel, May 5th, opened his fumnier cam-
paign with the revival of " Ariodante," an opera of the pre-
ceding year. <

The n^xt day the following eulogiuni on his new finger
was inferted in tlie Daily Poll ': '■ lall night Signor Gioa-
chino Conti Gizziello, who made his firil appearance in tlie
opera of " Ariodante,' ' met with an uncommon reception ; and ■
in jnllice both to liis voice and judgment, he may be truly
eileenied one of the bell performers ii this kingdom.'' Nei-
ther his friends nor the friends of Handel could venture to
fav more, while Farinelli was in the kingdom. Conti was
at this time a you;ig linger, more of promiling, than mature
abilities; and fu modell and diiudent, that when he firil heard
Farinelli, at a private rehearfal, he burll into tearSj and
fainted away with defpondency. He had his cognomen of
Gizsiello from his mailer Gi/.zi, oiice an eminent llage lin-
ger, who, in his old age, became an excellent mailer.

The next opera in which Conti appeared, waa " Ata-
lanta," compofed as an epithahmium on the marriage of his
loyal highnefs Frederic prince of Wales, with her ferene
1 iglinefs the princefs of Saxe-Gotha.

The longs in " Atalanta,'' which Handel compofed ex-
prefsly for his nzw linger, Conti, feem, upon examination,
to have been written in his new, graceful, and pathetic ftyle
of finging. The bafs and accovnpaniments, too, aa-e of a
modern call, and, except the clofes and two or three of the
divilions, the whole feems of the prefent age.

Hmdel, never till now, had a fu-ll man to write for witli
fo higii a f iprano voice. Ni.-jlini, Senelino, and Careflini,
were all contraltos. There was often dignity and fpirit in
tlwir ftyle ; but Conti had delicacy and tendernefs, v> ith the
accumulated refinements of near thirty years, from the time
of Handel's firil tour to Italy. "We think it is not dillicult to
difcover, particularly in the firil adl, that in compofing Con-
ti's part in this opera, he modelled his melody to the fchool
of his new finger. Indeed, Handel was always remark-
ably judicious in writing to the talle and talents of his
performers in difplaying excellence, and covering imperfec-
tions.

While Conti was his firil male finger, and the Strada his
firll woman, he revived his opera of " Alcina and Faramond,"
and compofed his part in the opera of " Arminio,'' exprcfsly
to difplay his peculiar talents ; in the airs of which it feems
.as if Handel had more baffes and accompaniments in iterated
notes, than in any preceding work.

He was advancnig rapidly in the modern ftyle of opera
fongs when he quitted the ilage, and retreated back to a
more fdemii and loUd ilyle for tiic church.

during the dreadfu

earthquake wliich
was imprelTL'd with fuch a

G I. A

It i< cliieily in writing for Conti and Anibali thai the crin-
foi-inity to a different Ilyle from his own appears.

Do.MK.vicio Anniiiai,!, who fiiould have had an article in
the letter A, had he been remembered, fliall be characterized
here, in apology for the omilfion. His firll air in the opera
of '' Arminio," in which he performed with Conti and tt'.e
Strada, difcovers his voice to have been a contralto, which
Handel gave him an opportunity to difplay by a fvvell, ad
lililum, at the beginning ; but no peculiar t;'.!le, cxpreliion,
or powers of execution, appear in his part ; his bravura air
in the fecond adl, i'; cailro, contains only co'nmon and cafy
palfages. His abilities during his Hay in England feem to have
made no deep iinprellion, as we never remember him to have
been mentioned by thofe who conllantly attended tlie operas
of tliof." times, and were rapturills in fpeaking cf the plea-
fure vvhicli tliey had received from fingers of the firll clafs.
Buttoretarn to Conti, who, after he quitted England, ilu-
dicd with fuch diligence, that being engaged at Madrid to
fingin the operas under the direftion of Farinelli, he turned
the tables on that wonderful iinger, in whom it has been
faid, that he excited envy by his new and refined taile and
patlios.

He was one of the co'nftellation of great fingers which the
king of Portugal had aflembled together in 1755.

There were, according to Paccheirotte's acccymt, Elill,
■ Man/cli, Caffarclli, Gizziello, Veroli, Babbi, Luciani, Raaf,
Raina, and Guadagni. No females were then allowed to
appear on the opera (lage in Portugal. Gizzie'.lo, narrowly
efcaping v.-ith his life
happened at Liihon that year,

religious turn by that tremendous calamity, that he retreated
to a monaflery, where he ended his days. It was foon after
this event, that Guadagni fiiuj himfelf up in the fame con-
vent not fo muc!i for fpiritual confolation as mufical coun-
fel ; which he fo .effeclually obtained from the friendfltip of
Gizziello, that f^om a young and wild finger of the fecond
and third ciafs, he became, in many refpedls, the firll finger
of his time.

GLABALK, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Dyle, and chief place of a canton, in the
ditlricl of Louvain. The place contains 239, and the can-
ton 6771 inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, in
19 communes.

GLABELLA, in Anatomy, from glaber, fmooth ; the
f])ace between the tvro eye-brows, which is ordinarily not
covered v,-ith hairs.

GLABER, in Hicgrap/jy, a Benediftine monk, who
flourifned in the nth century, and who has rendered his
name mem.orable by a " Chronicle or Hiilcry of France,"
written in the Latin language. It confifts of five books, of
.Vi'hich the firll relates to the events of the monarchy pre-
vioufly to Hugii CapctJ and the four fubfequent ones to
thofe fallowing it, as far down as tlie year [046. Tliis
work is defective as a compofition, and, at the fame time,
full of fabulous ilories, yet it contains much valuable inform-
ation relative to thofe remote ages. He was author
of a life of William, abbot of St. Benignus at Dijon.
Moreri.

GLABRAIIIA, in Botany, fo denominated by Lin-
noEUS, on account of the fmooth, lliining, filky appearance of
its wood. Linn. Mant. 156. Schreb. 515. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 3. 1433. Mart. Mill. Dicl. v. 2. Juff. 433. La-
mark, Illultr. t. 640. Clafs and order, Monaddpl.na Polytn-
ilria. Nat. Ord. " uncertain ; perhaps akin to Styrax."
JuiT. Rather Malvactse, near Dur'io.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular
half as long as the corolla, cut half way down into five equal

ebtufe

G L A

«'btufc, broadilTi teeth. Cor. Petals five, lancfolite, olitut'e,
tqiuil. Neclary furroimding the germen, and confilling of
five awl-flwped, eredl, coloured bodies, the length of
the calyx. Sltim. Filaments thirty, capillary, the length of
the calyx, united by their bafe into five parcels of fix fila-
ments esch, ranged alternately with the nectaries ; anthers
kidney-fhaped. P[/l. Germen fupcrior, nearly globular,
four-lobed ; ftyle thread-fliaped, as long as the itaniens ;
fligma fimple. PlTic. according to Runipbius, a mucilagi-
nous dnipa, of one cell, containing a hard oval nut.

Eff. Ch. Calyx tubular, five-cleft. Petals five. KVc-
tary of five brillles, alternate with the parcels of llamens.
Style one. Stamens thirty, in five parcels. Drupa.

I. G. terfa. Linn. Mant. 276. (Lignum Iccve minus;
Runiph. Amb^ v. 3. 71. I. 44 ) Native of the lofty and
clofe woods of Amboyna. Rumphius defcribes and figures
two kinds «^ his Lignum U've, very fimdar to each other, nor
does it appear on what authority Linnxus adopted one as
a fynonym in preference to the other. The fpecimens in
his herbarium have {lender leafy IrancKs, Vv-ith a fmooth
greyilh bark. Leaves alternate, on fliort thick ftalks, ovato-
lanceolate, pointed, entire, three or four inches long, veiny ;
fmooth and fliining above ; pale grey beneath, as if hoary,
but they are rather clothed « ith a filvcry fcaly flvin, mi-
nutely dotted all over, which foon leaves tlie rib and veins.
Slipu'.ijs none. Flowcr-Jlalks axillary and terminal, branched
irregularly, the partial ones fomewhat umbellate, all clothed,
as well as the calyx, with minute umbiiicated rully fcales,
exactly like'thofe on the leaves and ftalks of the Dunn ; fee
that article. The JIo'U):rs are fmall. Fruit, according to
Rumphius, an aromatic black drupa, the fize of a pea, ftand-
Hig on the permanent calyx.

if the Durio belongs to Malvacex, we are perfuaded this
genus mail likewife be placed in that order, but otherwife we
ihould have had no fuch idea, nor does the fruit confirm it.
The light fibrous filky nature of the wood, which while wet is
clofe, but has large fiiTures when expoled to the fun, favours
our fuppofition

GLACIALIS, lev, o?

'tr.nes, 1.

•cc, fomething relating

to ice ; and particularly a place that abounds in ice.

Thus we fay, the Mare Glachih, or Coiigchituin, that is,
the Icy or Frozen fea ; called alio the Chrouiaii or Sarma-
tian fea.

GLACIERS, a denomination applied to large ftieets
or fields of ice among the Alps, and which are numerous in
Switzerland and Savoy. Of thefe there are five, that ftretcii
towards the plain of Chamouny, and unite at the foot of
Mont Blanc ; they are called Tacona, Boffons, Montanvert,
Argentiere, and Tour. The origin of thefe glaciers, ex-
tending into fields of corn and paiture, and lying, without
being melted, in a fituation where the heat of the fun is
powerful enough to bring vegetation to maturity, is a very
curious fubjecl of inveiligation. Mr. Coxe has given us
an abilracl of the theory of Gruner, with regard to their
formation, and other particulars rcfpecting them, confirmed
and amended by that able naturalift Sauffure ; which ap-
pears, upon the whole, to be the moil fimple and natural.
If a perl'on, fays this intcreding traveller, could be con-
voyed to fuch an elevation as to embrace, at one view, the
Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and Uauphine, he would
twhald a vail chaos of moiuitains, interferted by numerous
rallies, and compofed of many parallel chains, the highctt
occupying the ceutre, and the others gradually diminilhing
in proportion to their dillance. The moll elevated, or
central chain, would appear bridled with pointed rocks,
■and covered, even in iummer, with ice and fnov, in all parts
.that arc not perpendicular. On each fide of this chain he

Vol. XVL

C L A

n-ould difcover deep vallies clothed with verdure, peopled witk
innumerable village:, and watered by many rivers. In
conhdering thefe ohjeds with greater attention, he would
remark, that the central chain is compofed of elevated peaks
and diverging ridges, whofe fumniits are ovcrfpread wjth
fiiow ; that the declivities of the peaks and ridges, cx-
ceptuig thofe parts that arc extremely fteo]), arc covered with
Inow and ice, and that the intermediate depths and fpaces
between are filled wiili immtnfe fi.-lds of ice, terminating in
tliole cuhivated valhes which border the great chain. In
l)urfuing this general furvcy, and moreover obfer»ing tl\at
the branches moll contiguous to the central chain would
prefent the fame phenomena, only in a lelFer degree ; the
glaciers w-ould be obvioufly divided into two forts ; the firft
occupying the deep vallies fituatcd in the bofom of tlie
Alps, and termed by the natives " Vaik'ee de Glace," d l".
tingnilhed by Mr. Coxe by the name of " Lower Glaciers ••
the fccond, which clotlie fummits and fides of the m.ountains,
are denominated " Upper Glaciers." The former are
much the moft confiderable in extent and dep.h. Some
ftretch feveral leagues ; that of Des Bois in particular !.■!
more than ij n-.iles long, and above three in its greateft
breadth. Thefe lower glaciers do not communicate with
one another, and few of them are parallel to the central
chain. They moftly ftretrh in a tranfverfe dirtdtion, being
bordered at the higher extremity by inaccefiTible rocks, and
on the other extending into the calt'ivat.d vallies. Saufi'ure
found the general depth of the ice in the glacier des Boit
•from So to 100 feet ; but there is reafon to believe that it(
thickncfs in fome places exceeds even 6co feet. Thefe
immenfe fields of ice ufualiy reft on an inclined plai:e ; being
piifiied forwards by the prefTure of their own weight, and

weakly fupported by the rugged rocks beneath, thev arc intcr-
feded by large tranfverfe chafms, and prefent tlie appear-
ance cf walls, pyramids, and other fantalUc fhapes, obferved
at all hciglrts and in all fitnations, wherever the declivity
exceeds 30 or 40 degrees. But in thofe parts, where the
plane on which they reft is nearly horizontal, or gently in-
clined, the furface of the ice is nearly uniCarm ; the ch'afmt
are few and narrow, and they are crofTed without muck
difficulty. The furface of the ice is lefs flippery than
that of ponds or rivers ; it is rough and granulated, and
only dangerous to thofe who pafs it in lleep defcents. It is
not tranfparent, is very porous, and full of fmall bubble;:,
and is of courfe lefs compaft tlian common ice. Its perfect
rtfemblance to tiie congelation of fiiow impregnated witk
water, in opacity, roughnefs, and the number as well as
fmallnefs of the air-bubbles, led Saudiirc to conceive the
following fimple and natural theory concerning the formation
of the glaciers. An i;nmenfe quantity of fnow continually
accumulates in the elevated v.ailies cncJofed within the .A.lp.<!,
as well from that which falls from tlie clouds during
nine months in tlie year, as from the nialT.'S inceCoiitlv roll-
ing from the lleep fides of llie circumjacent mountains.
Part of tliis fnow, not didblved during fummer, impree-
nated with rain and fnow-water, is froscn during winter, and
forms that opaque and porous ice of which tlie '• Lower
GLioiers" are compofed. The " Upper Glaciers" may bf
fubdivided into thofe which cover the fummits, and thofe
which extend along ■ the fides of the Alps, llie former
owe their origin to the fnow that falls at all feafons of the
)ear, and which remain'; nearly in it» prrmitivc date, boiiin-
congealed into a hard fubftance, and ncit converted into ice.
The fubdance which clothes the fides of the .'\lps is iieitlier
pure fnow, like that^jf the furhmit.i, nor ice which formt
the Lower Glaciers, but an lidemblage of both. It cg^i-
tains lefs fnow than the TtimmHs,* becaul'e the lumn?cr hiat

G L A

has more power to difTolve it, and becaufe the liquc'irJ
fno-.v defc.-i.diiig from above, the nufs abforbs a larger
quantity of water. It contains more inow than the Lower
Ghci-.'rs, becaufe the difTolutlon of the fnow is ccmpara-
tivrly lefs. Hence llie ice is even more porous, opaque, lc!s
comi)at\ than that of the l,a\ver Glaciers, and of fo doubt-
ful n texture, as renders it, in many parts, diiScult to
decide, whether it may be called ice or frozen fiiow. In a
word, there is a regular gradation from the fiiow on the
fumniits to the ice of the I^owcr Glaciers, formed by the
intermediate mixture, which becomes more corapacl and lefs
porous in proportion as it aj)proaclics the Lower Glaciers,
until it unites and alfunilates with them. And it is evident,
that the greater or leflcr degree of denfity is derived from
tiie gr.-at;r or leffer quantity of Wiiter, with which the mafs
is impregnated.

It has been a ■contefted point among naturalifts, whether
the ^"liciers arc in a ilate of incre^ie or diminution. The
following obfervations may be alleged in proof of the latter
alternative. In 1785, the inferior glacier of Grindclvrald
v.-as diminished at leail 400 yards fuice the year 1776 ; in the
valley of Chamouny, the glaciers called " les tiiuraillcs de
glace," from their refembknce to walls, and which rife in
very thick, foliJ, parallel ranges to a height of 150, or, as
fome fay, 400 feet above their real bale, and forming the
border cf the glacier of Boflba, no longer exilled, and
voung trees had (hot up in the parts which were then cover-
ed by the glaciers of iVlontanvert. The advocates for the
increafe of the glaciers, notwithftanding thefe faftS, ajfplica-
ble, as they fay, to the lower regions, alfert, both from theo-
ry and obiervation, that more fnow falls, and more ice is an-
nually formed in the Alps than can be annually difTolved.
From th-'ovv they argue, that the cold occafioned by the mafs
of ice already formed ought to augment it ftill further: and
from experience thcv deduce, that within the remembrance
of the prefcnt generation, many mountains have been cover-
ed, many paflures and liabitations invaded, and many paf-
fages irrecoverably obllruclcd by the ice. In reply to the
argument from theory it is maintained, that the caufes v.hich
lead to the diminution of the ice are no lefs powerful than the
augmentation of the cold, which is fuppofed to occi'Jion its
indeiuiite increafe. Theie caufes are principally rain and
fleet in the \ch elevated regions, evaporation, defcent of the
fnow and ice, both precipitous and gradual, heat of the at-
mofphere, 3nd mean temperature of the earth, which is al-
ways above the freezing point, as is evident from the ht. at of
the forirfs which iffue from the bowels of the earth. With
resJ-ird to the argument derived irom experience, it is thought
fufticier.t to obferve, that wliile the faiSts that prove the pro-
grcfs of the ice are admitted, it by no means ieems to fol-
low, that its mafs is perpetually increafing. For the advo-
cates of this opinion, while thev fcrupuloufiy enumerate the
places which have been invaded by the ice, do not take no-
tice of thofe parts, no lefs numerous, from which the ice
has receded. Upon the \\ hole we have reafon to conclude,
that if the colleftion of ice and fnOT,v gains in iomc places, it
is diminifiied in others, and that, upon an average, the ag-
grc!;ate quantity is nearly the iaiae. Coxe's Travels in
ijv itzerland, vol. ii.
GLACIES Mari.e. See Specularis Ln^is.
GLACIS, in Buihl':iig, an eafy infcnfible flope or decli-
vity. The defcent or inclination of the glacis is lefs llcep
ihun that 0(f the talut. In gardening a defcent fometiines
begins in talut, and ends in glucis.

The glacis of the corr.iche is an eafy imperceptible flope in
the cymatmm of the corniche, to p»omote the defcent and
'"■tliijljaiag off of the rain-water.

C L A

GhKtt?, m Forttfiiittioii, is particularly uftd for that of
the couiterfcarp, being a (loping bank, which reaches from
the parapet of the couutericarp, or covert-way, to
the level fide of the field, at the diftancc of about Iweiiiy
fathom.

The conftruftion of the covert-way and glacis is more dif-
tindly illiulrated in P/a.V V. Fortificilioii, Jj<r. 6. When
the body of the place, and all the ncceffary out-works are
conilructed, lines are drawn parallel to the outcrmoll coun-
terfcarps of the ditches, at (I.k toifes dillant from it ; and
the fpace ?« n m «, included between that line and the coun-
terfcarp, will be the covert-way required. If lines are
drawn parallel to the lines w hicli terminate the covert-way,
and the places of arms m, m. Sec. at twenty toifes diftant
from them, the fpace x x x between thofe lines will be the
glacis. A, in this ligiire, reprefents the arrow ; B, the
detached redoubt ; -v, -v, the traverfes ; =•, z, the faily-
ports. When the ground is low, and water to be found,
there is often a ditch of about ten or twelve toifes rrade round
the glacis ; beyond which there is a fecond covert-w ay of four
toifes, with traverfes and places of arms, and a fecond gla-
cis from tifteen to eighteen toifes broad. Muller's Fort p. 42.
See Mi'ilary Cosstuuction.

GLADBACK, or Gladbach, in Geography, a town
of Germany, in the circle of Weliphalia, and duchy of
.luliers; 16 miles N. of Juliers. N. lat. 51 14'. E. long.
6 15'.

GLADDON, or Gladwin, the name of a plant, other-
wife called Ipurge-wort.

GLADE, in ylgncullure, Gi^nkmng, Sec. a villa, or
open and light paffage made through a thick wood, grove,
or the like, by lopping o.*F the branches of trees alciig the
way.

Glade, in Zoology. See Glead.

GLADENBACH, in Gc-.^rrphy, a town of Germanv,
in the principality of Upper Hi-'lTe ; 12 miles N. of Gief-
fen.

GLADIATORS, in y^nlignity, perfons who were re-
tained to tight ordinarily in the arena, for the entcrtainmejit
of the people.

The gladiators were ufually flaves, and condeirnrd crimi-
nal,-, who fought from necefiity ; though, fometin.es, free-
men made prok-ffion of this practice, like our prize-iightcrs,
for a livelihood. After a Have had ferved on the arena three
years, he was difrciffed.

The Romans borrowed this cruel divfrfion from the Afia-
tics : fome fuppofe that there was policy in this praftice,
the frequent combats of gladiators
people to defpife danger and death.

the frequent combats of gladiators tending to accuilpm tlie

this p;

ECCuilf

The origin of fuch con.bats feems to be as folh-.v.s : From
thcearlieft times with which wc have anv acqr.airttance witlt
prciane hidory, it had been the cuftom to facrifice captives, or
prifoners of war, to the manes of the great men who iiad died
in the engagement ; thus Achilles, in the Iliad, lib. xxiii.
facrifiees tutlve young Trojans to the manes of Patroclus ;
and in Virgil, lib. xi. ver. 81. jEi eas fends captives to
Evander, to be facrilieed at the funeral of his fou
Pallas.

In courfe of time they camealfoto f:icrifice fiavcs at the
funerals of ?11 perfons of condition ; this was even efice.nn-
ed a neceffary part of the cerem<:ny ; but, as it would have
appeared barbarous to have mairacrcd them like bealts,
they were appointed to light with each other, and endeavour
to fave their own lives by killing their adveriaries. This
feemed fomewhat lefs inhuman, becaufe there wasapoffi-.
bility of avoiding death by an exertion of Ikill and
courage.

This.

GLADIATORS.

This occafioned tbe profeflion of gladiator to become an
Hrt ; hence arofe mailers of arms, and men learned to fight
mid exercife this art.

Thefe mailers, whom the Latins called hmjlj^, boucjht
flaves to be trained up to this cruel trade, whom they after-
wards fold to fuch as hadoccafion tu prcfent the people with
fo horrible a Ihow.

They were at tirft performed near the fepulchre of the
deceafed, or about the funeral pile, but were after-
wards removed to the circus and amphitheatres, and be-
came ordinary amufements. See Bustuaiiii.

The firil Ihow of gladiators, called miiniis gladiatorum, was
exhibited at Rome, according to Valerius Maximus, by M.
and D. Brutus, upon the death of their fatlier, in the year
of the city 4S8 ; though Livy (ix. 40) fpeaks of it in tho

Thefe fports were become fo eommon, and tlicir ronlr-
quences, in a variety of refpeds, fo dangerous, that Ciccr»
preferred a law, thai no pcrfon fhould cxliibit a fliow ♦>f glj.
diators within two years before he appeared car.diJaU- for
any ofilcc. Jiiliuo Cvfar ordered, that only a certain num-
ber of men of this profefTion fi-.ould be in Rome at a tim.-
Auguftus decreed, that only two fliows of gladiators (liould
be prcfonlcd in a year, and never above fixty couple of com-
batants in a (how. And Tiberius provided by an order of
fenate that no perfon fliould have the privilege of .iratilying
the people witii fuch a fok-nmity, unlef:. lie wa-j worth Jour-
hundred thaufand fcllcrces. They were alfo confiderably
regulated by Nerva.

The emperor Claudius reftrained them to certain occa-
fions ; but he fuou afterwards annulled what he decreed, and
private pevfons began to exhibit them at pleafure, a3 ufual :

444th year of Rome, as practiied amung the Campanians.

On the exhibition by M. and D. Brutus, there were proba- and fome carried die brutal fatisfaction {o far as to"'ha

bly only tliree pairs of gladiators : in the yearof Rome 537, tiiein at their ordinary fealts.

the three fons of M Emihus Lepidus the augur, who hid

been three times conful, entertained the people with the

cruel pleafure of feeing twenty-two gladiators fight in tile

forum ; and the fliow continued three days. In the year

of Rome 547, the lirft Africanus diverted iiis army at New

Carthage with a Ihow of gladiators, which he exhibited in

honour of his father and uncle, v.-Iio had begun the rcduilion

of Spain. In the 552d year the fons of M Vslerius L:e-

vinus exhibited 2J pairs of glndiators ; and in 569, 70, and

in 578, 74 fought on the like occafion. In procel's of time,

the Romans became fo fond of thefe bloody entertainments,

that not only the heir of any great and rich citizen lately

or

\s as a crime for the wTetehes to complain when thev
wounded, or alk for death, or feek to avoid it.

deceafed, but all the principal magillrates, prel'ented the
people with Ihovvs of this nature, to procure their afFeftion.
Til- sdiles, protors, confuls, and, above all, the candidates
for offices, made their court to the people, by entertaining
them frequently with thefe fights : and the priells were fome-
times the exhibitors of the barbarous (hows ; for vi-e meet
Mvhh the !udt pin.'ifica/es in Suetonius, Augull, cap. 44. and
with the ludifacerdotales, in Pliny, Epilt. lib. vii. As for
the emperors, it was fo much their intereft to ingratiate
themfelvcs with the populace, that they obliged them with
combats of gladiators idmoll upon all occafions, and as thefe
increafed, the number of combatants increafed hkewife.
Accordingly, Julius C^far, in his asdilefhip, diverted the
people with three hundred and twenty couple. Gordian,
before he was emperor, gave thefe fliows twelve times in a
year. In fome of thefe there were 500 pairs of gladiators,
and never lefs than 50.

Germanicus and Claudius, both fons of Drufiis, gave
combats of gladiators in honour of their father. Nero's
and Domitian's combats of gladiators are noticed in th; [2-
quel of this article. Otho employed 2000 gladiators in flip
Tn-ar again II Vitellius (A.D. 69), and Vitellius hired gla-
diators to fight in all the ftreets of Rome for the amufemeiit
of the people. The inluiman fights of gladiators, thi»ugh
hmg authorized by culloni, afforded no pleafure to Vefpa-
fian. Titus, however, exhibited a (liow of gLidiators, wild
bcafls, and reprefentations of fea-!iglits, which lailed a hun-
dred days ; and Tr.iian continued a fol.-mnity of tiiis n.iture
for 3 hundred and twenty-three days, during which time lu.-
brought out ten thoufa;-;d gladiators. And Adrian, on hi.<
firft. vifit to Rome, after his promotion to the empire, gave
combats of gladiators for fix days fucccfilvely. Before this
time, under the republic, the nuniber of gladiators was fo
great, that vrhen the confpiracy of Catiline broke out, the
fenate ordered them to be difperfed into the garrifon and ie-
f ured, left ihey (hould have joined tlie difafreCted party. See
iil,.vciAToit.'i' IVar.

And nut Haves only, but other perfons, would hm them-
felves to this infamous office.

The mailer of the gladiators made ihcm all firft fwear,
that they would fight to death ; and if they failed, they
\vere put to death, either by fire, or fwords, clubs, whips,
the like

It
were wounaecl, or

when overcome ; but it was ufual for the emperor, or
the people, to grant them life, when they gave no figni
of fear, but waited the fatal liroke with courage and
intrepidity : Augullus even decreed, that it fliould aK
ways be granted them. But fear and want of fpirit were
very rare on occafions of this kind ; infomuch, that Cicero
more than once propofes the principle of honour which ac-
tuated the gladiators as an admirable model of courage and
conilancy; by which he intended to animate liimfclf and
others, to fuilcr every thing for the prefer\-ation of li-
berty and the defence of the commonwealth. (Tufc. ii. 41.
Philip, ii. 35.)

From flaves and freedmen, the inhuman fport at length
fpread to people of rank and condition ; fo that AutuHui
was obliged to iffuc a public edift, that none of the fe-
iiatorian order (hould become gladiators ; and foon after
he kid the fame rellraint on the knights ; neverthelefs,
Nero is related to haw brought upwards of four hun-
drcd fenators, and fis hundred Roman knights upon the
arena ; though Lipfius takes both thofe numbers to be
fallified, aud, not without reafon, reduces them to forty
fenators, and fixty knights. Not only fenators, but even
women of (juality, fought in ])ublic in I'onie of Nero's com-
bats of gladiators. On occafion of the triumph of Probus,
A.D. -281, about fouricore gladiators, together with near
600 others, exhibited the inoli delpcrate courage, for the
inluin-.r.n (ports of the amphitheatre. Difdainiug to flicj
their blood for the amuiement of the populace, Uiey killed
theu- keepers, broke from tlie place of their confinement,
and filled tlie ilrrrts o( Roir.e with blood and corfuCon.
Atler an obltinale ivfittancc, they were overpowered and
cut in pieces by tlie regular forces; but they obtained at
lead an honourable death, and the fatisf.uflion of a jull
revenge (Zofuiius, 1. i. p. 66.) : yet Domitian, that other
moiiller ot cruelly, refined upon Nero, exhibiting combats
of women in tlie night-time.

Bedire Rome was become the capital of the known
world, Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, in imitation
of the Ronuins, had introduced the combats of gladiators
ill his dominions. It is remarkable, however, that the
Alheniaus, who were HatunUly beneficent and humane,
N n 2 neve^

GLADIATORS.

never admitted' bloody (hows into th.'ir city -. and when it
v/as propofud to cftabliHi combtus of j^.ladialor-; lliore, iu
order not to give place in that refpeft to the Corinthians,
" l-'irft throw down," exclaimed an Athenian in the niidll oJ
the aitembly, whofe name was Demonax, a famaus phiie-
fopher, who flourilhed in the reign of Maixus Anrelins,
" the altar which our forefathers above a thoufand years ago
erefted to Mercy."

Some Pagan emperors, lamenting the fad effecft'; of tl<;s
favage ciiftom, cndeavourod, as we h.ave already i^-cn, to
moderate it. With this view Marcus Aurelius retrenched tlie
enormous expellees employed in thefe combats, and would
not fufFer th? gladiators to fight v.ith each other, except
with very blunt iVords, like foils ; io that they might Ihevv
their addrefs, without any danger of being killed. But the
honour of fupprefiing thefe combats was referved for Chrif-
tianity ; and it coll many efforts and much time to effeft
this purpofe : fo rooted was the evil, and fo much had it
cftablidied itfelf by the long prefcription of many ages, and
the opinion of the world, that thefe combats were accept-
able to the gods, to whom, for that reafon, they offered
the blood of gladiators lately (lied, by way of facriftce, as
feveral of the Chriftian fathers obferve.

Conftantine the Great is faid to have ftril prohibited the
combats of gladiators in the Eaft ; at leaft, he forbad thofe
who were condemned to death for their crimes to be em-
ployed ; there being an order ftill extant to the pra:fcclua
prastorii, rather to fend them to v.ork in the niincs in lieu
thereof; it is dated at Berytus, in Phoenicia, the lii of
Ottober, 325.

But, notwithftanding this edift, which condemned the
art and amufement of (bedding human blood, the benevolent
law expreffed the willies of the prince, without reforming an
inveterate abule, which degraded a civilized nation below
the condition of favage cannibals. Several hundred, perhaps
feveral thoufand, vidims were annually flaughtcred in the
great cities of the empire ; and the month of December,
more peculiarly devoted to the combats of gladiators, (till
exhibited to the eyes of the human people a grateful
fpeftacle of blood and cruelty. Amidll the general joy of
the viftory at Pollentia, gained by the emperor Honorius,
Prudentiiis, a Chriilfan poet, exhorted the emperor to extir-
pate, by his authority, the liorrid cullom which had fo long
refiftedthevoiceof humanity and religion. The pathetic reprc-
fentations of Prudcntius were lefs ef.'eclual than the generous
boldnefs of Telemachus, an Aliatic monk, whofe death was
more ufeful to mankind than his life. The Romans were pro-
voked by the interruption cf their pleafures ; and the ra(h
moiik, who had defeended into the arena, to fcparate the
gladiators, was overwhelmed under a diower of Hones. But
the madnefs of the people foon fubfided ; they refpetted th:;
memory of Telemachus, who had deferved the honours ot
martyrdom ; and they fubmittcd, without a murm.ur, to
the laws of Honorius, which aboliilied for ever the inhuman
facrifices of the amphitheatre. The citizens, who adhered
to the manners of their anccllors, might perhaps inilnuate,
that the lall remains of a martial fpirit were preferved in
tiiis fchool of fortitude, wliich aecuilomcd the Romans to
tlie litrht of blood, and to the contempt of death : — a vain
and cruel prejudice, fo nobly confuted by the valour of an-
tient Greece, and of modern Europe.

It muft be obferved, howevej", that the praflice was not
entirely aboUllied in tile W'elt before Theodoric, king of the
Oftrogoths. Honorius, on the occalion tirll mentioned, had
prohibited them ; but the prohibition docs not fcem to have
been e'.;ecuted. Thsodoric, in the year 500, abuliflied tliem
finally.

Some time before the day of battle, the perfon wlio pre.-
fented the people witli the (hows gave them notice thereof,.,
by programnia.'', or bills, containing the names of the
gladiators, and the marks whereby lliey were to be dif-
tinguilhed ; for each had liis feveral badge, which was, molt
commonly, a peacock's feather, as appears, from the Scho-
lialt of Juvenal, i.mi tlic 158th vcrfe of the third Satire, and
Turnebus Adverf. lib. ii. tap. 8.

They alfo gave notice what time the (hows would laft,
and iiow many couples of gladiators there were ; and it
even appears, from tlie Jid verfe of the fevcnth Satire
of the lecond book ot Horace, that they fometimcs made
reprefentations of thefe things in painting, as is prac-
tifed among us by thofe who have any thing to fliow at
fairs.

Tile day being come, they began tlie entertainments by
bringing two kinds of wcaiions ; the fird were ftaves, or
wooden files, called ruths ; and the fecoiid were efTeftivc
weapons, as fwords, poniards, Sic.

The iirfl were caWei anna Iiifiriii, or e.vercilor'ui ; the fe-
rond decrctona, as being given by decree or fcntence of
the praetor, or of him at whofe expencc the fpcftacle
was exhibited. They began to fence or Ikirmilh with
the firll, which was to be the prelude to the battle ; and
from thefe, when well warmed, they advanced to the
fecond, at the found of the trumpets, with which they
fought naked.

Then they were faid wrlere aniin ; the terms of ftrikingr
were petcre ivwi lYpetere ; of avoiding a blow, exiir; and
when one of the combatants received a remarkable wound,
his adverfary or the people cried out, /lalnf, or /.'oc habd.
Tlie (Irft part of the engagement was called vt-ntilarc,
priihidere ; and the fecond, tlimicarc ad cerium, or ivijis.
armis piigiiare : and fome authors think, with much proba-
bility, that it is to thefe two kinds of combat that St. Paul
alludes, in the pafTage I Cor.ix. 26, 27. " T fight, not as.
one that beateth the air ; but I keep my body, and bring it
into fubjeftion."

If the vanquiihed furrcndcred his arms, it was not in
the viftor's power to grant him life ; it was the people during
the time of the republic, and the prince or people during the
time of the empire, that were alone impowcred to grant the
boon.

The reward of ^tlie conqueror was a branch of palm-tree,
and a fum of money, probably collefteti among the fpetlators ;
fometimcs they gave him his conge, or dilmilT^d him, by
pultifig one of the wooden foils or rudis in his hand ; and
fonietimes they even gave him his freedom, putting theplleuj
on his head.

The lign or indication whereby the fpcftators (Itewed
that they granted the favour,, was preiiure pollicem, which
M. Dacien takes to be a clenching of the hugers cf botls
hands between one another, and fo holding the two thumbs
u))right, clofe togetlter : and, when th.ey v-ould have the
coinbat finiP.ied, and the vanquiihed (Iain, they vcr/erunt
pollifem, bent back the thumb ; v/liich we Icaxn from Juvc~
nal, Sat. iii. ver. Jii,

" Munera nunc edunt, et verfo polHce vulgi
Quemlibet oceidunt. populariter." Juv.

The gladiators challenge,d or defied each other, by lliewing
the iittle finirer ; and, by extending this, or fome other,
during the combat, they owned themfelve.s vanquiihed, and
begged mercy from the people :. " Victi oilenfam digiti ve-
niaai a ])opulo polluiabaut," fays the old Scholiall on Per*
fius. Vide Pliii. lib, xxviii. cap. 2, Prudiutius, lib. ii.
contra Symm». ver. IC98. "Horace, lib. iv. iS. ver. 66i

Politian.

G L A

Fontian. Mifccl. cap. 42. Turneb. Adverf. lib. xi. cap. 6.
Lip. Saturn, lib. ii cap. 22.

Ti-.cre were divers kinds of gladiators, dillinguifhed by
their weapons, manner, and tim- of fighting, &c. as,

The anJabalu, of whom we liuve already given an account
under And.\bat.B.

The caiervarii, who always fought in troops or com-
panies, number againft number : or according to others,
who fought promifcuoufly, without any certain order.
Lipf lib. ii. cap. 16.

The confummat'i, wiiom authors mention as a fpecies of
gladiators, the fame with the rudiarii and veterani ; founding
the opinion on a pafTage in Pliny, lib. viii. cap. 7. Bat
Lipfius (hew.-, that they have niiilaken Pliny. Saturn,
lib. ii. cap. 16. and Turi\eb. Adverl. lib. xxx. cap. 36.

The C'jbicu/:irii, which are a little precarious, being chiefly
founded on a paffage in Lampridius, in the life of the em-
peror Commodus : " Inter hic, habitu viclimarii, viclimas
immolavit, in arena rudibus, inter cubicukrios ; gladiatores
pagnavit lucentibus aliquando mucronibus."

Turnebus reads riuUaihs inRead of cub'icularlos : and un-
dorilands it of thofe who had been dil'miffed, and could
no longer be obl'ged to fight, except with fo.ls.

Salmalius reads glafmtor ; and r.;fers it to the cmpcror^^
who fought not only on the arena, and with foils, orblu-,ted
mftruments, but at home, with his f::rv.a.nts and valets de
cliambre, and with Iharps.

Lipfius will have nothing altered in. the text : the gladia-
tores cubicularii, he obfervcs, were thofe who fought at
private houfes, during foafts, &c Accordingly, Dion fays
exprefslv, that Commodus fo.Tietimes fought at home, and
even killed fome perfons in fuch rencounters ; but that, in
pjblic, he only foiiglit withblunted weapons.

The diiiuch^, who fought armed with two poniards, or
fwords ; or with fword or dagger. Lipf. Satiirn. lib. ii.
cap. 13.

The ejfidarn, who fought in cars ; called alfo, in an iir-
fcription lately difcovered at Lyons, ojfcdar'd. Saturn,
fcrm. lib ii. cap. 13.

T\\cjifcahs, or Cjtjarla:i'i, who belonged to the emperor's
company ; and who, being more robull asd dexterous than
tlie reft, were frequently called for, and therefore named alfo
pojlulaihii. Saturn, lib. ii. cap. j6.

The other kinds were, the hoph,macht, mer'id'mm, myr-
tiiilknes, ordinarii, pmnirapi, provccatores, ntlar'ii, rudiarii,
Samni:es, fccul&res, fp:8atores, and Thraccs : which fee
defcribed under ^lE.HIDI.v^"l, RKXi.'iRii, Se^ltokes,
&c.

Some authors, and particularly Vigenere on Livy, rank
the rjf:quenlis, mentioned by Spartian, in his life of Marcus
Aiirelius, among the number of gladiators ; Lipfius ridi-
cules him, Saturn, lib. ii. cap. 10. and v.ith fome reafon :
the obfequentcs properly were the troops which that emperor
raifed among the gladiators ; or whom of gladiators he
made foldiers.

GrL.VDi.VTOits' ivar, bellum G/adia'orum, or Sparlaciiim,
called alio the firvile tt-ar, was a war which the Romans
f.iilained about the year of their city 680. Spartacus, Cri-
11U5, Oenomaus, having efcaped, with other gladiators, to
the number of fevcnty-tour, out of tlio p'ace where they had
b>;en kept at Capua, gathered together a body of Ihivcs,
put themfelves at their head, rendered themfelves mailers of
all Campania, and gained fevcral victories over the Roman
pritors. At length they were defeated, in the year 682,
at the extremity of Italy ; having, in vain, attempted to pafs
over into Sicily.

This war proved very formidal le to the Rorran?,.

G L A

CriiTus W.-13 not abid to fini(h it: th.- great Eumpcy wa»
forced to be fent as general.

Gi-AuiATO.a, dji/ig, is a mod valuable monument of an-
cient Iculptur*, which is now pretrved in tliC palace of
Chighi. This man, when he had received the mortal ftroke,
is particularly careful, 1,1 procumla! bm/Jle, that he might
fall gracefully ; he is feated in a reclining pollure on the
giOiUid, and has juil llrcngth furficient to Uipport himfelf on
his right arm ; and in his expiring moments, it is plainly feen
that he does not abandon himfelf to grief and dejection, but
ij folicitous to maintain tiut firmnefs of afpe^, which tlie
gladiators valued th.-mfelves on pivferving in this feafon of
dillrefs, and that attitude which th.-y hud learnt of the raaf-
ters of defence. He fears not deatli, nor feems to betray-
any tokens of fear by his countenance, nor to fhcd one tear ;
" quis mediocris gladiator ingemuit, quis vultum mutant
unquam, quis noa modo iletit, veruir. etiam dccubuit tur-
piter," fays Cicero, in that part of his Tufculan, where he
is defcribing the ailoniil-.jng Hrinin:fs of thefe perfons. We
fee, in this inftance, r.otwithllanding liis remaining ftrength,
that he has but a moment to live, and we view him with at-
tention, that we may fee him expire and fall: thus the an--
cients knew how to au'mate marble, and to give it aliuoll
every expreffion of life.

GLADIOLE, in Boany. See Clto.mus and Lo-
belia.

GLADIOLUS, a name in Pliny, from gladius,.
a fuord, alluding to the form of the leaves. Linn.
Gen. 26. Schreb. 35. Wdld. Sp. PI. v. 1. 208. Vahl.
Enum. v. 2. 77. Thunb. DilT. n. 7. Ait. H. Kew. cd. 2.
V. I. 96 Ker in Ann. of Bot. v. i. 230. Mart. Mill. Diet.
V. 2. Jutr. 58. Tourn. t. 190. Lamarck Illuilr. t. 32.
Gsrtn, t. II. — Clafs and order, Triaudria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord Enfata, Linn. Irid.s, .lufT.

Gen. Ch. Cab. Spatha inferior, (horter than the corolla, of
two oblo.ig permanent valves ; the outcrmoll larger, enfold-
ing the inner one. Cor. of one petal, fuperior ; tube cylin-
dncal, fwelling upwards, curved ; limb fomcwhat belU
n.aped, irregular, in fix deep, oblong, llightly fpreading,
unequal feginents, the upper and lowermoit either without
or within the lateral ones. Suim Filaments three, infcrted
into the mouth of the tube, tliread-lhaped, afcending,
fiiorter than the corolla; anthers ovate, incumbent. Piff.
Gerracn inferior, triangular ; ftyle thrcad-fhaped ; ftigma*
three, fpreading, folded, recurved, obtufe, downy. Piru.
Capfule ovate, triangular, obtufe, thin, of three cells and
three valves. Seeds numerous, finooth, furrouaded with a
membranous wing.

Eir. Ch. Spatha of two valves. Corolla tubular ; its'
linA in fix deep feginents, irregular. Stamens .ifeending.
Stigmas tiirec, dilated. Seeds winged.

Tv.enty-four fpecies of this genus arc defined in the 14th
edition of Linnxus's 5" v^t;.Vi7 VegduliUum, of which the ninw
/«/, Sp. PI. 53, belongs, we believe, .to Ixia, or fome of its
near allies. Willdenow makes 50 fpecies, but Mr. Ker
(late Gawler) has, we think, with great p-opriety, ellablilhcd
the old genus IValfor.ia, to. wliicli lome of them are removed,
while otliers go to liis Tritoma or elfewhere, fo that he
r.aiues but 28 Ipecies in Sims and Konig's Annals above'
quoted. He is followed by Mr. Dryander in the new edi-
tion of the Ho!-tus Ktwaijls, except with regard to his
hirfutus, tliere called brevifolius, after Willdcuuw and Jac-
quin ; while a moll diftiuct fpecies figured in Curt. Mag.
t. 574, by Mr. Ker as a variety of l-'ufutus, is properly re-
tained as being the true hirfutus itfelf. Five of Mr. Ker's
fpecies are not found in Hort. Kcw.

We judge-it vieceflary to give a view of die whole g»"nus in

it»-

CL ADTOLTTS.

its roftimcd flatc, adding the Linnxiin G. tmirkalus to what
the abovc'-mciitioncti \vr!t:i;; h.ivc defined.

I. G. Curonia. Garrir.. v. i. 31. (Antholyza Cunonia ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 54. VjKI. P'.nuni. v. 2. 121. Curt. Mag.
t. 34.3. Redout. Lil. t. 12.) — -• Leaves linear-fword-
fliaped. Upper f 'gmciit of tho corolla very long ; lower
very finall." — Native of the Cape of Good Hop-.-, nor does
it appear to ^rovv, as I<ii;nxus aif-rts, in Peii;,i. Remark-
able for tlic vivid fcarlct of its fingiilar and beaut;ful_/7.;':f;Vf,
the three upper foijmeut 3 of whofe corolla are broadly ellip-
tical and vaiilt'-d, t!v; niiddlen-coll projeding iar bcyor.d the
other two ; while ihe three lower are very iniall, a;;d green-
ifh. 'I'liis is a hardy grcen-lioufe plant. Sec Antkolyza,

G. IValfo

V. 3 2

J/

o'uvs. Thiinb. llin". 14. Prcd S. Jacq
le. Rar. t. 2^3. Curt. Map;, t. 450 and

11,3.

Coii.

569. (G. prsccox ; Andr Re])of. t. 38.) — " Leaves lincar-
fword-fliapcd, with tliree ribs on eacli tide. Tube of the co-
rolla cylindrical, longer than tl-,e limb." — Native of the
Cape of Good Hope ; alnioft hardy with us, flowering in
April. The corolla is fcarlet, foir.etimes fpcckled with
yellow, as in Curtis's t. 569 ; its f.'gments are fliarp-pointed,
and nearly equal, each an inch long. Tube an inch and half
in length, its bafe very narrow and thread-diaped.

3. C». qujtlrangulans. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 567. (G.
abbreviatus ; Andr. Repof. t. 166. i^ntholyza quadran-
gularis ; Burm. Fl. Cup. according to Mr. Ker.) — "Leaves
with four angles and four furrows. Upper fegment of the
corolla very long ; lower very fmall and Aiarp." — Imported 8
from the Cape of Good Hope, bv thofe excellent culti-
vators MelTrs. Lee and Kennedy in 1799. ^'- ''""*^ flowered
with them in March 1801. The quadrangular leaves dillin-
guilhed this from moil others, e.\cept the trlflis, n. 10, and
fermaliilis, n, 7 ; the Jlotutrs more agree with G. Cunonia,
at leall in their large vaulted upper fegment, but all the la-
teral fegments are extremely ihort, ovate and acute, the
lowermoll being the leall of all. The tube is yellow ilreaked
with or jnge ; large fegment of the limb purplilh ; nil the
rcil variegated with dull green and brown. According to
the Linnsean idea of hybrid fpecies, this might be guefled
to have originated from G. Cnnoma impregnated by G.
tr'ijlh.

4. G. ^alealtis. Andr. Repof. t. 122. (G. namaquen-
fis ; Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 592 ) — Upper fegment of the
torolia vaulted ; two lateral rhomboid ; three lower pendu-
lous, fpatulate, blunt with a little point. Leaves coriace-
ous, obovate. — Native of the Namaqua country, a conli-
derable dillance from the Cape of Good Hope ; eafdy pro-
pagated by feeds or oiTsets, and blowing freely. The leav s
are very thick, many-ribbed, obovate, obtufe, curved or
oblique. Stem low, bent or zig-zag, covered witli IraRias
?inAJio'wers. The latter are large and fliowy, their three
nan-ow drooping lower fegments, each half green half fcar-
let, ftrikiiigly contralled with the large broad upper ones,
which are of a rich fcarlet, green white and purple at the
bafe. No authority can induce us to prefer fuch a fpecific
name as namaqucnfis, it being contrary to rule as the name of
a country, and lo p'?culiarly barbarous in itfelf. The G.
^aleatus of Jacquin is Spiraxisgalala of Ker.

5. G. nlatiis. Linn. Sp. PI. 53. Herb. Linn. Andr.

Repof. t. 8. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 586 Upper fegment

of the corolla obovate, recurved ; two lateral rhomboid ;
three lower pendulous, fpatulate, pointed. Leaves rigid,
lanceok.te, — Common about the Cape of Good Hope ;
eafily encreafed by feeds or bulbs, but r.TrcIv flowering with
lis. Bears a coniiderdble refcmbkmce to the lail in forrn
and colours, but the Laws arc narrower and very differently

(liaped, th? lower fegments of the corolla more lanceolate,
the upper one reflexed. Linnxus once called this fpcci.-s
Ijhialh, but his fon changed it to ala'.us, in allufion to the
wing-like lateral fegments.

6. G. -vhcratus. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 688. (G. ala-
tu9 ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 259. G. orchidiflorus ; Andv.
P..epof. t. 241.) — Upper fegment of the corolla fpatulate.
arched, incurved; two lateral rhomboid; three lower fji,-'.-
tulate, pendulous, acute. Leaves ftraight, linear-fword-
fliaped. — Native of the Cape ; rare in our cclleftions.
I'hikeiiet's rude figure, t. 224. f. 8, is fuppofed to belonjj
to this fpecies rather than to the lail, for v\liich it is
quoted by Linnxus. This di.Ters from the two prece-
ding in having long creft narrow Laves, and Jloicers va-
riegated with dull green and purple, which are lufcioully
fragrant. They/tj;i is tall, and fometimes branched.

7. G. permeabilis. De la Roche Diff. 27. t. z Ker is
Ann. of Bot. V. I. 231. — Leaves awl-fliaped, quadrangular,
ereft. Upper fegment of the corolla broadeft, vaulted,
undulated; two lateral narrow-rhomboid; three lower fpa-
tulate, acute, recurved at the points — Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. We know it only by De la Roche's
figure and dcfcription. He fays the jHotvers are of a very
pale violet, diluted with purple and yellow. The name al-
ludes to their bemg pervious between the fegments, but
this is not peculiar. That fuppofed variety of tri/Hs,
figured bv Jacquin, Ic. Rar. t. 244, feems to be very near
the prefent fpecies.

G. verficolor. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1042 and 556.

Andr. Repof t. 19 Leaves linear-fword-ftiaped, witii tliree

ribs on each fide. Segments of tlie corolla longer than the
tube, pointed, recurved. — Native of the Cape, from whence
it was received by Mefirs. Lee and Kennedy in 1794- Its
fioivcrs are among the largell of its genus, with peculiarly
long undulated recurved fegments, and are remarkable fop
changing colour feveral days fucceffively. In tlie morning
it is of a purplifli brown, but becomes grey in tlie courfc
of the day, and finally of a light blue in the evening. Tlie
mod; wonderful, and, as far as we know, unique circum-
ftance, is, that the original brown hue returns in the courfe
of the niglit, and this happens for nine or ten followincp
days. There are moreover fome varieties of colour ob-
fervable in different plants, fome afTuming more of a yellow
hue. It differs efTtntially from the foUowinp' in having a
fword-fliaped, not a quadrangular, leaf.

9. G. tr'ijlh. Linn. Sp. PI. 53. Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. 272 and 1098. Jacq Ic. Rar. t 245 and 243. (Lilio-gla-
diolus bifolius et biflorus, foliis quadrangulis ; Trew.
Ehrct. t. 39.) — Leaves with four angles and four furrows.
Segments of the corolla nearly equal, pointed. — Frequent
at the Cape, and not uncommon in uur green-houfes, where
it is judly admired for its rich evening fcent, like a pink, or
a bergamot pear, efpecially in the moil common or parti-
coloured variety, to which the firfl-quoted figures of Curtis
and Jacquin refer. The dfeply furrov/ed quadrangular
le.ives, like thofe of the Snake's-liead Iris, tiih.rofLi, diftin-
guilh it clearly from the lafi, for which Mr. Ker, we prefume
by millake, quotes Jacquin's t 245. He likewife cites and
blames Trew's Eluvt as the yellowiih variety, -whivh is a
fine plate, though rather too pink, of the particoloured
one.

JO. G. byalinus. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 242. Ker in Ann.
of Bot. V, I. 231. WiDd. Sp. PI. V. I. 2 1 1 -.-Leaves linear,
crett, the length of their fiiealhs. Segments of the corol-
la ovate, acute ; the uppernioll large'!, ered — Native of
the Cape. Jacquin fays it flowered v.ith Iiim in December.
Wc du not find it in the Hortus Keweniib, nor Hurtus
3 Canta»

GLADIOLUS.

CAntiibrigienfis, nor have we fecn any fpeclmpn. Trie ftort,
upright, llriight haves are remjrkuble. Tin Jioiv:rs are
I'n.nlWr th:in in the two laft, fcentlefs ; the baf? oi' their ft g-
m'-riits feirii-trprifparoiit, ihe extremities yellowifh, ilripcd
and dotted vrith pi-rple. The upper fegment is by far the
krgei^ ; the othc-rs f;radually fmallcr, to the lower one,
which is lea'l '.f nU. Tube funiicl-Ciap'-d, femi-pellucid,
very pale pi:rp!e, .•>.s lono; as the largeft Icgment.— Jacquiii
fir!l called thi', vrecie&Jli-Llus : fee Colleft. v, 4. 170.

11. G. tin,-!!:.!. Jacq Ic Rar. t. 248 Cull v. 3. 255,
and V. 4. 169 t. 3. f. I. Ker in Ann. of Bot V. I. 231 —
Leaves linear, convoluted, fmuoth. Stem zig-zag. Seg-
ments of the corolla elliptical, blunlifh, nearly equal,
Shorter thr.n the tube. — Native of the Cape. Jacquin, from
vphofe figuruJ alone we are acquainted with this plant, fays
it b!oo:ne<i wilh him in November. Thr^i-m is a fpaii high,
curved ar.d zirf-zag. Flowers one or two, yello-.vilh, more
or Icls v.-'.rieg''.i "d with pale purple, fcentlc<s, about an inch
andhi'f long

12. G. Jitifo'.ius. Thunb. DifT. 18. Linn. Suppl 96.
Ker ir. Ann uf Bot. v. i. 231 — " Loaves lincar-bnitle-
ihapcd Corolla ringent. Stem branched." — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. " Si<:m bearing many fpikes of
flowers; Nery rarely fimple ; upright, fomowhut zig-zag,
four inclies h.igh ; brandies round and erect. Leaves about
three, liKon.v.fotaceoiis, the upper ones gradually fhorter ;
the lowerr.eit as tall as the fteni. /•Vciw. rj- alternate, white,
rino-ent ; their tube fcarcely longer than the fpatha.''
Tlilnb.

13. G. gracilis. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 246. Kit in Curt.
Mag- t 562. — Leaves hnear, ribbed, deeply furro'.ved on
e.-i.ch flue, vi-i'h a very liight midrib. Corolla fomewhat
bell-lhaped ; fegments ovDte, nearly equal — Native of the
Caoe, c:ihly cultivated with us, blooaiing in Miirch cr
April. Fh-wers wavy, pale blue, more or lefs fpecklcd
with black and whit? ou the two lower lateral fegments ;
without fcent. Bulb very fmall. Stem variouily bent, flen-
der, two or three feet high.

14. G rccurvus. Linn. Mant 28. Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. 578. (C carinatus ; Willd. Sp PI. v. i. 211. Ker in Ann.
oi Bot. v. I. 2^1. G. pundlatus ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 247
G.ringens; Andr. Repof t. 27 and 227. Redout. Liliac.
t 1Z7 G. aiatas; Schneev. Ic. t. 1 2 )- Leaves linear, fiat;
rib prominent en each fide Radical fncath fptckled. Seg-
ments of the corolla nearly equal, ovate, recurved. - Native
of the Cape, cultivated and badly figured by Miller, and
now frequent in gardens, where it is valued for the fine vio-
let fragrance of its blue and yellow bloffoms, more than even
for their beauty or fize, wliich equals that of moft fpecies.
The leaves have a llrong rib, prominent on each fide, and the
firtl (heath from the root is curinufly fpeckled with brown,
like the ftalks of Arum Draemieulus. Thunberg confounded
tliis znA gracilis w ith tr'iji'ts,

15. G. brev'tfollus. Jacq. Ic Rar. t. 249. Dryand. in
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. V. 1.98. (G. hirfutus a ; Ker in
Curt. Mag. t 992 ; and ,5; t. 727. G. carneus ; Ar.cr.
Repof t. 240.) — " Leaf of the barren bulb folitary, li-
near, nightly downy ; of the flowering one fcarcely any.
Corolla fomewhat ringcat.'' — Native of the Cape, readily
cultivated and encrealcd with us. The flo'-j.'ers are among
the fmalkr fized, all learing one way, varioufly tinged with
'pale ptirple or rofe -colour, with fome yellow ; their three
lower fegments moft fpeckled, and nearly of equal fize, the
uppermoit one rather largell, vaiJted, recurved at the fum-
mit. Tiie leaves are minutely downy, upright, linear or
flightly lanceolate ; very Iliort, or rather mete fcales, on tl)C

flowering flem ; folitary and larger on the bulb, which pro-
duces no flowers.

16. G. hirfutus. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 250. Dryand. in
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed 2. v. i.p8. Ker in Curt Mag.
^- 574- (G. rofeus ; Andr. Repof t 1 1.) — '• Leaves linear
fword-ihaped, downy. Corolla nearly regulr.r." — Native
of the Cape ; introduced into our gTerr-hotifcs in 1795, when
it^ fir'l floM-er^d in the ccUiction of Mr Orde at Fuiham.
The broadiih, downy, red-edged leaves are rem-rkable.
'I'hej^ow.Tj- are large and fragrant, rofe-colorred ; their feg*
ments elliptical, pointed, nearly equal. Jacquin's fig.'re is
indeed a poor one, but we can fca'-cely fuppcfc, with Mr.
Andrews, that it is drawn from a dried fpecimen, as t!.c au-
tiior fays it flowered in his gn en-houfe, nor does he, like
Pallas, often praftifethis without acknowledgment.

17. G. fexuofus. Thunb. Difl". 9 t I. f. i. Linn.
Suppl. 96 — Leaves !ine:ir, involute. Corolla ringent ; feg-
ments elhptic-lrmceolate, nearly equal, (liorter than the tube.
Stem zig-zag — Gathered at the Caiie by Thunberg, from
whom we have a wild fpecimen. The_y7(-m is a fpan high, ir-
regularly curved, and zig-zag. Leaves iheathing, (hort, li-
near, acute, fmooth, involute. Spalkas large, fwelling,
fliarply pointed. /Ycw^rj- very pale flefli-colourcd, with rid
ribs; tube capillary, an inch and Inlf long ; fegments of the
limb narrow, nearly equal in fize, but ringent.

18. G. carneus. Jacq, Ic. Rar. t. 255 Ker in Curt.
Mag. t. 591. (G. cufpidatus; Andr. Repof. t. 147.
Redout. Liliac. t.36. ) — Leaves fword-fhaped, manv-ribbed.
Segments of the corolla (hortcr than the tube ; th.e upper-
moll broadtll, with an involute recurved point ; the three

lower narrowell, dependent Native of the Cape. A tall

and handfon-.e pkint, with feveral many-ribhcd leaves.
Flowers inodorous, two-ranked, large, flelb-coiourcd with
a rofy hue ; their three lower fegments oblong, bluntifli,
each marked with a red rhomboid central fpot ; tlie three
upper broadeft, efpecially the top one, with long recurved
points, whofe edges are involute. The tube is (lender,
longer than tlie limb, twice as long as the fpatha. This
freely blowing fpecies is a defirable ornament for the green-
houfe in the fpriug.

19. G. cuff'uhuvs. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 257. Ker in Curt.
Mag. t. 582. Redout. Liliac. t. 136. Andr. Repof. t.219.
(G. undulatus ; Linn, Mant. 27.) — Leaves fword-lhaped,
rrany -ribbed. Segments of the corolla half the lepgth of
the tube, nearly equal, pointed, undulated, reflt.\ed. —
Native of the Cape ; now become pretty frequent in gardens,
for the fake of its elegaiiee of form and colour, and its fra-
grance in an evening. The very long narrow fegments of
the corolla., each of whicii has a recurved, channell<-d, un-
dulated point, and tlie much greater length of the tube, are
ftriking ciiaraclers. The colour is pale greenifli yellow, or
bufl^, with a remarkable lanceolate fpot, llained with purple
and red, on eacli of the three lower {cginei.tj. Anthers
deep blue. The Liunsau name ought to have been re-
tained for this fpecies, but to change the preient appella-
tion would now caule more trouble than advantage.

20. G. blanitus. -\it. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. i. 64. Ker
in Curt. Mag. t. 625. 645. 648. Andr. Repof. t. 99.
(G. carneus; De la Roche Difl". 30. t. 4. Redv<ut. Liliac.
t. 6^. G- albidus; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 256. G. cimpanula-
tus ; .-\iidr. Repoi^ t. I &8.)— Leaves maiiy-ribLcd. Tube
of the corcUa fhorter than the fpatha, equal to the limb,
which is ringent, bell fliaped ; its upper fegmeiit concave;
lh.ee lower nairoweft, fpotted. — Native of the Cape. Suc-
ceeds bell with us in the open ground, but the bulbs niuil
be taken up every year. — This is an elegant fpecies, with

GLADIOLUS.

/«jw/of the f\vord-(haped many-ribbed kind like the two
laft. The floivirs vary in colour, from white to a pale pink,
their three "lower fegn'ients bearing each 2;encraHy a pair of
crimfon fpots. They vary alfo in fize, fomctimes vyeiiig
in tliis refped wiih the brg'elh Tliey have no fcent.
. We cannot but complain of tl-.ofe .nnthors who bi:rtl:en
the public with ligures of trillii'^ varieties of this and other
plants, for which a f:ns;le plate oejjht to have been !ufr;cient;
nor docs the contrivance of a new name, th.oi'gh it n.ay con-
ceal the impofilion, by any means itone for it.

21. G.cv^'lftus. Linn. vSp. V\. S?,- Kort. Cliff, t. 6.
Jacq. Ic. RaV. t. 252. Ker in Curt. M;'g:. t. 6c2. Andr.
Repof t. 589. Mill. Ic. t. 142. f. 2 — Leaves lincr.r ; mid-
rib prominent on each tide. Tube of ihc corcUa longer than
either fpatlia or lin-b ; time upper fegir.cnts ovate ; three
lower each marked with 11 triangular llaiked fpot. — ^ative
of the Cape, from whence it was very early introduced into
the Dutch gardens. It is readily increafed, but does not
flower freely, otherwife its elegance could not fail to rendtr
it a general favourite. The narrow lit,v^s, ccmpared with
-thofe fpecies neareft akin to this, and efpccially the three

fpade-hke marks of the blofloin, v.hicli are conllant, mark
4t fufiieientlv.

22. G.u'tiduld'.m. Jacq. Ic Rar. t. 251. Ker in Curt.
Mag. t. 5^8. 647. Schnecv. Ic. t. 19. Redout. Liliac.
t. 121. (G. ftriaUis; Andr. Repof. t. III.) — Leaves
fword-ftiaped, many-ribbed. Flowers ercft, fnnnel-fhapcd ;
fegm.ents wavy, bkinlilli ; three lower ores 11111011 the
fmalleft. — Nat'ive of the Cape ; often cultivated in our gar-

.dens. The leav:s ai-e numerous, broad and upright. I'lozv-
ers yellowifli-white, or pale blufli-coloured, eaell_ fegment
always marked with a deep crimfun central ilripe wh.ich runs
down into tlie tube. The latter is feldc;m longer than the
fpatha, often fliorter. — The name of unduhlKs, which Lin-
n;eus had applied to our cufpuhhis, has been mifapplied to
this, with « hich however it agrees tolerably well, and we
have already given our reafon for retaining it. This fpecies
•is the auguJJus of Thunberg, an appelktion which feems
corrupted"' from angiiftus, a totally different plant in evci-y
poflible refpeft, nor are his quotations of Lreynius, and of
Linn. Mant. lefs erroneous. There is no end of correcting
indifterent names, but uniliilaf.is ought, as Mr. Ker now
allows, to have remained with the Linnxan plant ; if fo,
"ultlatus, in allufion to the fomewhat fimilar Ar.iaryU'u viltata,
might have ferved for the fpeciei before us, though indeed
it alfo fuits the following.

Z7,. G.foribimJi:s.. .Tacq. Tc. Rar. t. 254, Ker in Curt.
Mag. t. 610. (.G. grandillorus ; Andr. Repof t. 118.) —
Leaves fword-fhaped, maiiy-ribbcd. Tlowers ercft, funnel-
fhapcd ; fegments nearly' equals flattidi, emarginate, the
uppermoft broadelt — Native of the .Cape ; inti-oduced into
England bv Lee and Ktnr.cdy in 1788. Bu!b large.
Leaves broad, with a thick edge, and often falcate. Fk-iu-
trs numerous, generally larger than in moil other fpecies,
very pale pink, blue, or white, witli a dark central llripc
to each fegrnent. The fummits of the fegments are emar-
ginate, with a little point, and they arc fcarcely at all
undulated.

24. G. MlHefi. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 632. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. V. I. loi. (Antholyza, &c; MilL Ic. t. 4.0.) —
Leaves with many prommeut ribs. Flowers inclining one
way, bell-lhaped, nearly regular; upper fegrnent rather
narrower than the next ; tube flf-fliy, (lender. — Native of the
•Cape, but rare in gardens. Miller raifed it froin feed in
,1757, and figured it as an yimholyza. It is of the fame
4j-ibe as. the tWo laft, but differs in having a more inclined

6

and more equal corolla, at firft vshite then yello-vvifli, witu a
darker purpl.fii central Ilripe on the three lower than on the
three upper iegments. The tube, according to Mr. Ker's
rema-k, though externally (lender and exactly cylindrical,
is peculiarly llefhy, refenibhng a flower-ilalk. The outer
/{■atha is inflated and convolute, oitener longer than the
tube.

25. G. cardhialis. Curt. Mag. t. 135. Schnecv. Ic.

t. 27. Redout. Liliac. t. 112 Leaves n-.anv-rihbed.

S!.era branched. Flowers trecf, in one row, funnel-fliaped ;
fegments elliptical ; three lowermolt imalled, each with a
lanceolate white fpot. — Native of the Cape, froa'i vihence it
was brought to Holland, and irum the latter country to
Ei.glani by Mr. Grceft'cr ; before I78e;, unlefs we are
jjreatly millaken. It will bear an open border in a warm
iituation, but ir.e bulbs mull; be taken up yearly to make it
ilou-er in its natural magnificence. The rich fcarlet of its
l^offoKis", and their three white fpots, dii'inguidi this iViie
fpecies. Its green has a glaucous call, and the_/?«n is pro-
perly branched, two or tluce iect lagii.

T"'hcjiame alludes to tJie fcarlet colour, hke that worn by
the caidin.iis at Rome, as ufed by Linnsus in LobJia and
Lo.xi.i. The piou3 Scopoli thor.ght the application profane,
and changed it in tlie latter inilance to rubra. See his
Annus primus, 139.

26. Ci. iyzanlium. jNIilL Dift. ed. 8. n. 3. Ic. t. 14.2.
f. I. Ker 111 Curt. M.tg. t. 874. Dryandr. in Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. I. 102. Park. Parad. 191. f. 3. — Leaves
many-ribbed. Spike two-rarked. Flowers liorizontal ;
upper fegrnent covered laleraily by the next ; tlirte lowia--
moll equal, each with a linear-lanceolate Ilripe. — Sur~r

s pofed to be a native of Turkey, it, having been for near
two centuries a hardy inhabitant of our gardens, under
th.e name of the Byzantine corn-flag, though gonerailv con-
founded, as G. cojr.niunis of L:nnjeus, with the two following.
We readily iubinit to Mr. Ker's corr^ ebons of tliis error,
in which we have, in common with moil botanills, been
involved, but which is now alfo corretled in the new edition
of Horl. Ki-zu. — All tlie three have broad, upright, acute,
miany-ribbed leaves, and handlomc criinfoiy7cii'c/^.f, projecf intr
horizontally, in a long upright, unbranched fpike, witk
lanceolate concave brafteas. The three iegments of the
lower lip are each marked with a central white or yeliowilh
Ilripe, bordered with deep red, and more or lefs dilated in
the middle. The Jlo'-Mcrs of the prefent fpecies a-re hu-ger
than in either of the other tv\o, their three lower Ieg-
ments very nearly equal in fize and fliape ; the uppermoil
is embraced and covered at its fides bv the lappiu'j- over of
the two lateral fegments, fo that the flower is clofed, not
pervious, at that part. It blofioms in June, rather before
the cQKimuais, but, according to Mr. Ker, never bears feeds
in England, nor does it increafe by root fo rapidly as the
other two.

27. G. conmimu. Linn. Sp. PI. 52. Curt. Mao-, t. 86.
Jliv. Monop. Irr. t. 1 10. (G- narboncnfis ; Ger. ein. 104.
Park. Parad. 191. f. i.) — Leaves many-ribbed. Spike one-
ranked. Flowers horizontal ; upper fegjnent covered late-
rally by the next ; three low-ermoit each with a lir.ear-!an-
ceoiate ilripe; the central fegment very -large. — Native of
iields in the foulh .of Europe, efpecially in iv.oilt fiiuations,.
where it is a ti-uublefome v,-eed. It is wow lefs con.monlv
kept in Our gardens than the laft, from which it diflVrs \u
the fmaller frze of its l/o//oms, which are approximated nearly
into one row, only a little fpreadii.g alternately, and v.holo
lowernioil or central lobe is as broad as both the other
Uyo, and co:;f:derab!y longer. This is vifible even in drit J

fpccinieiis.

G L A

specimens. We have this fpecies ifrom M. Farrod's her-
barium, gathered wild in Switzerland, fo that it appears to
be Halier's n. 1261, the fmaller variety; his larger being
probably the following fpecies. There is much difficulty
in determining the fynonyms of old authors, their cuts not
being correft in thofe parts on which our charafters are
founded ; Parkinfon's G. itaUcus, for inftance, Parad. 191.
f. 2, has precifely the lower lip of this prefent fpecies, but
not the inflorefcence, whilft his f. i . does not fhew the lip fo
well as the pofition of the flowers. As however he mentions
but two white ftripes in his defcription, fo many only being
vifible, as the fegments naturally Hand in our communis, we
have httle doubt of his fynonym. The communis of the
Linnaean herbarium is our's, and thas winged feeds, fo that
we trull this name will remain fixed, as belonghig to the
moft common and general fpecies, whatever Linnxus miglit
comprehend under it as varieties.

28. G. fegetum. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 719. Dryandr.
in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 102. (G. communis; Bui-
liard. Herb, de la France, t. 8. Sm. Fl. Gric. Sibth.
V. I. 27. t. 37, 38. Lamarck lUuflr. t. 32. Touni. t. 190.
G. itahcus; Ger. em. 104) — Leaves many-ribbed. Spike
one-ranked. Flowers horizontal ; upper fegment diftant ;
three lowermoft equal, each with a hnear-lanccolatc bor-
dered ftripe. — Native of corn-fields in the fouth of
Europe, common in Italy, Greece, and the neighbouring
Countries, flowering in the fpring ; hardy, but not frequent
in gardens. It is difl;inftly reprefented in the Hortus Eyfte-
tenfis, by the name of Victor'ial'is rolmida ; Ord. Ell. 4.
t. 10. f. 2, though the other Gladioli of that huge book
are lefs precife. This is dillinguifliable from the two lall
by the dillance between the uppermoH lobe of its Ihjfoms
and the two next, which are pecuharly nan-ow ; while the
feeds, according to Mr. Ker, are round, with a fomewhat
pulpy coat, not flattened and winged as in the whole of the
gemjs befidef, which is a moft material fpecifio dilliniflion,
and even forms an exception to one of the generic charafters.
Mr. Ker fufpecls the exillence of other European fpecies,
ftiU confounded as varieties of thefe, and which may perhaps
account for anomalies and incongruities in the figures of
authors. Whether t. 38. of Flora Grica may be one of
thefe, we mull fubmit to future enquiry. Though fmall,
it is faid to be a native of fertile ground ; the three upper
fegments feem more approximated, and the three lower
ones united by a longer bafe, than in t. 37, our G. fegetum;
but this we learn merely from the figure, nor was the artift
acquainted with the charafters fubfequently found out in
this tribe, fo as to give peculiar authority to wliat he has
exprelfed in his drawing. The acquifition of living fpeci-
itiens at fome future time can alone fettle the quellion. — It
is proper to mention that G.fpicatus of the Linnasan herba-
rium, alluded to by Mr. Ker, is a Siberian fpecimen, with
very broad lateral fegments to the corolla, and as far as we can
judge feems rather to be communis, if not, as is poffible, a
fpecies hitherto undefined. It is probably different irom
the African plant of Van Royen, intended in Sp. PI. ed. i.
nor has it the authentic marks of originality. What might
chance to be compared with it in the Bankfian herbarium,
when none of the parties prefent had any precife ideas about
thefe plants, we cannot anfwer for, but our fpecimen was
then voted to be communis.

29. G. imbricatus. Linn. Sp. PI. 52. Lamarck. Dift. v. 2.
723. — Leaves many-ribbed, fpike of numerous, crowded, up-
right flowers ; upper fegment rather dillant ; three lowermoll
nearly equal. — Gathered by Gerber near Luban in Livonia.
His own fpecimen in the Linnsean herbarium is the only one
we have feen, nor do recent writers appear to kno«f any thiog

Vot. XVI.

G L A

of this fpeciei, which appears to us very diftiniSl, akin t«*
the three lall in leaves and habit ; but differing widely in it»
curved afcending^;,^^, and crowded erea_^ii:f;/-/, wliish arc
fmaller tlian thofe of G. communis, of a purple or crimfon
colour, pervious at the bafe, in confcqucnce of a coufidcr-
able dillance between the claws of tiie upper and lateral feg-
ments, while their upper parts feem to fold over each other ;
but of thefe charafters we cannot, of courfe, fpcak abfo-
lutely, from the dried flowers ; the three lowermoll fcgment$
feem equal and rather narrow. No white flripc is difccmible
in their prefent condition. The leaves rife above the fpikc
of flowers, and have each an oblique point, but this may not
be condant.

Whatever fpecies of Gladiolus (exclufive of fuch as are
now referable to the genera Sparaxis, Anomalbeca, Trilonia,
IVatfonia, Melafpbjtrula or baliana of Mr. Ker), may be
found here and there in authors, we decline defcribing with-
out feeing living Ipecimens. The difcordance between fevc-
ral of the figures, above quoted for the fame fpecies, prOTCi
how variable many of them are, efpecially from accidental
circumllances in cultivation. The Botanical Magazine is now-
become a faithful and valuable rcpofitory of this family, fo
that however botanills may difter about definiiions, the me-
mory of the plants can never be entirely loll.

Gladiolus, in G^n/<r«(«^,comprifes plants of the tuberous-
rooted, flowery, perennial kind ; of which the fpecies moftly
cultivated are the common fword-lily, or corn-flag (G. com-
munis) ; the imbricated flowered gladiole (G. imbricatus) ;
the fquare-ftalked gladiole (G. triltis) ; the narrow leaved
gladiole (G. angullus) ; and the fuperb fcarlet gladiole (G.
cardinahs).

There are feveral varieties of the firft fpecies, as the Italian
and French com flags, with the bluilh,the white, and the finall
purple coloured.

Method of Culture. — In the firll fort and varieties the cul-
ture may be readily effefted by planting the off-sets from the
old roots in the beginning of the autumn in the places where
they are to grow. And the other forts may be raifcd in the
fame way as well as by feeds. Thefe fliould be planted in a
warm border, and be protefted in the winter by glafs or fome
other means, when there is a neceflity for it, as during very
fevero weather, &c.

When increafed by feed it (hguld be fown towards die end
of Auguft, in pots filled with hght earth, placing them in a
Ihady fituation at firll, but afterwards where they may be
expofed to the fun, being protefted during the winter in a
hot-bed frame, free air being admitted when the weather is
mild. In the fpring the pots fliould be removed to a ihady
lituation, with only the morning fun. \^'he^ the ilems de-
cay, the roots Ihould be taken up and kept in fand in a dry
place till tlie time of planting. In the fccond year's planting
tliey iTioiild be put in feparate fmall pots, filled with mould
formed from the turf or fward.

With refpect to tlje old roots they may be taken up every
two or three years, to have the off-sets taken off from them,
in order to their future increafe.

All tlie forts afford a fine effcft and variety in the flower
borders and other parts among other plants of the flowery
kinds, being properly arranged in mixture with them.

GLADIUS, Sword. Jus Gladii, or right of the ftvtrd,
is ufed, in our ancient Latin authors, and in the ^Jorman laws,
for fupremc jurifdiftion.

Camden, in Britannia, writes " Comitatus Flint pcrtinet
ad gladium Cellriae :" and Selden, Tit. of Honour, p. 640.
" Curiam fuam liberani de omnibus placitis, &c. cxccptis ad
gladium ejus pertinentibus."

And it is probably from hence, tliat at the creatiou of .m
O « earl.

G L A

G L A

earl, he it. ghidio fucdnlluj ', to figiiify, that he had a jurif-
difti«n over the county.

Gladius /•;};■;>, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by many for
the fword-fidi, called alfo the xij)hiis, which fee.

GLADKA, in Geography, a fort of RulTia, in the go-
vcrnroent of Caucafus, on the Malva^ 36 milts W. of
Kjniar.
GLADWIN. See Iris.

Gl.^dwik, John, in Biography, the late organift of South
Audley chapel, was the firft performer on the organ at
Vatixhall, after the building of the orcheftra in the middle
of the gardens, and the eflablifhment of a regular band. He
was a pleafing player in his day, and a u*orthy man, who
lived to a great age, a^id died In 1799.

(;LA1 R of Eggs, is the fame a? the white of rgg5, and is
vfed as a vaniilh for preferving paintings. For this purpofe
it is beat to an unftuoiis confiflencc, and cornmonly mixed
with a little bnuidy or fpirit of wine, to make it work more
freely, and with a lump of fugar to gire it body and prevent
its cracking ; and then Ipread over the picture or painting
witli a brufh.

GLAIZE, At;, in Geography, a SS.W. branch --<f the
I^tiami of tlie lake in America, which interlocks with St.
Mary'.s river. By the treaty of GreenviUe, the Indians
have ceded to the United States a traft of land, fix miles
fouare, at the head of its navigable waters, and fix miles
fquare at its confluence with the Miami, where pert Defiance
now ftands.

GLAMA, in Zoology. See Camelu.s.
GI>AMMISS, in Geography, a fmall town in the county
of Forfar, Scotland, contains 385 houfcs, and 193 1 inhabit-
ants. Here are two fmall manufactories of yarn, and coarfe
linen cloth. The earls of Strathmorc formerly poffeffed, and
occupied a noble caftle in this parllli. The remains of this
baronial fortrefs are dill very confiderable, and occupy a
commanding fcite on the banks of the river Dean. In this
parifh are feveral ancient obeH(l<s, or ftone erodes ; alfo many
cairns. Thefe are traditionally faid to commemorate the
murdered Ring Malcolm II. Glammifs is divided into two
parts refpeftivelv, called tlie New, and the Old Town.

GLAMORGANSHIRE, the fouth maritime county
of South Wales, is fuppofed to have derived its name from
having afforded a temporary, though infecure, retreat to an
ancient prince, at a very early period of Britiih hiftory.
The ilory is briefly recapitulated by Spcnfer, in his Chroni-
cle of Britiih kings (Fairy Queen, b. ii. c. 10.) Glamor-
gan was in fucceeding ages an independent fovereign princi-
pality, dillinft, as thofe who i>rofefs to be acquainted with
the ancient hi'tory of Wales aiTert, from the rule and go-
vernment of South Wales. The principality, or fovereign
lordlhip of Glamorgan, as thefe perfons fay, contained the
prcfent counties of Glamorgan and Monmouth, the fouthern
and eailern parts of Brccknockfliire, and thi.t part of Here-
fordthire lying to the weil of the river Wye.

The lordlhip of Glamorgan was fubdivided, at an early-
period, into a great many petty lordfhips, in every one of
which their lords exercifed "jura regalia," referving, how-
trvcr, to the fubjeft a right of appeal to the court lof the
chief lord, or, as he was termed, the lord paramount.
There are at leaft 50 ancient buildings ilill remaining in the
diftrift, univerfally underilcod to be the halls in which tlie
tourts of legiflation and of juilicc were held for the refpec-
tivc petty lordftiips. They are now commonly called
" Church-houfes,'' and belong to the pariflies in wiiich they
ftand. They are at prefent ufed as fchool-roems, and occa-
fionally for dancing ; an amufement Hill common in Glamor-
gauilure, though now beginning to decline. The ground-

1

floor apartments tinder thefe halls arc ufed as alms-honfes for
tlie poor of the parifli. From ancient furveys and other ac-
counts of the lofdlhips it appears that before the rcformatior)
a market was held in each of thele halls every Sunday morn-
ing, till the toUing of the firil bell, which is faid to have
been intended as a notice for the buiinefs of the market to
ceafe. The fecond bell was a fignal of prcjjaniiion for
church, and the third for the cominencement of divine fer-
vice, during which no door, but the church door, was allow-
ed to be feen open.

This county, extending about forty-eight miles from ealt
to well, and 27 from north to fouth, is bounded on the N.
bv Brccknockfliire, on the E. by Monmouthfliire, from
which it is feparatcd by the river Remny, on the S. by the
Briilol channel, and on the W by Caermarthenfliire. The
grcatcil part of the fea-coaft forms a femi-circular courfe j
the weileni extremity being formed into a narrow beak be-
tween the open channel on the one hand, and an arm running'
round to the Cacrmarthennilre coafl; on the other. (See-
GowEK.) An ample account of the manner in which the
lordfliip of Glamorgan was obtained by its conquerors, is to-
be found in Powel's Hifl;ory of Wales, written in the time
of Elizabeth, or in Evans's edition of Wynne's Hift:ory of
Wales. The following abflratl is taken from Malkin's
work, Jeftin ap Gurgant, a petty prince of odious charac-
ter, waged war, in the year 1088, againft Rees ap Tudor, and
was affifted by Eneon ap CoUwyn. Unable to make an)'
impreffion on his enemy's dominions, .leftin commiffioned
Eneon to go to England, and to procure fome more power-
ful ally_ His propofitions were eagerly received by Robert
Fitzhawcn, and twelve other Norman adventurers, who came
to Glamorgan on an expedition, profefledly for the purpofa
of retrieving the affairs of Jeftin. The allies, marching againfl
Rees ap Tudor, came up with his forces on the borders of
Brecknockfhire. In a battle which cnfued at a place called
Hirwin, Rees was entirely defeated : and in his flight was
taken prifoner, and put to death. On this occafion, Jeftint
betrayed his charadteriftic treachery, by violating his agree-
ment with Eneon, to whom iie had promifcd his daughter iii
marriage, as a recompence for his fervices. Eneon, jufily of-
fended, was determined on revenge ; and therefore, when the-
Normans, after having fulfilled their ergagements, and hav-
ing obtained fatisfaftion for their fervices, qaietly returned
home, Eneon reprefented the injuries he had fuftained by
the treachery of Jeftin, and alfo the hatred of the country
to its tyrant. He alfo ftated how eafy it was to obtain pof-
fciTion of this feeble country, with the aid of the different
princes at variance with Jeftin. R. Fitzhawen, and his fol-
diers of fortune, availing themfelvcs of the favourable mo-
ment, turned their arms againft their employer, who was^
unprepared for fo formidable a reverfe, and overran the coun-
try ; whilft .Jeftin faved himfelf by flight, and died foon after,
unlainented and uiirevenged. Fitzhawcn, upon a divifion of-
the conquered territory, took for his own (liare the caftles of
Cardiff and Kenfig, with the market town of Cowbridge,
and the demcfne of Llantwit ; appropriating to himfulf the
lands belonging to them, together with the fovereignty of
the v.hole country. The other parts were diftributed in va-
rious proportions among his followers. Eneon ap CuUwyn,
i.i particular, poffi-flTed Caerphilly, with Jeftin's daughter in
marriage, the prize which occafioned the contcft. (See
Wales.) With refpcd to the pifturefque charader of this
county, it is diftinguiflied by unbounded variety. It ha»
fea, mountains, valleys and rivers ; and it is faid to refemble
North Wales in general afpedl more than any of the fix coun-
ties. Its mountains are not fo high as thofe of Brcck-
nockfhire, but they prcfent, in a confiderable degree, the

appearaocff

GLAMORGANSHIRE.

•ppfarance of Merionetliftiire, by their extreme abmptncfs,
which imparts an air of wildnefs to the country, and of ele-
vation exceeding the reality to them. They differ, however,
in one material refpeft, that they exhibit greater traces of
cultivation and occupancy. Glamorganlhire lies under the
imputation of want of wood ; but tkis is only true of its
level and moll cultivated parts. The obfervation docs not
apply either to its eallern or weftern extremities. Thofe
who know the banks of the Taff, the two Ronthas, and the
Cunno, die wilds of Abudarr, and Yftradyvodwg, have
feen fuch woods and groves as are rarely to be found. The
magnificently clothed hills of Margam, Bagland, Briton-
ferry, and the vale of Neath, unite the beauties of cultiva-
tion with the unfelled luxuriance of foreft fcenery. Gla-
morganlhire produces with fufficient liberality oak, afh,
beech, and all tlie common forell -trees, except elm, which
is obferved not to be indigenous. On the north and nortli-
€aft ftdes this county is very mountainous ; and in fome
parts prefents rugged rocks, and in others a foil covered
with plenty of fine wood, and concealing rich mines of coal
and iron. A tract of land can fcarccly any where be found
more inviting to fcientiiic cultivaticm than the vale of Gla-
morgan, between the mountains and the fea ; and yet it is
■obferved that the agriculture of this county does not keep
pace with the fertility of the foil. In addition to natural
fruitfulnefs, they have lime every where at command for
manure ; and this facility affords a llrong temptation to
that ail of injuftice which the farmers call " driving the land.'"
In Glamorganlliire, good land, lituated near a conliderable
town, lets almoll as high as within five miles of London ;
but land among the northern hills, fcarcely reclaimed, and
from its locality irreclaimable to any very lucrative purpofe,
is of courfe low in its rent, and occupied only by tenants,
natives of the hills, and unacquainted with the fupcrior ad-
vantages and comforts enjoyed by the farmer in the vale.
Another circumilance which materially affedls the value of
farms, is right of mountain ; where that is attached to a n
«ftate, it compenfates in fome degree for diftance from mar-
kets or poverty of foil. Thefe conliderations are applicable
to other counties as well as Glamorganlliire. But what
dillinguillies and enriches this county above all the rell
is the profuiion of coal, iron, and lime-done, with which it
almoil every where abounds. The earth, indeed, of which
it is compofed, taken externally and intarnally, fcems to be
full of every thing necelTary to the ufe and convenience of
man. Manure, metal, and the means of manufatluring that
metal, are all found on the fame fpot ; fo that indullry is ex-
erted at the lead poflible expence. and confequently to the
greateil poflible advantage. The rivers, and mountain tor-
Tents, fo remarkable in this diilrift, afford an ample iupply
of water for all the purpofes of life, as well as the means of
procuring that artificial and cl'.eap conveyance which is
among the moil ingenious improvements of the prelent age.
With refpetl to tliat moll extenlive bed of lime-Hone, of
which nearly the whole of Glamorganlliire forms only a part,
it commences with the eallern extremity of the coimty, and,
taking a diredion due well, runs in a Uraight line to Sw;ui.
fea bay, appearing again in Gower, and, having palfed under
Caermarthcn bay, is frcn to occupy in grent part the louth
and well of Pembrokefliire ; it then takes its courle tiu-ough
St. George's channel, and is found in Ireland in that exacl
bearing which unque'.lionablv marks its continuity.

The air on the N. fide of the county is fharp, occalioned
by the long continuance of the Inow on the hills ; but on
the S. lide mild and temperate, occalioned by the fea-breezes.
Tliat in the vicinity of Margam is deemed peculiarly falu-
brious.

The antiquity of the cottages is a ftrongly marked fu-
ture in the appearance of this county. Many of them are
probably as ancient as the callles, to which they were at-
'u I ^'■cl"tedure is particularly dcferving of

tached

notice. The pointed door-waysr"a"nd'"^o"intt^'

lulhcien y evince their date, and though Welch towns are
univcrlally — '^- i i o . .o

iUi
onr

rfally cenfured by llrangers, for the inelegance and in
Jnience of their houfcs, the dired revcrfe is the fad wiU
refped to the habitations of the peafantry. There is one
c.rcumllance, beiides their general Hrudure, that of many
of which IS the ancient Gothic, which adds to the refpcd-
able appearance of the cottages, and that is, tlic univerfal
pradice ot lime-whitening them. Tliis has been tiie cullom
ot the county from very remote ages, and is extended eve.
to the barn, and ftables, to tlie walls of yards and gardens,
it IS noticed and praifed in the n.oll ancient Welch poems,
and certainly evinces a v.-ry early Rnlibility to the arts and
decencies of life. The pnco of pnn ilions in this county hji
ot hite very much increal'cd, and is comparatively very high
on account of the iucrcafed demands of the manufadurinif
dilUids, which are numerous. The price of labour i»
equally enhanced from the fame caufe. The increafe ot"
population, owing to the influx of commerce, and the mag-
nitude of its ellablifliments at Swanfea, Merthyr-Tvdvil,
Neath, Aberavon, Melin Gruffydd, near Cardiff, where are
the largell tin works in the kingdom, &c. afford another
reafon why the cheap comforts and elegancies of life are att
longer to be fought for here.

The drels in Glamorganlliire is not fo (Irongly marked
as in iome other counties, except that the women univerfallf
adopt the man's hat ; but they wear it with a very good
grace, and are remarkably neat in their attire, as well a J
comely in their perfons, and graceful in their carriage ;
which may probably be attributed to the habit of dancingi
which is their favourite amufement Their modes of greet.
ing are unuiually affedionate, fonietimes bordering on th*
ludicrous, particularly among the women, who arc con.
ildiitly feen ialuting each other at market, and on the molV
ordinary occalions of bulinefs, as well as on occafions of
dillrefs. At a wedding it is the cullom of all who are
invited, both men and women, to ride full fpeed to the
church porch, and the perlbn who arrives there firll has
fome privilege or dilUndion at the marriage fcail. In caf*
ot death, the bed on which the corpfe lies i; always (Irewed
with flowers, and the fame cullom is obferved after it is laid
in the coffin. It is ajj invariable practice, both by day ar()
night, to watch a corpfe ; and tlie hofpitality of the country
is no lefs remarkable on melancholy than on joyful occafions ^
for the invitations to a funend arc very general and i-xtenlive;
and the refrellimer.ts are noT light, and taken llandintr, Iju^
fubllanlial and prolonged. Tlie grave of t!ie deceal'cd i»
conlluntly overfpreiifl with plucked flowers for a Wick or
two alter the funer.il ; the planting of graves with flower*
is confined to the villages, and the poorer people. It if
very connnon to drels the graves on \Vhitr.ind.iv, and olLer
fellivals, when flowers can be procured.

The Roman llations, forts, aid tamps, in thi< county,
are generally underilood to be at Cardiff, Cta-rpiiilly, ani
Caera, which lies between Wenvuc, a large handfome hou'.e
built in the callellated form, and the Cardiff road. The
great Roman road was over Newton Down, leaving the
jirelent road on the right, and pafles through Kenlig to
Margam, and as llr^ught as the nature of the country will
admit, llirough Aberavon pariih to Neath. Glamorgac-
(liire contains one epifcopal town, i-iz. LlandafT, and fevcral
others, as C;u-diff, the capital of tlie county, Caerphillv,
Llantrifcntj Cowbridge, Bridgend, Neath, Mtrthrr-Tydvil,

, G L A

and Swanft-a ; which fee rcfpeaivcly. The principal rivers
arc the Rcmncy, the Taff, the EUvy, the Ronthas, great
and fmall, the Ogmore, the Cunno, the Nedd or Neath,
the Tawe or Tave, and the Loghor. In this county are
fovcral rail-ways and canals. (See Canal.) The canal
from Merthyr-Tydvil to Cardiff was completed in the year
1798. From the tide-lock, where it enters Pennarth har-
bour, up to the town of Cardiff, it is navigable for fkips of
400 tons ; but from Cardiff to Merthyr-Tydvd, it is navi-
g.ible for barges of 1 00 tons. The head of this canal at
Merthyr-Tydvil is j68 fl.-et five inches higher than the tide-
lock two miles below Cardiff, where it falls into Pennarth
harbour. This canal has upwards of 40 locks upon it in the
fpace of 26 miles, which is its whole length ; and it is croffed
by more than 40 bridges. For an account of the bridge
■.ikh one arch upon Taff; fee Bridge. In a vale S. W.
of Cardiff, near Duffrin houfe, and not far from the village
of St. Nicholas, are fome ancient monuments, fuppofed to
be druidical. The moil remarkable of thefe monuments is
a grey ftone, which clalfes among thofe pieces of antiquity
called Cromlechau. (See Cromlech.) This monument
is fiipported by five large ftones, endofed entirely on the
eaft, weft, and north ildcs, and open to the fouth, forming
a confiderably large, though low room, 16 feet in length,
15 wide, and, at the eaft end, fix feet high, but only 4i
at the weft end. The rubbifh about it prevents the invelli-
gation of its eriginal height. The fupporting ftone to the
north is 16 feet long ; that on the weft end about nine feet
in length. At the eallern extremity three ftones are fet
clofely together; the middle ftone is 4\ feet wide, the
northern ftone of thefe three about three feet, and the
foiithern nearly two feet in width. Thefe ftones, ftanding
upright, fupport a large ftone on the top, which forms the
roof of this rude apartment. The length of this horizontal
ftone is 24 feet ; it is 17 feet in its wideft part, and of dif-
ferent breadths at other places; it is 10 feet at one extre-
mity, and 1 2 about the middle ; and from two feet to two
and a half thick. The area of the top-ftone, therefore,
having for its mean breadth 137^ feet, and 24 feet for its
length, will contain 324 fquare feet ; whence it appears that
it is nearly thrice as large as that of the famous oromlech,
near Newport in Pembrokefhire. Near this cromlech are
other heaps of ftones called Carneu or Cairn. Of thefe crom-
lechs diftereiit opinions have been entertained. Some have
fuppofed them to be places of fticlter for the Druids, who
always worfhipped in the open air, and after them, for the
firft Chriftian priefts, in rain and other inclemencies of the
weather ; others have fuppofed them to be oratories, from
the tops of which they delivered their difcourfes ; and others
again, that they w^ere altars on which vi£lims were offered
in the times of Druidifm.

Glamorganfhirc is divided into ten hundreds, and 118
parifhes, which, in 180!, contained 71,525 inhabitants, of
whom 6903 were employed in trade and manufafture, and
[8,515 in agriculture. Two members are returned for
Glamorgan fliire to the Britifh parliament, w's. one for the
county, and one for the boroughs, Cardiff, &c. Malkin's
South Wales.

GLAMOUR, or Glamer, an old term of popular
fuperftition in Scotland, denoting a kind of magical mill
believed to be raifed by forccrers, and which deluded
their fpeftators with vifions of things that had no exiftence,
altered the appearance of things really exifting, &c.

GLAN, a river of France, which runs into the Nahe,
three miles E. of Sobernheim — Alfc, a river of Carinthia,
which rifes near Koft.nberg, and joins the Gurck, four miles
Fi..of Clagenfiirt. 7

G L A

GLAND, in Anatomy, is a name applied to thofe orgati*
of the body, which feparate from the blood conveyed to
them by their blood-veffcls various fubftances, generally of
a fluid nature, and difcharge them through one or more
tubes, called excretory dufts. The term however has been,
and is employed more extenfively, having been applied to
various organs, which, although analogous in their ftrufturc,
on fuperfieial obfervation, to thofe already defignated, do
not refemble them at all in their funttions. Thus, the fmall
bodies belonging to the lymphatic fyifcm have been called
lymphatic or conglobate glands ; although the knowledge
hitherto acquired by phyfiologifts conceining the aftion of
thefe bodies, and their anatomical relations and conneftions
do not warrant us in afcribing to them any funi^ion fimilar
to thofe exercifed by the glands properly fo called : the ac-
count of thefe will be found under the articles AnsORBENTs
and Absorption. The pineal, thyroid and thymus glands,
the renal capfules and the fpleen, have all been included in
tlie glandular fvftem of the body, but will not be confidercd
in tliis article, as we know nothing at all of their offices, and
have no reafon to fuppofe that they fecrete any fluid. Our
definition will include the fahvary, lacrymal, and Meibomian
glands, the tonlils, the ceruminous glands of tlie ear, and
tlie febaceous glands of the face, in the head ; the mammary
glands in the chell ; the liver, pancreas, and kidneys in the
abdomen ; the proftate, tefticle, Cowper's glands, and
glandule odorifen about the penis ; and the extenfive
fvftem of mucous glands about the head and trunk. Thefe
parts, although differing widely from each other in many
refpefts, agree in a fnfHcient number of points to allow of
their being arranged in one organic fyftem, which has been
named the glandular : the other organs juil enumerated,
belonging to this only in name, are excluded from the ar-
rangement by their texture and properties, their mode of
vitality and funftions. The extremities contain no parts
belonging to the glandular fyftem ; the fluids formed in the
different organs of this apparatus belong almoft entirely
to the organic fnnftions, while the limbs are particularly
defigned to execute the offices of the animal life.

As the phyfiology of thefe organs cannot be conveniently
feparated from the hiftory of their ftrufture, we fhall con-
fider the vital properties as well as the organization of tl e
glandular fyftem ; and we fhould make a very unnatural
and arbitrary divifion of the matter, if we did not give at
the fame time a view of fecretion in general. We (hall pre-
fent the reader, in the firft place, with an enumeration and ar-
rangement of the fecrcted matters ; we fhall proceed, fe-
condly, to give a general view of the organization of the
glandular fyftem ; and fhall exhibit, in the third and laR
place, the opinions of phyfiologifts concerning the mode
of aftion of the glands and the fubjeft of fecretion in ge-
neral. The reader will obferve that the prefent article is of
a general nature ; the ftrufture of the particular organs will
be defcribed on other occafions, and detailed accounts of tlie
nature and properties of the various fluids will be found
under their refpeftive titles, or in other articles of the
work.

The blood, apparently an homogeneous fluid, is compofcd
of various matters, which chemical examination can dcteft
and feparate. It contains gelatine, albumen, fibrine, acids,
alkalies, earths, faline and colouring matters, which are
employed for the renovation of the folids and fluids of the
body. It prefents thefe to the various organs, which, by
converting them into their own fubftance, derive the means
of fupplying the wafte occafioned by the natural aftions of
the parts, or form out of them various produfts, diftinguilhed
by new charafters, and extraneous to their own compofi-

tioQ..

GLAND.

lion. The former of thefe proce/Tes is nutrition or affimila-
tion ; the latter fecretion : they refcmble each other in their
commencement, in which the organ, by feme powers of a
nature entirely unknown to us, but peculiar to hving bodies,
and forming part of that complicated notion, which we ex-
prefs by the term vitality, feledts from the blood fuch prin-
ciples as fuit its nature or funftions ; but they differ in the
employment of what is thus felccled, which is retained in
the body, and afiimilated to the already exifting organiza-
tion in the fonner calc, and apphed to fome other purpofe in
the latter. The fubjeA of nutrition does not come under
our jioticeat prefent.

The produils of iecretion rcfult from an effential change
in the compound conveyed to the organ, from a new combi-
nation of the principles contained in the blood, which is
transformed by the fpecific aclicii of the various organs into
different fluids, retained in or expelled from the body, ac-
cording to the qualities ef each. Hence, there are organs
which, after forming certain lluids, colleft and retain them;
while others feparate and expel their fecretions from the
body. The object of the fecretions is, to colledl thofe which
are deftined to fulfd important ufes in the body; while that
of tlie excretions is, on the contrary, to expel matters which
would be injurious to the frame. The two lunftions then of
fecretion and excretion refembl^ each other in moft refpecls :
there is in both a leparation and colleftioii of fluids. The
difference conUlts in this, that in the former cafe the fepa-
rated fluid remains in the body, while it is foon expelled in
the fecond. Thus fecretion always precedes excretion ; and,
in order to underftand the latter, it is neceflaiy to know how
the former takes place.

The word fecretion, derived from fecerno, I feparate,
fignjfies fimpiy the adl of feparating; and its phyfiological
import is conveyed in that notion. It denotes, in phyfiology,
that funition of a living body, in which various fluids, dif-
fering from the blood and from each other, are prepared
from the common mafs of the blood, the fame fluid being
conftantly formed in the fame organ. No part of phyfiology
is more obfcure, and more difEcult in its invelligation, than
this very funftion. Malpighi, who had bellowed great
labour on the ilruclure of the glands, and was confidered to
have imveiled, in a great mealure, the myfteries of their or-
ganization, confefles his ignorance on this fubjeft; and, as
the avowal, from fuch a quarter, is interefting, we fubjoin
the paffage, obferving that the remarks here made, concern-
ing the kidnies, apply equaUy to all other fecretions. He
fays of the urinary fecretion, " quanam arte id contingat
obfcuriflimum : licet enim glandiilarum minifterio totum hoc
fubfequi rationi fit confonum, quoniam tarr.cn minima ilia,
fimplexque meatuum in glard dis ftruftura nos latet, ideo
qujedam tantum meditari pofu nus, ut huic quxfito proba-
biliter fatisfaciamus. Necefle eit hanc machinam interna con-
figuratione feparationis opus peragere; an vero his, quas ad
humanos ufus paflim ufiirpamus, quibus fere confimilia effigi-
mus, confonet, dubium; li.et enim occurrant analogs fpon-
gix, incerniculi, nitiilarum cribrorumque llruiturse, cui ta-
men ex his confiniihs undequaque fit retium fabrica, difficilli-
mum eft affignare, et cum naturx operandi indullria fecun-
diiSma fit, ejufdem igtiotse nobis reperientur machinae, et quas
nee mente quidem aifequi licet. Illud miror tarn copiofa,
diverfaque corpora feparari per has glandalas in nature ll:;lu,
exit enim fubiiantia aquea cum falinis, fulpiuireis et confi-
milibus particulis, et ex morbo etiam abfceffuum reliquii,
et totius qiiandeque corporis inqiiinamenta fcparantur de-
tentis fanguineis particulis," ^c De Vifcerum Struftura;
De Rciiibus, cap. 6. The whole bufinefs is carried on in the

minute, and, as we may call them, elementary parts of the
vifcera and glands, the flrufture of which eludes the re-
fearch of our fenfes, and can ftill Icfs be developed by rea-
fonirg or refleftion. Obfervation cannot follow the work
throughout ; nor does it admit of elucidation by experiment,
like fome other fubjefts which have been explained by arti!
ficial imitation of the proceedings of nature.

Unwilling to confefs their ignorance and leave their fyf.
terns imperfea, phyfiologifts kave attempted to raife, on
hypothefes, that ftrufture, for which anatomy afforded no
foundation. Their notions, refting merely on probabilities
and loofe analogies, have flouril}ied and fallen in fucceflion;
and we fliall find that the lift of truths and afccrtaincd fads
is much fliorter than that of opinions and errors.

The compoGtion of the fecreted fluids prefents various
differences in the nature and proportions of their co.'^ftituent
parts. They poffefs, in common, all the general characters
which belong to animal fubftances: but each has certain
particular diftindive qualities, depending on the various fim-
ple or compound principles, the union of which determines
its fpecific nature. Thus, fetting afide the reilmblance of
ail our fluids, confidered as animal productions, fat does not
refemble bile ; the latter is very different from milk ; which,
again, has no refemblance to the falivary, gattrie, pancreatic, ,
feminal fluids, &c. which mull be referred to fo many dif- -
ferent claffes.

The arrangement of the animal fluids is more difScult
than we fliould have expeded at flrft fight. The falfe and
imperfect notions, which were long entertained of their chc- •
mical compofition, lead to claflifications founded on the
ufes to which they feemed to be deftined. Thofe employ- -
ed in the nourifhment and growth of the body were called
recrementitious, fuch as chyle, blood, ferum, lymph, &c.
The excrcmentitious included thofe which are expelled from
the body; as the urine, perfpiration, &:c. A third clafs
was made up of fuch as partake of the charadcrs of both •
thefe; of which a part is rejetted as noxious, while the reft
is retained, in order to anfwer fome particular purpofe.
Under the head of excremento-recrementitious humours,
were arranged the faliva, bile, pancreatic juice, mucus of ;
the inteftines, &c. The objeflions to fuch an arrangement
are too obvious to need enumeration. This divificn, as well
as that before alluded to, of excretions and fecretions, can-
not be adopted with any benefit, wliile the nature and ob-
jcits of many fecretions are fo httle underftood, that we can-
not determine whether they are expelled as noxious, or ferve
very ufeful purpofes in the economy. The bile, for ex^'-
ample, has been very commonly deemed an excrcmentitious
fluid, but by a completely arbitrary affumption: what proof
have we that perlpiration fcparates any thing noxious from
the blood ? For what reafon is the fecretion of the pancreas
placed in one rather than in the other of thefe divi-
fions?

Pitcaime, who ivas followed by Michelotti, divided the
animal fecretions in a manner which has, at icait, the merit '
of fimplicity, and loads to no falfe notions concerning their
ufes ; he dillinguifhed them merely as being thick or
thin.

Haller diftributed the fluids into four claffes, according
to the chemical notions of his time, and to the degree of
complication in their elements, i. The aqueous fluids. .
Thofe have a very Lirge proportion of water in their com- -
pofition ; hence they are diilinguiihcd by their fluidity, and
have no ropinefs. Fire diffipates them almoft entirely, ex-
cepting a very fmall proportion of earthy refidue; neither
alcohol nor adds coagulate them, BefiJes a iilth- larth, -

they

GLAND.

iliey contain fome fJine and oily matters. Many of our
fluiJs bc-lon^ to this divilion. Some are expelled from the
}jody, and are ordinarily deemed cxcrementitioua ; luch are
the urine, which is not coagulable in the natural Hate ; the
infenfible Sandorian perfpiration, and the puhnonary exha-
lation. Sweat is a mixed fluid, containing oily or febaceous
matter, together %vith water. Several of the fluids, which
are delHned to ferve particular purpofes in the animal econo-
my, contain very little except water. This is the cafe witli
t.he focretion of the proper falivary glands, with that of the
pancreas and lacrymal gland; with the perfedly pure and
tranfparent aqueous humour of the eye, and other watery
fluids in the fame organ.

2. Mucous fluids. Thefe differ from water in being lefs
fluid ; they are tenacious, fo as to adiiere to folid bodies,
and ropy. They mix with water, are inllpid and inodorous,
and nearly colourlefs. The evaporation of their aqueous
parts reduces them into hard and dry crufts. AA;ids do not
coagulate them; but alcohol has a flight effecl. They yield,
on dilUIlation, a large quantity of water, volatile fait, oil,
and a carbonaceous refidue. To this divifion belong the lu-
bricating fluids, which are poured out over the extenfive
furfaces of the refpiratory, digettive, urinary, and genital
organs, and all the parts aoiincfted with them.

3. Gelatinous fluids; which are coagulaMc- by heat, warm
water, alcohol, and acids, remain fluid below 148' Fahren-
kcit ; and have a mild or flightly fahne tafte. Haller places
in this order the ferum of the blood, the lymph con\eyed by
the abforbents, the water of the amnios, the ferous exhala-
tions of the circumfcribed cavities, the lymph of the cellular
fubllance, and the fluid of the Graafian ovula. He alfo
places in this divifion the fynovia of the joints, and the fluid
of the tendinous theca-; obferving, at tlie fame time, tiiat
thefe are partly compofed of oily matters.

4. Oily fluids. Thefe are reprefented by Haller as more
perfectly animalized produftions : they are freed from the
fupcrfluous quantity of water, and are inflammable; or at
leafl: contain much of that matter which takes fire and defla-
grates. At their firfl; produftion they contain much water,
fo as not to be capable of inflammation, nor to poflefs their
peculiar charafters, but rather to refemble mucus or gela-
tine: they undergo changes afterwards, which deprive them
cf their aqueous parts, and render them more vifcid and
oilv. The fat and the medullary fubllance of the bones,
are the mod extenfive fpccimcns of this order: it contains
alfo febaceous matters of various kinds, as the greafy cuta-
neous matter, the Meibomian fecretion of the eye-lids, that
cf the glans penis, and of the external organs in the female.
The bile, cruor of the blood, milk, and proftatic' fluid, be-
long to the fame clafs.

Such are the four divifions, in which Haller has. arranged
the animal fluids : he obferves that feveral, being of a mixed
nature, do not belong exclufively to either clafs, but ought,
from the diverfity of their principles, to be referred to more
than one: indeed there is hardly any, which can be rigo-
rouflv faid to confifl of a fingle clement. Then, again, many
evid/mly contain more fluids than one, formed feparately in
the lirfl inllance, each in its appropriate organ, and after-
wards mixed together. Thus the femen contains the fecre-
ticns of the teftis, proflate, andveflculx; the fweat is made
lip of the water of perfpiration with the cutaneous oil; the
tears are a mixture of water, mucus, and febaceous matter;
fpittle contains water and mucus, &c.

The vaft improvements in the fcience of chemiftry fince
'the time of Haller mull neceffarily have fubvcrted the bafis
fif the arrangement jull defcribed ; which, when coiifidered

by a chemift of the prefent day, would be found open t*
objeftion at all points. The deficiencies of the claflification
are too obvious to render it neceflary that we fliould parti-
cularize them.

Blumcnbach has clafled the produdls of fecretion on s
fomewhat different principle. " The fecreted fluids," fay*
he, " difplay on one hand fo much variety, while on the
other they feem to be joined by fo many points of affinity,
that their arrangement in clafles mull be in great meafure
arbitrary. They may, however, be difpofed in the following
order, according to the flighter or more efl(.'ntial changes
and modifications which their elements, contained in the
mafa ot the blood, undergo in the fecretory organs. Milk
may be placed in the firfl: rank, as coniifting apparently
of a very fimple modification of chyle, and formed from
the blood by a very eafy procefs after the influx of the
chyle. The watery fecretions come next, fo called from
their fluidity and tranfparency, although they differ ma-
terially from water in the nature of their conftituent elements,
particularly in containing a portion of albuminous coagu-
lable matter — including tlie fluids of the eye; the tears, tlie
matter of perfpiration, the exhalations in tlie cellular fiib-
ftance, and in tlie thoracic and abdominal cavities, to which
the liquor pericardii and tlie fluid of the ventricles feem to
be analogous. The urine, ordinarily referred to the aqueous
fluids, is diftinguiflied by very remarkable peculiarities. The
falivary fluids, concerned in the funftions of maltication,
digeilion, and chylification, feem to he rather more changed.
Then follow the mucous fecretions, fpread over the fur-
faces ef moll of the vifcera belonging to the natural and
generative funftions, as well as tlie cavities of the nofe,
larynx, and relpiratory organs. The mucus in the interior
of the eye, as well as that under the epidermis, do not ap-
pear to differ eflentially from the preceding. Under the
title of adipous fluids may be clafled, befides the common
fat, the medulla of the bones, and the febaceous matter
of the fl<in (including alfo the cerumen of the ears). The
greafy matter formed under the prepuce about the corona
glandis of the mple, and the fimilar production in the fc.
male pudenda, may be referred to the fame clafs ; as well
as the fecretion of the Meibomian palpebral glands. The
liquor of the amnios, and the fynovial fluids, are commonly-
deemed gelatinous ; but their real nature is not yet under,
ftood, neither is that of the fluid, hitherto unnamed,
thrown out in the uterus under the venereal llimulus, known.
The fluid contained in the early months of conception
between the chorion and amnios, that of the veficula umbi-
licalis, and that which furrounds the veflels of the umbilical -
chord, is as yet little underllood. The contents of the
Graafian veficles, and the prollatic fluid, feem to be truly
ferous or albuminous. The male femen is quite a peculiar
produd, not to be compared to, or clafled with, any other :
and the fame remark will hold good alfo of tljc bile." Iii-
ftitut. Phyfiolog. fed. 32.

The divifion of this able phyfiologifl would be natural
and inllrudlive, if the animal fluids deviated from the nature
of chyle by gradations wliich could be eafily perceived and ■
marked. But we really cannot eftablifli among tiiem any order
correfponding to their natural compofition ; and t'he dif-
ferences obfervable between chyle and fat, between the
aqueous fluids and bile, conftitute intervals, wliich we can-
not appreciate or meafure. Indeed there are often fo many
differences and fo few relations between one fluid and an-
other, that we can fcarcely compare them at all.

The vaft progrcfs uhich chemiftry h;is made of late
years, and the vahiable difcoveries \sith which the analytis

uf

GLAND.

«r animal fifbflanees, as well as othtr parts of the fcicncc,
has been enriched ; mijijht havx led us to expeft that the
dlaflification of the fluids would have been reformed accord-
ing to their conllitucnt principles, and brought into a con-
dition correfpondlng to the reft of the fcicnce. Fourcroy
has indeed given fuch a diftribution of the fubjcft in his
Elements of Chemillry ; but he docs not feeni to value the
arrangement very highly, as he has not continued it in his lafl

treat work, the " Syfteme des Connoiffances Chin-.iques."
n proportion as the various animal products are analyfed
with more accuracy, they are found to poflefs fpecific clia-
rafters which diftlnguilh them from each other ; and tlivr.'-
fbre render it impoflible to refer them without impropriety
to anv general heads : accordingly in the moft recent and
able chemical works, they are enumerated and confidered
feparately. In this point of view, therefore, the exaftnefs
and perfection of modern analytis renders our attempts at a
general arrangement of tlie animal fluids unavailing ; and
it has only ferved hitherto to Ihew the defects of lucli me-
tliods

Dumas, in his " Principes de Phyfiologie," adopts a dif-
ferent plan, which he calls a natural phyfiological one, and
to which he afcribes the advantage of connecting clolely the
knowledge of the fluids with that of their ufes. " This
method,'" he obferves, " which is the moil natural and ufeful
of all, is to refer the fluids to the various organic fyilems in
which their fecretion takes place, to make a clafs of humours
for each fyftem, to confider each of them as infeparable
from the fyllem to which it belongs, aad to conduC\ the
ftudy of both together. We (liall therefore have as many
different clafles or fpecies of fluids as there are organic
fyftems in the body. This iimple and natural method of
confidering the fubjeft appears to me to be preferable to
the more laboured arrangements founded on the efTential na-
ture and chemical compofition of the fluids, becaufc it is
BOt expofed to that uncertainty, which the imperfection,
the variations, and even the progrefs of our knowledge con-
cerning the nature and properties of animal matters, mufl
unavoidably occafion-. It is, moreover, the moft eafy and
inftruftive way to confider the fccreted fluids in their rela-
tions to the folid organs, with wTiofe funftions they are
concerned. The diftribution of the animal fluids with re-
gard to the fevcn organic fyftems of which the human body
is compofcd, will be better underllood by prefenting it in
a tabular view, where their relations, influences, and ufes,
«ill be immediately perceptible.

Fluids of the nervous
or fenlitive fyftem.

' Fluid of the ventricles of the brain,
Aqueous, vitreous, and cryftalline

humours of the eye.
Tears,

Meibomian fecretion,
Mucus of the nofc,
Cerumen,

Fluid of the labyrinth of the ear,
SaLva.

Of the mufcular
moving fyftem.

f Fibrine,
< Serofity,
(.Fat.

Of the vafcular or ca-
lorific fyftem.

■ Mucus of the trachea and air-vef-
fels,

Fluid of the pericardium,

pleura;.

Pulmonary exhalationj
^ Blood.

Of the vifceral fyftem
or organs of fupply.

*^ Mucus of the mouth, pLaryns, and
ocfophagus,

• ftomach,

inteftines,

kidney and bladder.)

Of the lymphatic or
colIcCling fyftem.

Of the fexual or repro-
duclive fyftem.

Of the bony or fun-
porting fyftem.

Oaftric fluid,
^ Pancreatic fluid,
Intcftinal fluid,
Exhalation of the abdominal ca-

vitv,
Bile,'

I-iquor of the renal capfiiles,
Urine.

f Rcfidue of all the fluids, and of

nutrition,
<j I>ymph,

I Fat of the cellular tifTue,
[Mucous fluid.

Proftatic liquor.

Mucus of the uretlim,

; ■ vagiua,

J Seminal fluid,

j Exhalation of the tunica vaginalis.

Contents of the ovarian vcficles,
{ Liquor aninii,
1_ Meconium.
r Gelatine,
-j Medulla,
(.Svnovia.

Of the fluids juft mentioned, fome are fecrcted in certain
org.ins belonging to their refpeCtive fyftems ; e. gr. tliofe
of the condomerate glands, of the glandular vifcera, &c. ;
others are formed over whole organic fyftems, without any
particular apparatus, as the exhalation 'in the cellular mcni-
brane, that of the circumfcribed cavities, &c. ; while others
are not the produce of fecretion, but move freclv throus^li
all parts of the fyftem in which they are concerned, as the
blood and contents of the abfoi-bing fyftem. AVith the
latter we have nothing to do at prcfent ; neither does the
organization, from which the fluids of the middle clafs are
produced, come under our confideration in this article,
but it \y\\\ be dcfcribed in Integuments, ME.MuitANE, and
Ckli.ular SuBSrANCE.

The phyllologiLid theory of the fecretions muft be foimded
on a perfect knowledge of the nature of the animal fluids,
and of the ftructiu-e of tlie fccretory organs. The folution
of the interefting probleni.s ai-iUng out of this fubjtft, can
be expected only from tlie union of anatomy, cnli^httned
by juft views of phy Ileal fcienee, with chemilin,-, fupported
and direded by pliyliological obfcrvation. The fccretory
organs are of various kind:', and prcferve a couftant rela-
tion to the kind of fecretion, and the manner in which it
is efleCted. Thofe fluids, which feem to be derived from
the blood, with the leaft change, are not produced by a
complicated (nganic apparatus The exhalation, which
moiftens the furfaccs of the circumfcribed cavities, the
aqueous vapour of the lungs, and the cutaneous pcrfpira-
tion are formed by organic fyftems, compofcd chiefly of
vafcular raniiflcations, witliout poflefling any thing that is
at all an:jl .gous to glandul.ir ftrufture. The arrangement
of the fibrous tin"ue of n.nfcles, and of the bony fabric, ad-
mit of the fame remark ; if we fuppofe that thcfc organs
habitually lecrete fibri:ie or bony matter. But thefe arc
cafes, which come under the defcription of nutrition, and
ill tliis fcufe all parts of tlic body may be called fccretory or-
gans.

GLAND.

gans. The mucous fluids, wliich appear to difTer more
confidcrably from the materials in the blood, are generally
feparated by particular glands, which are called crypts or
folhcles, contained in tlie fiibilance of the membranes or
vifcera. But it feems probable, that tlisfe alfo may be
feparated from the vafcular ramifications or a fimple mem-
branous tiffue without any exprefs glandular llrudlure, as
in the cafe of fevoral mucous membranes. It remains there-
fore for us at prefent to explain, in a general way, the
anatomical ftruCtiire of the various glands, by which the
other animal fluids are fecreted.

The glandular differs from molt other fyflems, in the
animal economy, in this circumftance, that its pecuhar tiffue
is not exatlly identical in all the organs belonging to it.
Tlie fibres of any voluntary mufcle u'ould fcrve equally
well to compofe any other of the fame kind. Tendinous
fibres, cartilaginous and bony ftrndlnres, are the fame every
where. The fubftance of the hver, on the contrary, is
widely different from that of the kidney ; which again is
very diftinft in its charader from that of the falivary glands.
The glandular fyltem, therefore, is marked in its various
parts with very few general attributes, which alfo fuffer
many exceptions.

Situation, farms, Jivi/ion, l^c. of the glandular fyflem

Glands have two different fituations in the body. Some
are fubcutaneons, as the breads and falivary glands ; others
deeply feated, as the liver, kidnies, pancreas, and moll of
the mucous glands, and confequently, not expoled to the
aftion of the external bodies. Many of them occupy fitua-
tions where there is much motion, as the fahvary glands near
the jaw, the mucous in clofe contadl with a plane of mufcular
fibres, the liver in the vicinity of the diaphragm, &c. Thefe
fafts have led to the fuppofition that the neighbouring
motion, extraneous to their funftions, determined the ex-
cretion of the fecreted fluids. But, in the firft place, the
palatine glands, the pancreas, the telticles, and even the kid-
nies, are fo fituated, as to be out of the way of fuch external
alTiftance. And we obferve, further, that mucus is fecreted
as abundantly by the pituitary membrane, as in any other
part, although there is no mufcular plane here ; that the
lining of the bladder produces an equally copious fupply,
when the vifcus is paralytic ; and that various caufes aug-
ment the fecretions, without any conneftion with the circum-
ilance firft alluded to, as fialagogue medicines, or the fight of
food in the cafe of falivary glands. We cannot doubt,
therefore, as Bordeu has obferved, that this mechanical
caufe has nothing to do with the matter, and that the effen-
tial caufe of all excretion confifts in a peculiar vital aftion.

Some glands are lingle, as the liver and pancreas ;
others are arranged in pairs, as the kidnies, falivary, and
lacrymal glands. The latter are fimilar on both fides of the
body ; but the refemblance cannot be compared, in refpeft
to its exaftnefs, to that of the double organs in the animal
life. One kidney is lower than the other ; their arteries,
veins, and nerves, are not analogous in length or fize ; often
various notches exift in one, and not in the other : the
lame obfervations will apply to the falivary glands.

Generally the forms are not determined in a very certain
manner in this fyftem : they are fubjeft to innumerable
modifications in volume, dlreftion, and the different pro-
portions ; and differ remarkably, in thefe refpefts, from the
precife and rigorous laws which govern the conformation
of the organs of animal life. Take fome one organ, by
way of example, from both lives. A fmall brain will be
found to poffefs a corpus callofum, thalami optici, and cor-
pora ftriata of correfponding fize ; while, on the contrary,
^ large liver often has a fmall lobulus Spigeliij and vice virfd.

A kidney will often be larger in its nppcr portion onl y, of
in the lower. Thefe variations in the animal life affeil t h
whole organ : wliile they frequently are obferved in fome
part only in the organic. Bichat, who makes this remark,
endeavours to explain the faft, by his opinion concerning
the neccffity of a harmony of aftion in the animal life. If
one fide of the brain were developed more than the other ;
if one eye, one ear, or one fide of the nofe exceeded the
correfponding organs, the operations of the mind, the fenfe
of fight, hearing or fmelling, would be inevitably diflurbed :
while the fecretion of bile or urine would go on equally
well, although fome particular part of the fecreting organs
were proportionally larger or fmaller than the others. The
glands, which are furrounded by membranes, as the liver,
kidnies, and even the pancreas, are lefs fubjeft to thele
variations of figure, than thofe which are contained ic the
cellular fubftance, without any membranous covering, as the
falifary, lacrymal, mucous glands, &c. Thofe of tiie latter
defcription in the mouth, and along the trachea, are never
alike in two fubjefts. The parotid fometimes is prolonged
over the maffeter, and at others leaves that niufcle uncovered ;
varies in its breadth, &c. When either ef a pair of glands
isfo difeafed, as to be incapable of continuing its funftion,that
on the oppofite fide of the body either increafes in bulk, as
we may fometimes obferve in the kidnies ; or its fecretion
is augmented.

The furface of fucli glands as are not covered by mem-
branes is uneven and tuberculated ; it may be in contaft
with mufcles, vcflels, nerves, &c. even with bones, as in the
falivary and lacrymal glands. In general, they are fur-
rounded by lefs cellular tiffue, than organs which have con-
fiderable motion. That which is in immediate contaft with
them is denfe, like the exterior coveringof arteries and veins,
but it is not fo firm. It does not ufually contain fat ; and
by ifolating the gland to a certain degree, it is analogous to
the peritoneal covering of the liver, or to the proper mem-
brane of the kidney or fpleen. Anatomifts have very com-
monly divided the glandular fyltem into the conglobate
and conglomerate glands. The former name denotes the
gland-like bodies belonging to the lymphatic fyftem, and
was deiigi-ied to (hew that each formed only one mafs. The
latter term is moft properly applied to the falivary and lacry-
mal glands and pancreas, which are made up of numerous
fmaller particles united together. It cannot well be given
to the liver and kidnies, which poffefs nothing of a conglo-
merate ftrufture ; and thefe, accordingly, have been generally
called glandular vifcera.

Organization of the Glandular Syflem.

I. Peculiar tijfue of this fyflem. — The glandular tiffue dif-
fers from moft others, in poffefling no marks whatever of a
fibrous difpofition. Its component elements are not placed
by the fide of each other, according to longitudinal or
oblique lines, as in the mufcles, the fibrous fyftem, the bones,
nerves, &c. ; but they are heaped together, by a kind of
confufed, and, as it were, cafual approximation, and adhere
together but weakly. Thus, while organs, which poffefs
diftinft fibres, have confiderable powers of reiiftance, parti-
cularly in the direttion of their fibres, glands are torn eafily
by flight degrees of violence. The broken furface is un-
even, full of projeftions and depreffions, which diftinguifh
thefe organs from cartilage; the rupture of which is gene-
rally fmooth. The proftate, tonfils, and mucous glands
refill much more powerfully than the liver and kidnies, in
which the phenomenon juft mentioned is the moft eafily
obfervable. The pancreas and falivary glands are elongated
by any diftending force, without tearing ; but tliis circum-

ftance

GLAND.

ftance arilcs from the abunJ:iiit colIi\lar tifluc diflribuicd
throughout their iubllauce, and not (Vojii any peculiar pro-
perty of their glandular titUie. Their lobes are feparatcd
in proportion as the intermediate cellular filaments are elon-
gated.

The glandular tiffue, which anatomifls have generally
■ciS[c6. parenchyma, is difpofed in three different ways. i. In
the falivary, hcrymal, and pancrer.tlc fjlands, which ara
properly called conglomerate, the organ is made of diftinct
portions, connected together by a loofe and copious cel-
lular texture, the intervals of v.liich tranfmit veflels
and nerves. Thefe are r.gain made up of fmaller lobes
Bnited in the fame way ; and the divifions are more eafilv
purfued when water has penetrated into the connefting
fubftance. Repeated diviilons fliew us fmaller and fmaller
component portions, till we come at lalt to very fniall bodies,
ftill confpicuous to the naked eye, and calL-d glandular acini
(grains glanduleux, Fr. ) Thefe component parts are
firmer in proportion to their fmallnefs, as they are furruunded
and connected to the adjoining portions bv fiiorter and
firmer cellular fubftance. We can eafily follow tlie 2d,
3d, and even the 4th divifion of thefe lobes with the fcalpel.
The acini are of a roundilh figure and pale colour, and dif-
tinguilhable from any thing of a mufcular nature by the
abfence of fibres. When examined with magnifying glaffes,
they are feen divided into fmaller portions by cellular inter-
ftices, and we can hardly come to an end of thefe divifions,
if we employ fiiccefiively greater magnifying powers. 2.
There are no traces of the primary diviiicns juft defcribed,
inta the larger and fuccceding lobes, in the liver and liidnies.
Theyconfillof an uniform and even tilTuemadeup of glandular
acini, clofely united together into one fubftance. The coaueft-
ing cellular ftrufture of thefe particles, if there be anv. is very
fmall in quantity and ftiort ; hence the facihty with which
thefe bodies may be torn, and the kind of granulations
which their rupture prefents. 3. The proftnte, tonfils,
and all the mucous glands, have no appearance either of
primary or fecondary lobei or acini. The firft of thefe
confifts of a denfe parcnchvma : the latter of a foft and
almoll pulpy fubftance. They cannot be torn, hke the
liver and kidnies.

Controverfy concerning the J}ni3ure of the gJcindular a.-m. —
It is eafy to proceed thus far in analyling the compofition
of the glands ; but thefe refearchcs do not at all contribute
to explain the mec'aanifm of fecretion. In th;> hope of
accompliftiing that obi^tt, anatomiils began, as U)on as the
improved condition of the fcience furnilhed the means of
profeeuting fuch inveftigations, to lubjcct the various fccrc-
tory organs to a very attentive and clofe examiivatiou, and
endeavoured to Ihew the nature of the acini, into which
molt of the glands v.ere ultimately refolvable. Thi; Bid of
magnifying glaifes, and of anatomical injections, was reiorted
to on this occafion ; but the ojiinions of two individur.l*,
who had devoted much time to the fubject, were completely
at variance, and gave rife to a controverfy, vvhicli !iad at
leail this good effect, tliat it occafioned a very thorougli
examination of the fubject. Malpighi taught tiiat the acini
are hollow ; that the arteries diilributed on their furface
depofit the fecreted fluid in tlieir cavitie.^, and that it is con-
veyed thence by an excretory duit ; that tlie union of thefe
tubes forms larger excretory canals, &c. He deems the
mucous glands of the alimentary canal, mouth, &c. to be
the moil fimple forms of glandular ftructure, and confidera
that the larger glands differ only in confifting of an aggre-
gation of fuch ilmple ones. " Glandula, qua palatum, celo.
phagus, inteftina, et confimiles partes copiofe ditantur, eft
•mnium fimpliciffima, et idea rehquarum glanduhirum. Hscc

Vol. XVI.

itaqucfolllculo meribvanofo fon locr.li cor.ftat, qtjiovali, in.
lerdum rotunda, qnandoqne Ienticul.u-i, vrl oblonga cnflat
forma ; concavitate pollet, qua: ut phirimum in vjfctJum
cxcrctorium aperitur, quo feparatuo humor in peciiliarem
capacitatcni, vel foras extra pdlitur. Circa locultitn fen
folUculum vafa fanguinca ct nervi diramantur, ct ut coniec-
tura ali'eqni licet, carnese fibrx circumducuntur, vcl faltem
fub piano extenfi mufculi locantur, ut in ventriculo, et aefe-
pliago patct. Huic pruxinuc fucctdunt glandular, inajori
loculornm numero ditatx, quales funt in facie, in labris, iii
quibufdam cutis partibus, circa pudendum et palatum :
excretorio namque vafculo, iiiterduni oblongo multipliccs
appenduntur loculi membranofi in ipfum hiantcs, circa quo»
fanguinca vafa ct nervl ramiiicantur." Epillob Reg. Soc.
Londin. Dic:;ta, in Opp. Poftlium.

In the Excrcitatloncs de Struttura Vifcerum, Ijc endeavours
to prove that the larger glandular bodies are formed on tljc
fame principles with tlie parts juft alluded to. He examines
the liver by removing the external membrane, macerating it
in water, boiling, &c. and employs the microfcope. •; Fa
compingcndo itaque h.pate talis videtur firma nature metho-
dus : vafa in ranios hinc inde difperguntur ; ad fingulal
autem vaforum propagincs, licet etiam exiles, lobuli apper-
duntur, conicam ut phninium fervontes figuram : confimilerh
etiam in pancreate, CKterifque conglomeratis gb.ndulis ob-
fcrvamus.. — Glandulofi acini, quib'.is lobulus componitur,
cum pecuharem circumfcriptioncm iiabeant, neccITario pro-
pria et ipfis lagura, qux ut plurimum hexagona, vel plurium
laterum eft : hinc etiam necefte eft, ut ad invicem, pr.-eter va-
forum' ramos, pecul;;iribus mem.branofis vinculis neftar.tur,
et interflitia ahqua cmergant, qujc in plfcibus- et imperfc'ftio-
ribus magis ccnfpicua funt, in pcrfectioribus autem obfcwran-
tur. Ad fingulos autem, hofque r.iinimos lobulos, n\ulti-
plices vaforum rami derivantur. Tota jecoris moles ex Lii
duobus coalefcit, glandulofis fcilicet acinis, et diverfis vafo-
rum propa^iiiibus ; quare, ut nliquod ex his commune opui
cmanet, ncceffe eft, ut inter glanduhs ct vjfa commerciura
intercedat." Exereit. Anat. de Hcpate, cap. 2. Hcdcfcribe*
fimilar acini as cxifting in the kidnies, fjjlecn, and cortical
fubftance of the brain. And he defends his opinions on tbi»
fubiect in general, by argmnents drawn from various fourcc,^,
as the appearances of difeafc, S;c. which cannot be allowed
to pn/ve much on either fide.

The opinion oppofod to that of Mnlpighi, confiders all
the vifcera and ri;lands to confift of vefttls and cellular fub-
ib.nce, v. iihout any membranous cavities intcrpofed bctweea
the arteries and the' excretory dufts. This d.>i:>rinc was paj-
ticularly Ui])portcd and extended by Ruyfch, who, alt!>Ougk
Le was not remai'kable for quicknsfs or l.'arn:i;g, exceeded
moil of his contempmaries in his opportunities o| d-.f^eclion,
which w,-re very ample, and continued for nearly eigh: .- yenr.s
and in t!ie art of injecting and jjreparing tTic orgai-.s of th?
bodv in various ways. His obfervations carried the greater
weight, becaui'c he was a\erfe to hypi'tliefes, and tau-it only
what he faw. In his yi'ulh he admitted, with other f,ii.-.lo-
mifts, the glandular acini of the vifcera. Bnt, vla-n he
found, as he proceeded in his anatomical labour-, '.'i-t '■■■eni-_
brani s, naturally perfectly white, exhibit innu' ' ■"'

after inieition, t'iiat the fubftance of the vifccre. .
entirely with injected fluids, and may be refo'vcd -i.u- a :r..-r?
vafeuLir contexture bv ulceration in pun.- water, he gr:.!"-
ully clianged his opinion, and began to tench that the vjfc.-ra
and the conglomcnUe glands, and even moft cf l]K'.i'.:--,p!e
ones, are compofed cnti.ely of T.-lTeir-, froin winch tlie crcrc-
torv tubes are continued without ;*ny intervening medium.
Injections in lliu dead body feem I.t prove the latter circum-
ftuice, at fluids in fomo inftanccs pais verv readily fror'. ti:^?
1' p bload-

.1

GLAND.

WooJ-vtffTels into tlio cxcretoiy dufts ; e. x.r- in tlic kidney
and liwr. As Ru> fch continued liis invelligations, lie found
that the bodies coniidered as jrUindular and hollow acini by
Malpighi, are mere blood-veflels. After accurately injcftiiig
t!ie liver and kidney, and macerating them in water, lie found
them refolvcd into i'mall cluflcrs of blood-vefTels, and proved
tiiis fo clearly by his preparations, that Bocrhaave, who had
been a warm' defender of Mblpiglii's doftrine, in defence of
which he wrote the Epillola dc Fabrica Glandularuni, ad F.
Ruyfch., was induced to renounce his opinion. The elegant
preparations of Ruyfch, and his appeal to the evidence of
didetlion, and other anatomical invelligations, brought nioft
anatoniifls over to his opinions, which, indeed, are generidly
received in t!ie prefcnt day. Haller gives the following fum-
mary of his opinions on this fubjcft. " Vifcera nempe fe-
crclioni deftinala, corumque imprimis acinos, glandulafquc
i-onglomcratas,meriscomponi vafculis,ce!lulolx tels ope con-
iunftis, CO cum vinculi robore ut confiftat acinus, aque fui
fiinilibus, laxioribus fills fibi annexis, totus et integer deduci
pofilt. In quoUbet prseterea acino, vaforumve glomerc, ex
cadem fententia, dudlus excretorius eft, plurefs'e duftuli, qui
de artcriola minima, tanquam rainulus minor et fanguiiii ini-
pervius, deccderc videtur, qu^ fabrica in rene certo repcritur,
m aliis quidem colis magna cum veri fpecic ex conjeftura ad-
mlttitur. Secretio adeo a vulgari fanguinis circuitu hafte-
Bus differt, quod in ifta quidem arteriola minima cylindrica,
in vcnam fibi aequalem, aut aiiipliorem continuetur, quo: fan-
guinem recipere apta fit, in humorum vero feparatione ductus
excretorius, rubro vafculo arteriofo minor, tanquam ramus
ex eo vafculo prodcat." Element. Phyfiolog. lib. 7. feft. 2.
J 14. The opinions and arguments of Ruylch may be
collcfted ill his anfwer to the letter of Boerhaave mentioned
above, in fome of his otiier epillles, and ia various of his
Thefauri. He has given fevcral iigures reprefenting the dlf-
tribiition of the minute vofTels in various organs, and proves
latisfaftorily that the bodies called acini by Malpighi are
merely minute velTels : he Ihews this concerning the fpleen
and brain, as well as in the glandular vifcera. On the fub-
jedl of this controverfy, we may obferve, that its importance
does by no means warrant the pains bellowed on it, and
the noife made by the combatants in condui^ting it. The
nature of the invcftigation, which is carried on entirely in
the minute elements of the body, and profecuted by means
cf magnifying glades, injeiTtioii, ir.accratioR, and corrofioii,
rendfers the conclufions, which we arrive at, in great meahire,
uncertain ; and tlie parts, of which the llructure is fought,
are fo exceedingly fmall, that neither opinions can be conii-
dered as clearly demonftrated, or fatisfaftorily refuted. The
mode, in uliich fecretlon is effefted, is enually obfcure, which-
ever of the two fuppolilioiis we may ;.d jpt : neither of them
folves the myftery. Ltt us admit w'.ih Ruyfch that the c::-
crctory tube is continuous with the fecreting artery ; fhall
v,e then underftand how fucli infinitely diverlified products,
all differing from each oth.er, and from the blood, are form-
ed from the common mafs of that fluid : Shall \ve be able
to point out the precife fpot in the continuous canal where
the blood ends, and tiie bile, urine, or milk begins ? and to
explain hozu the change is elTeAed ? If, on the contrary, we
fuppofe, with Malpiglii, that arteries, ramifying on fmall
membranous cavities, depolit the new prodatts in tliofc re-
ceptacles, our ignorance of the points in queftion is neither
more aqr lefs complete than in the other cafe. Too much
iabv'ur has been alr.^dy fpent on thefe idle difquifitions ;
modern anatomills have judged wifely in abandoning them,
and in preferring the ta!k of collefting facls concerning the
fcatural and difeafed ftrutture and fundlions of our frame.
With fiich inipreilioas, concerning the value of ihcfe pur-

fults, wc were much diverted, at obferving thj cojijplacency
with which Ruyfch, the great authority 'ol the two lail cen-
turies on the ftrufture of glands, contemplates Ms own doc-
trines, and the fang-froid with which he reprefents his own
difcoveries, as the immediate produce of a direct divine re-
velation. " Placuit bonitati dlvini hitc rcvclare iveis la-.
boribus jam fenilibus. Invidi, et inimici mei hxc ridebant
in initio, fed Deus cui foli oy.nis gloria et honor, hscc ita'
benedixit poftea,'' &:c. Epillola Anatcm. adv. c. H. Boer-
haave.

The organization of all the glands is by no means fo uni-
form as to admit of our referring the mode cf glandular fe-
cretlon to any one mechanifm. The mammary gland and
tellis do not refemble the texture of the organs already de-
fcribed. In both of thefe, which again are widely diflerent
in all their fenfible properties frtim e;\ch other j there ij a
vail congeries of fecretory tubes, inlinitclv convoluted, wiMf
vafcular ramifications copior.fly diilributed among them. In
the ultimate elementary parts of ttiefe glands, as far as our
fenfes can purfue them, we difcover nothing but minute, fer-
pentiiie, and very {lender tubes ; whicl-: are particularly ob\i-
ous in the tellis, without any trace of Malpighian or Ruy fch-
ian acini. In the breaft, indeed, the exlitence of thefe bo-
dies has been a matter of difpute, and arguments, not de-
ficient in plaufibillty, have been addused on both isdes of '
this important quelHon, which, like many religious mylle-
I'ies, is involved in juil fo much cbfcurity, as Co make it a
very fuitable fubjcdt for polemical sx'-reife.

The organs of the mucous fccretion, in gc;:eral, do not
fall within the defcriptiop already given of the glaiiduFar
ilrufture. Thefe fcem to exhibit, in many inilauces, a very
fimple form of gland, of which, however, the atllou is no
more underllood, than that of the more complicated kinds.
They confill of fmall receptacles, lined by the membrane
covering the part, receiving the fecretion, and pouring it out
by a fingle orifice in the centre. Very fimple glands of this
kind are feen at the root of the tongue : their figure is circular
or elliptical ; the cavity is lined by a thin membrane, fur-
rounded by a pulpy vafcular fubftance, which caufes a fuper-
fii'lal prominence, in the centre of which is a fimple aperture,
affording mucus on preffure after death.

In other inllances, the membranous part is more confpi-
cuous, and the glandular fubftance lefs ccnfiderable, or in-
deed hardly perceptible, fo that the whole feems to be form-
ed merely of membrane. Thefe have been called cryptsE,
folliculi. Sec. Their figure is generally circular or oval, and
they are lined by continuations of the membrane, to wliich
they belong. They are placed in the cellular fubflarcc, and
may poffeis more or lefs of the pulpy vafcular matter. They
have fimple excretory tubes, coinmencliig from the hollow of
the membranous cavity, and terminating by open orifices en
the furface of the part to which they belong, as the mouth,
fauces, trachea, or inteftines. Preffure forces tlie fecreted
mucus from the open orifice. To this clafs may be referred
the glands of the lips, cheeks, epiglottis, pharynx, and ccfo-
phagus, tliofe of the foft palate, trachea, iloniach, and intef-
tines.

Thefe more fimple kinds of crypts or follicles are united in
diflerent inllances, fo as to compofe larger mnfles. Some-
tim.es tliey are fimply contiguous, conncfled by loofe cellular
fubilance, and poffeis each its proper duft : e. g. at the back
of the tongue, and about the arytenoid cartilages. SucJi have
been called glandulje congregatoe. In other inllances, nu-
merous follicles, included in a common covering, depofit
their mucus in one or more large cavities, into w hich feveral
follicles open. The tonfils afford an e.sample, and liave bcca
called glandule conglutinats,

Th«

GLAND.

Tlie fecretion or mucus is often performed in a fpecics of
firi;cture, which docs not feem to polTeisany thing of a fjlan-
dular nature : in fmall membranous canals, which will admit
brillles for about half an incli in length, ending by blind ex-
tremities in the cellular fubllance, and terminating by oblique
apertures on the furfaccs of the mucous membranes to which
they belong. Neither acini nor round follicles can be dif-
covered opening into fuch canals, which are technically named
finufes or lacunje, and which, in the urethra, Have a p'fT-
feCl'y fmooth iurface. Some of thefe are fimple, as in tlic
fcpt'jra narium, tlie ur,;thra of both fexes, the entrance of
the varina, &c. ; others are ramified, as in fome inllances in
the male urethra ; in the recfc of the uterus, &c.

The glands, which produce various matters of an unftuous
defcription, appear to be very fimple in tlieir ftrufture, but
they are moftly fo fma!l as to prevent us from entering into
much detail concerning their organl/ation. The ceruminous
glands of the ear are imall round bodies, difpcrfed in the inter-
Itices of the cellular fub'.linc:-, and each of which poffeffes a
duel, penetrating the integuments of the meatus auditorlus,
and ending on its furface by an open mouth. They
feem to coiifift of fimple membranous cavities. The organs,
which fecrete febaceous matter, in various parts of the inte-
guments, do not feem to diff 'r efrentially from thefc. They
are round membranous cavities, with their fides covered by
numerous vafcular rsir.ifications, opening on the furface of the
part to v.'hich they belong, with or without the intervention
of a fimpL* djCi. Where they produce a fluid which con-
cretes, it may be exprefitd from them in the form of a fiender
white thread. The areola of the nipple, the nymphas, and
the other external female organs, the corona glandis of the
ma'.?, the nofe, and particularly the cavity between its ala
and the cheek, Jie upper lij), and the hollows of the exter-
nal ear, poilefs numerous glands of this defcription. The
Meibomian apparatus of the eye-lids is only a rather compli-
caied fpecimen ot^the fame ilrufture ; feveral fimple glands
open into a common duct.

Tlie proftate pofiefles a peculiar ftrufture, which can
hardly be referred with propriety to any of the fpecies iirll
enumerated.

■ The glandular tiffue, cut in flices and dried in the air,
liifes its original colour, acquires a dark hue, and even a
blackiih tint in the liver and kidney, on account of the
large quantity of blood which they contain : if the latter
vifcera are repeatedly waflied, before they arc dried, they
continue to appear greyifii. The glandular tiffue, in its dried
llate, is remarkably hard and brittle. If kept moift and cx-
pofed to the air, it becomes putrid very rapidly, and cxhaU-s
ill that flate a highly difagrecablc odour. A greater quantity
of amraoniacal matter is formed. The liver is particularly
diilinguiflied for the infupportable ilench caufed by its pu-
ti-cfaction. The kidney goes lefs rapidly into that ftate.
When boiled, tlie glandular fubllance produces at firll a grey-
i{h fubllance, which troubles the water uniformly at firll,
and is then collecled in an abundant froth at the top. 'i'his
prodacl is mofl abundant in the prefent, the luufcidar, mu-
cou.s and cellular fyftems ; and leall in tlie cartilaginous,
tendinous, fibrous, &c. The froth produced by its boiling
is of a deeper colour, and feems to contain more numerous
principles, than that derived from the wliite organs.

Like all other fyllems, the glands grow hard at the firll
periods of ebullition, but inilcad of becoming Ibfter after-
wards, as the others do, the continued boilirig makes them
more and more hard ; fo that after fi\e or fix hours of ebulli-
tion, their firmnefs is triple or quadruple that which be-
longs to them naturally. Tiiis phenomenon is ir.oil remarkable
in the liver. Wlien removed immediately after the firll .corru-

gating effeA^ of the hot v.-ater, they do not difplay theel-!*-
ticity whicii the other fyllems pofTefs at this time. A tendon
or mulcle in fuch a (late, if drawn, rellorcs itfelf immedi-
ately, while a (lice of liver break?. The abfence of
fibrous matter perhaps is the real caufe of this difference.
The ludden aftlon of naked fire crifp. and corrugates tRe
furface, as in all the other folids, and produces a hard exte-
rior crull.

Maceration in water produces different efTecls on the diffir-
ent g'andi. The liver refills longer than the kidney, which,
after two months, is reduced to a reddifli pulp fwimminy in
the water, while the former Hill preferved its form and dcn-
fity, and had undergone no other change than <rom a red to
a blucilh brown colour. The falivary glands exhibit much of
the whitifli, unftuous and firm matter, »vhich is feen in all
cellular organs after long maceration. This does not arife
from an alteration of the glandular tilTue, but f:o;n the fat
contained in the abundant cellular texture of thefe parts.

Acids adl on ihe glandular tiflue nearly as upon the others.
They reduce it ir.to a pulp, varying in its colour, and in 'he
promptitude of its foneation accord!:. g to the nature of the
acid employed. The fidphuric acls moll quickly, and gives
a black pulp, while the nitric renders it yellow. They acl
much more (lowly on the glands after boiling than before.

Generally fpeaking, the glands are much lefs digcllihle than
mod other animal iubllances; particularly in their boiled (late :
for coClion produces in them quite oppolite effefts to thofe
which it exerts on the cartilages, tendons, and all the fibroui
organs, which are rendered lefs denfe, more gelatinous and
vifcous, and more fpeedily diffolvable by the gadric juice.
Tlie gl.mds would probably be digefted more cafily, if eaten
raw. Liver is lels digeftible in proportion as it is longer
boiled. Bichat made a comparative trial of it in a raw and
dreded (late : the former was reduced into a pulp in the do.
mach of a dog, when the latter had undergone a very flight
alteration.

Excretory lubes. — All glands have tubes for the purpofe of
conveying away the fiuids, which they feparate from the
blood ; and as thefe canals are only found in glands, their
confid-ration belongs to that of the peculiar tilfue of the
gland The excretory duels have an uniform origin in all
glands. They arife like veins, by an infinite number of ca-
pillary tvibes, which appear to begin at the acini, where
thefe cxill. Each acinus is laid to have an arterial and venous,
as well as an excretory tube. Arifing in this way from all
the interior of the gland, they foon unite together, iHto more
confiderable tubes, v.-liich generally rus in llraight lines
tlirough the glandular tiffue, unite to each other, and form
at lall one or more large tubes.

Glands are to be dittinguilhed into three kinds, with re-
fpecl to their excretory tubes. I. Some tranfmit their fecrr-
tion through feveral dufts, each formed by fmaller ones, anJ
opening near togcUier, but diilindlly.and without any < ommu-
nication. In fome cafes thete leparate apertures arc found
on a more or lefs dillincl prominence, as in the brv^all, prol-
tafe, and fublingual glands. Sometimes the orifices are found
in a depreffion, in a kind of cul-de-fac, as in the tonfils, the
foramen cxcum of the tongue. &c. 2. Other and more nu-
merous (rlands pour out tlieir fluids by a fingle tube, and there
is nothing remarkable in general in the orifice. 3. Some
o-lands depofit the prodt:ce of their fecretion in a rcfervoir,
where it is retained, in order to be expelled at particular
times. Such are the kidnies, liver, and tetlicles. Inthi-cafe
there aiiiil be two excretory tubes ; one to convey the fecre-
tion from the gland to the refcrvoir, and the other to tranf-
mit it to its final deftination.. Tlicfe refervoirs are tJicrrfore
evidentlv coniiccled vrith the excretory ti-bej.

P p J Althougfc

GLAND.

Althor.j^h the two firll ckfTcs of glands have do refervoirs,
wemay infome degree regard the diiiercut ramifications of their
excretory tubes as fupplyiiigthcir place. Thcfe, indeed, as well
as in the glands, which have refervoirK, are l\abitiially full of
the fecreted fluid. Under whatever circiimllaiices the indi-
vidual may have died, we may always produce a confiderable
fiow of proilatic'fluidby prciFure on the gland. The papilla
of tho.kidney affords urine on the prefTure, feclions of the liver
flunv bile in the hepatic duclj, and the lactiferous vefiels are
full of milk, for which there is no otlicr rcfcrvoir. From
variations in the quantity of fluid, in the latter iuitance, the
greater or lefs fize of the brcail, during fuckliug, entirely de-
pend^.

It appears in general that the paffiige of the fecreted fluids
ill the exct^tory duds is much flower than that of blood
in the veins, or of h mph in the abforbi;ig velfels. Urine
isconllautly fiov/ing through the ureters ; but a much great-
er proportion of blood would pafs through a vein of equal
diameter, while thi? bladder was fllling. I'he rate of motion
however varies under different circumllancrs, tiie faliva isex-
creted much more quickly during a meal, and urine paffes oft
much fafter after watery drinks.

The fize of the excretory tubes varies very coniiderably.
I. Where fcveral are produced from one gland, they are
<«ery fmall, and fomctimes fearcely perceptible. TJiey ruu
in a llraight line, have no communications, and open immedi-
ately on quitting the gland. 2. Thole which are Angle are
larger ; bearing a proportion however to the fi/.e ot tlie gland,
excepting the hepatic duCt, which is inanife'.tly very fmall in
comparifon to the bulk of the liver. They pafs for lome
diflance after quitting the gland, and are produced by the
union of fuch tubes as belong to the Lift mentioned clals ; fo
that if their ifolated excretory tubes were to be united toge-
ther, a connnon Angle duel would be formed rcfembling
thofe of this fecond kind. Tlie pancreas is the only iuilanee
in which the common duel is ccnicjiJed in tlie iubftance of the
gland : and there is no other inilaiice, but the tcftls, where
it forms convolutions, lo as to be much longer tiian the courfe
tlirough which it palles.

Whatever the arrangement of the excretory tube; maybe,
tiiey all pour their fluids either on the furface of the body,
as in the cerumiuous and febacoous ghuids, a d the breaft ;
oron the furface of mucous membrane;!, as the mucous, falivary,
pancreatic and hepatic excrotories. Tiie Ikiu and mucous
membranes, therefore, are the only parts mniiteiicd by glan-
dular fluids ; no duels terminate on ferouj or fynovial
furfaces. The excretorics of the pretended articr.b.r glands
would form an exception to this obfervation, if the glands
exifted. They never terminate in the cellular membrane ;
and if a conimunieatiou fliould take place, by accident, ab-
Ceefles are formed by the fupervening irritation, as in urinary
fiilulae ; or inflammation occurs iu the tr.ick of the extrava-
fated fluid, producing adhefions, whicii preferve the cellular
fyllem from more extenflve infiltration. Thus the alimentary
canal may be regarded as a kind of general excretory, fupcr-
added to thofe of the liver and pancreas, Sec, and expelli.ag
in one mafs all the fluids feparately poured through their
lefpeftive duils into its cavity. Inde;:d, all fecreted fluids
fse.Ti defig'ied to be thrown out of tiie body. Separated from
the mafs of blood, they are heterogeneous to it, and do not
enter the general circulation again in a ftate of health.

All the excretory ducl^ have an internal mucous mem-
brane, which is a continuation of the cutaneous or mucous
furface, on which they terminate. In addition to this they
all polfefs an exterior fubftance, including the mucous canal,
and- differing confiderably in the parlieidar glandr. It is a
very thick and" peculiar fubllance in tlic vas deferens : an

extremely denfe and clofe texture, refemUing that of tTi«
arteries and veins in the hepatic and falivnry tubes, S;c.
The latter is very dift'erent from ordinary cellular fubftance.
It does not appear that thefe tubes pofl'efs any membranu
befldcs the tifl^iie juil defcribed, and the mucous lining.
Every excretory tube has its bhjod-veffels. The ureters re-
ceive very manifell arterial branches from the renal and fper-
matic arteries : the hepatic ai'lcry fupplies the biliary tubes,,
and the Stenouiiui duel has its l-vanches from tlie tratifverfalis
faciei. Various nerves fro.n the ganglia accom.pany the
llood-vcffcls ; but they never form inch intricate plexufes as
round the arteries.

The excretory duels poffefs chiefly the vital properties of
tiie mucous fyilein, whicli has the greaiell fliare in their for
mation. Their fyrapathies are, therefore, nearly of the fame
kind.

2 . Of th: other Syjlems belong'w^^ lo tlie fonmiUon of the Glands.

CeUular fuhjlance. — Glands differ much in the proportion of
this tiffue, wliich they contain, and may be divided accord-
ingly into two claffes. It is very abundant in the fahvary
organs, ii; tlie pancrea.s, and lacrymal gland, and in alt fuch
as have a conglomerate or granulated llruCture and white
appearance. Every gland of this clafs is divided into lobes
very diftincily iiolatcd by grooves filled with this texture,
and determining the tuberculated furface which charafterizes
the exterior ot the organ. Each lobule, and every glandu-
lar acinus, down to the imallcfl diviflon, i^ covered by cellular
fubftance : hence tlie whole conflfts of an affemblage of
fmall diftincT; bodies, connected together only by the circum-
ilance of their excretory tubes being united to form a com-
mon dufi, and which we could conceive to be perfetlly ca-
pable of exercifing their functions if adtually feparate. We
lee this in the parotid ; where fmall acccflory portions are
often fcen in the courfe of tiie duift, completely unconneftcd
with the principal gland. The fubmaxillary and fublingual
are foinetimes continuous, foinetimes ifolated. The cellular
tiflue in thefe glands often contains an abundance of fat.
This is particularly obfervabie in the breaft, the volume of"
whicii fomctimes depends on the fi7e of the gland, foine-
times on an accumulation of the adipous fubilance ; a dif-
ference, which is very eafily recognized by the touch.
Hence the quantity of milk is not always in proportion to
the apparent f:7.c of the mammre. In the proper conglome-
rate glands, however, the adipous fubftance feldom amounts
to a very confiderable quantity. The connecting threads.
are very ftiort and flender in t!;e teilis. In thofe glands, which
have a denfe parenchyma, as the hver, kidney, proilate, and
mucous organs, there is wry little cellular tiffue, and hence
the facility with which fome of them may be torn. Their.
fubftance never contains fat. The nniituous ftate of the.
liver in various difcafes does not invalidate this obfervation ;
for the fat then enters into its compofition as an cffential
element of the organ, and is fubftituted in place of the co-.
louring matter, which difappears ; it is not contained in
cells. Fat may be feea alfo in the interior of the kidney,
b'.it it is round the pelvis, and not in the proper parenchyma
oi tiie gland. The tonflls, proilate, and n-^ucous glands
never contain any. Serous fluids are never thrown out in
the fubftance of glands, which have a clofe parenchyma ;■
they are not affefted in cafes of the mofl general and extca-
five anafarca. We cannot, however, doubt the exillence
of cellular tiffue in fuch glands : maceration demon ftrates it.
The fungous tumours, growing from thefe organs, contain
much of it ; and it is principally feen round the veffels, as-
in the capfula Gliffoni. This texture, indeeJ, is often dif^
ea'-ed, while the proper fjibftanxe of the g!an,d remains.

found :

GLAND.

foiwd : hence the devclopement of fteatomatous tumours in
tiie liver, of ferous cyfts in the kidiiies, and of hydatids in
both, without the fecrction being at all diiiurbed The
li.er is fometimes eucreafcd three or four-fold by internal
tuiiioiirii, uitliout its proper tiffae bsing augmented : the
latter forms a kind of Lpta between the fwellings in whicli
the bihary fccretion gojs on.

Bhnd-vjfeh — Glands, which are not furrounded by a
membrsnj, receive their arteries from ill quarters. An
abundance of fmall branjhL-s from the neigiiboi'.rinf; trunks
penetrates the furfac^? of tl^e falivary and lacrymil glands,
the pancreas, &c. They firll run between the loocs, pene-
trate into the fmaller dirlfions, and are finally difperfed on
the acini. The branches coming from different quarters
anailomofe freely in the gland.

Where the organ is fiirrounded by a meinbrane, as in tlie
liver, kidney, te'.Hs, Sec, the arteries penetrate on one fide
only, generally at a more or lefs deep notch, and in a lingle
confid'rable trunk, which, however, is fometimes previoiifly
divided into a fev.- fmaller branches. Tiie part, at which
the aitery enters, is always the fartheft removed from the
acfion of external bodies ; a remark, which is common to
all important organs, as the lungs, inteftines, fpleen, S;c.
The convex furface of thefe, where the vetTels are the
fmallcfl, and where hemorrhage would confequently be at-
tended witli the leaft danger, is alv.ays turned outwards.
When it has entered the gland, the main artery quicklv di-
vides into various branches, wiiich diverge and are fubdivided
as they approach the convexity. They have various
branches in the body of the organ, as they proceed, and
end by producing a large number of capillaries, covering
the furface of the organ. Sometimes they come througii,
are vifible on the furface, ..nd ramify between it and the in-
Tcding membrane. Tlie raoR favourable m.ethod of obferv-
ing the di.lribution of the arterial fy.'em in thefe organs is
to injeft them with hard inje;:Vion, and to deftroy the animal
fubftance by means of inimerfion in muriatic or nitric acids :
a call of :he vafeular fyilem, even to its very minute divi-
fions, may be obtained in this way, and fuch preparations,
on account of their elegance, are contained in all cabinets.
Ruyfch, who was remarkable for his dexterity in thefe
procefTes, found that the fr.all arteries were differently ar-
ranged in the different organs. In the kidney they are con-
voluted, fo as to form, through the v.'hole fubllance of the
organ, fm;:l] granular bodies lefs than a pin's head, which
are the ::cini already alluded to. The furface of the liver is
covered, aiter a fuccefsfid injeftion, with innumerable ca-
pillaries arranged in a ftellated form, and giving the appear-
ance of little tufts of minute arteries, when the part is cor-
roded, Vihich have been compared to camel's hair pencils ;
and this arrangement has been termed the penicillous. A
fimilar difpofition is obfervable in tiie fpleen.

Some have conceived that the large arterial trunks of
glands communicate to the organs an interior motion very
nivourabli to the esecution of their functions. Thefe bo-
dies are placed, for the moA part, in the trunk, and there-
fo.-« near to the heart ; and their veffels generally enter after
a ihort courfe, fa that the iaipulfe has been confidered, fi-om
this caule, to be more powerful. The fpermatic arter)- is
a remarkable exception to this obfervation, and the llownefs
of the fcminal fcciction has been explained from this caufe.
We own that v.x- cannot diicover any very convincing argu-
ments in proof of tlu-'fe pofitions.

The veins accompany the arteries throvighout, in their
diflribution to the glands ; v/e have no diftinction here of a
iupcrficial a:id deep-lcated fet. Tiie liver is the only exam-

4

pic in which red blood enters on one fido, and black e-oc
out m the oppofite direclion. *

Bko^oflL.hnds—T\x: quantity of blood contained
habitually in thele organs diff. rs rem..rkal>Iy in ihc- dififcr-
ent parts ot the iy-ilem. ,. The conglomerate glands con-
tain >vry httle. It imparts no colour to thefe or|an5, wl-icl,
a.-e wnitLTi in the.r appearance, and only require the water
to be changed two or tin-ec times in mrxeration. 2 The
mucous gland ;, proflate, and teilicle contain a larger cuan-
tity. 3. Th_- hver and kidney have fuch a'con!id.r.:bl por-
tion, that they differ widely in this refpcct from the rell of
the gla:=dubr fyflera. They co«tain a lar^e quantity ex-en
atter oeath from haemorrliage, or when the gku.ds are fud-
denly removed from a living animal. Hence, \;he» we ma-
cerate thtfe organs, it is ncceffary to renew tl.e water at
leaa twelve times before it ceaf^s to be blwdy : when we
preierve them in alcohol, long prc%ioas mjiccration is ncccf-
fary, to prevent the fpirit from becoming turbid by the
blood. Tins large quantity of blood oc.-afions the glandj
now under conliceration to be lieavier tiian the otiicr part,*
of the fyilem ; iicnce, too, arifes their diilinguifiiing red co-
loin-, which is not more e(fenti-JIy inherent in thdr tiffue,
than in mucous furfaccs or mufcles : in fact repeated v.alh-
ings will difcharge it as cfreftually. TJic liver then exhibits
a grevilh appearance, which appears to be the proper colour
of Its tiffue, as wliite is that of the mufcr.lar fibre. The
hue of the kidney fee:ns to lie lefs im-nediately influenced
b)- the blood. It retiiins a degiee of rednefs after frequent
rLne»\als of the macerating water ; and the pulp produced
by leaving it in v.ater for fome months, with frequent
changes, flill has a red tint, alth.ough lefs deep tiian in the
recent Hate. Does tlje ilate of the fecretion influence the
quantity of blood contained in gir.ndular organs ? Is there
more blood fent to the kidney, when the urinary fluid is fc-
parated abundantly, than w hen it pafles off flouly ? or is
there lefs returned by the veins in the former cafe ?

Nerves. — Glands receive two kinds of nerves, i. The
kcr)-mal and falivary glands, the tonfils, &c. are fupphed
almoil exclufively from the cerebral nerves. 2. Ti;c teCi-
cles, proftate, and liver, derive nearly an equal portion from
the brain and the ganglia. 3. The kidney and moil of ll:i;
mucous glinds, S:c. are almofl entirely fupphed fr^m liie
ganglia. Thefo remarks apply to thofe nerves only, which
are unconnecled with the arteries ; for each .irtcrial trunk
penetrating a gland, is furrounded by a nervous network be-
longing to the fyilem of tlie ganglm, and verj- manifell in
the hu-ger organs, as the liver and kidney, where' the plexufcs
come from the femilunar ganglion, in the falivary glands,
where it is derived from the lupcrior cervical, in the teilie
from the lumbar, &c.

The nerves are fmall compared to the fi/.e of the glands..
We mull not decide on this fubjeft from thofe which enter
t'ce parotid and fubmaxillary ; for the nerves merely travcrfe
thofe organs, leaving a few branches behind them. But
the liver obvioufly polfeffes as fmall a fupply as any organ in
the economy, which receives nerves at all. Nerves enter
the glands, like the vx-ffels ; that is, tliey come in on all
fides where there is no furroundin^ membrane ; and enter at
the notch in other cafe.';. They divide and fubdivide, as
foon as they ivacli the gland, and are quickly loll. There
are never an;- ganglia in the interior of thefe orcjins.

We knov. but little of the cshaiing and abfurbintr vefK-Ia
in the lubflante of gland.*, where they are merely iubfer\i-
ent to the purpofes of nutrition.

Propcrlles of the GLmdular Ttjfne.

I. Properi'it!. defied, from, tki'ur Or^anizu/icM—'Thi.-k in.

yety

GLAND.

•vtry nightly marked in this fyflcm, probaWy from its tex-
ture not partaking at all of the fibrous nature. In ordtr
that an organ fhould be fufceptible of elongation and fubfo-
qucnt contraftion, \vitho\it injury, its component particL-s
mull pofTefs a certain degree of cohefion ; and this attribute
particularly belongs to fibre. The glandular fylleui, too, is
fubject much lefs frequently to caufes of diltention and con-
traction, than thole which are made up of fibres. Where
the liver contains a large quantity of blood after death, in
confcquence of the venous fylleni being overloaded, its
bulk remains the fame : its fnbilance is comprefied by the
reflifls. The enlargement of the teflicle in gonorrhxa,
and of the parotid glands under certain circumftances, and
their fpecdy fubfequent reduction, prove that thefe organs
poffefs a certain degree of exteufibility and contrac'tility.
Are the hver, kidney, and other internal glands fubjeft to
fimilar acute enlargements ? The phenomena now alluded
to may take jilace in the cellular tilTue of the glands, and
therefore fnppofe a lefs degree of extenlibility in the
proper fubllance of the gland than might at firll have been
fiippofed.

2. Vital propcii'i'S of the glanih, and phyfiology of fecreUon. —
The remainder of the invelligation is much more difficult
than what we have already gone through. The nature and
properties of the fluids, and the ftrudfure of the fecreting
organs, may be determined in a great meafure by the evi-
dence of our fenfcs : but when we endeavour to explain why
each particular fluid is feparated by its refpeclive organ, the
determination of the quellion implies a knovvledgc of the hid-
den firufture of the minute elements of our body, about
■which we mull eiiher be' filent, or attempt conjectural ex-
planation, at fome rifle of expofmg ourfelves. The objeft
then is, to fliev.-, why, in the healthy fliate of the body,
faliva, and no other fluid, is conftantly feparated from the
blood in the parotid gland, bile in the liver, and urine in
the kidney ; and how it happens that the nature of the fecre-
tion never changjes, fo that urine (hould be formed in a
Salivary gland, fdiva in the kidney, bile in the mammary
■glands, &c. The difficulty of the undertaking is increafed,
and the profpcft of arriving at a fatisfaclory- conclufion di-
trJnifiied, by this circumftance; that in the different claflcs
of fluids, each is not conllantly feparated in an organ of a
particular ftrutlure. If that were the cafe, it would only
be neceflary to determine the relation which the fliructure
of the gland bears to the nature of the fecreted fluid:
but the very contrary is the cafe. Fluids of each kind are
produced by eveiy variety of glandular apparatus: thus
■water is formed by the arteries of the fliin, without any
•glandular arrangement, by conglomerate glands, in the in-
ftance of the falivary apparatus, and by a glandular vilcus
in the cafe of the kidney: mucus is fecreted by membranous
furfacss, and by different kinds of glands ; and laftly, oily
matters are poured from the arteries of -tlie cellular mem-
brane, from yarious febaccous glands, from the veflfels of
the flcin, from the liver, &c. Again, there are inllances in
the body, of organs, which we flioulJ, a prion, have pro-
nounced, without hefitation, to be glandular, and which yet
perform no fecretion. Such are the fpleen and thyroid
gland, to wiiich we may perhaps add the thymus and renal
capfules.' The fpleen is a remarkable inllance of the arrange-
ment of the minute arteries, called the penicillouf, which is
feen alfo in the liver, and confidered to have much connec-
tion with the peculiar funftions of the fecretory organs. In
this place,, too, we fliould mention tlie curious iat?ls, concern-
ing the formation of certain fluids, under particular circum-
ftances, by qjher glands than thofe \\'hich ordinai-ily produce
ri.iera.

Haller has collcfled, in his groTX work, a vaft number of
fads of this d.Mcription; of which, if we fliould rejeft all
that may fcem infufficiently authenticated, th^re will remain
quite enough to prove the poiiit decifively. To the chaptir
in which thefe details are contained, he prefixes this fenteuci :
" fere quilibet humor per quodcunque colum feparari jx-
tell;' and the cafes wliich he cites, fulh" jullify his con-
cluding paragraph: " Quando ha;c exempla repetemus, con-
fl.abit, non eiufdcm unice clallis diverfos liumores fua inter
fe cola commutare, fed etiani per muci organa aquam, j),-
muci, aqiix et adipis cola lympham et fanguinem, per aqu,
muci et lympha; vias adipem, bilem far.guinenique fcceri.
atque adco omnino, nullum in animuto eorpore feparatoriu::
organum efi'e, quod non omnium clailium humore> fuis cum
dotibus fecernere queat." Element. Pliyfiolog lib. 7. cap. i.
^.9. When thefe circumllances are conlidered, it w."
very probably be lufpected that the caufes of the differcuL
in the fecreted fluids cannot be traced in the obvious flruL-
ture of the glands; but that the reafon why a peculiar fluid
and no other is feparated from each gland, in the healtin
ilate of the body, lies much deeper, and flows from foii. ■
conditions of the organs, whicli are inacceffible toourfenfes.
We fliall endeavour to illuftrate the fubjecl as far as well
authenticated facls will afliil us, and Ihall mention the o] ■
nions v.-hich have been moil prevalent on the fubjeft. It v. ..,
be an ealler tafl< to fliew how unfatisfaftory nioft of thefe
are, than to fubfl;itute any thing more rational in their place.
We proceed to point out the vital properties of the
glands.

No part of the fyflem pofleiTtS animal contractility, or
the power of voluntary motion. Different glands fcem to be
difierentl)- circumftauced with refpecl to the correfpondiug
fpecies of fenf.bility. The peculiar and opprcfilve fenfatiou
occafioned by coniprcfuon of the tefl:icle, is well known.
Conliderable and continued prefiure on the pai-ndd gland
has produced great fuffering ; but large nerves pafs through
this organ. The liver may be injured in a living animal,
without caufmg any of the ufual figns of pain; and Haller
makes the fame obfcrvation concerning the glandular fyllem
in general, but his flatemcnt is not perfectly explicit: " Uni-
verfse glandulas expericnti miiiime irritabiles videntur, neque
vehementer aut morbos fentiunt, aut illatas a profeftore in-
iurias." Elem. Phyfiol. t. 2. p. 377. Stones in the kidnitS
often caufe very fevere pain. From thefe apparently contra-
diftory circumilances, we can only conclude that animal fen-
iibility, which is varioufly modified, may exift. in organs, ,
w here certain agents do not excite it at all, while others de- ^
velope it very readily. In faft, various morbid alterations
render this property very manifefl; iu the glai-ds. The pain
of inflammation bears, indeed, a pecuhar charadlei' in the
glandular fyilem. ; it is generally obtufe and heavy.

Properlies rf the organic life. — Senfible organic contrafli-
lity does not exift in the glandular fyflem : but the two
other organic powers are exhibited in their higheft flate of •
developement, and are almoft conftantly in operation, being ■
concerned in fecretion, excretion, and nutrition. Organic
fenfibility enables the gland to diftinguifh iu the mafs of '
blood thofe materials which are fcitable to its iecretion ;
and by its infeniible contrafiility, it has the po\yer of re- '
jccfing whatever is heterogeneous. The blood contains the
materials of all the fecretions, of the nutrition of all organs,
and of all the exhalations. From this common refervoir each '
gland draws what is requifite for its fecretion, each organ for
its nutrition, and every ferous furface for its exhHlation.
The pecuhar mode of organic fenfibility enables each living
part to diftinguilh what its functions require. Tlie whole
bufinefs of glandular ailion rcfts on the two powers juft

mentioned ;

G L A N D.

mentioned; and as this action is nearly conftant, t)icy arc
aJmoft incefRintly exerted.

It is evident that all glandular affettions mufl imply a
diforder in the powers above-nu-ntioned ; fince difeafcs of an
organ are particularly determined by alterations of the lead-
ing properties ; of thofe which conftitute the peculiar life of
the part. Obfervation proves this: we fee tliefe properties,
when augmented or diminifhed, producing on one fide increafed
fecretion, as in diabetes, mercurial falivation, cholera mor-
bus, &c. ; on the other, a decreafe or even fufpenfion of the
funclion, as in acute diftafcs, where all the fecretory tubes
feem, as it were, clofed for a time; for inllance, in fuppref-
fion of urine, dry ftate of the mouth, &c. On other occa-
iions the nature of the glandular fenfibilitv is changed, and
it harmonizes with fufeflances which are not admitted in the
healthy ftate : hence the innumerable varieties of the lecretcd
fluids under circumftaiices of difeafe. The cyftic bile in the
dead body prefents numerous varieties of tafte, fmell, colour,
and confiilence. The numerous alterations of the urine are
V'-ell known. The faliva is lefs liable to change ; but how
dirFerent is it in many difcafes from its ordinary condition.
Nothing can lefs refemble urine or bile than the fluids often
difcharged from the bladder and liver: whence then arife
theie dilferences? from the variations in the organic fenfibilitv
bringing the part into a relation with thofe fubftances, wliich
were foreign to it in the natural ftate. Thus the fame gland,
without any change in its llrudure, but merely by altered
modifications of its vital powers, may be. the fource of in-
finitely varying fluids. jNIiglit not this be carrii-d fo far as
to allow that the kidnev, by alTuniing a fenfibility analogous
to that of the liver, may aflually form bile ? why fliould it
not fecrete bile, fince it does feparate other fluids fo widely
different from the urine?

In the healthy rtate, the mode of fenfibility in each gland
is nearly uniform; and the fccreted fluid is confequently
nearly the fame in its compofition and properties. But the
mode is changed by numerous caufes in diieale. An hylle-
rical attack, cc meson; fuddenly the kidney refufes to tranf-
Diit the principles whic-li colour t!ie urine, and that fluid is
coalequently diichargcd limpid ; as the pai-oxyfm fubiides,
the natural type of the fenfibility is reftored, and the urine
has its accuftomed chaiadlcrs. In an epileptic fit, a thick
frothy faliva is difchai\eji?d from the mouth in abundance ;
as the attack goes ou', the falivary fecretion returns to its
natural fl;ate.

/ Tiie various changes in the organic fenfibility, and the
^fenfible contractility of the glands, do not afFe<£t the
fiuKftion of fecretion only; but when they laft for fome
time, tiicy influence nutrition alfo. From the difturbances
of this procefs arife thofe various organic affe^ions, of
which the glandular fyilera offers the moll abundant harveil
to the pathological auatomift. We cannot avoid noticing,
ID difiedting rooms, the num.erous difeafes obferved in lliis
part of the body compared to otliers. The glands, the
Ikan^ the mueous, ferous, aud cellular fyfl.em, hold the firft
Ank in this refpeft; and in all thefe the tvio properties
above-mentioned exiil ia the higlicll degree, and are called
into adlion, not merely by nutrition, but alfo by various
other funitions, whicli refide in the capillary 1) ilera, as e.^-
Lalation, abforpticn, and fecretion.

The preceding account of the phyfiology of fecretion,

chiefly deriviid from the " Anatomie Generale' of Bichat,

fee ms to amount to little more, than :his, that each fecretory

I ' - ;n produces its peculiar product, in confequence oi its

.Ting pecvdiar vitid properties, which, when vanoufly

'.:fied under particular circumtlanccs, enable the orgiui to

_ rate very di&rect fluids from the blood. And tiiit we

believe to be a pretty correct ftatement of the extrnt of oar
knowledge of this fubjeft. But anatomifts and pliyfiologifts,
not fatisficd with this fimple fact, have endeavoured to de-
velope the exaft mechanifm of the ]-rcc.fs, and it will be
ncccffary for us to recount fome of their opinions. In all
obfervations on this fubject, it v.ill be well tor us to lemcm-.
ber that fecretion is not confined to the animal kirgdom,
but prevails alfo in the vcgctcble world. We frcquentiv
obfcrve the lap giving origin to peculiar and different juices
in the various parts of the fame plant, and reafoners from,
analogy have gone fo frr as to admit the exilleiice of a glan--
dular fyftem in vegetables. We fli-!l be induced, bv this
circumftance, not to lay too much (Irefs on the peculiar
i'rufture of the L-oretory organs in the more complicated
animals, as effential to the bilfinefs of fecreJon. Many of
the facts already noticed, concerning tiic feparr.t on of per-
fectly fimilar, or at lead very clofely refembliiig fluids, by
means of totally diiTimilar organs, w;H tend to the f.ime de--
duttion And this mode of argument may be dill further
fupported by v;u-iuu3 examples in comparative anatomy;
where we find fluids of the fame clafs fecreted in animals of
different orders, in organs of very different cxteriiil appears
ance. The kidnies of birds are really conglomerate in their
llrufture; and a fluid, cxaftly refembling tiie pancreatic of
warm-blooded animals is formed by the tubulir pvloric ap-
pendages, varioufly conftituted in different genera of hlhes.
Of the different explanations, by which phyfiologiils have
fucceffively attempted to elucidate the funclion of fecretion,
molt are completely hypothetical and improbable. In moll in-
ftances it has been affimied that the various animal fluids are
all contained in the blood ; and fecretion, according to this
opinion, confiils fimply in their feparation by means of the
glands. Differences in the diameter, length, and folds o£
the veffels, and fi-.ppofed varieties in the holes wiih which
the glandulai- fyllem is fuppofed to be perforated, have been
employed as the means of rendering the mechanifm of fecre-
tion intelligible ; he:ice the exprefiions of fiivcs, filter?, and
ftrainers, fo frequently employed in phyfiology. We are
difpenfed from the neceifity of cwmmentiiig on the glaring
abfurdity of comparing a gland to a fiete or filter, and of
deciding which of thele mechanical explanations is the mod
exquifitely foolifli, bv the completely gratuitous nature of the
fundamental propofition. The modern analyles of tlie blood
have no longer even the fi.adow of an excufe for regarding
this fluid as a mixture of all the animal hquors, and for fup-
pofing that it is formed of faliva, bile, gallric jiiitr,
urine, &c. fince we can difcover no trace of luch fluids in
it. Although all the elements neceffary to form thefe pro-
ducts, as well indeed as thofe of the folids, are in fact found
in the blood, they exift in it in a different ftate cf combina-
tion. The blood is nianifeflly an homogeneous liquor,
capable of forming all aninial matters from the moit tranf—
parent and pure water, as the cutaneous exhalation, to the firm
fabric of the bony fyllem ; from it are formed faliva, bile,
and urine ; and it ferve;. alfo for the nutrition of mufclis,
membranes, and nerves ; but none of thefe modilicntions of
animal iubllance are contained ia it perfectly formed.

Their jirccipitation, fays Vourcroy, in tlie tiffues t<r-
which they belong, cannot be rega:ded as a fimple fepars-
tioii ; fidce it is accompanied by a modificalit-n in the proper-
ties, nature, and compoliticn of each. Thus t.he cerebral
pulp is not exaCtlv the fan.e albu.ninous matter as tliat in
the ferum of the bleed ; the gelatine is not ifijlattd in tliis
fluid, as in the membranous tiffue ; the mulcular fibrinc is
not completely id'.a;!cai in its character with that wi.ich cxifts
in the blood ; and the pholpl.ate «f lime is not aCoiiated in
the latter to the srelatiuous fubilance, which unites iu part:-

cl«*

e L A N D.

cks in tlie bony fyftcir. Hct.cc vccretion aUvay"> implies
forae chnuge or moclilication i:i the matlor v.Iiich rciults
from its cxercilV. Comioifl". Cliiiii. fcdi. 8. ord. 4.
art. 5.

Another notio:i, as dcilitutc of all folid foundnticn as the
f;>v:;icj-, is, that tiic blood undergoes certain Vhunfres as it
arri<-cs at the ghndj ; that it afruini-s a pecidiar ccnipcfition
before it penetrates the organ. It has been afi'erted l!>at
tlie bbod-veflels are l"o arranged as to produce partie\dar mo-
difications in the contained fluid, and that this is a difpolition
preparatory to the iinal procefs. The hepatic fccretion has
been conlidercd to afford the clearell example of fuch pre-
vious clnnges. The ftrudlurc and nunihcr of the veffels
which furround and enter the organ, the j)r(iportion of ti'ofe
which carry blood or white fluids, tliedid'erent tiinperatures
fuppofed to depend on the'e pi-oportioiis, in a word, all
thofe points of organization which can pcilibly influence the
nature of the blood, are faid to be fufficlcntly diverlilied in
order to produce in tlie chemical properties of the fluids a
difpofition favourable to the formation of faliva in the neigh-
bourhood of tie faUvary glands, of urine in that of the
kidney, 5:c. This diipofition, depending on the vafcular
apparatus, has been reprefented to confiit particularly in
a retardation, acceleration, cooling or warming of the
blood, or in the lofs, by abforption, of fome ol its prin-
ciples. But what fenfible canfe can produce thcfe cfiects ?
Does not the blood flow through the trunks which are
going to the glands ju!l as in other veflels ? In fliort, what
is tlie change ? The fuppotition in quefllun is a complete
aflumption ; not fupported by a Angle faft, and contrary
to obfervation as tar as our knowledge hitherto extends.
For we can deteA no difference in the blood drawn from
the carotid, fpcrmatie, hepatic or renal arteries. We
■have been furprifed to find this opinion adopted and fup-
ported by Fourcroy ; but the whole of his remarks on the
fubjecl in the " Sylleme des Connoiflances Chimiques,"
feci. 8. ord 4. art. 5. do not contain a fingle proof, and afford
an example of vague and completely illogical llatements.
We do not mean to deny that there maybe particular con-
ditions of the whole mais of blood favourable to certain fe-
cretions. Thu.-;, after drinking copioufly of watery fluids,
we find a much larger portion of urine fecreted ; and the
cutaneous exhalation is often augmented from the fame
caufe.

In our endeavours to difeover the mechanifm of fecretion,
it will be belt for us to feletl the moll fimple mode of this
fundlioa. Now the exhalation from ferous membranes, and
the mucous fluid covering the furface of many cavities in
the body, are examples of this kind. We can difeover no-
thing in tliele organs but vafcular ramifications united by
cellular lubllance. Injerted fluids in the djad body follow
the fame route whicli the fecreted liquors follow in the living
ftate. And the fame oblervation m.ay be applied alfo to
the cafe of fecretions in fome of the more compkx inllances.
♦^ Water,' ' fays Haller, " tinged with colouring matter,
ifmglafs, or oil of turpentine, thrown into the arteries of a
young fubjeft, and occafionally even fuet, in the experi-
ments of Ruyfch and Albinus, have exuded in numerous
fmall drops Irom the ikin, after the removal of the cuticle
in warm water, io as to imitate very clofely the proceedings
of nature. I have alio repeatedly leen water, coh)ured with
blue, and injeded into the lungs through the inferior cava,
run out witli much froth from the trachea. In the kidney,
water, air, or luet will pafs through excretory tubes continu-
ous w.Ui the arteries into the iijfundibula and pelvis. Oil
of lurpentine and quickfilver have pafled inio the cham-
ber of the aqucotis humour from the arteries : in

ttic fame way inicfted water imitates the eourfe of the
tears, and exudes abundantly from the whole intern;;! fur-
face of the eye-lids." Elcm. Phyfioi.t. 2. p. 374. Phy-
fiolo'nlts have indulged in confidcrable difputes concerning
this kind of fecretions. " Sor.ie," fays Blumenbach, "affert
that all feparalion of fluids from the read's of blood is ac-
complifiied merely by pores in the blood-vefftls, and thofe,
as they fay, of an inorganio nature ; while others deny
altogether the cxidencc of fccretory pores. I fufpcdt that
this difference of opinion n-.uil be reiolved into a verbal dif-
pute. On the one hand, I muff confefs, unequivocally, that
I know not what notion to form of inorganic pores in an
organized body, fince all the openings in fuch bodies mull
belong to their organic nature, and he regulated by their
vital properties. On the other fide I do not conceive thai
the orifices or pores in the coats of the veflels, the cxiflencc
of vhich cannot be doubted, differ efli:ntially, in regard to
their functions, from the cylir.drical duds, in which fccx-ctivin
is perfL-rnicd in the conglomerate glands, and in the glan-
dular viiccra : fince it is probable tlsat th.e icparation oi
fluids depends more on the vi<?.l properties than on the forn^s
of the fecretory organs.'' Inililut. Phyfiolog. fedl. 32.
§ 469, note I.

However iimple the procefs of fecretion may be deemed
in the cafe juil fpecified, and however clofely the pro-
ceedings of nature may be imitated by the experiments with
injeftions, we fliall ftill find ourfelves entirely ignorant ot
the eirential circuniltances of th.e procefs ; i. e. we cannot
e.splain the formation of the new produft from the blood,
and the formation of fuch totally different new combi-
nations in organs v.-here no difference of ilruAure can b«
detetled.

Thofe, who wifli to fee the various attempts at explaining
the mechanilm of fecretion, may find ample gratification in
the third fctlion of the fcventh book of Haller' s great work :
where he gives his ufual detail of all that has been written
on the fubjeft. The reader will be very willing to fparc us
the taflt of recounting all thefe dreams, and the itill more
difgufling toil of refuting them. We fliall merely mention
one opinion, on which phy'.iologifts lay fome ffrefs even in
the prefent day- This refers the diflerence of the fecreted
matters to the pecuUar arrangements of the minute arteries
of the glands. Ruyfch, who excelled in the art of making
anatomical preparations, was led to remark, in his emjiloy-
ment of injeftions, that the ultimate arterial ramifications
differ in the different fccretory organs, and indeed that there
are charafteriftic differences in this refpeft in all the ftrudtures
of the body. This explanation may poffibfy be true, and
we cannot perhaps completely overthrow it : but this is all
that we can fay in its behalf. We muff obferve, in the firit
place, that a convfc account of the fafts, and an exaft de-
fcription of the diflerent valcidar networks, is yet a defidera-
tum ; for the quellion concerns the very fmalleft capillaries,
from which the tubes conveying the new product commence.
Now the larger ramifications, inch, for inltance, as will ad-
mit feveral globules, do not differ fufficiently from each
other to account for the diverfity of the fluids produced in
the various organs. Indeed fimilar veffels often produce the
moll oppofite produdls. The ftruflure of tile cortex cere-
bri, of the fpleen, and of tlie placenta, is very much alike
with the moft diflimilar refults. The veins, too, are arranged
like the arterit s, as we fliould conclude, certainly not fop
the purpofes oi fecretion. Very different arrangements of
bloo<l-veffel3 may be*feen in various membranes which pro-
duce the fame kind of exhalation.

RecoHifc has been had to the fcience of chemiffry , in order
to explain the funtlion of fecretion, ^ut no affiilauce has b?e.i

liitbert*

GLAND.

liitlierto derived from this fource in unfolding tlie myllery.
Tint tliL- changes, by whicli the new products conllitiiting tlie
animal fluids are produced from tlie blood are purely ciiemical,
cannot be doubted, but we are equally in the dark as to the
circu:nllances whicli determine or modify theR- alterations.

do not ceafe to aft where that org^n is paralyfcd. Aft^rr
cutlin;^ tlie nerve of the eightli pair on one fide in a dog, the
air-veliels are equally full of mucus on that fide. In the
coiivulfed (late of fuch jiarls as polTefg glands, where the
nerves of tliefe organs nuifl confcqucntly be unufually e\-

by accurate chemical inveiligations We may apply generally
the obfervation of Dr. Tiiomlon concerning the kidnies :
" the changes operated on tli? b!ood in the kidnies are at
prefent altogether unknown ; but they muil be important,
provided the molhod of air.dyiing animal fubilances vfas fo
far perfedted as to admit of accurate conclufions, confider-
able light miglit be thrown upon tliis fubject, by analyfing

We cannot doubt indeed that t!ie whole effentially depends on cited, there is no augmentation of the fecretion " Ana-
a vital power of which chemillry can neither deleft the toniie Generale, torn. 4. p. 604. We may obfervc further,
nature, nor appretiate the force. If, however, we cannot be that wlien the influence of the brain on the organs of the
very fanguine in expecting from this fcience a developjment animal life is completely fufpended in apoplexy or coir.,
of the immediate agent by which fecretion is eA'cfted, much preifion, where fenfation'and voluntary motion are lofl, the
light may, probably, be thrown on fome parts of the fiibjedt fecretions continue undiUurbed. On the other fide wc'inar

adduce i)\imerous phenomena, which can be accounted for
only through the agency of the nervous fyilem. Lender tin's
head we may mention the How of falivaon the fight of food,
the increafcd lacrymal fecretion produced bv various
affedions of the mind, the fupprefled difcharge ' frMn the
ikin from the fame caufe. The urinary fecretion is often
„ _ . . . . . „ luddeiily aflefted in hypochondriacal perfons ; dillrelTing

with care a portion of bload from the emulgent artery and news will occaiion it to be fecreted in great abundance, and of
vein feparateiy, and afcertainiiig precifely in what particulars a very pale colour ; and many remarkable inllances liave
they differ from each other." Syftem of Chemillry, vol. 5. been recorded, where the biliary fecretion has been decidedly
p. 749. Fourcroy, too, in conhdering how far fecretion and fuddenly afltfted by mental emotions. It has beea
admits of explanation on chemical principles, fpeaks rather alferted, but we know not on what authority, that jn cow,
of what may be done than of what has been cffecled in this after being milked by the fame individual for a lono- time,
way. "Hitherto chemillry can only furnifli fome general will give much lefs milk, if the operation be performed by a
ftatements on this fubjeil ; and, if we look to this fcience ftranger. Thefe and other analogous fadts have led manv
for an explanation oi tiie caules and produfts of the fecre- phyfiologifts to admit of a nervous influence in the affair of
tions, and for a demonllratioii of what partes in every kind iecretion ; the mode and degree of this aftion have bei-n va-
of fecretion in particular, we mull wait till the experiments rioufly ellimated. De Berger conceives that the tone of the
are much more numerous, the invelligations more exaft, and fecretory organs wa« kept up by the nervous fluid; Dc
the animal analyfes confiderably multiplied. We mufl; de- Natura Humana, p. 122. Quefnay referred the difierenees
termine the temperature, confidence, and nature of the cere- of the fecreted fluids to various degrees of fenfibility in the
brai blood, of that in the vena portanim, and in the renal fecretory veffels ; Eflais fur I'Econ. Anijn. t. 3. p. 4^7

arteries, before we can underlland the mechanifm of the
fecretions performed in the brain, liver, and kidnies.'' Syll.
des Conn. Chimi. v. 10, p. 385.

We fliould always bear in mind, in our attempts at che-
mical explanations of the animal func"Hons, that the effcdls
of the vital power are more particularly obfervable in coun-
teracting and preventing the exertion of thofe affinities, by
which dead animal matters are regidated ; and confequently,
that if fecretion be an example of chemical affinity, it is fo
modified by the vital powers, that we can have very little
hope of imitating it by experiments out of the body.

In what manner, and to what extent, are the fecretions
influenced by the nerves ? The faft tliat gland* have a fup-
ply ot nerves, leads us to expeA ii priori that the effecfls of
their operation will be very obvious ; but the laws, which
regulate this matter, are hitherto by no means clearly afcer-
tained, and even the kind of influence is very obfcure. There
is a want of dirett evidence, from experiment, on this fub-
jeft. " I divided," fays Bichat, "the nerves of the
Vefticle in a dog : the gland inflamed and fuppurated ; but
the latter occurrence fhews that nervous influence is not ne-
ceifary for fecretion, lince fuppuration is accomplilhed in a
manner analogous to that of the latter fumilions. Pliyficiaus
know very well that paralyled limbs may inflame and fup-
purate. Ereftion and expullion of the femen may occur,
when the lower half of the body is paralyfcd, and when the
nerves of the proftate at leaft muil have entirely lofl their
influence. An example was related to me of a foldier, who
contracted a gonorrhaca in this ftate. In complete paialyiis
of the bladder, mucus is tlill fecreted in fufiicient abundance,
Tiie nollril of the aff"etted fide is as moiil as ufual in hemi-
plegia ; aqd an equal quantity of cerumen is produced in the
meatus auditorius of the fame fide. The glands of the uvula
VDt,. XVI

De Bordeu afcribed great influence to the nerves on the fe-
creting arteries ; Recherches fur les Glandes, p. 352. Stahl
and his followers, who afcribed the power of guiding the
vital motions to the foul (anima), conceived that it go-
verned the buiinefs of fecretion alio ; and A. F. Hoffman
afcribes the difference of the fluids entirely to the anima,
which regulates the fecretory orifices by fphinilers and
valves, now clofing them to prevent the entrance of par-
tides heterogeneous to the fluid intended to be formed, and
now opening them for tlie entrance of the fuitable molecules u
Nov. Hypothef. Phyliolog. p. 13. After recounting thele
opinions, Haller obferves that thcv afcribe too great aa
influence to the nerves, and reminds his reader that fecre-
tions of various kinds arc performed in plants, without the
afllllance of nerves ; and that balfams, relins, gums, and
coloured milky fluid is formed from the common liquor taktn
in by the roots of the vegetable. On this fubjeci
we may obferve, with Bichat, that the exprcllion lur-
•uous irjlufiice has gciierallT been ufed by phyfiologifts in a
very indefinite manner. When tlie irritation, divilion, cr pa-
ralylis of a nerve fupplying a voluntary organ interrupt.s, or
entirely dellroys its fuiiclions, we can o'blerve and apprc-
tiate the influence of the nerves on Inch organs ; but, wih
what propriet)- can \ye employ the fame term to di. fignate ■
the power, which the nerves mav pofl'ibly have over the fe-
cretory organs, when their divifionor paraly lis due> uut at all
diilurb the functions of the part :

The fecretii>ns may be affeded bv the direi^ aclion of
external irritants, altliough mechanical or cluinical irritatiou
in the living body produces no fenfible motion or contraction
of the organ. Thus, any acid matter will augment the flow
of mucus from thofe lurfaces whjjh ficrete it ; and the
ilightell irritation of the conjundtirA iiicrcafeS the fcij-eti-ju
(^q «»

GLAND.

of the lacrvmal gland. The prcfciicc of food in the mouth
excites the ialivnvy organs ; iind the a£l of faekling or milk-
ing jirodiicesa fecrctiun of milk, &c. &c.

The fame powers hy which fecretion is effected accom-
pliOi the paffage of the fluid, when produced, tlirough its
excretory tubes ; it is the infenilble organic contraftility by
whicii this i; effefted. Experiments on the duifls of glands
in living animals, (hew that they are not affcfted by cliemi-
cal or mechanical irritation, and iience many have concluded
that they poflefs no power of contrac\ion ; but the pheno-
mena render it nccefiary to allow them fuch a property,
which may exifl in parts, although the trials juft mentioned
(hould not render it obvious. External prelTures and ex-
traneous influence of otlier kinds have been refortcd to, in
order to account for the expulfion of the fluids contained
in excretory tubes, on the idea that thefe canals poffefred no
contraftile powers in themfelves. Such explanations are
tjuite gratuitous affumptions in all cafes ; and in many
jnftances are tot.ally and manifeftly inadequate, bccaufe the
ergan is expofed to no agency of the kind.

The fecreted fluid in fome initances is not conveyed imme-
diately to the point of its ultimate dcftination ; but is either
retained in the excretory tubes, or kept in particular refer-
voirs ; and it has been fuppofcd that various changes take
place in its nature and properties under thefe circumllances.
" Frequentiffime," fays Haller, "hoc mechanifmo natura
ulitur, ut humorem fecretum retineat, perficiat, infpiffet, ad
deftinatos ufus contempcret, legitiraa occaiione eff"undat."
Elem. Phyfiol. t. ii. p. 445. The urinary and gall-blad-
ders are the moll remarkable initances of tliis deicription :
we ma" mention alfo the veAcul.e feminales, and the mucous
dufts of the urethra and female organs of generation. That
the fecreted fluids in thefe, and in feveral other inftanees, are
coufiderably altered after the time of their firil produftion,
cannot admit of a doubt, as mere infpeftion is iufficient to
prove it ; the particular changes produced in each cafe will
be confidered in the account of the various organs The
opinions entertained concerning the general effe6ts of theie
refervoirs, are, that the fluids are inlpiffated by an abforp-
tion of thefe aqueous parts, that tliey are depurated, orrtn-
dered more perfeft, and varionfly mixed together : it is
added, that tlieir retention in the lieat of the living animal
body in many inflances renders them acrimonious, and tliat
this change, in many cafes, as in the bile and femen, promotes
the views of nature. Thefe notions are not very confident
with each otlier, nor very clear in themfelves : the latter
fuupofition, concerning tiie acrimonious tendency of the
fluids, is fountied on the obfervation of the changes occurring
out of the body, and is not at all warranted by obfervation
of the living fubjeft, in which chemical alterations are rc-
lided by thv? vital powers.

We have every reafon to fuppofe that much of tlie fecreted
fluids is taken up and carried into the circulation by the ab-
forbents ; but our knowledge does not enable us to deter-
mine tlie exaft extent or nat-ure of the modification, which
tlie funftion of f_crction undergoes from this caufc. The
experiments of Bichat prove tliat the various animal pro-
dudls, even thofe which we fiiculd at Hrll have regarded as
the m.oil Boxious, may be introduced into the vcncuE fyflem
witho\it eifential injury to the animal ; fo that the blood
may be deemed a common fluid, receiving' and retaining
various principles, which may vary according to circum-
ftances. " I injecKd," fays Bicliat, " into the jugular veins
of feveral dogs, cyftic bile taken from other dogs opened at
ttkc fame time." Dhring the firll days they appeared v,-eary,
did not eat, v/cre very thirfty, had a dull look about the

3

eyes, and were conilantly lying down ; in a little time, how-
ever, they gradually recovered their original vigour. I have
fince employed human bile in limilar experiments ; the re-
fults were the fame, except that hiccough and vomiting
took place foon after the experiment. In one inllance tlie
animal died three hours after the injection ; here I h?d ufed
bile of an extremely deep black colour, like tiiick ink,
fuch as is occafionally feen in the gall-bladder, and ieems to
form an eflential part of the black vomitings obfervrd in
certain cafes. When iimilar trials were made with faliva,
the confequent languor was lefs fenfibie. I then tried mucus
of the nofe fufpended in water. Lallly urine itfelf, not of
the a([iieous kind, but that of coftion, was employed ; the
confequent ilhiefs was more fevere, but one animal only died,
and I fufpect that this fatal event happened from the un-
guarded introdudlion of a little air at the tin'.e of the experi-
ment.'' Anatomic Genvrale, t. 4. p. 587. He obferves
afterwards that the injection of any anin.al fluids into the
carotid artery is immediately fatal, from the cff^cdls produced
on the brain : but they may be thrown with impunity into
other parts of the arterial fyltcm, as, for inftance, into the
crural artery.

S\mpallAes r,f the ghmdular f\Jl in — Tliefe may be divided
into the paffive and aftive. The glandular tifiuc is very
readily influenced by various excitements, either in tlie na-
tural Hate, or in difeafes, which conftitute its paffive fym-
pathies. The cafes in which the excitation of other organs
augments glandular aftion, arc particularly obfervable in the
mucous fyltcm. Moll of the excretory dufts open on fur-
faces of this nature ; and examples of the obfervation occur
in the flow of faliva determined by the prefence of food in
the mouth ; in that of urine produced bv catheters retained
in the bladder ; in the feminal excretion produced by irrita-
tion of the glans ; the flow of tears from irritation of the
conjunctiva or pituitary membrane ; and in that of bile
during the paifage of the food into the fmall intellinc.

The glandular fyilcm frequently exhibits paflive fympathies
in dileaie ; the organic properties arc brought into a£tioi#
under thefe circumilances, the animal fenfibility being very
fcKlom de\ eloped fo as to produce pain. The innnmerable
varieties in the quantity or quality of fluids feparated by the
glandu under circuiviftancts of difeafe arife principally from
fympathetit influence. Thus the falivary apparatus n-.oittens
ttie mouth, or leaves it dry ; fills it witii a vifcid or a thin
fluid, S;c. The mucous organs cover the tongue with mat-
ters of nioft varying confiflcnce, thickncfs, and colour ; and
this occurs frcm fynipathy with various ihites of the ftomach.
The liver, kidney, and pancreas are influenced in very nu-
merous ways ; wherever any organ in the animal economy is
affeiled, thefe arc deranged ; their fecrction is increafed, di-
minilhed, or altered, and frequently even inflammation and
fuppuration fupcrvcne. Thcafililions of the liver from in-
juries of the head are well known ; and the lacrvmal fecrc-
tion is varioudy modified in inflam.matory and malignant fe-
vers, fo as to produce variouo appearances of the eyes.
Weeping in various mental affetlions is another example of
fympathetic influence. The tefticles and prollate exhibit
fewer inftanees of fuch fympathies, probably becaufe their
funciions are fo much more ifolated. Tlie relations which
conneft the breafts and uterus are remarkable, and frequent-
ly obferved. In the fequel of confiderable acute diieafes,
particularly fevers, the action of the glands is often confi-
derably affected, and copious evacuations, called critical, the ■
nature of which is not yet clearly explained, take
place.

The aftive fympatliies are lefs frequent than thofe of the

pre ce-

e L A N B.

preceding clafs ; but dn'oafcs exhibit inftane—, of tlicm. In-
flaminatiorio of t!ic livir. kidiipy, f.;livai-y fyftc-ni, &:c. {hcvr
various phenonieiia j-rodiiced fympathetically in oilier fyf-
tems.

Bicliat, in his Aiialomie Gencralc, gives the following
view of the cha,raftL-rs whi^h dillinguiili the vital proptrlies
of the glandular fyflem.

I ft. PecuUnr Sttalily (-vita propnn) of each glatid —
The Vitality of the glands, refultina; from the preceding
powers coiiiidcred in a ilale of acilon, is not uniform
in the whole fyllem ; becaufe the ftruftiire varies in every
inftancc, and each tilTue pofTenes a pcci))iar niodification of
vitality. Hence rei'ult many phenomena noticed by Bordeu.
I. There are certain matters on wjiich alone each gland can
aft in the natm-jl Hate. Thu.i the falivary apparatus does
not form bile, the liver diies not feparate urine, ivc.; and on
this principle the diff.-rc-nce of the fccretioiis ii founded. In
the fame way cantharides aft particularly on the urinary
organs ; mercury on the falivary glands, &c. 2. Each
gland has its particular mode of fympathy. Thus the liver
afts efpecially on the brain, the kidney influences the flo-
liiach, the uteru.s and brea'.ls affeft each other, &c. 3. Each
glandular inflammati' in has a peculiar cliaratter : that of the
kidney is different from that of the hver or tellicle ; the
inflamed proftate has very different fyniptoms from the telHs
in fuch a condition. 4. Every gland has peculiar difcafes, or
fome at lead to which it is more expofcd than others. Hy-
datids, which are very common in the liver, are never fecn
in the falivary glands or tellicle. Sarcocele is extremely com-
rrion, while notliiiig is more unfrequent than an enlarged pa-
rotid. Tiie liver alone exhibits that peculiar alteration,
which conftitutes the fatty Hate ; and is the moll frequent
feat of fteatomatoua tumours. Phyficians, who have not
been converfant with the infpeftion of morbid cafes, life the
vague and infignificant terms of obftruftion and induration
fbr every kind of glandular enlargement. Tiie increafe of
fize is the only common charafter of fuch afteftions, while
the nature of the tumour is entirely different. 5. Every
gland prefents fome peculiar modifications in what are called
the critical evacuations, occafionally confequent on acute
difeafes. 6. The different vitality of the glands occafions
them to re-aft at very different intervals, in confequcnce of
direft irritation, or fympathetic excitation. Tlie lacrymal
gland, for example, pours out fuddcnly an abundant fecre-
tion, when irritated ; while the kidnies or pancreas can be
excited only very flowly.

2d CharaBer. Iiiacllve Jlate of the vital poiL<crs. — The
glands are fubjeft to habitual alternations of increafd and
diminifhed aftion. The animal funftions are elpecially in-
fluenced by lleep, which completely fulpends them. The
aftion of the glands is only partially diminilhed at certain
times, except in difeafe, when it is fometimes completely tuf-
pended. Bichat compares the fleep of the animal life to the
intervals of intermittent fevers, where tiie apyrexia is com-
plete : and the fle.-p of the glands to thole of remittent fe-
vers, where the fymptoms are merely diminilhed in degree.
Saliva. flows into the mouth abundantly duriug mallication ;
itmerely moiftens the cavity at other times. The pancreas
and liver pour out their fecretions profufely, while the Jood
is in the duodenum : they aft much lefs intenlely during the
flate of abitinence. The kidney is particularly exerted fome
little time after a meal. The «ntermilhoins in the ac-
tion of the breafts are almoft as complete as tliofe of tlie or-
gans of animal life. Every mucous gland has its particular
period of fecretion : it is, when the furface, on which the
du'ft opens, isin contaft with any fubflauce eitlier retained
jnthc.cavity, or pafTing through it. We mull, therefore, form

tliis notion of th<? office of th» glands; that thev conflantly
feparate a fluid from the blood, but that ll.ey are more ac-
tive at certain periods, and conftquently fumifh a more
abundant fiippiy.

'I'iiis remittence of the glandular aftion, fays Bichat, de-
pends on a caufe analogous to that of fleep, which anfes, in
the animal life, from the fatigue experienced by the organs
of iciifation and locomotion, after a continuance of aftion.
The lafTitud'-, of wliich the glands are fiifceptible, is not ge-
nerally marked by any painful feeling ; yet there is in the
breall, after long fuckling, a kind of dragging frnfation,
and aftual pain is felt in the teflis after emiluon has been re-
peated two or three times.

3d Cbarader — Tiie vitality of the glands is ne»er Cfi-
ci-eafed at the fame time in the whole fyllem. "When one is
in aftion, the otlurs are in a Hate of remiflion. Wc might
conceive, fays Bichat, that there is only a determinate quan-
tity of vital power., for the whole, and that one cannot be
exerted uiiufually without a correfponding diminution
in therell. Thcdigellive apparatus is accommodated to
this law. At firlt the falivary fyllem produces- an abundant
fecretion ; t!;en tiie Itomach comes into aftion ; thirdly, when
the ehyme enters the duodenum, the liver and panc«cas are
principally exerted ; at the fourth period, tlie mucous glands
ot tlie large intelline aft ; and laftly, the kidn?-y cxercifes its
peculiar olSce to evacuate the relidue of the fluids. All the
glands cannot acl at once ; as, in the external movenwnt?,
certain mufcles are always in a condition of repofe, while
other.sarecontrafted. The moft improper tnne for coition
is during digellion, becaufe the mucous, pancreatic, hepatic
lecretiftus, &c. mull then be performed at the fame time with
that of the tellicle. In difeafes, the fecretion of one gland
la encrealed at tlie expence of others. This charafter
of the glandular fyllem is only an ciiample of the general
charafter belonging to all the vital powers, by which, when
increafed at one point, they are proportionally diminiflied in
fome other fituation. Hence large abfcefles, confiderable
tumours, and dropfies are always attended with debility of
the glandular aftion. On the fame principle is founded the
ule oi blillers, fetons, moxa, cauteries, S;c. which do not
aft, as old phyficians fuppofed, by evacuating any morbid
matters, but by putting an end to the irritation in the dif-
eafed part, by means ot that wlrfeh they determine in fome
other organ.

4th Chiiraclcr. — Influence of climate and the feafons 00
the vitahly of the glands. From the preceding charafter is
derived another phenomenon, v.hich may be conlidered pe-
culiar to the glandular fyllem ; ivz. that it Ls in general
more aftive in winter tlian in iummer, in cold than in warm
chmates. Warmth, by relaxing tlie integuments, increafcs
tlie cutaneous difcharge at the expence of that of tl>c
glands ; v\ bile the aftion of cold is the inverfe of the pre-
ceding. Hence the fame fluid, introduced into the body,
is expelled in Iummer by the Ikin, in winter by the kidnies.

5th CharaBir. — Influence of fex on the vital properties
of the glands. Is the vitality of thefe organs niijre aftive
in the male than in the female ? In thofe \vliich are fubfcr-
viait to diirelUon, the lacryniiJ and urinary fecretion, &c.
the t«v fexes exhibit very little difference. In the gene-
rative lyilem, the male polfelTes the addition of tcrticles and
proitate, the female of mammary glands; fo that here tlierc
IS a compenlaiion. But the inttncnce of tlie tormor on the
ar.imal economy very much exceeds in its force that of the
latter.

D.vdoptincttt of the Glandular Syftcm.

I. ^tate of this fyfiem in the /r/uj. — Although the fccre-
^ q 2 tion?

G L A

tjons poitefs very little aftivity in the fcet\i8, the glands in
gencnJ arc large. The falivary glands and pancreas are
larger than in the fcquel : the bulk of the liver is enormous ;
and the kidnies eonliderahly exceed their adult volume.
It is not yet afocrtained whether the fame obfervation ap-
plies to the mucous glands. The form and colour are^dif-
ferent in fevcnil from what tliey afterwards exhibit. The
texture partakes of that foflncft; and delicacy, which are
common to the whole body ; and they abound with fluids.
In rcfpea of their fecrctions, they feem to he in a con-
dition analogous to that of reiniliion in tlie adult ; indeed,
lliey produce ilill lefs than at that time. In fact, all the re-
fcrvoirs would not fuffice to contain the produce of their feere-
tion, if thefe were as much produced in a given lime, as
after birth. Is this becaufe the black l)lood, which they
contain, does not furnilh fuitable materials ? or rather, be-
caufe the aftions concerned in the compolition of the body
predominate fo romarkably over thofe ot the other kind i
All the matter brought to the organs remains in them, and
affords the materials of the rapid growth, which is then
taking place : confequently, the fecretions, which are de-
figned chiefly to get rid of the relidue of nutrition, are
then inaftive. Mgreover, digelUon introduces into the
blood none of thofe principles, which, not being required
f(jr nutrition, are expelled nearly as they enter, without
having belonged to the compoiition of the organs ; fuch as
thj grcateft part of the dnnk.

' 2. Staje of thi ghituh during groivlh. — This fyftem ac-
»juires a fudden increafe of energy at the time of birth.
Ii4;d blood now circulates through its veflels ; and the ex-
tremities of the excretories are ilimulated in various ways,
as, by the food in the cafe of thofe which open on the ali-
mentary canal, by the air in the refpiratory apparatus, &c.
The organs are fo much the more fenfible to this fudden
excitation, in proportion as they were before unaccutlomed
to it. Yet many of the fecrctions are carried on with lefs
aftivity during the firft years of life, than in the fequel, as
thofe of the falivary glands, liver, &c. Affections of the
glandular fyftem are not the leading ones in the lirft years
of life. The lymphatic ghmds, as they are called, and nut
the parotids, form the fwellings fo frequent about tlie neck.
Hepatic affeftions are rare at this time. All the fecretions
connefted with the generative procefs hitherto do not exift.
The organs, wliieh ai-e particularly employed at any age,
are chiefly affefted by acute and chronic difeafes at that
time ; while thofe, by which no important fundion is ex-
frcifed, feem to be overlooked. All affeftions of the teftis
and chord are unfrequent before puberty, while the procefs
of nutriripn alone is carried on in thefe organs. The glan-
dular tiffue is for a long time foft and delicate in the child ;
and it has not that property of becoming hard in confe-
quence of boiling, which we have mentioned as belonging
to it in the adult.

3. Slats of the fyjlcm after granuth. — We have already
fpoken, in the article Gf.NEiiATiON, of the organs which
come into attivity at puberty, and of the influence which
they exert on the frame. At this time all the fyftem ac-
quires a greater firmnefs in its texture. Towards the for-
tieth year the digeftive glands feem to be predominant in
the economy, and the liver is efpecially obfervable among
thofe. Now bilious affeftions are moft numerous ; and the
influence of thofe paflions, to which the bilious tempera-
ment feems to difpofe, is moft obfervable.

4. State of the glands in old age. — At this time the organs
gradually become more hard in their texture : but their
colour changes lefs than that of moft parts. The liver,
kidney, &c. are nearly as full of blood as in U»e adult ;

G L A

while the mufcles, pale and colourlcfs, contain a rmalief
proportion than before. It feems that this fluid hrft quit*
the ikin and mnfcles, which are fartheft from the heart, and
is concentrated in the nearer organs ; thus ihe fecr'tions are
ftill abundant in old perlons, while the mufcularand nervous
powers arc conllderably weakened. The kidnies and liver
ftill feparate their particular fecretions in large quantity.
The activity of the generative fyftem has long ceafed. The
active exertion of the glands wliich are ftill emph)ycd may
he referred to two caules. The decompoiilion of the body
is very marked at this time, and much matter is coniequently
thrown out by certain glands. The decay of the old fub-
jetl is a plienomcnon exactly oppofite to that of growth in
the fa-tus. The ikin, (hrivclled and hardened, ceafes to
tiirow out the products of decompofition, and the glands
fupply its place.

Generally fpeaking, life ceafes moft gradually in the
glandular fyftem. In the bodies of old perfons we fee the
gall and the urinary bladders ftill full of their refpedti%e
fluids. Compreflion of any gland, even of the proftate,
ftiews that it contains much fluid ; even more than we ob-
ferve in the young fubjett. It is alfo a remarkable pheno-
menon that all the chief internal organs, as the liver, kidney,
heart, lungs, &c. ftill prelerve a confiderable fliare of vita-
lity, while the parts fubfervient te fenfation and locomotion
are nearly exhaufted, and the ties, which connedt the indi-
vidual to furrounding objefts, are confequently nearly de-
ftroyed. Haller, Element. Phyhulog. torn. 2. Dumas,
Principes de Phyfiologie, t. 4. Bichat, Anatomic Gene-
rale, t. 4.

Gland, in Vegetable PhyftoJogy, {glandula, a little kernel,)
is defined by Linnsus as " a Imall tumour, difcharging a
fluid.'' This fluid is always fome peculiar fecretion. The
calyx and ftalks of the Mofs Rofc, and of many other
Rofes in fome degree, are covered with prominent glands,
difcharging a vifcid aromatic liquor. Between the ferratures
of the leaf of Salix pcniandra, the Bay -leaved Willow, is a
fcries of fuch glands, whofe exudation is a highly fragrant
yellow gum-rcfin, to which the fine-fcent of that leaf is
chiefly owing, and feveral other Willows are provided with
liniilar, though lefs perfumed, fecretions, On the footftalks
of the Guelder-rofe, Viltirnmn Opulus, are very large and
elaborate glands, whofe diicharge however is comparatively
trifling, while various fpecies of Paflion-flower bear cup-
ftiaped glands, on their footftalks, producing a confiderable
quantity of very fweet honey. Thefe therefore bear more
analogy to thofe glands, appropriated to fome flowers, and
called, from their produce, neftarifcrous glands, or nefta-
ries. Such occur in Geranium, and in the Cruciform plants,
conftituting the I^innxan clafs Tetradynamia. In the latter
the nectariferous glands occafionally exhale a powerful
fcent, efpecially in Sifymbvhim tenu'ifolium, Engl. Bot. t. 525,
The kinds of glands above-mentioned, being of a fecrc-
tory nature, certainly bear a great analogy to the gland*
of the animal body, but it appears that the more general
and important fecretions of vegetables are accompliftied
through membranes, whofe organization and phyfiology.are
inCcrutable to our powers of inveftigatiou. S.

Gland.s, D'lfeafed. See Bubo, Luks Venerea^
Scrofcla, BnosciiocELr:, &c.

Gl.x^Ti^i of Birds and Fi/hes.— See Arialomy o/" Birds, and
Fish.

GLANDEN, in Geography, a town of Pruflla, in Na-
tangen ; 30 miles E. of Brandenburg.

GLANDERS, in Veterinary Science, a filthy difeafe in
a horfe, fo called, probably, from the fweUing of the fub-
maxillary glands that accompanies it ; and confifting in a

corrupt

GLANDERS.

I corrupt (limy matter, running troin llic noft-, oT a diiHrcnt
colour, according to tiie degree of titc malignity, or as
the int'cctioii lias bct-i; of a fliorter or Jongcr coiuiiiuance ;
being white, yellow, gicca, or blaek, iomclimes tinned with
t)lood.

Authors afcribe it lo various caufcs : fome to i'.ifection ,•■
foirrf to a diforder ot the lungs ; otliers to tlie fjilecn ;
fome to the liver ; and others to the brain. After it iias
been of fo long lianding, that the matter is of a blackifh
colour, which is I'.fually in its laft (lagc, they fuppofc it to
cmne from the ipine ; and hence they cidl it the inanniing of

Kernel.:; and knots are ufually felt under the caul in this
(tiforder ; n:id as thefc grow bigger and more inihuncd, fo
the glanders increnfc more. The progrefs of the dileafe is
e-itremelv uncertain ; as fome horfes will endure it for many
years, without any other obvious inconvenience than a (light
„ difcharge and the enlargement of the glands under the jaws ;
and iniiances have occurred in which tlicfe fymptoms have
difappearcd for fevji-al weeks, and returned, pcrliaps, with
no auo'mented virulence. In moft cafes, however, the
courfe of the malady is more rapid ; tlie bones and carti-
lages of the nofe are fpcedily eroded by tlie malignity of
the ulcers, from which an abforption commences, and con-
veys the poifon into the circulation, gradually and fatally
CDntaminating the whole frame. Neither the appetite nor
the condition of the glandered liorfe fufFers materially in the
early or mild ftage of the complaint. When, however, it has
fprtad its dominion over the tlioracx vifcera, forming ulcers
in the fubftance of the lungs and in the v.-ind-pipe, great
pain and difficulty of refpiration are experienced, the dif-
charge becomes very coniiderable, the appetite is injured,
and the body of the unfortunate animal exhibits a pidlure
of extreme diiln fs ; and unkfs the humanity of the owner
does not induce him to terminate his fufferings, the difeafe
will, by tardy fteps, afford relief to the wretched animal by
diffolution.

M. La FofTe, farrier to the king of France, lias taken
great pains, by repeated diiledions, to difcover the fource
and caule of this diforder, and to afcertain the proper and
ffteftual method of cure. He has diftinguifhcd feven dif-
ferent kind of glanders, four of which are incurable. The
firft proceeds from ulcerated lungs, the purulent matter of
which comes up the trachea, and is difcharged through the
noilrils, like a whiti(h liquor, appearing fometimes in lumps
and grumes : the feeond is a walling humour, that ufually
feizes horfes at the decline of a difiafe caufcd by too hard
labour, and proceeds from the lungs : the third is a malig-
nant dilcharge, which fometimes attends the (Irangles,
falls upon the lungs, and is difcharged at the noftrils: tlie
fourth is when an acrimonious humour in the tarcy feizcs
thefe parts : the fifth arifes from a horfe's taking cold : the
fixih is a difcharge from the (Irangles, wiiicli fometimes
vents itfclf at the noltrils : the feventh, or real glanders, is
that above defcribed.

M. La FolTe, after examining, by di{recfion, the carcafcs
of "-landcred horfes, and making a drift fcrutiny into the
ftate of the vifcera, alTdled in his enquiry by ingenious
anatomifts for the fpace of ten years, afSrms tin's difeafe
to be altogether local, and that the true feat of it is in
the pituitary membrane which lines the partition along the
infide of the nofe, the maxillar)- linufles or cavities ot the
check-bones on each fide of the nofe, and the frontal
finutfcs or cavities above the orbits of the eyes ; that the
•vifcera-, as the liver, lungs, &c. of glandered horfes are,
-in..genetal, very found ; and, thereforej tliat the (eat of the

5

disorder is not in lliofe parts, as many authors Lave af-
fertcd.

He found tlufe cavities more or lefs filled with a rifcous
(limy irjRtter : the membrane, which lines both thim and the
nollrils, infl.untd, thickened, and carrodcd with fordid ul-
cers, which, in lomc cafes, had eat into the bones. He
obfervea, that, when glandered horfes difcharge matter from
both nollrils, both fides of llic membrane and cavities wer»
aflefted ; but when they ran at one noftril only, that fide
only was found dilleinpcred ; and if one gland only was af-
fected the horfe difcharged from one nollril only : hut if
both were afiefted, the difcharge was from both. It liaii
been obfervcd, that the glanders in horfes very muc)i refcm-
bles a diforder in men, called ozena.

In this difeafe, if the matter (licks to the infide of the
noilrils, hke glue or ilitT j)a(le ; if tl;e infide of the nofe i»
raw, and appears of a livid or leaden hue, and the n-.attcr
becomes bloody, firtid, and of an a(h-colour ; tht-fe fvmp-
toms are very tmfavourable ; but v. hen only a limpid fluid ib
firil difcharged, and afterwards a whililh matter, the gland
under the jaw does not much inereafe, and tlie diforder lias
been of no long continuance, a fpe. dy cure may be ex-
pected. The cure of the milder kind of glanders niav firll
be attempted by injections and fumig.-'.tioiis. When the!.*
latter fymptoms appear, the horfe (hould firft he bled, and
treated as in the common di(ordi.rof cold ; and then, let an
emollient injection, prepared with a decoction of linfecd,
marfo-mallows, elder, chamomile (lowers, and honey of rofcs,
or fuch like, be thrown up as far as polllble with a (Irong fy-
ringe, and repeated three times a day : if the running is not
ledened or removed in a fortnight by thefe means, a reftrin-
gent iniec\ion may be prepared with tincture of rofes, lime-
water, &c. and the noilrils fumigated with the powders of
frarikincenie, maftic, amber, and cinnabar, burnt on an
iron heated for that purpofe, the fumes of which may eafily
be conveyed through a tube into the noilrils. When the dif-
eafe is inveterate, recourfe mull be had to the operation of
trepanning, vihich M. I^a Folfe perform.ed on three horfes,
two of wiiich difcharged from one nollril onlv, and the third
from hot!'. : he trepanjcd the two firil on that fide of the
head which was affefted, and the other on both fides, and
foimd that the wound and perforation filled up with good
flefli in twenty-fix days, and the horfes fuifercd no inconw-
ftienee from the operation. The method of performing this
operation will be underilood by means of Plotc XIX. Mijhl-
iany, pg. I , and the following explication : U, B, are two liucs
reprefenting the bounds of the cerebelhim, or back part of
the bruin, which commence; from the line D. C C is a line,
where the fuperior part of the finus frontalis commences, to-
gether with a view of the bottom of the finus, terminating
between the hr.es D and E, where appears a fublhuicc in the
form of a pear, which is the os ethmoides, or fieve-hki bone
through whieli the olfactory nerves pafs, cominiuiicating
fcnfibihty to the pituitar,' membrane. E R-pretnts the be-
ginning of the maxillar)- firms, terminating at M : the Ihnded
fpace between thefe lines ivprefents the great cadties. Y is
a bony pai-tition, feparating this finus into two parts that
have no communication : of which partitions tliea- are fome-
times two, reprefented by F and G. Some horfes have nei-
ther of thefe. N 'hews the place of the cornets or horns ;
O, the redoubling ; P, their middS; part ; Q, the lowxr part
of them : and M, the bor.y pipe or canal which guards tlie
maxillary nerve : A A is the feptum narium, dividing the
nofe from top to bottom, and feparating the two nollrils ;
L (hews the place where the trepan Hioiud be applied, whe»
there is r«alou to apprehend that the gkinders is fprcad into
the frontal finus ; E is the jilace where it ihouU be applied

to

GLANDERS.

to cbanff the maxillary fmus, tliovgli the roniid fpot between
D and E is preferable, becauic one orifice in this pl.ice will
ferve to wafli all th.* parts, Ijotii above and below, with one
injetlion. H (liews the pl.-.ce where anotiier pertbriition
fltould be made, as a drain for difcharging the foul matter

wafced awav by tlie

joction ; and this hole, kept open by a

hollow leaden pipe, would, in all recent caies, be fu'ticii'nt.
I reprefents the inieclion tl-.rnun in by the fyrinjjc, wliich
flows out by the orifice and the noflril K ; and, during this
part of the operation, the noftriis fnould be held clofe. If
there lliould be two bones in the maxillary finns, it is abfo-
lulcly neceCTary to pierce through both, with a ftiktto or
fliarp-pointed tuck, as in the figure. The trepan fliould be
directed towards the interior part of the nofe, to prevent its
being obilructcd by the roots of the teeth. R is the tre-
pan, S the handle which turns it, and T the iaw-part to be
applied to the bone. The furgeon's trephine will anfwer the
pnrpofe for this operation ; but belore the inllrument is ap-
plied, a circular piece of the fcin, ot about the iize of half
a crown, fhould be firlt cut off with the membrane which
covers the bone. The fyringe (liould be large enough to
contain half a pint of injection. The injection hril ufed
(hould be of a deterfive nature, as a decoclion of birth-wort,
gentian, and centaury, to a quart ot which may be added
two ounces of Egyptiacum and tinfture of myrrh ; and
when the difcharge abates, and the matter becomes of a
thick confillence and white co'our, this injection may be
changed for barley-water, honey of rofes, and tincture of
myrrh ; and for completing the cure, Bates's ahim-water, or
a folution of colcothar, vitriol, lapis medicamentofus, and
fuch like, in lime-water, will ferve to dry up the n^oiilure,
and to reftore the tone of the relaxed glands. For this pur-
pofe Dr. Bracken recommends the following mixture : Take
of alum and white vitriol powdered, of each four ounces ;
calcine them in a crucible ; when cold, powder the calx, and
mix it with a gallon of lime-water and a quart of vinegar,
and decant the mixture clear for ufe. Tiie perforations that
are made in this operation fiiould be kept open, after the ufe
of the injection, by fitting to the upper one a piece of cork
waxed over, and a hollow leaden tent to the lou'er, through
which there will be a conftant drain of matter from the
finufes ; and both may be fecured by a proper bandage.
The growth of the fledi iliould be alfo checked by rubbing
with cauilic medicines, or applying the attual cautery. The
cure will be expedited, by giving every day a quart or three
pints of a ilrong decoction of guaiacum chips, by purging
at proper intervals, and putting a rowel into the horfe's cliell :
and if thefe fail, mercurials may be adminillered with the
phyfic, and the alterative powders with lime-water may be
given and continued for fome time.

The following remedy is faid to have fuccecded, in fifty
cafes out of fi.xty, for curing the glanders, without trepan-
ning. Keep the horfe a day or two with fmall quantities of
choice hay, and fcalded bran ; then blow up his noilrils as
much alfarabacca, in fine powder, as will lie on a fix-pence,
evening aid morning, giving him tor drink Imall lime-
water, during four or five days : then boil two ounces of
elecampane roots in a quart of drink, till they mix, and give
it once a day during three or four days more ; then bcil two
handfuls of the white inofs th>it grows on oaken pales, in two
quarts of milk, till one is confumed ; llrain it and fqueeze
the mofs, and give the milk jail warm : repeat this for four
or five diys About an hour after the horfe has had his
drink each day, take a piece of Iweet butter, about the fize
of an egg, and about half an ounc&of hrimftone finely pow-
dered, and work them v.-ell together ; then lake tw<i clean
goofe feathers, as long as they can be procured, and make a

hole in each of the quill cnd-^,' in which faften two lonj
threads ; then anoint the feathers well with the mixture,'
and roll them in dry flour of brinillone : open the horfe'a
noilrils, and thrufl the feathers up into his head, faftening
the threads to the top of his head, to prevent their dropping
out : ride him an hour or two morning and evening, and let
him (land half an hour after he returns to the liable befi»re
the feathers are taken out : purfue this conrfe eight or nine
days, bathing his head with camphorated fpirits of wine,
and afterwards confining his head over a t'-b of hot grains,
that he may breathe the fteam. A rowel may prevent a
relapfe.

After all that has been faid, it is now generally allowed,
that no effeclual remedy for the glanders has yet been dif-
covered. The operation of trepanning has never been at-
tended with permanent fuccefs ; and whatever relief has
been obtained from the ufe oi various medicines, it has been
merely temporary, and the difeale has been pronounced
incurable. But th(nigl! all attempts for curing the glanders
have hitherto proved ineffeftual, the inquiry fhould he parfued,
and efforts for this purpofe Ihould be renewed till the vete-
rinarian's ingenuity and pcrfeverance are crowned with
iuccefs. Tlie analogy fubfifting between the glanders and
the venereal difeafe has led fome pradtitioners to recur to the
ufe of mercury, but the fuccefj attending it has been verv
partial. ProfelTor Coleman mentions a lingle cafe whicli
occured at the Veterinary College, in which the glandc-rs
yielded to the treatment employed, which was that of
repeated and long continued dofes of calomel, carried to the
extent of falivation. This folitary cafe led to many trials
of a fimilar nature, but, unhappily, without the fuccefs
which was hoped for by the proieffor, who exerted his
wonted ingenuity to improve the hint which this fingle
inilance allorded. Others have made fimilar efforts in this
way, with only a temporary abatement of the fymptoms,
but without ultimate fuccefs. Some years ago, great ex-
pectations were formed, from the ufe of the mineral acids
in the venereal difeafe ; and trials were made with thefe in
fome cafes of glanders, which were ineffectual. The late
profefibr of the Veterinary College, M. St. Bel, made a
variety of experiments for afccrtainiug the nature of this
difeafe, and for inveftigating an etfeftual remedy, whilll he
was profeflbr of the veterinary fchool at Lyons ; he has
ri'corded the cafes that lell under his notice, with his method
of treatment, which was very diverfified and multifaricus ;
but he concludes with obferving, " notwithflanding my
failures, I think that a remedy may be found for tiie
glanders.'" Many circumftances convinced M. St. Bel, that
the virus of the glanders has greater aftivity in fouthern
than in northern countries; and that its progrels is inoic
rapid in the mule and the afs, than in the horle ; but that
the former are not fo fubjeft to receive it by infedlion or
Cfntaft as the horfe is. The ufe of verdigris having been
recommended by a profeflbr of the veterinary art, Mr
I^awfon, furgeon to the Oxfordlhire light (h-agouns, gavi,
this medicine a trial in two cafes, thofe of a horle and mare,
beginning with one drachm daily, and gradually increafing
it to one ounce. But no' bencncial efleCt was produced.
Dilfedtion sf the horfe after three months' trial (hewed no
dih-afe in the brain, but it was altogether confined to the
feptum of the nofe and noftrils.

As the glanders is a difeafe of fuch virulence, known to
be contagious in a high degree, and hitherto found to be
incurable, it is of importance to diftinguilh it frym other
difeafes to which the horfe is fubjecl. A told, which has
been fometimcs millaken for the glanders, may be eafily
dillinguilhed from them. In colds, there is generally <t

certaii^

G L A

certain degree of ft'V!»r. t!i-* eyes appear di;ll oi- wateiy, llie
appetite s d!:n:nilhcd, '-.vd there is almoi't always! a cough.
If the glands of the thr;5;it (hoiiid Avell, they are not fo
ciofelv attached to the iaw-bciiC as in tlie glanders, bnt f.-cl
lo-jfe and rrovoahle under the (Icin ; they are alfo ge;:erally
in a ftate of active inflammation, feeling liot, and fnFter than
in the glanders. In cold.s, b-jth noflrils are ahr.o'l always
afFeAed ; in the glanders it frequently happens that the dif-
charge is only from one. I;i colds, the noftrils are not
ulcerated ; in glarders this always happen?, though at dif-
ferent periods or the diLafe. The ilrangles have been fome-
tin'.es niiftaken for the glanders ; but in tl'.ia difcafe the in-
llamed glands very foon iuppiue.te and bur't, by which all
the other fymptoms are gtr.erally removed, whilft in the
glanders the glands feldoni or never fuppurate. In order,
however, to avoid all danger, it is advifeable, as foon as a
horfe is perceived to have a difcharge from liis nofe, to put
him into a liable, where he can have no comrainiication with
other horfes. If the glands of the throat be enlarged and
inflamed, apply a large poultice to theni, ileam the head
three or four times a day, let the horfe be >r '.1 clothed, and
give a fever powder every day, or once,ip.''-l2 hours. By
thefc means, the difeafc, if it arife from a d'old, will foon be
removed. When confiderv.ble ulceraticr; is perceived in the
nofe, witli the other concomitant fymptoms vf the glanders,
the fooner the horfe is d-ftroycd, the better.

The moil effeftual method of purifying ftabies in which
glandered horfes have been kept, is to rem.ovc, or carefully
fcrape, and afterwards fcour with foap, fand, and boiling
water, everv thinn- on wh.ich the liorfe may have depofitcd
any matter, aid atttrward to cover every part cf the Cable
with a thick G<73t cf lime and f;ze. It is a comm.on pradlice
with the owners of horfes, wlien they have had any one of
them feized with the glanders, to bleed and purge the reft,
by way of prevention ; but thir. method will lervc rather to
promote tl.an prevent the difeafe, as it will confiderablv
increafe the aftion of the abiurbent veiTela, bv wiiich acTiion
the glanders are convevcd into the fyftem.

GLANDIUM, in Surgery, a name fometimes given to
an cxcrelcence near the anus.

CLANDORE, in Geography, a harbour of the fouth
of Ireland, in the county of Cork : it is a little to the well
of Rofs, and has the village of Itlyros at the extremity cf
it.

GL A.NDORP, ^l VTTiiiAS Louis, in Biography, a phy-
fici;;n, v. as born at Cologne in 1555. He ftiidicd iirll at
Bremen, in Lower Saxony, whence his family originated,
and afterwards returned to Cologne, yvhere he commenced
liis medical purfuits ; but, by the advice of his father's
_ friends, he was focn feat to Padua, in order to reap tlie
benefits of ftiidving under tlie great mailers, v.-ho at that time
were fo diliinguiihed in medicine. He attached himfelf par-
ticularly to Fabrici.i and Spicjelius; and lie !aade fueh great
progrefs in anaton.y under the latter, that lie was deemed
quaUlied to give public demonllrations. Before rtte.rn'.ng
to Germane, he recelvL-d the degree of doftor in 16: i'. He
determined to fix himfelf at Bremen, in which city he found
every thing favourable to his views ; and his fuccefs in
practice gained him fo much reputation, that he was ele-
vated to the moll honourable offices. He was phyllcian to
the arelibifhop and to the republic, when be died :n 1640.
He left feveral works, adorned with plates, which contain
niany important obfervations on ar.atom.y. Thele are,
I. " Speculum Chirurgoruni, in quo quid in unoquoque vul-
nere faciendum, cuidve omitttndi m, piiiriffa partis aiTttia;
anatomica explicitione, obfervationibus ad unii nquodque
Tolnus pcrti<6.itibu8 adjectis, coiifpicitur ac pertr.'.ctatur,"

G L A

"Brema-, !($IP), 8vo, This was rcpubliflied in 410. jCzg,
with thefe two tieatifcs, 2 " Methodus jnedcndi parony-
chix, cui acccfTit decas obfcrvationum :" and, 3. " Trafta-
tus de Polypo, nariuni affeftu graviflimo.'' — 4. " Gazophy.
laciuin pc.lyplufunn fonticulorum ct fctonum referatum,"
ibid. 1633, 4tti — London 1633, 410.— He made frequent
ufc of the actual cautery in ti:e treatment of tlie mofl com-
mon diforder-i. The whole of Glandorp's works were col-
IcAed and printed in Loudon, in 410. in tlie year 1729,
under the title of " Opera omnia, nunc fmiul coUefta, et
plurinnim emendata." Tliis cdUction includes alfo fome
curions tra£ls on Roman antigoiil-s. Elcy. Diet. Hid.

Gl..\Ni)0!i!', .lon.v, a learned phiiologiil, v-ho flourifticd
in the middle of the i6ih centur}', was born at Murder.
He fludied under Me'.aiicitl.on, and became very diilinguifhed
for his critical knowledge. He was eltCtcJ redlor of iJic
college at Haiiover, but, upon fom.e difpute, lie qj:ittcd iii
1 555-, and retiring to Gollar, was followed by moll of his
leholars. In 1560, l:e was made profefior of liillory at the
ur.iverfity ofMarpurg. He d^ed in 1564. His works arc
" Sylva Carminum Elegiacorum ;" " Defcrii-.tio Genti.<»
Antonix ;" " Familia; Julia; Gentis ;"' " Dillicha Sacra
et Moralia;" " Annotat. in Jul. Cxfaris Comm.cnt.;'"
" Annotat. in Ciceronis Epjil. famil.;" " Oiiomailicon
Hiliorice Rcniar.a;.''

GLANDUL.A, m Jinatcmy, the fame as gland.

The word is a diminutive of the Latin glans, acorn ; and
is here ufed on account of fome external relcnl.lance be-
tween the glands of the body and tlie fruit of the oak.

Gl-ANDLL.'V Giiii'r.riis, among Surgeons, is a tumor r> fem-
blnig a gland ; foft, fwigie, moveable, with roots, and f.--
parate from tliC adjacent parts.

GLANDULE, in £:ig/l/l', lignifies a little gland.
Thus the amygdalx, or almonds of ears, ate by fome called
glandules.

GLANDULOl^S, or GL.\Nnii..\R, fomclhing com-
pofed of glands, or that abounds with glands.

The breads are glandulous bodies. The cortical fub-
llance of the brain is commonly i-eputed to be glandulous ;,
though Ruyfch, from the difcoverics made by his admira-
ble injections, liolds, that there is iio fuck thing as a gland
therein.

The ancients diffiuguillied a particular kind of flefli,
which they called ceiro glandukfa, or glandulous flefh.

Gl.axdulous Body, ghmdulofum corpus, more particularly
denotes the proftata.

Gi-.VNr)ULoL.s Roots, among Botanijls, fucli tuberofe roots
as are failened together in large numbers by fmall fibres or
threads.

GLANIS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of fdurus, which
fee.

GLANOVENTA, in jimicnt Geography, a place of
Britain, in the loth Iter of Antoninus, iuppofidby Horlley
to be Lanchelier, in the county of Duriram.

GL.-\NS, AtOHK, in Ndlural Hylcry, a fruit contained
V. ithiu a fmooth but iiard bark, including a llngle feed ; its
hind-part being covered with a kind ot cup, and the fore-
part bare. See AccUS and 0.\K.

Glans Mar'.nus, a name given to a genus of (hell-fi'h,
mere ufually called lidamis, and in Enghlh the centre llieil.

GLAS-^TrcckitiJira, a name given by Gefncr, and fome
other v.riters, to a kind of figured foilil, found uiually
among the trochits and entrochi, and evidently appearing
to have in fome manner belonged to them. All the writers,
who have liie.mfelves examined the places where the trochits
are foiuid, hi»ve nitulioricd thefe under the names of glandts
trochitiferx, others uuder Irfs determinate cccs. A^'ricola.

Cajl&

G L A

G L A

calls them lapides informes ; and Lifter, aflcr l.im, rude
ftones, having imprcfTions of the cntrochi. Sec farther
Pliilof. Tranf. N° lOO.

Gl.ANs Pt-nis, in yinatowy, the rounded cxticnnty of the
ergan. See Gknku ai ion, organs of.

GLANSHAMMAR, m Geop-aph, a town of Sweden,
in the province of Nericia ; feven miles N. E. of Ohreo.

GI-ANVILL, Jo.sKi'll, in Biography, was born at Ply-
mouth in the year ifi^T), where he probably received the
earlv parts of liis education : but he pnrfuid hi< maturer
ftudies at Exeter college, Oxford. He took his iirll degree
in the year 1655, and removing to I^incoln college, he gra-
duated maftcr of arts in 1 658, and was, about the fame time,
appointed clir.plain to Francis Rous, eiq. provoft of Eton
college. The death of his patron induced him, after a very
-fliort time, to return to Lincoln college, v.-here he fpent his
time in literary and philofophical iludiis, till the relior.-ition
of king Charles II. He became acquainted witkthe writ-
ings of Richard Baxter, and was an ardent admirer of his
preaching and religious principles. He is fa'.d to have been
an eager republican in ]iolitics, but, wlutlier this be the real
faft, has been much doubted. Upon the re-eftaliliihment
of monarchy and epii'copacv, he conformed to the national
church, a circumftanec that did not in the leall abate the
elleem which Baxter had before manifefted for him. He
became a zealous convert to the principles of the new phi-
lofophy, in oppofition to the fyftem of Ariilotle, and pub-
Jifhcd a work in their jullification, entitled " The Vanity of
©ogmatiling or Confidence in Opinions," &c. This piece
introduced him to the acquaintance of many of the p:rfons
who afterwards formed the Royal Society. About this time
Mr. Glanvill entered into orders, and was prefented to the
reftory of Wimbifli, in the county of Effex, and in 1662
he was indufted into the vicarage of Frome-SeKvood, in So-
inerfetfliire. He publifhed in the fame year, but anonymouf-
ly, a difcourfe on the fundamental doclrine of the ancient
eaftem philofophers, which he endeavoured to prove was not
incompatible with revealed religion. It was entitled " Lux
Orientahs : or an Enqmry into the opinion of the Eaftern
Sages concerning tlie Pre-exiilence of Souls; b.-inga Key
to unlock the grand Myfteries of Providence in relation to
Men's Sin and Mifery." Upon the eftablifliment of the
Royal Society, he publilhed his former treatife, corrected
and enlarged, under the title of " Scepfis Scientitica ; or
confefled Ignorance in the way of Science, in an Eilay on
the' Vanity of Dogmatiling and confident Opinion." This
work was dedicated to the Royal Society, and the author was
almojl immediately admitted one of its members. In 1666
he publiihed his work, entitled " Some philofophical Confi-
derations touching the being of Witches and Witchcraft."
This performance, which is Hill regarded as a curiolity,
though very little creditable to the judgment of the author,
engaged Glanvill in a controverfy which lailed a; long as his
life. He was now prefented to the reftory of Bath, in
which city he iixed his refidence. Here he met with many
ooponents, who were apt to treat him but roughly, on ac-
count of his adherence to the new philofophy, which led him
to draw up a fmall but elegant treatife, entitled " Plus
L'ltra : or the Progrels and Advancement of Knowledge
fince the Days of Ariftotle. In an account of fome of the
moil remarkable late improvements of praftical ufeful learn-
ing, to encourage philofophical endeavours, &c.'' The au-
thor was violently attacked on this occafion, but he defend,
ed himfelf with fpirit and fuccefs. His reputation was now
firmly fixed, and he \s'as frequently called upon to preach on
public occafions. At a vifltation of the diocefe, he deliver-
ed- a difcourfe which met with general approbation, and

which was ftegu?ntly re-printed; it was a 3efence of rcafon
in the afrairs of religion, againll jiilidelity, fccpticifm, and
fanaticlfm of all forts. He next attempted to fliew the
correlpojidepce betv.r.-n religion and the new philofophv, in
a difcourfe concerning the religious temper and tendency of
the experimental ])hilofophy which is profciTed by the Royal
Society. " \Vhiie," fays one of his biographers, " he was
tsntitling himfelf to the particular acknowledgments of the
mendn'rs ot that body, by defending the reafonablenefs and
ufeful tendency of their purlulis, he alfo contributed to
tlieir coUeclion of iuilruCtive and entertaining papers, fome
oblervalions on the mines in the Mendii> hill.^, and on the na-
tural liiiKiry and fprings ot Bath, which were well received,
and inferted in tlie Philolophical Tranlaftions." In the
year 1672, Mr. Glanvill exchanged his reciorv of Frome
fur that of Streat, in tlie fan\e county, with the chapel of
Walton annexed ; and about the fame time was mnde one of
the king's chaplains. In 1676, he publilhed his " Effavs on
feveral important Subjetts in Pliilolopliy and Religion," con^
filling of the principal of iiis former pieces, revlfcd and im-
proved, U'ith a treatife, entitled " Antifanatic Theology and
free Pliilofopliy." Two years after this, his " Effay con-
cerning Preaching" came out ; it was written for the ])ur-
pofe of dilluading the younger clergy from that affertation
of wit and fine ipeaking, which began to be fafiiionable in
thofe times, and to recommend and enforce a plain and prac
tical method of enforcing the moral duties of the gofpel, as
the true eloquence of tlie pulpit. The laft work of this
worthy divine, was entitled " The zealous and impartial
Proteilant, faewing fome great but lefs heeded Dan"-ers of
Popery." Mr. Glanvill died of a fever at the early age of
forty-four, and Dr. Horneck publilhed a quarto volume of
Difcourfes, &c. after his death, to which is prefixed an ac-
count of the author. As a preacher, Mr. Glanvill was elo-
quent and pathetic : in priyate life he was truly amiable and
praife -worthy. He was author of various other tradts bi •
fides thofe already noticed, the titles of which are given in
the Biographia Britannica. To this work the reader is re-
ferred for turther particulars.

GLAREANA, in Ornilhology, the name of a bivd de-
fcribed by Gefner from the figure, and fufpeAcd to be no
way different from the fpipoletta, a kind of lai;k, the
Al.AUDA Ciimpejlris ; which iee.

GL AREOLA, a fpecles of Tringa ; which fee.

Gl.MIi;ola, in Ormlholo^^y, a genus of the Gralloe order,
founded on the natural family called by Driilbn " Perdrix de
Mer," and alfo Ghireola. The character of this genus con-
fifts in the bill being ilrong, (hort, ilraight, and turned do\\:i
or hooked at the tip ; nolh'ils linear, and placed in an
oblique pofition at the bafe of the bill ; gape of the mouth
large ; feet four-toed, the toes long, lleuder, and connected
at the bafe by a membrane ; tail tnrcated, and «^)ntaining
twelve feathers. The number of ipccies, according to
Gmelin, are three, namely, Auftriaca, Senegalenfis, and Na;-
via, the firll of which, however, comprifes ieveral remote va-
rieties. Linnaeus defcribed this as a Ipecies of hirundo, the
fecond kind is a tringa of the fame author, and the third, f,
gallinula of Ray.

Species,

AusTRlACA. Above grey -brown ; collar black ; chio
and throat white ; breall and belly reddifh-grev. Gmel,
Hirundo mar'ma, Aldr. Hirundo riptiria, Merg, FnititKola,
Krani. Gnllir.nLi irythropns minor, Gefn. Perdrix demtr,
Buft". Sea fivuHotv of /lldrovaiidus. Will.

The length of this bird is nine inches ; the bill black,
with the bale red ; upper wing-coverts whitifii;^ quill and

tail-

G L A

tiil-fcathers duflty, tde outer fide of tlie firft tail-L-athffr«
white ; nnd the legs and naked p;at of the thighs in ger.-ral
red. The fjjecies imiabits chiefly the fouth of Europe, and
the milder parts of Afia ; towards the north it becoines
more fparingly diffufeil, and is very rarely fecn fo remote
from the foutlnvard as I'ritain. It abounds molt in ths
plains of the deferts towards the Cafjiian fea, in the neigh-
kourhood of the rivers, its food ccr.fifting of aquatic infeds
ajid worms.

One of die varieties of this fpecies is called by Brifiou
Glareola torquata, and by Buffon, " Perdrix de. mcr a col-
lier." The plumage beneath is v.Iiitc ; the f/ont black, with
a white fpot on each fide, and the collar brown. Its fiv.e is
rather inftricr to the former, and the legs blackifli infiead of
red. This, like the other, i:. a noify reftlefs bird, and fre-
quents the banks of rivers, aquatic infects conftituting its
principal food. The eggs are oblong, and ufually about fe-
T.en ill number in each nell.

The bird called " Perdrix de mcr" by Sonnerat is an-
other variety of this fpecies ; the lower parts of the plumage,
and nlfo the rump, are white ; and the ciiin ftreaked with
black, and furrounded by a black curved line. This was
caught ill the open fea, in the latitude of the Maldivia illes,
and lived a month on flies, and bread loaked in water.

Two other varieties occur in the Ealt Indies, on the coail
of Coromandel, aiul are likewife dei'crii:ed bv Sonnerat ;
the firll of thefe is brown, the under parts, with the rump
and bafe of the tail white ; in the fecoud, the tail-feathers
are bruwn^ having the outer ones marlied with a white
band.

SfiNT.iiALEN'si'--. Entirely fufcous. Gmel. Glareola Senega-
hiifis, Ijrifl". Tiiii^afufca, Linn. Perdrix demer Irujie, Buff.
S,'ii:«al pnitlincolc. Scarcely exceeds the former in lize, be-
ing nine inches and a half in lengtli, and inhabits Senegal.
T'iie fame variety is found alfo in Siberia.

N-V.ViA. Brown, fpotted with wliite ; lower part of the
belly and vent reddi.'h-white, with black Ipots ; bill and
legs black. Gmel. I. a jvrdrix 'de tar lachelee, CrifT. Gal-
lliiuhi meLinopiis, Ro'.hnujjl'l , Ray. C'uirok, Buff. Spotted pra-
tiiiccle.

Size of Glareola auflriaca. Tins variety is met with in
Germany.

GLARIANUS, PIkn-rki-s, Lokitus, in Biagraph,
furnamed Glariaims, from the town of Glaris, in Switzerland,
where he was born in 1498. pie rendered hinifelf famous
by his know'edge of mulic, and belles lettres ; but he mav
more properly be ranked among dilettanti thcorifts in mufic,
than a niuiician by profellion ; and his abilities, as a feholar
and critic, have been much lefsdilputed by the learned, than
his knowledge of mufic, bv muficians.

He lUidied at Cologn, Bafil, and Paris ; his preceptor in
mufic was .lohu Coehla:us ; and in literature, Erafmus, with
whom he lived in ilricl friciidfliip, and bv w'Lom he was
warmly recommended, in a letter 111!! extant, to the arch-
biiliop of Paris He is called by Walther a philofophcr,
n^athematician, hillorian, geographer, tlieulogian, and poet ;
indeed, he diltinguiflied himfeif in moll of thefe charadlers.
Gerard Voflius calls him a man of great and univerfal learn-
ing ; and for his poetry, the emperor Ma.ximilian I. honour-
ed him with the laurel crown.

His famou.<! treatifeon mufic, is entitled -Ifi-^EKAXOPAOX,
which im;);its twelve modes ; to wliich number lie wiflied to
augment the eecleiiaftical tones, which had r.cvei; before ex-
ce<:dal eight, from the time of St. Gregory. Zarlino, and
a few more, adopted the opinion of Glariauus, but foon re-
linquilhed it, on finding that they had made no converts. In-
deed, the whole twelve modes of Glarianus contain no other
'Vol. XVT.

G L A

intervals than thofe to be found in the key of C and A na-
tural, or in the different fpec».s of oftavt-, in thofe two kcy» ;
and though Lis augmentation extends the compafs of found*
ufcd in the modes, it offers no new arrangev.cnt of intcrTals,
as may be feen by his title-pqge, when it tells us that the
authentic modes are D, E, P, G, A, C, and the plijral .' ,
B, C, D, E, G ; where we perceive that A, C, E, G, are
repeated, by being made both authentic and plagal.

If, iiilkad of twelve n;cde«, Glarianus had augmented
the eight to twenty-four, by afiignirig two to each femi-
tone in the oftave, he would have don; real fci-vice to the
mufic of hi', time ; but his coteir.porarie« were not yet rcadv
for iuch an innovation, being ftill held too faft in the tram',
raels ef the church to dure uie any other f 'iinds tiian thofe
which tane had confecrated, and authority admitted within
its pale.

His book, however, contains many curious anecdotes and
compofitions of the greatell muiicians of his V.rr.c, whiih
were excellent iludies for his conntrymen and rotempo-
raries, and, if fcorcd, would be lijll vuv i.illruitive and
ufcful to young contrapuntiirs. GlariJnus died 1563,
aged 75.

GEARIS, or Gi.Aiiv.*;, in G<'9;^r/j^^j', a canton in Switzer-
land, iormerly fubject to the abbeis of the convent of ."^eck-
mguen, in Suabia, but polTeifing a democratical form of
government, under a mayor, appointed by the abbefs,-but
cholen by the inhabitartls ; till towards the latter end of tlie
thirteenth century, the emipcror Rcxi'jlpii I. obtained the
exilufive adminiitration of juftice; and toon afterwards his
fon Albert purehafed the mayoralty, which had become he-
r;dilary, and reunited in his own pcrfon the whole civil ami
judicial authority. Tlie government of Albert, and of his
defceridans the dukes of Auilri?, was arbitrary and op.
preffive ; and therefon , in 1 350, Schweitz, allillcd by Zn-
ric, Lucerne, Uri. and Underwald; n, expelled the Aiif-
trians from the canton of Glarus, and re-eftablifii4>d the de-
mocracy. Glarus then-entered into a perpetual alliance ^nth
its deliverers, and was received into the Helvetic confederacv,
with fonie leflrictions, whidi were not aboliflied till 1450.
It was then the 6th canton, but afterwards became lalt in
rank of the eight ancient cantons, as th.ev wer<- called The
people of Glarus enjoyed their liberties UKmoltlUd till I tj.SH,
when the Audrians made an irruption into tlic canton, and
pillaged tl;e country and maffaered the inlulbitants. At this
time ;;50 troops of Glarus, afiiiled by 3c Switzei-s, reftlled
the V. hole ilrength of the Auilrian army, and comptlled them
to retire. In the 1 6th century the reformation was iotrr>-
duced into this canton ; but the Protell.Tnts and Catholics
have been accuilomed to live together on tirms of mutual
toleration and friendfliip : of late the number of Proteilant-:
has very much iacreafed, rnd thcii- induitry in everv branch
of comn-.ercc is obferved to be far fujx-rior to that of the
Catholics. The government of this canton, previouOv t»
the French revolution, was entirely democralical ; c^crv
perfon at the age of 16 had a vote in the " Landsgemcind, '
or general affembly, which was annually held in an opcii plaiii.
This allenibly ratified new laws, laid contributions, entered
into a'liances, declared war, and made peace. The '• Lan-
damman'' was the chief of the republic, and was cliofen aU
ternately from the two fects ; with this differer-cc, thjit the
Proteilant remained tliree years in office and the CatJiolic two.
The other great officers of Hate, and the bailiffs, were takeii
alfo bv lot from a certain number of candidates pn>pofrd
bv the people. The executive powers weri- veiled in the
council of regency, compofed of 4S Piiiteftants ajid 15 Ca-
tholics ; and eaeh fet had its particul.ir court of juftice. This
canton comprehends 536 fcpiare tnilcs J aiid it.'; j>opul.ltion i.<!
R r ctlimatcJ

G L A

G L A

cllimated nt l6,coopcrfons ; its contingent to tlie army, un-
iliT the old government, was ^^o men. According to the
tlivilion of Switzerland into i8 departments or cantons, in
1798, the canton of Glanis, together with the bailliagcs of
Wallenftadt, formed the canton of Linth ; but according
to the conftitiition of the zglh of May 1801, Glarua, to-
getlier with tlie bailliagcs of Si-rgans, Werdenbcrg, Gullen,
Uznac, and Rappenlchwell, forms the eighth canton, and
deputes live rcprefentatives to the diet.

This canton is entirely enclofed by the Alps, except to-
wards the north ; and there is no entrance but through this
opening, which lies between the lake of Wallenftadt and
the mountains fcparating this canton from that of Schweitz.
At this entrnnco, the canton reaches from the banks of the
Linth to the farthefl extremity of its Alps, about 30 miles ;
form-.ng a valley, which bccoi;ies narrower as you advance,
and is Icarcfly n'.ore than a nuiflcet /hot in breadth at the
burgh of Glarm. It afterwards opens by degrees, and,
about a league from this bargh, is divided by the Freyberg
mountains ; at the point of this divilion, the two rivers,
I-inth and Serpfr, unit \ The hillocks of the Peak in Der-
byfliirc, fays Mr. Coxe, are mere mole-hills to the
Alps cf iGlarus. Thcfe ftupendous chains of rocks are ab-
folutely pfrpendicular, approach one another fo near, and
are fo high, that the fun may br; faid to fet, even in fumraer,
at four in the afternoon. On each fide are a number of wa-
terfalls, which excite attention. The valley terminates in
an amphitheatre of mountains, and the glaciers of the
canton clofe the view. (See Lin'th.) All the houfes iu
this canton, hke thofe of Appenzel, are built of wood ;
large, folid and compaft, with great pent-houfe roofs, that
hang very low, and extend beyond the area of the founda-
tion. Th? poHce in this deinocratieal ftate is well regulated ;
nor does liberty often degenerate into licentioufncfs. Cattle,
cheefe, and butter conftitute the principal commerce of the
canton. The cattle are fed in i'ummer upon the Alps ; it is
computed that ic,ooo iicad of large cattle, and 4CC0 fheep,
are patlured during tliat feafon upon the mountains belong-
ing to the canton. The inhabitants alfo manufafture linen
and muflms. Among the exports, a confiderable article is
(late, with which the canton abounds ; the prir.cipal qr.arry
being in the valley of Scrnft, where large ilates are dug \ip
that ferve for tables. Thefe quarries once furnifheJ Great
Britain with flates for writing ; but this branch of trade has
been fuperleded by the great flate quarries in Caeniarvon-
(hire. A great part of this canton confiils of mountains,
rocks, incacceffible forefts, and baiTen heaths, covered with
fnow ; and it is fubjeci to frequent inundations, and to the
devaiiations occafioned by tenipeilsand falling rocks.

GLARNISH, a mountain of Sv.'itzerlar,d ; 7 miles
VV.S.W. of Glarus.

GLARUS, or Glaris, the capital of the above-
defcribed canto.n, fituated upon the L,inth. The tov.-n is
l?.rge and populous ; and tiie town-houie is a handfome
llru&ure ; . 32 miles E. of Lucerne. N. lat. 26' cS'.
E. long. 9" 3'.

GLASENDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles N.N.W. <;f Trautenau. — Alf;, a
town of Silefia, in the province of Neifle ; 11 miles S.W.
of Patfchkau.

GLASGOW, a very popiilous, handfome, and regu-
larly built city, in the county of Lanark, in Scotland; fitu-
ated on the north bank of the river Clyde, which is naviga-
ble for veiTels of 100 tons and upwards. In ancient times,
ard during the prevalence of the Roman Catholic religion,
Glafgow was chiefly diftinguifhcd as an archiepifcopal fee,

and was of courfe principally under the influence of tli?
archbilliop and liis inferior clergy. Their power feems in
thofe days to have been civil as well as ccclcflariical, for the
charters of the moft ancient corporate bodies are held by
this tenure, the civil magiftratcs being only noticed as of
fubordlnate rank and authority, and the freedom fines, and
other emoluments areoprcfsly appropriated to ccclcliaftical
purpofes. The revenue of the diocefe of Glafgow, if it
may bccftimated by the extent of lands fubjeft to the pay»
ment of tythes, or (as they are called in Scotland) teinds,
muft have been very great ; for thofc burthens extended over
almoft. the whole of the counties ot Lanark, Renfrew,
Dumbarton, Ayr, Dumfries, ;md Galloway, comprehend-
ing the whole fouth-weft d^ftricl of Scotland, tud perhap,^ a
moiety of the moft fertile land in the whole kingdom. Of
this enormous revenue, fincc the reformation a fmall part, but
now of great value, has been appropriated for the fupport
of the univerfity of Glafgow, iom.c part for the payment of
the parochial ftipends, and a great part has reverted to the
freeholders or their dependants, and thefe are coiiftantly fluc-
tuating as in other parts of the kingdom. The infurreftions
and civil wars, which devafttited Scotlandfubiequently tother
reformation, and previous to the VLVoluticn, having divefted
Glafgow of all that attraction which it had acquired as tb?
archiepifcopal and occafionally as the royal refidencc, it ap-
pears to have been only remarkable as the occafional Icene of
thofe fanguinary and ferocious conlefts for v.hich the age was
confpicuous. It fell into the hands of the regent upon the
defeat and flight of the unfortunate Mary Stewart at the battle
of Langiide, two miles fouth of the city. It was long
afterwards battered and taken by Cromwell's army, and it
was the refuge of the defeated party, after the battle of
Bothwel bridge, fought between the regent (afterwards
James II.) and the Covenantcis. After the revolu-
tion it feems for many years to have been a place of little
importance, poifeffing neither a fufhcient degree of wealth
or refinement to render it confpicuous for elegance or luxur)>
nor fuch fecurity or ftrength as to make it defirable or
important as a military poft. At the time of the Union
with England, its whole population was eftiniated at only
14,000, a faC^t ftated in the houfe of commons by Mr.
fecretary Dundas, (now lord Melville,) in one of the debates
when the Irifli Union was in contemplation. SublLqucntly
to the Union, the rife of Glafgow in commercial importance,^
even under the fucccfTive checks of the two civil wars^
in 1 715 and 1745, of the vaftly greater comm.ercial cmbar-
raiTment, occafioned by the fufpenlion of its colonial trade
during the American contelU, and all the fubfcquent hof-
tilifies produced by the French revolution, has been p.erhaps
unequalled by any other place in the empire, or perhaps in
the world. Its population, under the aft of 1 794, including
its num.erous fuburbs, was returned at 94,00c, ani fiom the
conccalmient which was practiied from the idle fears of
ignorant people, many of v.hom fooliftily imagined that
caifus to be the precurfor of a military tonfcript.on, that
number is fuppofcd to be at leaft 30,000 fhort of the aftual
amount.

Different hiftories of Glafgow have been publillicd. Of
thefe, one publiined many years ago by Mr. M'Urc, ore of
the city clerks, was much e'leemcd, but is now confidertd as
obfoletc. Others have fubfequently b'ien written by Mr..
Gibfen about 1774, and rtcenlly by Mr. Denholm,,
about 1796.

The hmits of this article noceffaiily preclude the pof-

jlbility of enterbg much into detail, nor would it be cither

amufing or inllruftive to tlie general reader. We ftialL

therefore infert what remains eoiicerning the prefeut ftate of

I this

GLASGOW.

tliis great commercial and manufaifturing city undi-r the
following general heads.

I. Situnlion and general JIale of th- ailjacent country, —
Glafgow is iituated on the north bank of the river Clyde,
inN. lat. 5J 52', and W. long, from the meridian of Green-
wich 4 '30. The extreme length from E. to W., in-
cluding two fnburbs, is nearly two miles, and its breadtli from
the cathedral or hi^h church to the mcr about one mile.
The lower part of the city is nearly level, and the reft is
upon the fouthern declivity of a hill. Perhaps no city or
town in Europe is, upon the whole, more regularly planned ;
for all the principal ftreets are either parallel or at right
angles to each other. The chief ftreets are better paved
than thofe of London, and generally wider ; all the front
buildings arc of line free-ftone, which is found in great abun-
dance in the immediate neighbourliood. The granite, or
•wh'm Jlone, for paving tl:> carriage ways, is alfo very plen-
tiful clofe by the town. The houf.'s are very large and
lofty, being more generally upon the French plan, where
every floor forms a feparate lodging, accefiibla by a com-
mon ftaircafe, than upon the EngliHi, where one perfon oc-
cupies the whole premifes. The more wealthy inliabitants,
however, have almoft univerfally adopted the Englilh tafte in
building. In the oM part of the town it is indeed much
to be regretted that there are too few public ftreets, fothat
an immenfe number of buildings are crowded together, many
of which are acceflible only by narrow paftages, which are
very ill calculated either for free circulation of air, admif-
fion of light, or domeftic cleanlinefs. In the modern build-
ings thefe inconveniences are avoided, and whatever incon-
venience may remain, muft rather be attributed to the habits
or negligence of the occupants, than to want of facilities on
the part of the architefts.

There are many very fine public buildings in Glafgow,
the moft prominent of which we fliall very briefly enu-
merate.

Churches. — The cathedral or high church is perhaps the
fineft fpecimen in Scotland of that fpecies of architecture,
generally denominated Gothic. It was founded in the
rear 1 1 23, and confecrated in the prefence of king David I.
in 1 136. This building is more fimilar to that of Litch-
field, than to any other of the EngUfli cathedrals, but it does
not appear to have ever been completely finiflied, and cer-
tainly until lately little care has been ufed for its prefcrva-
tion. After the reformation it is faid to have narrowly ef-
caped deftruftion from the r.iifguided zeal of the people,
who confounded the building itfelf with the religious or
fuperftitious ceremonies which they had exploded. It
now coT-.tains two churches adapted to the Preft)yterian form
of wor.'hip, and the choir is ufed as a place of in»ciTncnt.
The burying vaults, or cemeter\', were formerly occupied
as ar.Jther place of worfhip for the barony or country
pariih of Glafgow ; but lately a new church h.as been erected
for this purpofe at the oppofite extremity of the church-yard.
The great fpire is very loftv, ;'nd in ir.me degree refen-.bles
that of Salilliury. The church was dedicated to St. Mungo,
or Kentigcrn, whole burying-pkce in one of the vaults !s ftiU
(hcAvn.

The remaining churches pofTcfs in general little claim to
architcflural encomium or defcription. They are fix m num-
ber, r;z. the college, St. Andrew's, North Weft, Iron,
St. Enoch's, and St. George's.

St. Andrew's church is a handfome modern building, of
Corinthian architeilure, and is very fimilar in ajipearance to
tlic church of St. Martin in the Fields, Weftmiiifter.

St. Enoch's and St. George's arc alfo handfome modern
buildings. Befidcs the eftabliilied or parocltial churches, tlicrc

are many difTenting chapels and meeting houfes, fome of
which are ver)' handfome <md commodious.

Prif/n. — This is a large and very ftrong building, fituated
in the centre of the city, adjoining to the Exchange. The
lower part is occupied by the council-chambers, and rcoms
for the magiftrates and tlie city clerks; the middle part of
the building eontains the clofe or lock-up rooms for thofe
imprifoTicd upon crimiiial charges; and the two upper floora
are allotted for the reception of civil debtors, i'he roofi
are lofty, the apartments airy, and the building, upon the
whole, commodious; but it is in contemplation to creel a
new prifon, with an enclofcd fpace rour.d it, where the pri-
foners may have the benefit of frefli air and exercife, from
which they are at prefent precluded.

Bridr-zi-eH. — This is a large building which ferves as a
place of confinement, or penitenti;u-y houfe, for perfons of
depraved habits convicted of petty offences. It it very well
regulated, and every means of encouragement afforded for
reclaiming the prifoners from their vices, and promoting
habits of induftry. Many, at the period of their confine-
ment, have thus acquired and received confiderable fums,
befides the expence of their fubfiftence, which is dedufted
from iheir earnings.

Town Hofpha! — for tlie reception of poor perfons unable
to maintain themfelves. The expence of this eftabliihmeni
is defrayed by a tax or afreflfment on the inhabitants, and by
the proceeds of the labour of thofe admitted, who are fup-
plied with work fuited to their refpective abilities. The
inmates are aged and infirm perfons and deftitute children;
the latter are well educated, and when arrived at a proper
age, the boys are apprenticed to trades and the girls lent t»
fervice. Tlie economy of the houfe is fuperintended weeklv
by gentlemen who aft in rotation. The whole is very well
managed.

Royal Infirmary — a very fine modem building, from a
plan of Meffrs. Adams'. From 90 to 1 20 patients are gene-
rally under cure, but the houfe contains accommodation for
a much larger num.ber when required. It is fupported by
donations, legacies, and annual fubfcriptions ; the funds at
prefent amount to lo.oco/ or 12,000/., befides what has
been annually expended; the annual dift)urfement is about
1800/. or 2000/.: the direftion is vefted in the lord pro-
voll, the dean of guild, convenor of the tr.ides, profeflbrs
of medicine and anatomy, prefidcnt of the facidty of phy-
ficians, member for the city, and eighteen dircclors, ten of
whom are elected by the contributors, and the others by
various public bodies. The directors cleclcd by public
bodies are, one by the council, one by the merchants, one
by the trades, one by the univei fity, one by the minifter*
of Glafgow, and three by the faculty of phyficians and
furgeons. The medical affiftar.ce is afforded gratuitoudy.

Theatre Royal. — This fuperb houfe was creAed a lew
years ago by voluntary fubfcriptions, v.pon transferab!<r
Iharcs ot 25/ each. The total colt was upwards of 15,000/'.
part of which ftill remains as a debt upon the property, the
whole annual rent being appropriated for its gradual liqui-
dation. The direction of the property is in fixtcx'u diredor*,
four of wliom go out annually, m rotation, but may be re-
eleifted. It is unqueftionably the lar,;c(l and moll magnifi-
cent provincial theatre in Britain. Tlie managers are merely
leflees, and the leafe is always given for a ihort period, iA-
dom exceeding two or three years.

Concert and Alfcinlly Rooms. — Thefe rooms ain? alio very
fplendid, and, like the theatre, were erecled by vJmitary
fiiblcription, upon transferable iharcs,

Univerjily. — The buildings of the univcrfity havitigbccn

ereCled at various time?, and in verv different ilvlcs, cannot

R r 2 ■ br

GLASGOW.

be appreciated by any prcclfc fc;ilc of architectural taflo;
but the whole has certainly an air of impofing gran<liur,
antl is very well adapted in every refpecl to the purpofes for
which it is defi^ncd. It co:i(i'ls of fotir dillin(5t courts,
which communic.'.Le with each other, and is ^cccflible from
the hioh ftrcet by three gate-ways. Behind is a very Inrjje
garden laid out i:i grafs and (hrubbery, v.'ith very fine walks;
it is divided into three parts, of which one is appropriated
as a botanical garden, another is open as a place of exercife
and recreation Tor the ftudents, and the third, in which the
aftronomical obfervntory is fituated, is generally refervcd as
a place of retirement, for tlie profefTors, or <if amufenient
for their families and friendo.

The univerfity of Glafgow was founded in the year 145c,
by William Turnbuil, billiop of the diocefe, and then con-
/liled of a chancellor, a dean of faculty, a princijial, wlio
was alfo profelfor of theology, and three profefTors of phi-
lofophy.

The profeffions and leftures are now as follow:
A lord clinnccllor: an office now honorary, and held for life.
Lord reclor; alfo honorary — eleftive annually.
Dean of faculties; chofen by the profefl'ors or regents.
Principal; by the crown — prefent incumbent, Rev. Dr.
Taylor.

riof^nions.
Divinity, appointed by the univerfity.

crown,
miiverfity
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
crown,
do.
do.
do.

Church hiftory.

Oriental laniruai'-es,

Natural philofophy, or phyfic,

Mathematics,

Moral philofophy, or ethics.

Logic,

Greek,

Humanity, or Latin,

Civil law.

Medicine,

Anatomy and botany,

Praclical aftronomy.

Lectures.
Materia medica,
Chemillry,
Midwifery,
Natural hilloiy,
Elocution,
Painting and drawing.

univerfity.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

The funds for the fupport of the univerfity are in a very
fiourilhing and profperous flate. Independently of the emolu-
ments derived from the iludents, falaries and eommodio\is
houfes are allotted to every profefl'or, and thefe expences
are defrayed from the funds at various times granted to the
univerfity: of thefe, the funds or tythes of the parifli of
Govan, form a very prominent part. The Iludents of the
five junior clafles, I'lz. natural pliilolophr, moral philofo-
phy, logic, Greek and Latin, are diilinouilhed bv wear-
ing gowns of fcarlet freeze; tlie iludents of the fenior clafles
have no particular diftinftion of drefs. Tlie refident mem-
bers of the univerfity claim an exemption from all civil
burthens and fervices, and generjly from the juvifdiclion of
the city maglilracy, but ac kno\vl-,dge that of the fherilT of
the county, and of the fupremc courts of Scotland.

The internal govern:nent of the univerfity is veiled in the
principal and profeffors, who, in tlieir juridical capacity,
affume tlie title of regents. Their fupreme court is a general
alTembly of the whole faculty, who, at a remote period,
affumed the power even of capital punifliinent. The moll

fcvere fentence, however, which has been pafTed for many
years, is that of expulilon, and even this has been vi.ry
rarely exercifcd. An ii:ferior court is the " Jurifdicllo
ordlnaria," confiftiiig of at leail three regents, who deter-
mine offences againit tlie general order and peace of tlie
univerfity, and punifn by a pecuniary fiii^ Each profefTor
alfo pofiefles the power of levying fmall fines in his own
elaf-i for negligence, contumacy, or irregularity.

The number of Iludents in the univLiliiy was eflimated
at 5CO thirty years ago, and this number is now greatly
increufed. The profeffors and iludents, when affcmbled for
the election of a retlor or any other general purpofe, are di-
vided into four nations, according to the places of their re-
fpeftivc births, viz.

Glmiani — comprehending the natives of Clydcfdale, and
the adjacent dillricts of Scotland fouth of the Forth.

Trniuforthani — the natives of Scotland, 011 the north of
the Forth.

Rnlhf.ani — the natives of the weft highlands of ScotLmd
anil (if Ireland.

J.riiidomaiii — thofe of the eaftern dillriiSs of Scotland, of
England, America, and the colonics. The votes of theie
nations are decided by a majority, and the majority of na-
tions decides the qiieltion. In caies of parity the decifion
is iu the regents.

The univerfity of Glafgow has recently received a moit
valuable acquifition, by the bequeft of the mnL-um of the
late Dr. William Hunter, of London. For the reception
of this valuable legacy, a very handlome building has been
erefted, where it is now arranged. The mufeum confitls of
a valuable colleflion of paintings, chiefly original ; a very
line ll:leftion of anatomical preparations ; a cabinet of me-
dals, and a fine library. The medals are accounted of fueh
value, that the truftees of the Britilh mufeum are faid to
have offered 25,000/. for them, befides furniihing fuch du-
plicates as they poffefTed, and. defraying the expence of an
application to parliament for an acl, io far to dilFolve the
teilator's will. This liberal ofTer, however, was declined.

The public library of the univerfity is alio a colleclion of
uncommon value. It confifts of upwards of 6000 volumes,
and many very rare and valuable ir.anufcripts. In the facul-
ty h;dl are fome valuable paintings, particularly one of the
" Martyrdom of St Catharine.''

Among the celebrated literary charafters, which have be-
longed to this feminary, the names of Dr. Cullen, Dr. Adam
Smith, and the late profeffor Miller, are raofl recently con-
f]/ieuous.

Tliere are many other public buildings in Glafgow, of
which it will be iicceffary to confine ourielves to very brief
notices.

The Trades-hall — is a fine modern building from a plan of
Meffrs. Adams'. It is ufed for the general meetings of the
fourteen incorporated trades, and is alio cccafionally occu-
pied for concerts, balls, and other public amufLnicnts.

Merchants' Hall — is an old building, remarkable for no-
thing but the Ipire, which is a very fine one. It is ufed by
the body to which it belongs, in the fame manner as tlie
Trades-hall.

Puhlic Marhds. — Thefe are very comm.odious, and confift
of fquare-paved courts, lurrounded by the ilalls where the
meat is expofed to fale. No cattle are ikiughtered here, and
they are kept very clean and regularly infpetled.

Barracks. — Thefe are fituated in a large area walled round,
and confift of three very large buildings, one of which is
appropriated for oilicers, and two for non-commiflioned of-
ficers and privates. Their complement is 1072 men, but
they v\-ill lodge, on emergency, 4 or 500 mere.

To'drn-Houj': — 1 line old l)uilding adjoining to the prlfon.
On'v o;ie hall is rctain-'d by the bjdv corporate. Th.^ re-
miiaJ^T contains tlio Tontine hotel, which was enlarged by
fubfcriplion upon lives. The co;Tec-roo:n is, perliups, the
largjft r.nd I'lncil in Europe. It is fupportcd by annual

G L A S G O W.

fo for many years to come. He began bv conftruclinT, on
either bank, projecting dykes, or jf.ttie^, into the river, at
ri^ht angles, to the banks on (-ither fide, and placed at fmall
di'.lances from each other along the whole courfe of the

fubfcription, t!ic fubfcril-ers amounting to upwards of looo,
who p.iy one pound fi.'? itnllin.Ts each.

Bridges. — Three of thefe are of Hone, and a fourth was
actually built iii the year i 79J, when the river rilisg rapidly,
in confeqaenc ■ of exccfiive mins, it was fwept away in one
night when very nearly iinifhed. The arches being verv flat,
and th? extremities not fuiHciently fecured, the accident was
attributed, by profeiliGnal pcrfons, to the lateral prefhir,?.
Its place has line; b^tu iupplied by a very handfoine wooden
bridge for foot palTengers. The two bridges liighell upon
the river are pLiin, but very well built and paved. Tiie
lowed, or new bridge, is very finely executed, and iselLeemed
one of the moll coaipleat fpecimens of this fpecies of archi-
teclure in Britain.

IVa'.ir-iuoThs. — The city of Glafgow, until lately, was
fapphed with v^'ater by pit-wells, and the water of thefe,
r.lthotigh abundant in quantity, was of inferior quality both
for wafliing and culinary piirpofes ; as, beiides otlicr impuri-
ties, it holds in folution a conliderable portion of marine acid,
bv- which it is rendered hard and bracliiih. To remedy this
inconvenience a public coinpany was formed, who, at the ex-
pence of upwards of 6o,occ/., brought water filtered from
the river iuto ev.r.- part of the city a;id fuburbs by caft iron
pipes, and from thefe pipes into every houfe, upon receiving
a moderate annual payraint from tlie proprietor or ledte.
The c.ipital necelTary was railed by transfer:ible fliares of
50/. each. Tlio rapidity witli wliich th.ofe fhares were b;)ught
in^duced others to form a feparate eltabliniment, and to raiTe
water alfo from the river for the fupply of the city. The
firil fupply is drawn from the Clyde by two large fteam en-
gines, into a refervoir ab»Lit two milis to the ealhvard of
the town. From this refervoir it is liltercd into another,
and from thence conveyed by the pipes to a third imir ediate Iv
contiguous to the town. The whole lower part mav be fiip-
plied from this v.ichout further forcing, but to fupply the
higher parts, a portion is .again forced by another fmaller en-
gine to a ciilern on a higher eieva.iun, v.'hicli commands
every part above the former level.

The wellern water-work company draw their fupply
from the river, to cilterns fituated on an eminence about
one mile well of the town, wiiere it is iiltcred, nnd conveved

_,, , .^ i-' courli

navigation. Thefe jetties intercept much of the earth and
gravel walhed down by fucceffive floods, and thus fupply
the materials for ulimate contraftion, without the cxp.-nce
of carnage. Befides this, a number of labourers are em-
ployed every fummer feafon to drag the bottom of the
river, and lodge the RufF which is withdrawn from the
bottom between the projecting jetties. Bv the confta.it re-
petition of this (iiii;)!e proccf^, a great part of the river is
now contrafted to lefs than one half of its original breadth,
and has gained above four feet cf additior.al depth. As the
tonnage dnes, the greater part of which is appropriated for
this purpofe, now exceed 6ooot pir annum, thefe operation*
promiie to be continued on a piore cxtend-.d fcale than ev-r ;
audit is probable that in a few years vefTels of large burth-ii
may be brought up to the city. The largell hitherto brought
up are about 150 tons, the depth of the channel being about
nine feet at high water. The gentleman who now diric>s
thefe improvements thinks, tl.at in a f.nv years this depdi
maybe increafcd to 14 feet by the prefent plan.

It was lately propofed to improve the. harbour by the
contlrudion of wet docks ; but a difl^.rcnce of opinion hav-
ing arifen refpefting the controul under which thefe improve-
ments were to be placed, the ftheme has been fufpeiided,
but it is hoped not finally relinqiiinied. The tonnage dues
are one (hilling pr ton on mcrchandife, ciglit-pcnce oa
foi-eign produce, and four-pence on coals, brick, and (.;I..i-
building materials. Manure, carried upon the river for the
improvei.ieat of the adjacent country, is exempted from any
tax.

by pipes, without requiring to be forced a fecond time.
The inhabitants are left to tlieir own free choice from
which company to take t.heir fupply.

Rivtfr Clyde. — The Clyde takes its rife about 60 miles to
the fouth-eafl of Glafgo-'.v, i;i the fame nioimtain which
forms the fources of the Tweed and the Annan. Near the
county town of Lanark, about 28 miles above Glafgow, it
has three remarkable f.dij or catarail<!, much vilited by
ftrangers. From Lanark to Gbfgow it pafles through a
ti:ie valley, richly wooded ir, many places, fertile and highly
c.iltivated. From the new bridge oi Glafgow, where it
becomes navigable, until it terminates i 1 St. Oorge'.-, or
tlie Irifh channel, about 80 miles uiftant. About thirty
years ago, Mr. Goldburn, an eminent engineer, was employed
by the city of GLfgow to deepen the river, from the
Broomilau or liarbour, to th.e fea-port tov.-ns of Port
Glafgow and Greenock, the former lituated 2j, and the
L:ttcr 24 miles below the city. This he effeded in a very
judicious, although gradual and economical ma:iner. The
b->neficial effects of his plan became foon apparent, have
been, every fuccefljve year, improving, and muli continue

The country (tretching along the banks of the Clyde, for
a mmibcr of miles, bo:h above and below the city, is gen.--
raiiy fertile, and, in mod places, highly cuhivatcd, and Well
cnc'ofed. The parifh of Goyan, fituated on the foiith bank
of the river, is, perhaps, as highly improved as any dillrift
in Britain. Befides the natund fertility of the foil, this may
be accounted for by the plentiful fupply of co'jI, lime, aiitl
manure, which are fupplied at cheap rates by water-car-
riage. It muft alfo be greatly promoted by the circum-
iiaijce of tiiere being many landed proprietors, whofe eilate.s,
although abundantly fuffieient to maintain thcinfclves and
families in comfort and affluence under their perfonal fupcr-
inte.idence, are not fo large as to induce them to relinquirti
the profits i.nd emoluments of cultivati?ig thiir own property,
which, of courfe, derives the united benefit of tin ir pci foiial
ilvill, indiillry, and capital, bcfides tiiat emulation which a
laudable fpirit of rivalry excites among them to furpafi
each other. The higher lands, both to the iiortli and fouth,
a;-e toniiderably inferior, both i;i foil and cultivation, to
ihole in the valley. In eviry diicclion roni>d Ghfo^iw,
coal, lime, and iron -Hone are foin.d in great plenf, and give
great advantages to the agricultund and manufaAuring-
clafies of the community.

The fuburbs cf Glafgow, which form the chief refidenccs
of the operative trad'tmin, are the following :

Cit-.ion — a very populous vilLige, immediately adjoining
to tlve city on the foirth-eall, and bordering on the Orrrn of
Glafgow. This village contains upward." of 2C,oco inha-
bitants, with many manufactories, dillilleries, &c. The
green ferves both for palhire and for tlit purpot- s of wnfti-
inT and bleaching There are a commodioua wafhing-houfe,
and line widk.* for the recreation of the inhabitants. 'I'he
dues of wafhing and pall-.re torm part ot the city revenue.
Tlie green contains upwiurds of ice acres of ground.

GLASGOW.

DriJg:'i:'uin — anollicr fubi'.rb adjoiujag to the former,
and fimi'ar in every refpeft.

Gorha's — a vil'agc on the oppofite bank of th.' Clyde,
jTovfrni'd by a chief magilbate, appointed by the council of
G!'afg;;)\v, and t.vo reiideiit baillies.

AndL-rflo;'., BroivnJi.JJ, Fiiaufimu and Pnrtkk Thof-

four villages lye to tlie well of Glafgovv, on the north bank
of the Clyde ; they alfo are rcfidonces for operative tradef-
inen, and contain feveral extenfive manufaSories, vIt:. three
Inrg.T cotton mills, nn cxtenfivc puntfield, and porter brewery,
at Anderfton ; a large and flouriiliing glafs-work at Fiii-
iiuilon, and the vc/y largo fiour-rnills belonging to the incor-
poration of bakers at Glafg.iw, at Particle, where arc alfo

yer is heard here, and tlie pleadings are verbal. Tliey review
their own decifions upon appeal, provided the fiim decerned
for be lodged with the clerk of court.

8. The coniniifTary court is the remnant of the bjfliop's
court. It decides for fums under 3./. 6s. 8,-/., and alfo in
cafes of defamation. Its jurifdiftion extends over all the
ancient bifliopric.

Poltce EJhMfiment — This eftablifliment was conftitutcd
a few years ago under the authority of a fpecial atl of
parliament. The commillioners named in the aft are, the
lord provoll and baillies, and twenty-four conimifiiuners eleft-
ed by twenty-four wards, into which number the city is
divided. The qualification of a commifTioncr, is the occu-
the ruins of an ancient calile, formerly belonging to the pation of a divcU'mg lioufe valued at 15/. or upwards ot

arclibifliop.

IluincipisI G overmnen! of Glnf^oiu.
This, as formerly remarked, in ancient times, was almoft
cy.clufivcly veiled in the archbilhop and chapter. Since the
reformation, it underwent various changes during the fuc-
ceffive altcrnions of government in Scotland at large. The
lad arrangement made by royal and parliamentary authority,
was early in the l8th century, under William and Mary.

yearly rent ; and of a voterj that of any houie at 10/.
or upwards. Tlie bufinefs of this ellablidrmcnt is the light-
ing, cleaning, and guarding of the flreets, and fuppreflion
of quarrels, riots, and other breaches of the public peace.
For this purj»ofe a mafter, or intcndant of police officers,
and watchmen are emploved. A magillrate fits every morn-
ing at the police office to decide upon thofe who have been
apprehended during tlie niglit. Where the charge isferious.

Jt has fince been modified by the authority of the Scottiih he generally remits the cognizance of it to the town court,
convention of royal boroughs, who cxercife this power and punilhes petty delinquencies by a fmall fine. The exper.ce
without difpute. As at prefent conllituted, the government is defrayed by a tax on the valued rents of Ihops, ware

of the city is veiled in the lord provult, three merchant;:,
and two trades baillies, the dean of guild, or prefident of
the merchants, the convenor, or prefident of the trades, the
city treafurer, and mailer of the public v.orka, twelve
counfellors from the merchants, and eleven from the

houfes, and dwelling houfes, by fines levied in the courie
of tlie year by the fale of manure, from cleaning the
ftreets, &c The maximum of the tax is from 6d. to is. 3/i.
per pound of valued rent, but much lefs has been generally
found lufrioient. This inllitution has been always hitherto

incorporated trades, in all 33 counfellors. To this body condudlcd willi the moll vigila.it attention to economy, and

the regulation of all the public bufinefs belongs ; the lord
provoll being prefident, with the calling or deciding vote
111 caf-s of parity. The courts of jullice v.ithin the city
are the following :

i» Tne circuit court of julliciary, for the cognizance of
criminal aClions, which is held twice a year at Glafgow,
for the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton,
generally before two of the lords commiffioners, aUhough
any one of their number is competent. This court alfo de-
cides appeals in civil caufes from any of the inferior courts
jvithin the diilricl,

2. The magiilrates or town court. This court is

IS very popular even among thofe of the citizens, who
ilrenuoudy oppoled its original adoption.

Commerce and ManufaP.ures. — The commercial importance
of Glalgow only began to rife fubfequen.ly to the Union,
and had attained no very important extent until the coloni-
zation of North America opened a wide field for the ex-
portation ot Britifli commodities and the importation of
American produce in return. Previous to the commence*
ment of the American war in 1775, ''• ^'"^> 'wwever, en-
gaged very extenfively in the tobacco trade, for it appears
that of 90,000 hhds. of tobacco imported into Britain in
1772, 49,000 hhds. were brought into the Clyde alone.

held under the authority of the magiilrates, afiifled by the and, in 1775, the importation was 57,143 hhds
town clerks as legal afielTors. The jurifdidlion of this court The operations of the war neceflarily put a (lop to this

extendi to any amount fubjecl to an appeal to the court intercpurie, to the great lofs of the merchants engaged in

of feiTion. it ; many of whom have never been able to recover their

3. The confcience court, for the decifion of petty caufes debts. Upon the i-elloration of peace in 1783, the trade
under twenty fliiUings, where t!ie formality of an oath is with America revived, and coulinutd again in a flouridiing
difpcnfed with, or any written pleading. Hate, until again recently fufpended by the American non-

4. The fitting magillrate alfo decides daily trifling claims intercourfc ad. In 1783, the rcgillercd veflcls of the
under five flriUings. The magiilrates alfo exercife a crimi- Clyde, were 386, and their tonnage 22,896, and in 1S03,
nal jurildi&oiJ ill petty crimes, andpunllhby imprifonment, the number cleared outwards and imvards was as follows,
pilidry, and fometimes public whipping and banilhmciit At Greenock inwards,
from the city. _ Foreign trade 406 iliip?, 53,546 tons, 51 S3 men.

5. l"he fiieriff court, for the under-ward of Lanarkfiiire,
is alfo held at Glafgow, before the Iheriff fubllitute. His
jurifdiftion is equal to that of the magiilrates, not only
V, itliin the city, but the diftrift. , The decifions of this
court are fubjetl by appeal to the fheriff depute and to the
court of feflion.

6. The juftice of peace court alfo decides civil caufes to
a limited amount, and regulates difputes between mailers
and fervants. The appeal from this court is to the quarter
felTions, and finally to the court of feffions.

7. The fmall debt court is held by two or more jullices,
for the decilionof caufes under 10/. No profeffionallaw-

Coall and filhing 730 velfels, 35,532 SH?

Outwards,

Foreign trade 352 fhips, 50,366 Ions, 3673 men.

Coall and fifiiing 1016 vefl'els, 43,009 33^^

At port Glafgow inwards,

Foreign trade ii3niips, 18,722 tons, 1081 men.

Coall and fifliing 182 velfels, 7,226 551

Outwards,

Foreign trade 177 fhips, 25,13; tons, 1692 men.

Coall and fifhing 119 velfels, 7,202 424

Total

l^%

238,790

17.077

From

G L A S G O \V.

From this note fome iJca may be formed of the extent of
flie trade ; but many of thcfe veffcls having' p.obably made
feveral voyages in the courfe of tlie year, it is not to be in-
ferred that this number of veflels aihially bL-longs or trades
to the Clyde. The articles of exportation are chiefly Bri-
tifh maniifaftiired goods, coals, fiili, S:c. and the imports
European, American, and colonial produce.

The city of Glafgow had alfo a very confiderable com-
mercial intercourfe with the eallern parts of the illand, and
with the northern Hates of Europe, until this was fufpcnded
by the events ot the war. This intercourfe is carried on by
means of the Forth and Clyde canal, which interfefts Scot-
land, and forms a junSion between the eallcrn and uellern
feas, fome account of wliich has already been given under
the article Canal.

The manufactures of Glafgow had obtained no very great
extent previous to the commencement of the American war,
although they had been rrogreffivcly advancing duri'ig the
whole courfe of the eighteenth century. So fc'r back as the

The manufa<5ture of the oxy-muriate of lime, in a dry
form, for the purpofcs of bleaching, &c. i: alfo alrr.oA pecu-
bar tf, Glafgow. Jis objra i.s to dccreafc the cxpencc of
bleaching by the fubllitution of lime for polafh. This ar-
ticle is made to great e.sttnt by Mr. Tennent tlie iiivtntc r.

Iron liquor, for the ufe of printers, is made here by vari-
ous perfons, and largt- alum works are cftabhaicd'in ihc
neiglibourhood. Manufactures of red and white kad are
alfo carried on.

Mifcellanrous Remarls.

It will appear that the city of Glafgow h is v.ndcrgone
three remarkable changes. Its firft ftate was the ref.dcnce
of a great archiepifcopal fee, and confequcntly it was fcr
many ages entirely under ck-rical ir.fluence and controul.
Its lull eminence as a commercial place arofe from its fa-
vourable fituation for commerce with the American and Well
Indian colonies, aTid through this trafuck it made rai;id ad-
vances in conmiercial importance during the whole courfe cf

reign of Charles II. indeed, fome attempts had been made tlie eighteenth century. One bnmch of thin traflick fctiiig at

to introduce the nranutadure of foap, refining of fugar, and lead for the prefent fuf ended, it now dejiendo clelfly on ths

fome other branches, all of which ):oved abortive, and other, and upon its maiiufadures for fupp<irt. Fr'-m th"

were difcontinued. The linen manufadure was tb.e moil ex- facilities of acquiring a good education, the inhabitants of

tenfiveof the various attempts made, and tlie moll fuccefsful Glafgow have generally added a c<ynfiderab!c lalle for lite-

during the time that it lalled. It commenced about the r.'.r^- attainment even to their commercial habits, and tliis

3-ear 1725, and continued progreiTively advancing until it '^'e prevail.s perhaps, in a degree fuperior to any other coir-

was almoll entirely fuperfeded by the cotton towards the mercial [:l,ice in Britain. The fyllem of education is, how-

clofe of the century. The cotton manufacture, which is now ever, rapidly ad.ipting itfelf to the modern purfuits of the

unqucftionably the ilaple trade of Glafgow, was profecuted inhabitants, and m.ore pains are now taken to qualify the

to very fmall extent until after the year 1 784-, but when once riiing generation for iininence in the counting-houfe than

introduced it advanced with unprecedented rapidity, It is the clofet. However defirable a thorou"-h knouKdgc of the

im.poffible to afccrtain with any precifion its actual amount principles of commercial economy, and the details of bufi-

either in quantity or value at any given period for want of nefs maybe in a commercid community, it is itill :o be

proper data. A computation in 1791 makes the number hjped, thit ail the benefits arif n >■ from inifllcCtual attain-

of looms employed 15,000, and the perfons who earntd mcnt will not be deemed altogether ni g.'ijry, and confc-

their fubfiltence by various parts of the proceffes of fpinning, qucnlly ne-'kfled. In every fituation of liie, thev aiT foiirces

weaving, bleaching, &c. 135,000. It alio eftimates the total of ration.il and innocent amufement, and, in the vicillitudes to.

value of the goods made yearly at 1,500,000/. The grounds which commercial enterprii'e is peculiarly expofeJ, may often.

of this calculation are not ftated, and little reliance can be pro\eot real benefit and utility to the poflellor.
placed on it, for the value of cotton goods has fluctuated as The city of Glafgow returns a meir.ber to the Eritifti
remarkably as the quantity has extended.

Two manufactories of earthen ware are carried on in
Glafgow, but neither of tbom extenfively. Indeed a much
greater quantity of Staflordfliire ware is ufed in the city it-
felf than of the produce ot either. Two or thre<e rope
Avorks are alfo carried on, but to no great extent.

The printing of calicoes and o:iier goods is, however, a faid that the (irft plan was to improve tlie harbour of Dtiiii-
vcry extenfive branch of the niaiiifaiTture of Glafgow and barton for this purpofe, but Duirbartcn being a royal bo-
its vicinity. The moll extenfive of thefe works, are thofe rough, the confent of its magillrates became necelTary. and
fituated upon the water of Leven, in Dumbartonfliire, about that v. hen made, it was rejected by that body, who preferred
18 miles dillant. The exten.'ionof the cotton trade has alfo the full enjoyment of tlieir ciiartered privileges to the idea
greatly improved and enlarged the number of d^-e -works, of finking into the mere fea-port of Glalgow, however mm.li

parbaim nt, coniunitly with the neighbouring burghs of
R'lthuglen, Renfre-.r, and Dunibarton.

Gla.soow, Port, tituattd on the river Clvde, about 22-
miles below the city, is a handfime fmall town, and was
projefted by the laagillrates of Glafgow at the requell of
the merchants as a harbour for their ihips and vellels. It is

and the manufactures of chrmical preparations for the vari'
ous proceffes of bleaching, dyeinj?;, and printing. Thcfe
works are fituated in the vicinity ot the city, chiefly on the
banks of the river.

Of the chemical works carried on in Glafgow, fome are
peculiar to it

their v.ialtli, revenue, population, and general iirofjKrity
miglit be benefitted by fucli an union. If this were the
eafi-, It is one among the niimberlefs inilanees wIilic comfort
and profpenty have been facriticed to a mere empty title.
Tlie harbour of port Glalgow is good but flinllow. Tlie
difadvantage of the tjank, noti ed in the article GliEESOt K,

The manufacture of Cudbear was introduced by Mr. is alio much agajnfl it as a liavcn. At port C'laf^ow there

Mackintofh fo long rgo as the year 1777. It is prepared is a cuflom-houfe, where the general cuitoms of tfie Clyde

iioTa rcch-mofs, and above 2000 gallon;, ot l-.umaii urine are are coUefted. There is here alio a fine gravinfr, or drj- dock,

daily confumed in the procel's. The cuilbear gives a dark built by the me.'ch.mt.i of Gl.ifgow long before that t.f

reddifh colour, and is ufed in the dying of leatiier, woollen Cr.enock was executf'd, and this ciicumilancc alone brought

ilufFf, &c. The procefr. is kept profoundly lecet. ii.„.iy Oiips up to this ;'ort which now come no further tl.r.n

The difcharging of the Turkey red dye io alfo peculiar Gr.^iiock. The fituatisn i;f port Glafgow is more pleafant

to Glafgow. This procefs is particularly defcribed under than that of Greenock, -.i.^ country more lc\Ti, and better

the article Difcbai^ing of Colour.. ' adapted for cultivaliou. In other relpeds it is certainly

Icls

G L A

ffs calculated for the creneral purpofes of maritime Iraffitk
than it> rival, anil therefore there is little probability of its
cxtenfion. Indeed the (liippinj; belonging to Glaf;;o\v is
certainly on the decreafe, the iorcign merchants iinding it
more for their advantage to freight or charter veflels tor i'.ny
pnrpofe than to bnild'or bny vclTels of their own, which
both ccnfumc or link a confulerable portion of their capital,
and may, from the many cafualties and flutlnatiuns to which
commerce in this eventfid age is expofed, prove rather _ln:r-
thens than advantages, while the mere (liip-owner, if d--
privcd of a freight or charter-party at one port, may with
greater facility feekit at another, than the perfon with whom
freiglit is only a fecondarv and inferior confideraticn.

Port Glafgow is governed by magiftrates, appointed by
the council of Glafgow, and ibme refident magillrates. Its
exports and imports have been already given and compared
with thofe of Greenock under the article Glasgow, whidi
indeed furnifnes by far the greater part of the freight to and
from both ports.

There are no manufaftures here of any extent, excepting
thofe which are to be found at almoll all fea-port towns, 'vi-z,.
fliip building and rope fpinning. Both of thefe are carried
on to a very confiderable extent. A work was erected lonie
years ago for refining of fugar, and alfo a fmall cotton-mill,
but neither have ever been profecuted to any great ex-
tent.

A plan has been formed, and its execution is now begun,
which in time may produce a great efl'ect, both on this town
and Greenock. This plan has for its objeA the formation of
a more direCl communication between Glafgow and the well
fea, than the prefent circuitous navigation of the Clyde, by
means of a navigable canal to be carried from Glaigow to
Ardroffan, near Irvine, which is about thirty miles farther
down the river than the prefent feaports. This canal was
projefted under the fanftion and patronage of the prefent
earl of Eglintoun, (lord ArdralTan of Great Britain,) a part
of wliofe eftatcs lie in that neighbourhood. Its objeftf are
two-fi;ld. Firft, to facihtate the maritime iutercourfe of
Glafgow and Paifley with the New World, by a more di-
reft channel and better harbour. Second, to improve the
agricultural and internal date of Renfrewfliire, and the
northern didrift of Ayrfliire, by affording means for the
cheap conveyance of coal, lime, manure, and other heavy ar-
ticles by means of the canal. Ardroffan is fituated not
more than thirty miles from Glafgow, by the line of the
projccled canal, and therefore the carriage of goods will not
be more expenfive or tedious than by the Clyde, for the canal
being free from the conilant interruptions arifing from the
operation of wind and tide upon the river, the time of arri-
val and departure may be depended upon at all feafons and
in all weathers. A confiderable fum has already been fub-
fcribed for the canal, and alfo for the harbour, and from
the well-known energy and aclivity of his lordiliip's general
charafter, there is no reafoii to doubt that every exertion
for its fpeedy completion will be ufed.

It is natural to expeft that every oppofition will be given
by thofe «hofe loca^ interefts will fuffer by the fuccefa of
this undertaking, and thefe comprehend many wealthy and
povvi rful cl.ifles ; but wliilll fome oppole, others will liiid it
their intereft to promote it, and the competition mull be ul-
timately advantageous to the general body, however it may
terminate as to thofe more immediately interefted.

The other part of the plan is the formation of an excel-
lent and fecure harbour at Ardroffan, capable of receiving
Chips of large burthen, and this alfo is begun. The lubfcrip-
f ions for the two undertakings are conducted feparately. The
cuail here is in fome places reckoned dangerous during the

G L A

prcvalcncf of ftrnng gales from the north-weft, when vrffcls
are making the land ; but it is faid that the bay of Lamlafh,
in Arran, will afford a fafe and eafy flicker witliin a few
hours fail, when ihir. may prow to be the cafe. The furvi vs,
plans, and eflimatcB for the canal ai;d haibriir cf Ardrofan
were made under the fuperintc ndance of Mr. Telford. It
mufl be perfu'lly evident that this canal will in rJl events
produce much benefit as it pafTe,'! tlircugh the noR jopulous
and llourifhing manufacturing dillridt in Renfrcwfiiire.

Gl.\m,'>w, a new county of America, in Newbcrn
diflrict. North Carolina, taken from Dolibs's county :
boimdtd N. by Edgeoir.b, S. by Lenoir, E. by Pitt, and
W. by \'/ayne — Alfo, a town of New York, on the E.
coafl of lake Cayuga; eight nules S. of Cayuga.

Gl^ASS, in the general acceptation of this term among
CliLmifts, denotes any fubflaucc or mixture, earthy, faline, or
metalhc, which is reduced bv igneous fufion to the fliape
of a hard, brittle, uniform mafs, which breaks with a con-
thoidal fradlure, palling into fplinterv, and with a high de-
gree of Liftre. Motl glaffes of this kind are alfo tranfpa-
reiit. See ViTUiFif.-\Tjo.\.

Gl.\.s.s, Vhruni, in a more reflricted fenfi-, and as tlielerm
is commonly ufed in the arls ixnA. manufuriuirs, fignifies tliat
tranfparent, iolid, brit'l ;, faftitions fubitance, produced by
tlie viti-ification of filiccous earth witli various falls and metal-
lic oxyds, which is applicable to innumerable purjKifes of
ornament and comfort, as well as of fcientific inveiligation
and refearch.

As to the antiquity of the term gitifs, Tacitus (Genu.
c. ^.5.) and Pliiiy (1. xxxvii. c. 3.) inform us, that amber
was called among the ancient Gauls or Germans by the name
oi glifum or glcffhm; and from the fimilarity which glafs bore to
amber with refpecl to tranfparency ;'nd brightneis, it acquir-
ed a name, which was. In all probability, originally the fame.
The word glefum denoted, without doubt, a lliir.ing cr tranf-
parent fubllance, asg/.i/pn exprefTes at prefent in the German
language to (hine ; and our Englifh word to g/i/hi: is derived
from it, and has nearly the fame fignilication.
that fome critics were of opinion, that the \
implied glafs rather than'amber. ^I'he ancient Greeks, as it has
been obierved, applied the fame term (r.X:^.?^.^) both to o-hil's
and auiber. The herb with which the Britons painted il.iir
bodies had alio the name of glq/lunh perhaps from the /lii»
ing appearance it m.ight give to th.eir il-;ins, or poHibly becaufe
its aihes might be ufed in tJie making of glafs. The l.,atin,s
called the fame plant by the name of -oiinnii, the word.they
ufed to fignify glafs. (Cxfar. Bell. Gall 1. v.)

We find frequent mention of this jilaiit in ancient writers,
particularly Csfar, Vitruvius, Pliny, &c. who rthi'c, that
the ancient Britons painted or dyed tlieir bodies witli glalfum,
guadum, vitrum, &c. /. e. with the ble.e colour jirocured from
this plant. And hence, as fome have fiippofcd, the factitious
matter we are'fpeaking of, came to be called glafs, as having
always fomewhat of this '• luifiiiicfs in it.

Merret (Not. in Ar.t. Ntri de /. rt. Vilrar.) gives us the
following characters or ])ropertics of glafs, bv wliich itisdlf-
tinguiflied from all other bodies, I'iz. I. 'i'hat it is an artificial
concrete of fait andfand, or Hones. 2. Fnlible by a llroiig
fire. 3. When fufed, tenacious and coh.crent. ^. It does
not wafleor confumein the lire. 5. \Vhen melled, it cleaves
to iron. 6. Ductile, when red-hot, and fafliionable into any
form, but not malleable ; and capabl.- of being blown into a
hollownefs, which no mineral is. (See DL'CTii.nv cf CLifs.)
7. Frangible when thin, williout annealing. S. Friable
when cold. g. Alwavs diaphanou?, whether hot or cold.
10. Flexible and e'alfic. 11. Diffoluble bv cold and moil",
tuiv. 12. Only capable of being graven, or cut with .1
I *l:aiaond

JJucarge fays
m-A ^Irfuw itfelf

GLASS.

•diamonJ or otlier liard ftonfs, and emery. 13. Receives
^■17 colour or dye, both externally and internally, i^. Not
<ii(T'olvable by aquafortis, aqua-regia, or mercury. 15. Nei-
tli'r acid juices, nor any other matter, extraft either co-
lour, taile, or any other quality, from it. 16. It admits of
polilhing. .17. Neither lofcs of weight nor fubftance, by the
longed and mod frequent ufe. 1 8. Gives fufion to other me-
tals, and foftens them. 19. The mod phable thing in the
world, and that which bed rcta'ns the fadiion given it. 20. Not
capable of being calcined. 21. An open glafs, filled with
water in the fummer-time, will gath>'r drops of water on the
outfide ; jud fo far as the water on the i."fide reaches ; and a
man's breath blown upon it will manifeltly moiden it.
Z2. Little glafs balls, filled with water, mercury, and other
liquor, and thrown into the fire, asalfo drops of green glafs
broken, fly afunder, with a loud noife. 23. Neither wine,
beer, nor any other liquor, will make it mudy, nor change
its colour, nor rud it. 24. It may be cemented as dones and
metals. 25. A drinking-glafs, partly filled with water,
and rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, hiflieror lower, as the glals is more or lefs full ; and
this makes the liquor frillc and leap. Sec A kmonica. For the
elef.rical properties of glafs, fee Electric, &c.

Glass, origin nnd hijlory of. De Neri will have glafs as
ancient as Job ; for that writer, chap xxviii. ver. 17. fpeak-
ing of wifdom, fays, " gold and glafs cannot equal it."

This, we are to obferve, is the reading cf the Septuagint,
Vulgate Latin, St. Jerom, Pineda, Sec. for in the Englidi
verfion, indead of glafs, we read cryjial ; and the fame is
done in the Chaldee, Arias Montanus, and the king of
-Spain's edition. In other verfions, &c. it is read Jlone ; in
others b:ryl : in the Italian, Spanifli, French, High and Low
Dutch, &c. diamond; in others, carbuncle; and in the Tar-
gum, looliing-glafs.

In efleft, the original word is s chuchith, ( n'D''3' ) which
is derived from the root zacac, to purify, cJeaufe, Jlnnt, be while,
iranfparent : and the fame word (Exod. xxx. 34.) is applied
to frankincenfe ; and rendered in the Septuagint pellucid.
Hence the rcafon of fo many different renderings ; for the
word fignifying beautiful and tranfparent, in the general, the
tranflators were at liberty to apply it to whatever was valu-
able and tranfparent.

Herodotus (1. iii.)is, according to Dr. Falconer (M;ni-
cheder Memoirs, vol. ii.), the mod ancient writer ( B. C. 440)
■who ufed the word ^vxf-or, which is generally uno'erllood to
fignify glafs. But heevidcTitly does not mean artificial glafs,
iiorcrylial, but, moll probably, fomewhat ot thelalcky kind,
or lapis fpecularis, which might readily be framed in fuch a
manner, a» to form a convenient tranfparent cafe, fuch as the
ancient hidorian has defcribed. Aridophanes ( B. C. 400)
feems to be the next writer who mentions glafs : that poet,
in- his comedy called the Clouds, fcene I. atl. 2. vifes the
wotd hyahis, \i-jX^; which is now ordinarily rendered glafs.
He there introduces Strepfiades teaching Socrates a new way
•to pay old debts, -jia. "by placing a fair tranfparent ilone,
fold by the diuggids, from which the fire is druck, between
the fun and the writing, and fo melting away the letters there-
of." Thio done Socrates calls vjXo., which the Scholiad on
Aridophanes derives from ln-t, to rain, from the likcnefs it
bears to ice, which is rain, or water congealed ; though, it
mud be owned, the word u-^^oc is ambiguous, and fignifies
tiyjlal as well as glafs : and Gorraeus obferves, that the an-
cients had a kind of yellow amber, tranfpai-cnt as glafs,
called bv fome v:i\ar.

Aridotle ( B. C. 340) has two problems upon glafs : the
fird. Why we fee thi-ough it ? The fecond. Why it is not
malleable ; If thefe problems be Aridotle's, which the learn-
VoL. XVI.

ed doubt very much, this would properly be the earliefl tef-
timoriy in favour of the antiquity of glafs. Thcophraftu*
(B. C. 303) feems to have been well acciuaintcd with glafs ;
for he defcribes it as having been made of the f;ind of the
river liclus, v/hich was called vO.t , to which lie adds, that
the commoned kind.s arc made with copper. The celebrat-
ed fphere of Archimedes (B. C. 209). if it be truly dtfcribed.
is a remarkable inftance of the perfcclion to which tlic art of
making glafs had been brought at that early period.

Lucian mentions largo drinking glaffes ; and Plutarch, m
his Sympofiacon, fay.f, that the fire of tamanfi< wood is the
fitted for making of glafs.

Among the Latin writers, Lucretius ii the firft that tak.er>
notice of glafs ; " Nin recta foramina tranant, qualia (ur.t
vitri ;" lib. vi. v. 3. Dr. Merret, however, adds, that glafs
could not be unknown to the ancients, but that it mud needs
be as ancient as pottery itfelf, or the art of making bricks ;
for fcarcely can a kiln of bricks be burnt, or a batch of
pottery -ware be made, but fome of the bricks and ware vriU
be at lead fuperficially turned to glafs.

Hence, Ferrant. Imperatu;, lib. xxv. cap. 7. " Glafs,
like the common kind, is found under ground, in places
where great fires have been. Other glades are found in round
clods, like fire-done, fome brittle, others firm, &c. This
foifil glafs is wrought by the Americans, and ufed iiidcad of
iron. And no doubt but vitrifications were more common in
the ancient bricks than they are in ours ; as thvy tempered their
earth two years together, and burnt them better.

Virgil i.B.C. 39) compares the clearnefs of the water of the
Fucine lake to glafs. yEncid, v. 759. Horace (B. C. 36) is
moreexprefs, and mentions glafs in terms that fliew its clear-
nefs and brightnefs to have been brought to great perfettion.
Carm. iii. Od. 2. Od. 13 In the time of Strabo, ( A. D. 27)
the manufadure of glafs was undoubtedly well underdood,
and had become a coiiliderable :u-ticlc. Seneca (A. D. 65')
was not only well acquainted with glafs as a fubdance, but
alfo imderiiood its magnifying powers when formed into a
convex fhape. Qua^d. Natur. lib. iii. vi.

Pliny (A.D 77) relates the inanner of the difcovery of
glafs. It was fird made of fand, according to tliat author,
(Nat. Hid. 1. xxxvi. c. 66, &c.) found in" the river Belus,
a imall river of Galilee, running from the foot of mount
Carmel, out of the lake Cendevia. The part of the (horc
where the fand was dug did not exceed 500 paces in extent,
and had been ufed many ages before for the fame purpofe.
The report of its diicovery was, that a merchant Ihip, laden
with nitre, or foflil alkali, being driven upon the coad, and
the crew going a(hore for provifions, and drcfllng their vic-
tuals upon the fliore, made ufe of fome pieces of foffil alkali
to fupport their kettles. By thefe means a vitrification of
the fand beneath the fire was produced, which afforded a
hint for the manufatlure. In procefs of time the calx
of iron, in form of the magnetical done, came to be ufed
along with the ioffil alkali, from an idea of its not only con-
taining iron, but gluts, in a liquid form. Clear pebbles,
fliells, and fodil fand, were alfo in many places employe<l
for the fame purpofe. It is faid, that in India pieces of
native crydal were ufed for that purpofe; and on that
account the Indian glafs was preferred to any other.
Phny adds, that light and dry woods were ufed for the melt-
ing of glafs ; to which tliey added copper from the iflanj
of Cyprus, and the foffi! alkali, et'pccially th.it whitii ii
brought from the Ead ludies. 'fhe furraces arc kept
bnrniMg without intermifiion, that the copper may \v
melted with tlie glafs, and out of this coinpound arc made
maiTes Ota coarfe 'alack ifh colour. Thefe li:mp> jt mafFesarr

tf f T-lS^!^

GLASS.

again melted, and tinged of the colour required. Some of
tliefe pieces ai'e brought to the Ihape required by blowing
with the breath ; fome arc ground on a lathe, and others
arc emboffed in the fame manner as filver. Sidon was for-
merly famous for thefe manufailures, as fpecula or looking-
gliifles were firft invented there ; " fiquidem ctiam fpecula
excogitaverat." Such is the ancient method of making
glafs, defcribcd by Pliny. In his time, it was made with fund
found at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, upon the fliore,
for iix miles betv.-een Cumse and the Lucrine bay. This
Tand was very fine, and was ground to powder vv-ith a ball or
fplierc and a mill. It was then mixed v.-ith three parts of the
foflil alkali, either by weight or meafure ; and being fufed,
was conveyed in a liquid ftate into other furnaces, where
it was formed into a mafs, called " ammonitrum," (or fand
combined with the foffil alkali,) which mafs was melted,
jind became then pure glafs, and a mafs of white vitrified
matter. The fame method of making it prevailed in Spain
and Gaul. Glafs was llkewife made to imitate the lapis
Obfidianus, a fubflance found by a perfon of the name of
Obfidius, in Egypt and Ethiopia. This fubilance was of a
very black colour, yet obfcnrely tranfparent, and often
placed among fpecula in the walls of rooms, to reflett the
fhadow of objefts. It was alfo ufed for the fame purpofe
as gems (probably for engraving upon) and even for ftatues.
Pliny mentions, that he faw lolid ftatues of the emperor
Aucruflns made of this material ; and the fame emperor
dedicated four elephants made of the fame fubilance in the
temple of Concord. It feems to have been ufed from great
antiquity ; but in the time of Pliny the artificial imitation of
it by glafs was ufed inftead of the native material ; and he
intimates that the black colour was produced by fome
colouring ingredient. The Romans had likewife an opaque
red kind of glafs, ufed for plates and diihes for the table,
called " hxmatinon,'' one of various colours, called
" myrrhinuni,'' a white, a clear red, a blue, and indeed moft
other colours. Pliny obfervcs, that no fubilance was more
manageable in receiving colours, or being formed into fhapc,
than glafs. The perfcftly clear glals, which bore the
greate'it rcfemblance to cryflal, was, however, moft valued.
Nero gave for two cups, with two handles to each, and of
no extraordinary fize, 6000 fefterlia, or nearly 50,000/. fter-
ling. The inferior kinds were not uncommon, as PHny
informs us, that the ufe of glafs cups had nearly fuperfcdcd
. tliofe of gold and filver. We fliall here add, tliat Pliny knew
the power of a hollow glafs globe, filled w'ith water,
in concentrating the rays of light, fo as to produce
flams in any combuftible fubftance upon which the focus
fell; and he alfo mentions, that fome furgeons in his time
made u/e of it as a cauftic for ulcers (1. xxxvii. c. 2.).
He was likeu-ife acquainted with the comparative hardnefs
of gems and glafs, as he obferves, that the lapis Obfidianus
would not fcratcli the true gems ; and he alfo mentions
(1. xxxvii. c. 13.), the coimterfeiting of the latter, in his
time, as a vei-y lucrative art, and brought to great perfec-
tion. He alfo fays, that glafs might be cut or engraven
upon by m.eans of diamonds, which art is evidenced by the
antique gems fo frequently found. (See Gem.) Jofephus,
(I. ii. c. 10.) mentions the fand of the river Belus, in
Galilee, as fit for making glafs.

The firft time we hear of glafs made among the Romans
was in the reign of Tiberius, when Pliny relates that an
artift had liis houfe demoliflied for making glafs malleable,
or rather flexible ; though Petronius Arbiter, and fome
others, affure us, that the emperor ordered the artift to
be beheaded for his invention. In the tim.e of Martial,
(A.D. S4) glafs was not only brought to great perfettion,

7

and in common ufe for drinking veffels, but was employed
(as it feems) for bottles in which wine was kept, and like-
wife for pots to hold flowers. (Epig. 1. 1. ii. 22. 40. 1. iv. 86.)
Galen (A.D. 143) frequently mentions glafs in feveral
parts of his works, and feems to have been well acquainted
with the method of making it. Apuleius (A.D. 161)
mentions the manufafture of glafs cups, in his time, as
highly wrought and carved in various vi'ays, and of great
value. Alexander Aphrodifienfis (A.D. 214) a Greek
writer, and a commentator on Ariftotle, has feveral re-
marks on glafs refpefting both its brittlenefs, efpecially on
change of temperature, and its tranfpareney.

The manufatlurers of glafs formed a company at Rome,
and had a ftreet affigned them, in the firll region of the city,
near the Porta Capena. A tax was laid upon them by
Alexander Severus (A.D. 220) which fubfifted in the
time of Aurelian, and probably long after.

Mr. Nixon, in his obfervations on a plate of glafs found
at Herculaneum, which was deftroyed A. D. Po, on which
occafion Phny loft his life, offers feveral probable conjec-
tures as to the ufcs to which fuch plates niiglit be applied.

Such plates, he fuppofes, might fcrve for fpecula, or
looking-glafles ; for Pliny, in fpeaking of Sidon, adds,
" fiquidem etiam fpecula excogitaverat ;'' the reflection of
images from thefe ancient fpecula being efFefted by bc-
fmearing them behind, or tinging them through with fome
dark colour. (See MinRor..) Another ufe in which thty
might be employed, was for adorning the walls of tlieir
apartments by way of wainfcot, to which Pliny is fuppofed
to refer by his intre,e camene (lib. xxxvii. cap. 25. § 64- )•
Mr. Nixon farther conjectures, that thefe glafs plates might
be ufed for windows, as well as the laminas of lapis Ipc-
cularis and phengites, which were improvements in luxury
mentioned by Seneca, and introduced in his time, Ep. xc.
However, there is no pofitive authority relating to tlie
ufage of glafs windows earlier than the clofe of the third
centm-y : " Manifeftius eft,'' fays .Latlantius, " mentem efle,
per ocvdos ea qure funt oppofita, tranfpiciat, quafi per
feneftras lucente vitro aut fpeculari lapide obduftas.'' De
Opificio Dei, cap. 5. See Phil. Tranf. vol. 1. art. 80,
p. 601. vol. lii. art. 23. p. 123.

St. Jerome (A. D. 422) fpeaks of windows formed of
glafs, melted and caft into thin plates, as being ufed in his
time. Paulus Silentiarins, a poet and hiftorian of the fith
century (about A.D. 534), fpeaks of the brightnefsof the
fun's rays, pafiing through the eaftern windows of the
church of St. Sophia, at Conftantinople, which windows
were covered with glafs. Gregory of Tours (A. D. 571)
laments tlie devaftations frequently committed on the v.'in-
dows of the churches by the ravages of war. Johannes
Philoponus, who lived about the year 630, or, as fome lay,
a centiu-y earlier, not only fpeaks of glafs, but of the panes
being faflened in with plainer, much in the fame way as at
prefent.

If the opinion of Pennant, fuggefted under the article
AxGUixuM ovum, be well founded, we have reafon to be-
lieve, that, long before ' the conqueft of Britain by the
Romans, the art of manufafturing glafs into fuch orna-
ments as beads and amulets was known among the Druids j
and if the art was thus applied, it is not improbable to fup-
pofe, that it was employed for more important and ufeful
piu-pofes, as in the manufafture of glafs veflels. Nor is it
likely that the Britons derived this art from the Romans,
wlio preferred fdvcr and gold to glafs for the compofition
of tlieir drinking veflels. Befides, the glafs that was com-
monly ufed by the Romans was of an inferior quality, and
appears from foniq remains of it difcovercd at their llations

and

GLASS,

and houfes to har* confifted of a thick, fometimes white, but
softly blue-green, metal.

According to venerable Bede, artificers (Icilled in making
glafs were brought over into England, in the year 674,
by abbot Benedict, who were employed in glazing the
church and monaftery of Weremouth. According to
others, they were firft brought over by Wilfrid, or Wig-
frid, bifhop of Worcefter, about the fame time, or, as
others think, at a later period, A. D 726. Till this time
the art of making glafs, or at lealt of applying it to this
purpofe, was unknown in Britain : though glafs windows
did not begin to be ufed before the year 11 So: till this
period they were very fcarce in private houfes, and con-
sidered as a kind of luxury, and as marks of great magni-
ficence. Italy had them firft, next France, from whence
they came into England.

Leo Oftieniis (A. D. 760) fpeaks of the windows in
liis time being made with glafs-plates fixed in lead, and
faftened together with iron. Anaftafius, an hiftorian of
Rome, who was hbrarian to the pope, mentions, that in
tlie pontificate of Leo IIL who became pope about the
year 800, painted glafs in windows was in ufe. The fta-
tutes of the church of Traguier, in Lower Britany, about
the year 1156, fpeak of the windows of churches and cha-
pels being ornamented with arms and military enfigns,
painted upon the glafs in them. A charter of Richard H.
of England, quoted by Rymer, (A. D. 1386), contains a
paragraph in which is mentioned glafs, together with the
manufacture of it for windows.

Venice, for many years, excelled all Europe in the fine-
jiefs of its glafles ; and in the thirteenth century, the Vene-
tians were the only people who had the fecrct of making
cryllal looking-glaffes, and which they performed by blow-
ing, much in the fame manner as a confiderable quantity of
the common mirror-glafs is now manufaftured. The great
glafs-works were at Muran, or Murano, a villagenear the city,
which furniflied all Europe with the fineft and largeft glaffes.

The glafs manufacture was firft begun in England in 1557 :
the finer fort was made in the place called Crutched Friars,
in London ; the fine flint glafs, little inferior to that of
Venice, was firft made in the Savoy-houle, in the Strand,
London. This manufafture appears to have been much
improved in 1635, when it was carried on with fea-coal or
^it-coal, inftead of wood, and a monopoly was granted to
iir Robert Manfell, who was allowed to import the fine
Venetian fliut glaffcs for drinking, the art of making which
was not brought to perfedtion before the reign of WiUiam
IIL But the firft glafs plates, for looking-glafies and
coach windows, were made in 1673, at Lambeth, by the
encouragement of the duke of Buckingham ; who, in
1670, introduced the manufafture of fine glafs into England,
by means of Venetian artifts, with amazing fuccefs. So
that within a century paft, the French and Englilh have not
only come up to, but even fiu-pafled, the Venetians, and we
are now no longer fupplied from abroad.

The French made a confiderable improvement hi the art
of glafs, by the invention of a method to caft very large
plates, till then unknown, and fcarce praftifed yet by any
but themfelves and tlie EngUfli. That court applied itfelf
with a laudable induftry to cultivate and improve tlie glafs
manufacture. A company of glafs-men was eltabliflied by
letters patent ; and it was providea by an arret, not only
that the working in glafs fhould not derogate any thing
from nobihty, but even that none but nobles ftiould be al-
lowed to work therein.

It was in the year 1665, under the miniftry of the great
Colbert, that a company for " blowu-miiTor-glafs" was

firft eitabhdied r.ear Cherbourg, in Normandy, on the plafi
of the Venetian manufadure ; but the beautiful art of
carting glafs was invented in France about the vear i68«<;
by a perfon of the name of Abraham Tlicvart ; and a com-
pany was foon eilabliflied for this branch of manufacture,
wliich was firft carried on at Paris, and foon after removed
to St. Gobin, where it ftill cxifts in full zctivily, and undi-
miniftied reputation. An cxtenlive manufactory of ihin
kind was firft eftabliftied among us near Prefcot ia Lan-
cafliire, about the year 1773, by a refpeftable body of
proprietors, who were incorporated by an act of par-
liament. They ftruggkd lor a confi.lerable time with
difficulties ; but bcnig ncbly relieved and encouraged
by government, they have fucceeded in producing
plates rivalling, if not furpalfing in fizc, quality, or bril-
liancy, the m.oft celebrated continental manufactures. Thi»
company furnifiies, at Albion Place, London, plates of va-
rious dimenfions, from 12 to 144 inches in lengtli, and from
10 to 72 inches in breadth ; and alfo convex and concave
mirrors, from 12 to 36 inches in diameter.

Gl.^.s.s, Ingrcdknis of. The materials ufed in the compontior.
are fome faline fubftance and fomc fort of filiceous earth.

1. The firft ingredient v.-c ftiall fptcify is fi!cx or ftonc.
The beft is that which will melt, and which is white and
tranfparent. It is this that gives confiftencc andfirmnefs to
the glafs. This is found inincipally in Italy, being a
fort of ftony fubftance called tarfo : the next is puocol't, or
cuogola, a fort of pebbles found at the bottoms of rivers,
and gathered for the Venetian mamifadture out of the river Po,
which are faid not to be inferior in whitcnefs to alabafter.

Indeed, nothing makes finer and clearer glafs than common
flint, diftinguiflied for this ufe by its clear tranfparent,
black colour ; this, before it is ufed, muft be licated red-
hot, and then immediately quenched in cold water. Tlio
heat whitens it, and the water caufes it to fplit in ever)- di-
rection, and facihtates the grinding of it. The charge of
preparing this deters tlie glafs-men from ufing it. The
rounded fragments of quartz, found in the beds of rivert
among mountains, are fometimes ufed in foreign countries,
being firft heated and ground to powder. Indeed, the
preparation neceffary for ftone, in general, is to calcine^
powder, and fearce it.

Ant. Neri obferves, that all white tranfparent ftoncs,
which will not burn to lime, are fit to make glafs ; and that
all ftones which will ftrike fire with fteel, are capable of
being employed in making of glafs. But lliis latter rule.
Dr. Meriet obferves, docs not hold nniverfally. Where
proper ftone cannot be had, fand is ufed ; and it is now
almoft the only kind of fubftance employed in the Britifh
manufaftures of glafs. The beft for this purpofe is that
which is white, fmall, and fhiuing: examined by the micrc-
fcope, it appears to be fmall fragments of rock cryftal. For
green glafs, that which is of a foft texture, and more
gritty ; it is to be well ^^aftled, which is all the preparation
it needs. Our glafs-houfes are furniihcd witli white fand
for their cryftal glaffes from Lynn in Norfolk, and Maidftone
in Kent, and from, the weftern extremity of the Ific of
Wight ; and with the coarfer, for green gl.ifs, from Woolwicl..

2. The fecond ingredient in the manufacture of glafs is
an alkali, which is cither foda, or ]>ot-alh. It is alwayi
ufed at firft in the ftate of carbonat, though the carbonic
acid flies off in the procefs. For the nieihod of preparing
each, fee Carbonat. Thcfc alkalies are ufed in different
degrees of purity according to the required quahty of the
glafs. The fineit fort of glafs requires the beil pcarl-
afties, purified by folution and evaporation, to dr\--
nefs ; bat fior inferior glaffes coarfer alkidies, fuch as barilla,

S f : wei>iU

GLASS.

wood-aHies, and kelp, are employed. The allies of fci-n caufes the purple hue to vanilTi, with vi llight cffcrvefceiir/?
will alio yield a fall, which will make excellent glafs ; and, (if the glafs, and cfcape of numerous fmall air-bubbles. Oir
moreover, the afhes of tin- cods and ftalks of beans, as alio the other hand, if a fmall quantity of nitrt is added to glafe
thofc of cok'worts, bramble bufh, millet-flalks, ruflies, cy- containing manganefe, the purjile colour h reflored, or,
perufes, and many other plants, may be ufcd for the like if prefent, the difcolouring effeft of the charcoal is prc-
p\irpofe, and after the fame manner. vented, till the nitre becomes alkalized bv th;^ beat, and
Tiiere are other fluxes nfed for different kinds of glafs, mixes with liw other ingredients of t lie crucible. For the ex-
and for various purpofes. Lime, in the form of chalk, is planation of thefe phenomena, it is oblerved, that the oxyd
employed in the manufafture of glafs ; hut this muft be of manganefe gives the purp'e colour only fo long as it re-
nfed only in fmall proportions; for an cxcefs would aft mains in its higher Hate of oxygenation ; but when in con-
powerfully on the fides of the glafs-pots, in confcqucnce tacfl with charcoal, the latter partially deoxygenates it, car-
•f the efcape of the carbonic acid from the chalk during bonic acid gas is formed, the caufe of the bubbles obferved
liie fufion, and, befides, it would render the glais opaque and on this occalion, and the colour is now loll. Nitre, on t\\<r
milky in cooling, however clear it might be when hot. It other hand, is known to give out oxvgen largely as foon a*
is known by experience, that to lOO parts of filex and the red-hot; and hence the manganefe iuunediately retakes from,
jft-quifite quantity of alkali, no more than about fix or feven this fource the oxygen of w Ivich the charcoal had deprived
parts of quick-lime, or chalk, can be added, without af- jl, and refumcs its colouring power. The other fubltancef
fefting the clearnefs of the glafs. Borax is another very which take away tlie colour from glafs, tinged red with.
■Jaluable flux ; but its high price refiriels the ufe of it to manganefe, are all the falts with the bails of fulphuric acid,,
the fiiiell kinds of glafs, and to tkSTe vhich are required to fuch as gypfum, fulphat of foda, &c. and alio fulphur itfelf;
lie free from fpecks and bubbles. A very fmall quantity likcwife tlie oxyds of tin and iron, and of fome other metals.
»f borax will correct a.ny deticicM:cy of flre:ogth in the Neverthelels thefe fubftances have this power only when in
-Jkali. contact with charcoal. The tinging power of manganefe »
Of the oxyds of lead, litharge and minium are found perfectly dellroyed by the addition of arfcnic in any form.
So be of fingular ufe in the manufafture of glafs. Litharge Thus, a mixture of oxyd of cobalt and oxyd of manganefe,
is a powerful flux, and imparts to glafs the valuable qualities of in tlie colouring (late, is of a dark purple ; but on the addv
greaterdenfity andgreaterpowcrofrefradtingtheraysof light, tion of any arfeniat, or of white arfenic, the manganefe is
and of bearing fudden changes from heat to cold, without made inaftive, and the proper cobalt-blue alone appears.
being fo liable to crack, and alfo greater tenacity when Hence we perceive the necelfity, when the red colour of
red-hot, fo that it is more eafily wrought. A confiderable manganefe is wanted, to avoid anything arfenical ; and nitre
quantity of this oxyd is contained in the finer glaffes ; fuch is alio generally added to keep the manganefe always at tire-
as the London flint glafs, and that which is ufed for the proper ftate for imparting its colour. The oxyd of man-
Uible, for luftres, for artificial gems, and for moil optical ganefe is a very powerful flux for all earthy matters ; and
purpofes. Glafs, however, that contains much lead, is this, as well as lead, gives a greet denfity to glafs. The
extremely foft ; and liable to be in'iured by hard bodies white oxyd of arfenic is another powerful and cheap flux
that come into contaft with it ; and it is alfo very fuiible. in the making of glafs ; but it (hould be very moderately
It is alfo liable to be corroded by very acrid liquors. Be- ufed; for it takes a longer time to mix intimately with glafs,
fides, the ufe of lead renders it difficult fo to unite the filex and to allow it to be perfectly clear, than any other of the
and alkali, that a piece of glafs fliall be throughout of uni- additions commonly employed. For want of this the glafs
form denfity. Another ingredient occalionally ufed in has a milky hue, which inereafes with age; and when the
glafs is the black oxyd of manganefe, called " glafs-foap," arfenic is in excefs, the glafs becomes gradually foft, and

from its ufe in clearing the glafs from any accidental foul-
iiefs of colour, and more efpecially from the green tinge,
owing to the prefence of iron. Schecle and Bergman in their
refpeitive " Effays," have illuftrated many curious cireuni-
ftances that attend the ufe of manganefe in glaffes, wiiich
are particularly detailed in Aikiii's Di(£lioiiary. The man-
ganefe fhould be chofen of a deep colour, and free from
fpecks, cf a metalline appearance, or a lighter caft : and

is decompofed. Beiides, glafs of this kind is unfafe to be
ufed in the form of drinking veficls.

Nitre is alfo ufed, in fmall quantities, in the manufaftu^
of glafs, and is defigned to anfwer particular purpofes, fome
of v.'hich we have already i'pecified. It not only fcrves to
dellroy the llrong tinge of yellow which is found in glafs,
prepared with lead as a flux ; but in faline glafs, it is requi-
iite, in a fmaller proportion, to render it fufficiently tranf-

it requires ta be well calcined in a hot furnace, and then parent, as in the cafe of looking-glaffes, and other kinds of

to undergo a thorough levigation. The effect of manganefe
in deftroying the colours of glafs is accounted for by M.
Montamy, in his " Traitc des Couleurs pour la Peinturc
rn Email,'' in the following manner ; the manganefe de-
flroys the green, olive, and blue colours of glafs, by add-
ing to tl)em a purple tinge, and by the mixture producin

plates. For an account of Mr. Dollond's excellent contri-
vance for deltroying the colours in the objeft-glaffes of tele-
fcopes. See. fee AuEilK.M'iOV.

With regard to the feveral fluxes above enumerated, we

may obfcrve, in general, that the more calx of lead, or

jj other metallic earth, enters into the coinpofition of any

A blackilh brown colour ; and as blacknefs is caufed merely glafs, fo much the more fufible, foft, coloured, and denfe

by an abforption of the rays of light, the blackilb tinge this glafs is, and reciprocally.

given to the glafs by the mixture of colours, prevents the The colours given to glafs by calces of lead are fliades

refleftion of fo many rays, and thus renders the glafs lefs of yellov.': on the other hand, glaffes tiiat contain only

col.vjred than before^ But the black produced by this faline fluxes partake of the properties of falts; they are lefs

fubilance fuggefts an obvious reafon for ufing it very fparingly heavy, lefs denfe, harder, whiter, more brilliant, and more

in thofe compofitions of glafs, which arc required to be brittle than the former ; and glaffes, containing both faline

very tranfparent. and metallic flaxes, do alfo partake of the properties of both

Thi.^ purple colour may be correfted by charcoal, or in thefe fubftances. Glaffes too fahne are eafily fufceptible of

the glafs-houfe, by tlirufting a billet of wood down into the alteration by the adtion of air and water; efpecially thofe in

welted glafs, wliich becomes charred by the iiitenfe heat, and which alkalies prevail j and thefe are alfo liable to belnjured

8 by

GLASS.

By acids. Thofe that contain too much borax and arfonlc,
though at firil thfv appear very beautiful, fniiekly tarnifli,
and l)t'Com» opaque when cxp'jfod to air. By attending to
tiiele properties of different tlu\*-=:, phlogiliic or faline, tlie
» artill may know how to adjull the proportions of thcfc to
fanj, or powdered flints, for the various kind^ of o-lafs.

iilAS^i, firofioriion of inri-ei'ieiUs in. Different kinds of
glafi recpiire different proportions; nor have thefe been pre-
cifely afcertained. We lliall liere, and in fubfeqnent articles,
flate leveral of the moil ufual and approved mixtures that
have been propofed. \\nien filex is melted with twice its
weight, or more, of dry carbonated alkali, either potafh or
(oda, the relult is a very foit deliquelcent vitreons mafs,
always more or lefs opaque, ftrongly alkaline to the tafte,
and which, on expofure to moid air, or more fpeedily in
water, totally difl'olves into a clear liquor, which is a foln-
tion of filex in alkali. When the fame alkali is equal to the
filex in weight, or does not much exceed it, the glafs is now
tranfparent, but it is ftill foluble in water. It is not till the
alkali is diminiflied to about one-half of the weight of the
fdex, that the glafs becomes perfeftly hard and infoluble in
any corrofive liquors, (the fluoric acid excepted,) and, in
ihort, acquires the character of a perfeil glafs. Tliis propor-
tion, therefore, of two parts of land to one of alkali, is
ufually the datum on which the dofes of the alkalies atlnally
ufed are regulated. Thus, if common wood afhes (of which
the alkaline part is reckoned at no more than lo per cent.)
are employed, loolbs. of thefe would require no more than
about 2olbs. of fand. If the befl Spanilh barilla, contain-
ing from 45 to 50 per cent, of carbonate of foda, be ufed,
an equal weight of fand may be added; but if purified pearl-
afn be taken, it will melt down perfetfly twice its own
weight of fand. But glaffes compoted merely of pure alkali
and land, require a very ilrong lire for their fufion, and are
hard, harfh, and difticult to break : they are therefore never
ufed alone. As one half the weight of the fand is reckoned an
abundant allowance of alkali, it follows of courfe that when
litharge, arfenic, borax, or any other fluxes are employed, the
quantity of alkali will be proportionally diniiniilied. The fol-
•lowing proportions are extraftcd from Macquer's Chemical
Dictionary. If a glafs be required that is denfe, fulible,
and not faline, one part and a half of red lead or litharge
may be mixed with one part of fand, and fufed together:
if equal parts of fand and of calx of lead be employed, a
glafs fomewhat lefs denfe and harder will be produced : if a
glafs be required of very little denhty, only faline fluxes
mufl be employed. A glafs of this kind may be compofed
of fix parts of fait of tartar, or of potafh, or of purified
foda, mixed with eight parts of fand or of flints; or of four
parts of any of the above-mentioned alkalies, mixed v.-ith two
parts of nitre or of borax, and eight parts of vitriliable earth.
When a cryftal glafs is required, which fliall be of an inter-
mediate quality betwixt the metallic and faline glalfes, it
may be made from a mixture of one part of the above men-
tioned falts, one part of calx of lead, and two parts of fand
or other vitrifiable earth. By varying the proportion of
thefe ingredients, many different kinds of glalTcs may be
produced, each of which may be good, if the quantity of
each of the fluxes employed be proportionable to its vitri-
fying power.

Gl.^s.s, inj!ruments for nmnufiiauring. Thefe are fubfer-
vient to two different purpofes; viz the levigation and mix-
ture of the ingredients, and the fufion or vitrification of
them. To the former chfs belong horfe or hand-mills,
mortars and peftles, flat ftones and mullars, and fearces or
Ceves. l"ho other fort of utcnfils are furnaces, witU tlic

proper iron work, pots for containing the compofition when
put into the fire, and iron inflruments for (hifling the matter
out of one into the other, in cafe of accidents; and f<>r
taking out finall portions, in order to Judge of tlie progrefi
of the vitrification, and the qualities of the glafs, &:c. See
the following articles. See alfo Glass-Ao///^, Flun.^ce,
and Gi,A.s.s-/o/j-.

Gi.A.ss, fufion of. When tlie ingredients are fekcted and
duly proportioned, they arc firil calcined for a longer or
fhorter time, jjefore they are put into the glals-pots. Thij
operation is called " fritting,'' and is performed either lit
fmall furnaces adjoining to the proper glafs-finnace, and
heated by the fame fuel after its chief force has been fpciit
upon the glafs-pots, or elfe in fmall furnaces or ovens con-
llrudled for this purpofe. The ufes of fritting arc, to expcf
all moifturc from the ingredients, by wliich tiie glals-pot.i
would be endangered ; to difcharge j>art of the carbonic
acid from the alkalies and chalk and thus to moderate th,r
fwelling in the glafs-pots, and efpecially to caufc an adhe-
fion, or commencement of chemical union, between th';
alkali and filex, and metallic oxyds. This operation (hould
be performed gradually, and carried to the point of femi-
vitrification, in which tlie materials flrongly adiiere, aTid
begin to become pally, but are flill opaque and not homo-
geneous. This operation ferves alfo to dellroy any carbo-
naceous matter. When the ingredients are fufficiently
fritted, they are t'u-own with clean iron fhovels through tlie
fide-opening of^lhc furnace into the glafs-pots, the fire
having been prcvioufly raifed to its greatefl intenfity, lo
prevent the furnace from being chilled and to fave time.
The pots are charged by two or three fucccffive portions^
the preceding one being thoroughly melted down before
another portion is thrown in. When filled, the fide -opening
is clofed up with wet cl.iy, excepting a fmall liole for ex-
amining the work, which clofure is pulled down when the
glafs is well refined and al)out to be worked off. As foon
as the frit begins to feel the adiion of the fire in the glafs-
pots, which is immediately raifed to its greatefl pitch, it
finks down into a foft paily flate, increafing in tena-
city till the fufion is complete. However, it is flill
opaque, from the rifing of a white porous fcum, known
by the name of " fandiver,' or " glafs-gall." This fub-
ilancc appears to be a confufed mafs, confifling of all thofe
falts contained in common alk.ilies, which readily melt at
fomewhat lefs than a glafs-mclting heat, and are either
naturally foluble in a confiderable degree, or have little, if
any, afiinity for filex, and not uniting in the compofitioH of
giafs, but being lighter, rife to the top. Another hetero-
geneous fubflance, called " fandiver," is fometimes found at
tile bottom of the pots. This is quite different tVom the
other, and feems to confifl of a vitrified mafs of arfenic and
other impurities. But the fcum, or proper " glafs-gall,"
is almofl entirely faline. When laded out and cooled, it
forms a crumbly mafs, fometimes white, at other times
brown and fouled, and flrongly fahne, but not uniform in
its compofiiion, being fometimes merely fait, often very bit-
ter, probably as common fait or fulpiiat of potalh predomi-
nates. It is fo volatile in a ftrong fire, that it is conflantly
difperfing frcmi llie furface of the glafs in a deufe vapour,
which is firil thick and black, afterwards whiter, and which
corrodes the top of ths crucible in its paffage. With long
continued fufion it would entirely cfcape in this flate, if it
were not fcummcd off with long ladles, and fold to metal
refiners as a powerful flux. Abundance of this glafs-gall
is attended with one of the greatefl inconveniences to tlie
maker of glafs, as it requires a confiderable continuance of

ftrong

GLASS,

fli-oiig lieat to diffipale the whole of it, or othcrv.-ife tlic
gliifs would be full of bubbles, unfound, and having a
cloudy gelatinous apiior.raiice. It is obfcrved, that glafs
from potalli is more likely to fuffcr from glafs-gall tlian the
foda-glafs is, becaufe the potalh glaflfes arc harder, and do
not run fo thin as the other, and the glafs-gall from them
does not fo eafily difiipate in the fire.

Durinf this procefs famples for examination are drawn
out of the pots witii an iron rod ; and the glafs gradually
becomes more and more flexible, dcnfe, and Icfs brittle, and
at lull the glafs-gall is entirely diffipated. Whilll the heat
is continued, the glafs which was full of fpecks and bubbles
is relincd, and becomes beautifully clear, tranfparcnt, and
colourlefs ; and this procefs, which goes on from the cefia-
tion of the vapour of tlie glafs-gall and its entire removal to
the time when the glafs is altogether clear and free from
bubbles, is called the "refining." After this the glafs
is complete ; but being too thin for working, it is cooled,
by Hopping the draught of fire round the pot which con-
tains it, and in cooling it thickens to a fit Hate for being
wrouglit. For glafs that is call into plates, Icfs cooling is
neceflary, as it is required to flow very thin and hot. On
an average it takes about 48 liours for the fine flint glafics,
from the time when the pots are firfl filled till tiie glafs is
ready for \^■orking, in which ftate it is of a very full red
colour, and polTelfes a fingular kind of confidence and tena-
city. It is jufl foft enough to yield with cafe to any ex-
ternal impreffion, even to the force of 'die breatli urged
pretty llrongly in the centre of the glowing mafs, and may
be bent and fluiped in every poffible way ; and fuch is its
tenacity, that it extends uniformly without any cracks or
fiffures ; but when llretched out to the utmoll, it forms a folid
firing, the diameter of which is confl;antly decreafing till
it feparates from the mafs in a thin capillary thread. It
lliffens as it cools, and becomes perfectly brittle and alfo
tranfparcnt. As melted glafs adheres very feebly to polilhcd
metal, it is very eafily wrought with bright iron tools.

Glass, luork'mg or blowing round. — Every kind of glafs,
plate-glafs excepted, is formed from a hollow globe that has
been produced by blowing. For this purpofe the operator
takes his blowing-iron, which is a hollow tube, about four
or five feet long, and dipping it in the melting-pot, turns it
about there till the metal adheres to the iron like fome glu-
tinous or clammy juice ; he then holds it near the ground, fo
that the mafs is extended by its own weight, and blows
ftrongly into the tube. With his breath tlius penetrating into
the centre of the red-hot mafs, he enlarges it into an uniform
hollow globe of the requifite thicknefs and bulk, keeping
the force of his breath upon it for a few feconds till it fl:iifens
by coohng, and thus preventing its finking by the com-
preflion of the denfer external air. This globe, adhering by a
neck to the iron rod, is formed by the dexterity of the
workman, and by a variety of ingenious manoeuvres into all
the common utenfils. As a fpecimen of his art, we may
inftance a common tumbler. The hollow globe already
mentioned is taken ofl" the iron rod by the following fimple
procefs : An alliftant dips the end of a Ihort folid iron rod
into the glafs-pot, and, bringing out at its extremity fome
of the melted glafs, thrulls it immediately againll the hollow
of the globe at the part direftly oppofite to the neck, to
which it firmly unites, and thus the globe is cemented by
the melted glafs to the fecond rod. The workman then wets
a fmall piece of iron with his mouth, and lays it on the neck
of the globe, which is extremely hot, and this, in a fecond
■or two, cracks it round ; fo that with a flight pull it comes
off and detaches the hollow rod, leaving the globe open at
?the neck, and transferred to the fecond rod at the oppofite

fide. The open globe is again foftened by holding it a fe\v
feconds ovlt '!■;■ mouth of the glafs-pot, and is cut away
fi uni tiie opon end to the form of a cup by iron fliears. The
operator, when employed in fafliioning the globe, ufually
fits upon a kind of arm-chair, with its arms floping forwards ,
and covered with a flat fmooth iron-plate ; and by laying
the iron rod llraight before him, refting on both the arms of
his feat, and twirhng it backwards and forwards, the hot
glafs at the end is made to revolve like clay on a potter's
lathe, and thus is opened, widened, or compreffed at plea-
fure by any fimple iron inftrument that is prefled againfl it.
The globular cKp is thus extended eafily into a cylinder, or
made into the fhape of a barrel, if this form be required,
and is fmoothed up at the edges. In order to feparate it
from the iron-rod, it is wetted as before at the point of at-
tachment, and the tumbler drops off complete. Tliis lall
operation leaves that burr or roughnefs, with fliarp frag-
ments, which is feen at the bottom of all glafs-veffels,
unlefs it be taken off by pohfhing. The next operation is
that of cooling the veffel very gradually, called *' an-
nealing." See Anneal'wg of Glass.

Gl.\s.'5, dtfirent kinds of. The manufaftured glafs now in
ufe may be divided into three general kinds ; white tranf-
parcnt glafs, coloured glafs, and common green or bottlc-
glafs. Of the firil kind, there is a great variety ; as the
flnit glafs, as it is called with us, and the German cryllal
glnfs, which are applied to the fame ufes ; the glafs for
plates for mirrors or looking-glaffes ; the glafs for windoivs
and other lights ; and the glais for pliials and fmall veffels.
And thefe again differ in the lubftances employed as fluxes
in forming tiiem, as well as in the coarfenefs or finenefs of
fuch as are ufed for their body. The flint and cryftal,
mirror, and bell window glafs, not only require fuch purity
in their fluxes, as may render it practicable to free the glafs
pcrfedtly from all colour : but for tlie fame reafon hkewifc,
either the white Lynn iand, calcined flints, or white pebbles,
fliould be ufed. The others do not demand tlie fame nicety
in the choice of the materials ; though the fecond kind of
window glafs, and the bell kind of phial, will not be fo
clear as tiiey ought, if either too brown fand, or impure
fa'ts, be fuffercd to enter into their conipoiition.

Of coloured glafs there is a great variety of forts, dif-
fering in their colour, or other properties, according to the
occalions for which they are wanted. The diflerences in the
latter kind depend on tlie accidental preparation and manage-
ment of the artills by whom they are manufadtured.

Gl.AM';, Cryjlal. Foreigners ufe this term for our
flint glafs, and for making it they give the following direc-
tions: Take of the whitelt tarfo, pounded fmali, and fearced
as fine as flour, two hundred pounds ; of the fait of pol-
verine, a hundred and thirty pounds : mix tliem togetiiei",
and put them into the furnace, called tlie calcar, firll heat-
ing it. For an hour keep a moderate fire, and keep flirring
the materials with a proper rake, that they may incorporate
and calcine together ; then increafe the fire for five hours ;
after which take out the matter ; which, being now fufli-
ciently calcined, is called frit. From the calcar put tiie frit
in a dry place, and cover it up from the dull for three or
four mouths.

Now, to make the glafs, or cryftal: Take of this cryftal
frit, called alfo boU'tlo ; fet it in pots in the furnace, adding
to it a due quantity of manganefe : when the two are fufed,
caff the fluor into fair water, to cleai- it of the fait, called
fandiivr ; which would otherwife make the cryftal obfcure
and cloudy. This lotion muil be repeated again and again,
as often as needful, till the cryftal be fully purged ; or, this
fcum may be taken off by means of proper ladles. Then fet

it

GLASS.

it to boil four, five, or fix days ; which done, fee whether
it have mangancrc enough ; and if it be yet greeniHi, add more
manganefe, at difcretion, by little and little at a time, taking
care not to overdofe it, becaufe the manganefe inclines it to
, a blackifli hue. ThcB let the metal clarify, till it becomes
of a cl<'ar and fhining colour ; which done, it is fit to be
l)lown, or formed info veflels at pleafure.

Class, Flhil, as it is called in our country, is of the
fame general kind with that which in other places is called
cryRal ghifs. It has this name from being originally made
with calcined flints, before the ufe of the white fand was
underftood ; and retains the name though no flints are now
ufcd in the compofition of it. This flint glafs diflers from
the other, in having lead for its flnx, and white fand for its
body ; whereas the fluxes ufcd for the cryllal ghfs arc falls
orarfenic, and the body confills of calcined flints, or white
river pebbles, tarfo, or fuch ftones. This glafs, on account
of the quantity of litharge, which enters into its compoli-
tion, is the ht.avicft, the moil brilliant, the fofteft and muit
eafy to work, and alfo the moll expenfive. It is that fine
glafs, of which the co;nmon and moil valuable articles of
white glafs in domcflic or ornamental ufe are manufactured ;
and befides, many optical iu'.lruraents are made of this fub-
ftance. To the white fand and lead a proper proportion of
jiitre is added, for the purpofes fpecified in a former part
of this general article, and alfo a fmall quantity of manga-
nefe, and in fome works they ufe a proportionable quantity
of arfcnic to aid the fluxing ingredients. The mod perfetl
kind of flint glafs may be made by fufing with a very ilrong
fire a hundred and twenty pounds of the white fand, fifty
pounds of red lead, forty pounds of the bell pearl-aflies,
twenty pounds of nitre, and iive ounces of mr.nrrranefe.

From others we have the following compofition for
glafs of this kind, faid to be of the bell quality, I'/'s. 120
parts of line clear white fand, 40 of pearl-afhes well puri-
iied, 35 of litharge or minium, 13 of nitre, and a fmall
quantity of black oxyd of manganefe.

The following compohLion for a fine cryilal glafs is given
by Loyfel ; ico pounds of white fand, 80 to 85 of red
oxyd of lead, 35 to 40 of pearl-afli, 2 to 3 of nitre, and one
ounce of manganefe. The fpecific gravity of this glafs, and
of the common London flint-glafs, is about 3.2.

Another compofition of flint glafs, which is faid to come
nearer to the kind now made, is the following : a hundred
and twenty pounds of fand, fifty-four pounds of the bell
pearl-alhes, thirty-fix pounds of red lead, twelve pounds of
nitre, and fix ounces of manganefe. To either of thefe a
pound or two of arfcnic may be added, to increaie the flux
of the compofition. A clieapcr compofition of flint glafs
may be made with a hundred and twenty pounds of white
fand, thirty-five pounds of the bell pearl-afhes, forty-pounds
of red-lead, thirteen pounds of nitre, fix pounds of arlenic,
and four ounces of manganefe ; or, inllead of tiie arlenic,
may be fubllituted fifteen ])ounds of common fait; but this
will be more brittle than the other. The cheapell compofi-
tion for the worll kind of flint-glafs, confills of a hundred
t.ad twenty pound.-; of white fand, thirty pounds of red-lead,
tv.-euty pounds of the heil pearl-aflies, ten pounds of nitre,
fifteen pounds of common fait, and fix pounds of arfcnic.
The bell German cryilal glafs is made of a hundred and
twenty pounds of calcined flints, or white fand, feventy
pounds of the bell pearl-alhes, ten pounds of falt-petre, half
a pound of arfcnic, and five ounces of manganefe. And a
clieapcr compofition is formed of a hundred and twenty
pound.-: of calcined flints, or white fand, forty-fix pounds of
pearl-allies, feven pounds of nitre^ fix pounds ot arfcnic,
ar.d five ounces of manganefe.

A glafs, much harder than any prepared in tlic commoB
way, may be made by means of borax in the following
method : take four ounces of borax, and an ounce of fine faridj
reduce both to a fubtile powder, and melt them together
in a large clofe crucible fet in a wind-furnace, keeping up
a Ilrong fire for half an hour ; then take out the cruciblv,
and when cold break it, and there will be found at the
bottom a pure hard glafs, capable of cutting common glafs
like a diamond. This experiment, duly varied, may lead
to feveral uleful impi-ovcments in the arts of glafs, enamels, and
faftitions gems, and fliews an expeditious method of making
glafs, without any fixed alkali, which has been generally
thought an efl'ential ingredient in glafs ; and it is not yet
known whether calcined cryilal, or other fubilanccs, bring
added to this fait inllead of fand, it might not make a glaU
approaching to the nature of a diamond. Shaw's Lectures,
p. 426.

Gl.^ss, Croivn, is the bed fort of window-glafs, and differs
from the flint-gUifs in containing no lead, nor any metallic
oxyd, except manganefe, and fonietimts oxyd of cobalt, in
minute dofes, not as a flux, but for correcting the natural
colour. This glafs is much harder and liarflier to the touch
than the flint-glafs ; but when well made it is a ver)- beautiful"
article. It is compounded of fand, alkali, either potalh
or foda, the vegetable a flies that contain the alkali, and
generally a fmall portion of lime. A fmall dofe of arfcnic
is often added to facilitate the fufion. ZafTre, or the oxyd
of cobalt, with ground flint, is often ufed to corredl the-
dingy yellow of the inferior fort of crown-glafs, and by
adding the blue, natural to glafs coloured with this oxyd,
to convert the whole into a foft light green. One ounce of
zafPre is fufficient for looolbs. But when the fand,
alkali, and lime are very fine, and no other ingredients arc
ufed, no zafl're nor corrertive of bad colour is required. A
very fine glals of this kind may be made by 2co parts of
pretty good foda, 300 of fine fand, 33 of lime, and from
250 to 300 of the ground fragments of glafs. We had.
formerly in London two kinds or crown glafs, dillinguillied
by the places where they were wrought ; ^'/^. i. Ratcrt/T
cro-zun ghfs, which is the beft and clearelt, and was firtl made
at the Bear-garden, on the Bank-fide. Southwark, but fince
at Ratcliff : of this there are twenty-four tables to the cafe,
the tables being of a circular form, about three feet fix inches.
in diameter.

2. Lamlilh croivn glafs, which is of a darker colour tlian
the former, and more mchning to green. The following
compofition has been recommended for the bell window
or crov>n glafs, vi%. white fand, fixty pounds ; of purified
pearl-allies, thirty pounds ; of lalt-petre, fifteen pounds ;
of borax, one pound ; and of arfenic, half a pound. If tl^c
glafs fliould prove yellow, manganefe mull be added. A
cheaper compofition for window glafs confills of fixty pounds,
of wliite fand, twenty-five pounds of impurified pearl-alhes,.
ten pounds of common fait, five pounds of nitre, two pounds
of arfenic, and one ounce and a half of manganefe. The
common, or green window glafs, is compofod ot fixty pounds
of white fand, thirty pounds of unpurified pearl-alhes, ten
pounds of common fait, two pounds of arfenic, and two.
ounces of manganefe. But a cheaper compofition for this.
purpofe, confills of a hundred and twenty pounds of the
cheapell white fand, thirty pounds of unpurified pearl-aflies,
fixty pounds of wood-aflics well burnt and fitted, twenty-
pounds of common fait, and five pounds of arlenic.

The manufacture of the common window glafs, though
made by blowing, is conduced differently from that of the
flint glafs articles ; as it is the objed to produce a large, flat,
very thin plate of glafs, which is afterwardi cut by the

glazier"^

GLASS.

glaziers diamond into the requifite flir.pe. Without mi-
nutely detailing tlie fcveral gradations of tht- proccfs, it may
be here mentioned, that the workman takes a very large
mafs of melted glafs on his hollow iron rod, and by rolling
it on an iron plate and.fwinging it backwards and ior wards,
caufes it to lengthen, bv its own weiglit, mto a cyhncler,
whicli is made hollow and brought to the required tlunneis,
by blowino- with a fan of breath, which perfous accuftomed
to the bulinefs know how to command. The hollow cylin-
der is then opened by holding it to the fire, which, by ex-
panding the air confined within it, (the hole of the iron rod
being llopped.) burlls it rt the weakeil part, and wlien ftiU
foft, it is ripped up through its whole length by iron (hears,
opened out into a flat plate, and finilhed by annealing as

ufual. 1 3 c -..1,

The large crown glafs of Meffrs. Hammond and bmitli
is fuperior in quality as well as in fize to that of any other
manufadure. The ufual diameter of the tables in other
manufaftures may be taken at 47 or 48 inches, with an
occafional variation in a table of one or two inches : and the

Smith is 60 inches in diameter, and will admit of being cut
into fquares of about 33 inclies by 23 inches ; and a little
more or lefs. This glafs is almoll free from thofe fpecks,
wreaths, &c. which difcolour other glafs, and diftort the
obiefts feen through it. It now fupplies the place of
German fliect glafs for prints, large fafhes, and exportation
to thofe foreign markets where that glafs was formerly in

ufe. -

Glass, French, as alfo called Normandy glafs, and ior-
merly Lorraine glafs, becaufe it was made in thole provinces :
though it has fince been made wholly in the nine glafs
works ; five of which were in the forelt of Lyons, four m
the country of Eu ; the lall at Beaumont, near Rouen. It
is of a thinner kind than our crown clafs ; and, when laid on
a piece of white paper, appears of a dirtyifli-green colour.
There are but twentj-five tables of this to the cafe.

Glass, German, is of two kinds, the ivhUe and the green :
the firll is of a whitiih colour, but is fubjeft to thofe fmall
curved ilreaks, obferved in our NewcalUe glafs, thougli
Free from the fpots and blemilhes thereof. The green,
befides its colour, is liable to tlie fame ilreaks as the white ;
but both of them are llraighter, and lefs warped, than our
NewcalUe glafs

Glas-s, Dutch, is not much unlike our Newcaftle glafs,
either in colour or price. It is frequently much warped,
like that, and the tables are but fmall.

Glass, Neivcqfile, is that moll ufed in England. It is of
an afli-colour, and much fubjeft to fpecks, Ilreaks, and
other blemifhes ; and, befides, is frequently warped. Ley-
bourn fays, there are forty-five tables to the cafe, each con-
taining five fuperficial feet : fome fay there are but tliirty-
five tables, and fix feet in each table.

Glass, Phia!, is a kind of glafs betwixt the flint glafs
and the common bottle, or green glafs. The bell kind may
be prepared with a hundred and twenty pounds of wlute
{and, fifty pounds of unpurified pearl-alhes, ten pounds of
common fait, five pounds of arfenic, and five ounces of
manganefe. The compofition for green or common phial
clafs, confifts of a hundred and twenty pounds of the cheapeft
white fand, eighty pounds of wood aflies, well burnt and
fifted, twenty pounds of pearl-allies, fifteen pounds of com-
mon fait, and one pound of arfenic.

Glass, common greiii bottle, is made almoft entirely of
fand, lime, and fometimes clay, alkaline allies of any kind,

as chcapncfs or convenience direft, and more efpeclally of
kelp in this country, of barilla, varec, and the other varieties
of foda in France, and of wood allies in many parts of Ger-
many, and the like. To thcfe ingredients is fometimes
added the earth remaining from fahne afhes, after the alkali '
and falts have been extrafted by lixiviation, and in England
flags from the iron furnaces. Bottle -glafs is a very hard
well-vitrified glafs, which refills the corrofive adlion of all
liquids much better than flint glafs. It is ufcd, not only
for wine-bottles, but for very large retorts, fubliiiung veiTels,
aad pther articles of the chemical apparatus ; and it has for
this purpofe the advantage of bearing as much as a pretty
full red heat without melting or finking down into a fiiape-
Icfs lump, as the lead-glalfes would do. The following
compofition is given by Loyfel as a good and cheap material
for bottle-glafs ; viz. ico parts of common fand, 30 of
varec (a kind of coarfe kelp made on the weflern coalls of
France), 160 of the lixiviated earth of afhes, 30 of frcfli
wood-afh, or any other kind of alh, 80 of brick-cla)', and
any quantity, general'y about 100, of brciken glafs. 'I'his
compofition yields no glafs-gall. This kind of glafs is
formed of fand of any kind, fluxed by the allies of burnt
wood, or of any parts of vegetables ; to which may be
added the fcorias or clinkers of forges. When the lofteft
fand is ufed, two hundred pounds of wood-alhes will fuffice
for a hundied pounds of fand, which are to be ground and
mixed together. The compofition witli the clinkers confifts
of a hundred and fevcnty pounds of wood-alhes, a hundred
pounds of f.nid, and fifty pounds of clinkers, or fcoria;,
which are to be ground an4 mixed together. If the clinkers
cannot be ground, they mull be broke into fmall pieces,
and mixed with the other matter without any grinding.

A good bottle-glafs, but nearly black and opaque, has
been made in France of the decompofed pulverulent bafaltic
earth found in the vallies of all bafaltic countries. In France
it abounds in the Vivarais, in Languedoc, and Auvergne.
The firll glals of this kind appears to have been made in
1780 by a M. Ducros at the fuggellion of Chaptal, who
finiply melted foine of this balalt without addition in a glafs-
pot, and formed of it two very light, black, or rather deep
yellow, fliining, perfect bottles. In fubfequent trials by
another artill, a mixture of equal parts of bafalt and fand
w-as employed, as preferable to the bafalt alone ; but not-
withllanding a confiderable demand for bottles of this ma-
terial, tlie manufafture was abandoned for want of unifor-
mity in the ingredients, which made them often fail. The
colour of this glafs was of a green-olive.

Tlie green colour, tranfmitted by bottle-glafs, when in its
perfect Hate, is owing to the iron contained both in the ve-
getable aflies and in the fea-fand, which enter into its com-
pofition. This glafs affords an inftance of a femi-pellucid
fubilance, which exhibits a blue colour by incident hght,
and a yellow or orange colour by that which is tranfmitted.
See Delaval on the caufe of the permanent colour of opaque
bodies.

Giw^ss, Plate, is the mofl; perfect and beautiful glafs, of
which all the kinds of min'ors and looking-glaffes are com-
pofed. The materials of which this kind of glafs is made
are much the fame as thofe of other works of glafs, I'iz. an
alkali fait, and fand.

To prepare tlie fait, they clean it well of all foreign mat-
ters ; pound or grind it with a kind of mill, and finally fift
it pretty fine.

Pearl-aflies, properly purified, will furniili the alkali fait
requifite for this purpofe ; but it will be necelfary to add
borax, or common fait, in order to facilitate the fufion, and
prevent the glafs from fliffcning in that degree of iieat, in

wliich

GLASS.

■which It is to be wronght into platf s. For purifying the
pearl-alhes, difTolve them in four times their weight of boil-
ing water, in a pot of caft iron, always kept clean from
ruft. Let the folution be removed into a clean tub, and re-
main there twenty-four hours, or longer. Having decanted
the clear part of the fluid from the dregs or fedimeut, put
it again in the iron pot, and evaporate the water till the fall?
are left perfeftly dry. Preferve them in flone jars, well fe-
cured from air and moifture.

Pearl-alhes may alfo be purified in the highdl degree, fo
as to be proper for the manufacture of the moft tranfpa-
rent glafs, by pulverizinir three pounds of the bell poarl-
afhes, with fix ounces of falt-pctre, in a glafs or marble
mortar, till they are well mixed ; and then putting part
of the mixture into a large crucible, and expofing it in a
furnace to a ftro^g heat. When this is red-hot, th.row
in the reft gradually ; and when the whole is red-hot, pour
it out on a moiftened ftone or marble, and put it into an
earthen or clean iron pot, with ten pints of water ; heat it
over the fire till the falts be entirely melted ; let it then Hand
to cool, and filter it through paper in a pewter cullender.
When it is filtered, put the fluid again into the pot,
and evaporate the fait to drynefs, which will then be as
white as fnow ; the nitre having burnt all the phlogiilic
matter that remained in the peai-l-afhes, after their former
calcination.

As to the fand, it is to be fifted and waflied, till fuch
time as the water come off very clear ; and when it is well
dried again, they mix it with the fait, paffing the mixture
through another fieve. This done, they lay them in the
anneahng furnace for about two hours ; in which time the
matter becomes very light and white : in this ftate they are
caWed/rii, or frht a ; and are to be laid up in a dry clean
place, to give them time to incorporate. They lie here for
at leaft a year.

Whi'n they would employ this frit, they lay it for fome
hours in the furnace, adding to fome the fragments or
(hards of old and ill made glafles ; taking care firft to cal-
cine the fliards by heating them red-hot in the furnace, and
thus cafting them into cold water. To the mixture mull
likewifc be added manganefc, to promote the fution and
purification.

The bed compofition for looking-glafs plates is faid to
eonfift of fixty pounds of white fand cleanfcd, twenty-five
pounds of purified pearl-aflies, fifteen pounds of falt-pctre,
and feven pounds of borax. If a yellow tinge fhould affetl
the glafs, a fmall proportion of manganefe, mixed with an
equal quantity of arfenic, fliould be added. An ounce of
the manganefe may be firll tried ; and if thif proves infuffi-
cient, the quantity Ihould be incrcafed.

A cheaper compofition for looking-glais plate confifts of
fixty pounds of the white fand, twenty potmds of pearl-aHies,
ten pounds of common fait, feven pounds of nitre, two
pounds of artenic, and one pound of borax.

The materials of the fincll plate glafs, fuch as that of
French manufaclure, are white fand, foda, and lime, to
which are added manganefe and zaffre, or any other oxyd
•f cobalt for particular colouring purpofes. The land is
of the fineft and whitell kind, Wiiich ihould be previoufly
pafied through a wire fieve, moderately clofe, into water,
in which it (hould be well ftirred about and waflied. The
(harpeft grained fand is preferred, and it is found that grains
of moderate fize melt with the alkali fooncr, than the very
fine dull or the larger fragment?. The alkali is always
foda, which is preferable to pota'.h, as glalTes made with
foda are found to be fofter and to flow thinner when hot,
^d yet to be equally durable whsM cold. Befides, the
Vol. XVI.

neutral falls with the balls of foda whiili ron^ituf :!■ gii!«-
gall in this inflance, fuch as the muriat and fulpbut o£
ioda, aj)pear to be didipatcd more readily by the fire tha»
the correlponding faltj of potafh. I'lie foda that is ufcd i»
confiderably pure, or fuch as is feparatcd from the rough
allies of barilla, and other Ioda plants bv lixiviation. Lime
adds to the fulibility of the other materials, fupplyiiig the
ufe of litharge in the fli:it-glafs ; but excefs of it would im-
pair the colour and folidity of the glafs. About I-I5th of
the whole is as much as can properly be ufed ; but fome re-
duce the quantity to i-24th. The decolouring fubftanc"!
are azure, or cobalt blue, and manganefe. IJefiJcs thcfe,
there is always a great quantity of the fragments of glafs,
colleftcd from the walle of the manufacture, which are
made friable by quenching in water when hot, and ufed in
this Hate together with the frelh materials. As to the
quantities and proportions of the ingredients, much latitude
is allowed. The following are faid to produce a very tine
glafs ; v'l-z. 50olb3. of fand ; zoolbs. of foda ; 3olb5. of
lime ; 32 ounces of mangauefe ; three ounces of a/.:«rc ; and
3O0lbs. of fragments of glafs. In the manufaitorv at .St.
Gobin fecrecy is obfcrved with regard to the materials ; but
it is afiirnied, and with much probability, that borax is ufed
in fmall quantity.

Of the materials now enumerated the fand, foda, lime,
and manganefe are firll mixed together with more care thai
for ordinary glafs, arid they are fritted in fmall furnaces built
for this purpofe, the heat being gradually raifed to a full red-
white, and then kept with frequent ftirring till the materials
undergo no farther change, nor yield any kind of vapour.
The azure and glafs fragments being already in a ftate of
perfetl vitrification are not added till juft at the end of the
procefs, which lafts about iw hours-. When the n-.ateri.il»
are thus prepai-ed, they are fit for platc-glafs, to be formed
either by blowing or calling. The largeft glalTcs at St.
Gobin are run ; the middle-fizcd and fniull ones are
blown.

Blo-.umg hol'ing-ghfs plain. I'hc work-houfcs, furnaces,
&c. uled in the making of this kind of plate-glafs. are
the fame, except that they are fmaller, and that the car-
quaifles are dil'pofed in a large^ covered gallery, over-againft
the furnace, as thofe in the following article, to which the
reader is referred.

After the materials are vitrified by the heat of the fire,
and the glafs is fufficiently refined, the workman dips in his
blowing iron, fix feet long, and two inches in diainctcr,
fliarpened at the end, which is put in the mouth, and wideiK-d
at the other, that the matter may adhere to it. By thi»
means he takes up a fmall ball of matter, which fticks to
the end of the tube by conftantly turning it. He then
blows into the tube, that the air may fwell the ainiexed
ball: and carrving it over a bucket of water, which it
placed on a fupport at the height of about four feet, he
ipriiikles tlu? end of the tube to which the matter adheres,
with water, ftill turning it, that by this cooling, the mat-
ter may coalefce with the tube, and be fit for luftaining a
greater weight. He dips the tube again into the fame pot,
and proceeds as before ; and. dipping it in the pot a third
lime, he takes it out, h)aded with matter, in the fliapc of a
pear, about ten inches in diameter, and a foot long, and
cools it at the bucket ; at the fame time blowing into the
tube, and, with the afiillance of a labourer, giving it a
balancing motion, he caufes the matter to leiigthcn ; which,
by repeating this operation feveral times, afliunes the form
of a cylinder, terminating like a bull at the button), and in
a point at the top. The alTill.int is then placed on a ilool
three feet and a half high ; and on this ftyul there are two

T t ujirijjl.t

GLASS.

upriiflit pirctS of timber, witli z crofs beam of the fame,
for fiipportin<j the glafs and tube, which are kept in an
tjbliquc polition by the atTillant, that the mailer workman may
ivith a puncheon fet in a wooden handle, and with a mal-
let make a hole in the mafs : tliis hole is drilled at the
centre of the ball that terminates the cylinder, and is
about an inch in diameter. When the glafs is pierced,
the dcfcdts of it are perceived ; if it is tolerably pcrfett,
the workman lays the tube horizontally on a little iron
trefiel, placed on the fupport of the aperture of the furnace.
Having expofed it to the heat for about half a quarter ot an
hour, he takes it away, and with a pair of lung and broad
Ihcars, extremely (harp at tlic end, widens the glafs, by inii-
Duating the fhtars into the hole made with tlie puncheon,
frhilll the afTillant, mounted on the ftooT, turns it round, till,
at lall-, the opening is fo large as to make a pcrR-ft cylinder
at bottom. When this is done, the workman lays his glafs
upon the treffel, at the mouth of the furnace, to heat it : he
then gives it to his afntlaiit on the ftool, and with large
ihears cuts the mafs of matter up to half its height. There
is at the mouth of the furnace an iron tool, called pontil,
which is now heating, that it may unite and coalefce with
the glafs jull cut, and perform the office which the tube did
before it was fcparated from the glafs. This pontil is a piece
of iron, fix feet long, and in tlie form of a cane or tube,
liaving at the end of it a fmall iron bar, a foot long, laid
equally upon the long one, and making with it a T. Tins
little bar is full of the matter of the glafs, about four inches
thick. This red-hot pontil is prefented to the diameter of
the glafs, which coalefces imn-.edi:itely with the matter round
the pontil, fo as to fuppcr^ the glafs for the following ope-
ration. When this is done, they feparate the tube from tl-.e
glafs, by ftrikingafew blows v.ith a chifFel upon the end of
the tube, which has been cooled ; fo that the glafs breaks
direftly, and makes this feparation, the tube being difchavgcd
of the glafs now adhering to the pontil. They next prelent
to the furnace tiic pontil of the glafs, laying it on the treffel
to heat, and redden the end of that glafs, that the workman
may open it with his (hears, as lie has already opened one
end of it, to com^;lete the cylinder ; tlie afliftant holding it
on his ilool as before. For the lall time, they put the pontil
on the treffel, that the glafs may bcccm.c red-hot, and the
workman cuts it quite open with his f.iears, right cver-
again!l the fore-mentioned cut ; this he does as before,
taking care that both cuts are in the fame line. In the
mean time, the man who looks after tiie carquaifies, comes
to receive the glais upon an iron fliovel, tv.-o feet and a half
Jong without tlie handle, and two feet wide, with a fmall
border of an inch and a half to the right and left, and
towards the handle of the faovel. Upon this the glafs is
laid, flattening it a little with a fma'l Hick a foot aud a half
long, fo that the cut of the gl.ds is turned upwards. They
feparate the glafs from the pontil, by i'riklng a few gentle
blows between the two with a chilTel. The glafs is then re-
moved to the mouth of the hot carquaifTe, wh-re it becomes
red-hot gradually ; the workm.an, with an iroa tool, fix feet
long, aud widened .• the end in form cf a club at cards,
four inches long, and two inches v. iJe on each fide, very flat,
and :.ot half an inch thick, gradually Lfts up the cut part of
the glafs, to unfold it out of its form of a flattened cy-
linder, and render it fmooth, by turning it down upon the
hearth of the carquailis. The tool, iJready defcribed, being
infumated within the cylinder, perf ;rms this operation, by
being pulhed hard againlt all the parts of the g!afs. When
the g afs is thus m.iue quite fmooth, it is pufhed to the
bottf.m of the cirquaifle, or annealing furnace, wiiha fiv.all
iron raker, uiij r.in^ed there with a little iron hook. When

I

the carquailTe h full, it is ttoppcd and cemented as in the
cafe of run glafics, and the glais remains there for a fort-
night to be annealed ; after which time, they are taken out
to be poliihed. A workman can make but one glafs in an
hour, and he works and rells for fix hours alternately.

It may be obferved, that looking-glaffes, thus blown,
fliould never be above forty-five, or at moll fifty inches long,
and of a breadth proportionable. Tliofe exceeding thefe
dimenfions, as we frequently find among the Venice glaffes,
cannot have the thicknefs fufiicient to bear the gi'inding y
and, befides, are fubjtc^ to warp, which prevents them from
regularly reflecting objedls. Whereas plates as large as
nine feet in length and proportionally wide, have been ma-
nufaftnred by calling.

Cnjlhig or niniiii!^ ^'"'S' I'"<:khig-nlnfs plates. This art, ns-
we have oblerved in the Hijlory oj CjL.M^i, is of French in-
vention. It is owing to the .Sieur Abraham Tlievart, who
firll propofed it to the court of France, in 1688

It is performed much like the calling of flieet-lcad among-
the plumbers ; and by means hereof we are not only enabled
to make glaffes of more than double the dimcnfions of anv
made by the Venetian way of blowing ; but alfo to call all
kinds of borders, moulding.^, &;c.

The furnaces fbr melting the materials of this manufacture
are of large fize, being about 1 8 feet long and 15 wide ; and
thofe for annealing the glaffes, \\ hen formed, are much more
fo. Round a melting-furnace, there are at leall twenly-fou r
anneahng furnaces or ovens ; each from twenty to twenty
live feet long ; they are called carquaiffcs : each carquailfe
has two tiii'arts, or apertures, to put in wood, and two-
chimnie?. Add, that befide the annealing furnaces, &c-
there are others for making of frit, and calcining old piecesr
of glafs.

All thefe furnaces are covered over \\ith a large Ihed y
under which are likt wife forges, and work-houfes for fmiths,
caif'enters, &c. continually employed in repairing and keep-
ing up the machines, furnaces, &c. as alfo lodges, and apart-
m.ents for thefe, and the other workmen, employed about
the glafs, and keeping up a perpetual fire in the great fur-
nace ) fo that the glafs-hcufe, as that in the cafllc of St. Go-
bm, in the forcit of Fere, in the Soilfonois, appears more
like a litLle city, than a manr.fatlor)-.

Theinfide of furnaces is formed of a fort of bailed eorth,
or refraftory clay, proper to fuftain the aCliou of fire ; and
the fame earth ferves alfo for m.elting-pots, cillerns, &c.
The furnaces feldom Idt above three years ; after whicU
they are to be rebuilt, Irom bottom to top ; and to keep
them good, even for that time, the infide mull be refitted
every fix m.cnths, at which time the fire is extinguiihed.
The fmelliflg-pots are as big as wine hogfiicads, about three
feet in height, and in diameter ; and contain above two
thoufand weight cf metal. Tliey arc in the foyn cf an in-
verted and truncated cone. The cillerns, or pans, culled
" cuvettes," are much fmallcr, being about th-i'tv-fix ihchl'S
long, eighteen inches wide, and as many deep ; and ferve for
the conveyance of liquid glafs, which is drawn out of the
pots to the callinc tables. Tliey do not contain much more
than a fixth, or when large plates a.^e call, a third of the
pot^.

VvTien the furnace js in condition to receive the pots and
ciflerns, they heat it red-hot, which requires fifty cords, or
a hundred cart-loads of wood. That kind of wood which
emits the largeil and brightell flame, without much refinous
fmoke, is preferred. This done, they fill tlie pots with the
materials, or ioda and land, winch is done at levtral times,
to facilitate the fufion. When the mutter is fufheientlv
vitrified, refined, and fettkd, wh'ch ufually happens in

thirty-

GLASS.

thirty- fix hours, they fill the c'lderns, which are in the fame liavc not been eye-witnefll-J of that rurpririn» manufat.--

furnace, and. which are left there about fix hours lonjjer, turc.

till fuch time as they appear all white through the excellivc As fall as the cifterns are emptied, they carry thein back

heat. to the furnace and take frefh ones, which they empty as br-

To get the cifterns with the metal out of the furnace, fore. Tliistliey continue to do, folonfj as there are a^iy fu!l

they make ufe of a large iron chain which opens and fhuts cifterns ; laying as marty plates in each carquaiffc a> it will

with hooks and eye?. From tiie middle of this, on each hold, and Hopping them up witii Joorj of baked earth, or

fiJe, arife two maflive iron pins, by which, with the afiiflance clay, and every chink witii cement, as foon as thcT ar-

of puUics, the cifterns arc raifed upon a kind of carriage of full, to let them anneal, and cool again, which requires abou!

a proper height ; and thus conducted to the table where the fourteen days,
glafs is to be run. The ciftcrn is then raifed above the The firll running being difpatched, ther prepare another

tables with au engine, in form of a cran~ *- — ■ '^ - - ■ ' ■ -

iron bars, fo contrived as to thro

pofition, which difchargcs a to:

with which the table prepared for this purpcfe is prefently

covered.

rn is uien rauea aoove uie The firft running being difpatched, ther prepare another .

jf a crane, by means of two l,^ jip.jng tjij. cifterns anew, from the matter in the oots ; zr.i

Dw the cifteni into an inchncd after the fccond, a third, and even a fourth time, till the

an-ent of matter, all on fire, nieltinir nots are quite emptv.

g pots are quite emptv
The cifterns at each running fliouIJ remain at lead
fix hours in the furnace to whiten ; and when the firi
annealing fi;rnace is full, the cafting table is to be carried
to another. It need not here be obfcrved, that the car-
quaini's, or annealing furnaces, mull firft have been heat-
ed to the degree proper for them. It may be obfervcd,
that the oven full, or the quantity of matter commonly
prepared, fupphes tlie running of eighteen glades, wliich
is performed in eigliteen hours, being an Lour for each
glafs. The workmen work fix hours, and are then re-
lieved by others.

When the pots are emptied, they take them out, a)
well as the cifterns, to fcrape off what glafs remain?,
which otlierwife would grow green by continuance of
fire, and fpoil the glafies. They are not filled again in
lefs than thirty-fi.>c tiours, fo that they put the matter
into the furnace, and begin to run it ever)' fifty-four
hours.

The manncrofheatingthc large furnaces is fingular enough;
the two tilors, or perlons employed for that purpofe, ia
their ftiirts, run round the furnace without making the lead
ftop, with a fpecd fcarce inferior to that of the lightefl
courier : as they go along, they take two billets, or piece*
of wood, which are cut for the purpofe ; thefe they throvr
into the firft tiihirt ; and continuing their courfe do the fan-.e
for the fecond. This they hold vnthout interruption for fix
hours fucccffively ; after which they are relieved by others,
&c. It is furpriling that two fucli fmall pieces of wood,
and whicii arc confunicd in an inftant, fiiould keep the fur.
nace to the proper degree of iieat ; which is fuch,
that a large bar of iron, laid at oik of llie mouths of
the furnace, becomes red-hot ia Icli than half a mi-
nute.

It is computed, that a furnace, before it be fit to rut
glafs, coils above three tlioiifand lite hundrovl poundi (
that at leaft fix months are required for the building it
anew, and three months for the refitting it ; and that
when a pot of mattL-r burlU in the fumicc, the lof« of
matter and time amoiyits to abov ■ t',v» hundred and Cir.j
pounds.

The glafs, when taken out of the melting-furnace, iieedi
iTcjthing farther but to be ground, polifhed, and foIiate«l.
But before thefe operations are performed, they cut and
fquare the edges of the plates ; which is pcrfonaed witli a
rougli diamond, paffed along tlie furface ot the glafj, upon
a fquare ruler, like that of the gl.Tziers. and made to cui
into the fubltanceof the glafs to a certain depth. This cut
operation, is t!ie quickncfs and addrefs wherewith fuch is then opened by gently knocking with a fmall hammer on
inafTy cifterns, filled with a flaming ir alter, are taken out of the under fide uf the glafs jutt under it j by which mcan»
the furnace, conveved to the table, and poured on it, the the piece comes off, and the ro.ighncfT.s of the edges are re-

coHcctTabk to fuch as raov.d by pincers The plates are tlii-ii laid bv for _fr.T./)itX.

T t 2 j-'^/tfiwf.

The table on whicli the glafs is to be run, is of fmooth
thick copper-plate, about ten feet long, and fix feet broad.
It is fupported on a wooden frame, with truckles, fur the
convenience of removing from one carquaifie, or annealing
furnace, to another, in proportion as they are filled.

Or, when each pot has ii cafting table, it is ilrongly fup-
portcd by mafonry, and contiguous to each table on the
fame h-vcl are tlie aniuMling oven3, upon which, being flat,
the glafs, wlieu caftand I'ufficiently cooled, may be Aid from
off the copper-table without much difficulty. Tlie tops of
the flat ovens and the tables are on a level with the corre-
fpondiig opening of the furnace, whence the cuvettes or
cifterns are withdrawn. When the glafs is melted and fined
ia the manner rdready ftated under the article Flint Glas.s,
the cuvette or cillern, prcviouily made hot in the furnace, is
filled out of the pot with a copper ladle, about ten inches in
diameter, fixed to an iron handle feven feet long, properly
fupported on an iron ftay by tv>-o workmen ; and after re-
maining in the furnace for fome hours, till tlie famples taken
out for trial appear to be quite clear and limpid, the door of
the furnace is opened, and the cuvette is pulled out and re-
moved to the fide of the copper table. It is then fcuramcd
with an inftrument confifting of a copp..r blade fet in iron,
and hcifted for thedifcharge of its contents on the table, in
the manner already mentioned.

To form the thicknefs of a glafs, and to make the fur-
face fmooth and even, there are two iron rulers or rims,
placed round the edge of the table ; and on thefe reft the
two extremes of a kind of roller, orholhnv heavy cyhnder
of copper, turned after being cail, and al.'out 500 pounds
in weight, whith ferves to drive tlie liquid matter before it
to the end of the table, or mould. Tiie iron rulers being
moveable, and capable of being fet clofer, or farther apart,
at pleafure, determine the width of the glaftes, and retain
the matter, that it does not run off' at the edges. The wafte
glafs, if any, falls into a veffel of water, and is reiervcd for
the next melting.

As foon as the matter is arrived at the end of the table,
jtnd the glafs is come to a confiftenee, examined by the di-
rectors of the manufacture, and approved, they (hove it oif
into the annealing furnace, with an iron raker, as wide as the
table, that has a handle two fathoms long ; being affifted by
workmen on the other fide of the carciuaifte, wlio, with iron
books, pull the glafs to them, and range it in the carquaiife,
v.'hich holds fix large glafies.

■Wliat is moll furpriling throughout the whole of this

lul. foread.

Tlw whole io

GLASS.

bing, and Jilverhig ; w liich fee rcfpeftivcly. See alfo
jOOKing-Glass.

Glass, Annealing or Ncaling of. The operation of an-
nealing of glafs is piTformcd in a peculiar furnace called the
Ucr, which confills of two parts, the tower and /«»•. The
veilels, as foon as made, are placed by the workmen on the
floor of the former to anneal : which done, they are drawn
flowly in a fort of pan, called yrnc/'c/, by an operator called
the farok-tiwn, all along the latter, the fpace of five or fix
yards,. to give them time to cool gradually ; fo that when
they reach the mouth of it, they are found quite cold.
Werrct, Not. to Neri, p. 243, fcq.

This annealing is generally performed in a hot chamber,
built for the purpofc, at the top of the glafs-houfe, above
the crucibles, and a little below the chimney. Without this
precaution, the glal's would be liable to fly and break, by
the leafl change of heat and cold, by the fmallefl feratch,
and fometimes without any apparent external caufe. The
hard glafl'es, and lliofe efpecially that are made with alkali
and earths, require much more annealing than the foftcr and
more fufible glaflcs, containing in their compofition much
btharge.

The particles of glafs by annealing are fuppofed to lofe
part of their fpringinefs, and their brittlcnefs at the fame
time. A gradual heating or cooling of glafs, according to
Dr. Hook, anneals or reduces its parts to a te.xture more
loofe, and eafy to be broke ; but withal more flexible than
before. And hence in fomemenfure the phenomena of glafs-
drops.

Some of the phenomena depending on tiie fragihty of un-
annealed glafs deferve the attention of the curious. Thofe
ef the lachrymx, or glafs-drops, were among the firft taken
ROtice of ; and it has alfo been obferved, that hollow bells
made of unannealed glafs, with-a fmall hole in them, will fly
to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the hole by
which the internal and external air communicate be flopped
with a finger. Phil. Tranl". N° 477. § 3. See Rii-i.ht'j
Drops.

But lately feme vefll-ls made of fuch unannealed glafs
iiave been difcovered, which have the remarkable property
of refifting very hard flrokes given from witho'.it, though
they fliiver to pieces by the fliocks received from the fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavities.
Of this kind is the " Bologna phial." Thefe glafl'es maybe
made of any fliape ; all that needs be obferved in making
them, is to take care that their bottoms may be thicker than
their fides. The thicker the bottom is, the eafier do the
glafl'es break. One wlicfe bottom is three fingers breadth
ill thicknefsjflieswith as much eafeat leafl; as the thinneft glafs.
Some of thefe vefl"els have been tried with ftrokes of a mal-
let fufiicient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, and
have refifted frafture. T!:ey alfo refift the fliock of feveral
heavv bodies let fall into their cavities, from tlie height of
two or three feet. For inllance, muflcet-balls, pieces of
iron, or other metal ; pyrites, jafpcr, wood, bone, &c. but
this is not furprifiug, as other glafl'e* of the fame Cr/.i: do the
liinie. But the wonder is, that taking a fliiver of flint of the
fize of a fmall pea, and letting it fall into the glafs only from
the height of three inches, in about two feconds the glafs
flies, and fometimes in tlie very moment of the fliock ; nay
a bit of flint, no larger than a grain, dropt into feveral glafl'es
fucceflively, tho.igh it did not immediately break them, yet
they all flew, being fet by, in lefs than three quarters of an
hour. Phil. Franf. ibid, p 509.

Some otber bodies produce a like effetl with flint : for in-
ftV'Ce, fappbire, porcelain, diamonds, hard tempered lleel,

as alfo marbles, fuch as boys play with ; to which add pearl«>
from the animal kingdom.

The experiment fiiccceded alfo when the glaflcs were held
in the hand, rcfted on a pillow, put in water, or filled with
water. It is alfo remarkable, that the glafl'es broke upon
their Vottoms being flightly rubbed with the linger,
though fome of them did not fly till half an hour after the
rubbing.

If the glafl'es be every where extremely thin, they do not
break in thefe cireumftances.

Some have pretended to account for thefe phenomena,
by faying, that the bodies dropped into thefe veffels caufe a
concuflion, that is ftronger than the cohefion of the parts of
the glafs, and that confequently a rupture of the fame mud
enfue. But why does not a ball of gold, filvcr, iron, cop-
per, or feveral other bodies, even a thouland times heavier
than a fliiver of flint, equally caufe this concuffion, and break
the glafl'es ?

Mr. Eulcr has endeavoured to account for thefe appear-
ances from his Principles of Percuffion. He thinks this
experiment entirely overthrows the opinion of thofe who
meafure the force of percuflion by the i.'x I'iva ; and
he thinks the principles he has eitabhfhed give a clear folu-
tion of this phenomenon. According to thefe principles,
the extreme hardnefs of the flint, aiid alfo its angular figure-,
which makes the fpace of contad: with the glafs veflfel ex-
tremely fmall, ought to caui'e an impreflion on the glafs vaft-
ly greater than lead or any other metal ; and this may ac-
count for the flint's breaking the vcfl'el, though the bullet,
even falling from a coniiderable height, does no damage.
Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1745, p. 47'

Hollow cups, made of the green bottle-glafs, fome of
them three inches thick at bottom, were inflantly broken,
by a fliiver of flint weighing about two grains, though they
had refifted the fliock of a mufl<et ball from the height of
three feet. Phil. Trauf ibid. p. 515.

" The precife miechanieal caufe of this difpofition to
crack in unannealed glafs, is very difficult to explain," fay*
Aikin (Diet.', " but generally fpeaking, it is fuppofed to
be'tlie forcible contraftion of the outer part by fuddert cool-
ing, wliilft the inner portion is ilill foft and half-fluid, fo
that the whole fixes with a permanent ilrain or inequality of
prefl"ure of one part upon the other ; and as glafs is extreme-
ly elaflic, though brittle, any force which tears afunder a
portion, however fmall, of the tenfe part, communicates a
ilrong and fudden impulfe over the v.hole mafs.'' " Tliis
moll lingular phenomenon," (of the Rupert's drop) fays
the fame ingenious chemift, in confcquence of his own ex-
periments, " isobvioufly owing to lome permanent and very
Ilrong inequality of prefl'ure, for when they are heated fo
red, as to be foft and merely let to cool ef themfelves,
this property of burlling is entirely loft, and, at the
fame time, the fpecilic gravity of the drop is in.
creafed. The peculiar brittlenefs of the Bologna phial
is alfo removed by again heating and cooling flowly.**
The common window-glafs, when badly annealed, is cut
by the diamond with difficulty, and the cut often flies in a
direciion diflerent from what was intended, or the glafs en-
tirely breaks'.
, Among other more common defefls of glafs, we may
mention its liability to be afted upon by corrofive liquors, as
is the cafe when too much falineflux has been ufed. As impe-
netrable as glafs is to the common mcnftruums, we find it
eaten by the air in length of time, when expofcd in old win-
dows ; but the effefts of its being kept in a fubterraneous
place are much more flrange. Borrichiits tells us, that at

il»e

G r. A S s.

the time when he was nt Rome, tiierc was Jug up a \v!;ole
houfe from under the kitchcH garden of a citi/.cn. The
hoiife had htfo-.i buried there ten ages, and there were found in
it fcvera! gUil's urns, or lacrymatorics. The glafs of thefe
had no holes made in it, as our old glafs in cliamber-windows
has, but Hill retained its fmooth furface and tranfpan>nce ;
but it was fpiit into a vaft number of thin lamina;, which
were as pellucid and fmo as Mufcovy glafs ; and in fome
places were tinged with all the beautiful colours that art could
have givtn. We are not acquainted perfectly with the an-
cient way of working their glafs ; but it is not probable
there could be any thing particular in the formation of the
veflel, to determine it to fplit thus into flakes; but that glafs
of the fame kind, in any form, would have done the fame.
Borrich de Ortu Cliemijc.

There are other vifible imperfcftions in glafs, materially
injuring its foundnefs and beauty, and enumerated by Aikin
(l)i<ft. axi.Gliifs; under the denominations o{ Jlriie, threads,
tears, and knots. The former are undulating waves in the
' glafs, ariling from the imperfeft mixture pf the materials,
and their different fpecific gravities. Accordingly, we may
obferve, that the molt tranlparent glafs is fubject to bubbles
and veins, the methods of preventing which are yet little
known ; and this is an inconvenience by v.-Iiich Mr. Dol-
lond's excellent difcovery is afFefted ; for the flint-glafs which
he ufesis peculiarly fubjeft to fmall veins, that dilhirb the rays
in their pafiage, and render the vihon confufed. This effeft is
owing to the denfity of thefe veins being greater than that
of the reft of tlie glafs, as appears from tlieir image received
on v.'hite paper, when the glafs is held between the paper
and a candle, or other luminous ohjett : for this image of a
vein, thus received, is a line brighter than the reft of the
image of the glafs, and this bright line is defined by a dark
edge or; each fide. But the bright line evidently fliews a
convergency of rays, which can only be effefted by the
»eins being denfer than the medium in which they are placed.
The reafon why flint glafs is more fiibjeft to veins than
other glafs is, fays the tranflator of Macqucr"s Cliemical
Dictionary, bccaufe it is compofed of materials of more
different denfities.

Mr. Macquer, with a view of improving the manufac-
ti>re of this glafs, propofes to facilitate the union of the calx
«f lead and fand, of which it is compofed, by depriv-
ing the calx of lead, as much as pofhble, of its phlogJlon,
which may be done by combining the vitriolic acid with mi-
nium, or red-lead, and cxpofing this compofition to the opera-
tion of fire, to difengagc it from the acid ; and alfo by giving
■thefe two fubitances the greateft poflible degrees of fluidity
and mobility, which nr.iy be done by mixing with the com-
pofition of them a cor.Cderable quantity of folvents. Kilt.
Acad. Scienc. for 1773.

Threads in glafs, are thofe ftreaky filaments which arife
from the vitrification of the clay ; being generrJly green,
and rendering the glafs more liable to crack at thefe parts.
But one of the worft defefts (fays Aikin, ul'i fupra), is
*' tears, or drops of vitrified clay falling down from the
furnace into the pots, and entangled with the glafs. Arti-
cles made of glafs with this defett, are always very brittle,
and generally break of tliemfelves by flight changes of heat
and cold." Small bubbles appear in glafs not fiifficiently re-
lined by a continuance of the melting heat ; and thefe may
be owing to a deficiency of flux, fo that the glafs is Ids
fufible, and the bubbles cannot eafily be difengaged.
" Hence," fays the author now cited, " the foft fulible
glaffcs with much lead are much lefs liable to this fault than
the hard, green bottle-glafs, wliich is made only of alkali

from bits of the crucible which may be accidentally knocked
off by the iron inftruments ufed in the working."

Gl,.\':i< of /]iitlmcir.y. See 0.i;;'^.f ij/" Anti.moxy aid Vl-
TRU.\r yhittmomi ccratum.

Gi-A.ss, Aximgta of. Sec AAfN<:i\, !-*.\NDiVL'n, ai.d
Cii..\it^,fu^ra.

Oi.A.ss of Bora-. Sec Borax.

Gla.ss, Cd'Hirlng of, tainiilale "fins. See GcM %

Gl-.'is.'s, Gohl-colourcii. This kind of j^lafo may be made
by taking ten pounds of either of the comi.ofitions for hard
glafs, omitting tlie falt-petre ; and for every pound additlg
an ounce of calcined borax ; or, if this quantity doth not
render the glaft fufficlcntly fufible, two ounces ; ten ounces
of red tartar, of the deeped colour, two ounces of rnanga-
nefe, and two drams of cliarcoal of fallow, or any other loft
kind. Precipitate of filvcr baked on ghifs will llain it yellow,
and likcwile give a yellow colour on being mixed with and
melted with forty or fifty times their weight of vitreouj
compofilions ; the precipitate from aqua-fortis by fixe.i al-
kali feems to anfwer belt. Yellow glafles may alfo be ob-
tained with certain preparations of iron, particularly with
PruflTian blue. But Dr. Lewis obferves, that the colour does
not conftantly fuccecd, nor approach to the high yellow of
gold, with filver or with iron. The neareft imitations of
gold winch he has been able to produce, have been efTcclcd
with antimony and lead. Equ;:l parts of the glafs of anti-
mony, of flint calcined and powdered, and of miniu.T^, form-
ed a glafs of a high yellow ; and with two parts of glafs of
antimony, two of minium., and three of powdered flint, tlic
colour approached ItiU more to that of gold. The lail com-
pofition exhibited a multitudt of fmall fparkles interfperfed
tlu-ough its wliole fubilante, which ga\e it a beauijful ap-
pearance in the mafs, but were really imperftdlioas, owing
to air-bubbles.

Neri directs, for a gold-yellow colour, cne part of red
tartar, and the fame quantity of manganefc, to be mixed
v.ith a hundred parts of frit. But Kunckel ohferves, that
thefe portions are faulty ; that otie part, or one and a quar-
ter of mangancfe, is fufF.cient for a hundred of frit ; but
that ^x-s. parts of tartar are hardly enougii, uiilefs the tartar
is of a dark red celour, alraolt blackiih ; and that he found
it expedient to add to the tiirtar about a fourth of its weight
of powdered charcoal. He adds, that the glafs fwclls up
very much in melting, and that it mull be left unllirred and
worked as it (lands in fufion. Mr. Samuel More, in repeat.
ing and varying this procefs, in order to render the colour
moreperfett, found that the mangancfe is entirely eflential
to the gold colour, and that the tartar is no ilherwifc of ufc,
than in virtue of the coaly matter, to which it is in part re-
duced by the fire ; the plilogiilon or inflammable part of the
coal appearing in Icveral experiments tii be the dirert ting-
ing fubitance. Mr. Pott alio, in his Xcuc Wichtige Phy-
ficaliflich-Chymifche Matcrien, &c. printed in 1762, ob-
ferves, that common coals give a yellow colour to glafs j
that different coaly matters differ in their tinging power;
that caput mortuum of foot and lamp-black anlwer better
than common charcoal ; and that tlie iparkling coal which
remains in the retort after the reitification ot the thick cm-
pyreumatic animal oils, is one of the molt active of tliefe
preparations. This pivparalion, he lays, powdered, and
then burnt again a httle in a dole veflel, is excellent for ting-
ing glafs, and gives yellow, brown, reddifli, or blackiih co-
lour, according to its' quantity ; but the frit luuil not be vci-y

hard

G I. A S

herd of fi-fio'.i } for, in thh cafe, tlii llroii;^ fire will J;.>IV. oy of a tranfparent red colour, hardly to be equalled by thai of

th'- colour:'-."- fiibftaiicc before the 'i-lafs uAls, and he has rubies. Sje Porofity of Bodies, in Shaw's Abridgment of

found taVfollowiug compolillous to be nearly the bell j I'/s. Boyle's Works, vol. i. p. 459 j and Appendix to the Scep-

laiid tu-o parts, aKiidi three paj-ts ; or find two, alka- tic:il ChemiH.

li tluve calcined borax one; or fand two, alkali two. About the fame time Caflius is faid to have difcovered the

calcined borax one: and though fak-petre is hardly precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs might be tinged

ufed at all or very fparin<Tly, for yellow glafles, as of a ruby colour by melting it with this precipitate : thougii

It too much volatilizes the colouring fiibftance ; yet here he does not ajipcar, fays Dr. Lewis, from his treatife De

for the molt part a certain proportion of it, eafdy determined Auro, to have been the difcoverer of either. He defcribes

by trial, is very necelTary ; for without it, the couceul rated the preparation of the precipitate and its ufe, but gives no

colourin'"- matter is apt to make the glafs too dark, and even aecount of the manner of employing it ; only that he fays,

gf an opaque pitchy blicknefs. It doe:! not certainly appear one dram of gold, duly prepared, will tinge ten pounds of

that tilt re is any material diverfity in the effetls of different glafs. _ &ie Q,oi.-d pr.-riphnte iv'tlh tin.

ciKils • the difference belu'; probably owir.g to the different This pruCL-i's was foon after brought to perfcftion by

quantities of the inflammable matter which they contain; ■"' ' ' -i- /•--- -.-. c.^ :.:._._-.rm _•_.
fo that a little more ihall be required of one kind than of an
other, for producing the fame degree of colour in the glafs
Nor does the f .ftneis or fufibility of the frit appear to be v.
anv refpeCt neccffary.

Gold-coloured fp'angles may bediffufed throng

Kunckel ; who fays, that one part of the precipitate is fiifficient

to give a ruby colour to 1280 parts of glafs, and a fenlible

rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts ; but that the fucccfs is

bv no means cor.Ilant. Kunckel alfo mentions a purple-gold

powder, refembling that of Neri, which he obtained by in-

_ the fub- fpiffatiiig foiutiou of gold to drynef-i, abftracting from it

ftniTrp' of n-lafs. bv n-uxintr the yellow talcs witli powdered frelli aqua regia three or four times, till the matter appeari
' .0 .'.-'■ 'I . ' ■ . r .- ^ e. !.,..,;,■„ 1:1.., ,.:i . .i.». :.,u-,-... ...:.i. a „ii- .i;..» 1.... 1

glafs, and bringing the mi.xture i.ito fiifion. See Lewis's
Com. Phd. Techn. p. 223. 626, See.

Gh.\S'. for counttrf/ilins n'p'S hizuli. See Lnph l.Azut.r.

Glaus rcft-niMiTi^r opal. See Oi'.\J. and Ge.ms.

Glass, Jin/')-. The way to give the true line red cf the
ruby, with a fa'ir tranfparence, to glaff, is as follows. Cal-

like oil ; then precipitating with llrong alivaline ley, and
v.'afliingthe precipitate v.'ith water, jjy diffolving this pow-
der in Ipirit of fait, and precipitating it again, it becomes, he
fays, extremely fair ; and in this Hate he directs it to be mij;-
ed with a due proportion of Venice glafs.

Orfchal hi his treatife entitled Sol fine Veile, gives the

fine ruby.

cine' in earthen veffels gold dilTolved in aqua regin, the men- follot\-iiig procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He di
ftruum being evaporated by dillillation, more aqua regia added, refts the purple prccipiUite, made by tin, to be ground with
and the abftraction repeated five or fix times, till it becomes
■ ' will require many dayS in

a red pou der. This operation wdl require many dayS m a
hot furnace ; «hcu the powder is of a proper colour, take
it out ; and when it is to be ufed, melt the fiuell cryilal glafs,
and purify it, by often calling it into water ; ar.d thcnadd,
by fmall quantities, enough of diis red powder to give it
jlour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfeft tranf-

the true col
parence. Neri.

The
cf gold
century

See Gem.'*.

procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by preparations
, were f.rft attempte-d about the beginning ot the 17th

.. I.,ibavius, in one of his trafts, entitled Alehyniia,

printed in 1606, conieftures that the colour of tlie ruby pro-
ceeds from fold, and that gold diffolved, and brought to red-

fix times Its qiLanti' y of Venice glals into a very line powder,
and this compour.d to be very carefully mingled with the frit
or vitreous compofition to be tinged. His frit confifts of
eOjUal parts of borax, nitre, and fixed alkaline lalt, and four
times as much calcined flint as of each of the falts ; but he
gives no directions as to the proportion cf the gold precipi-
tate, or mode of fufioi;. Hellot delcribes a preparation,
which mi::cd with Venice glafs, was found to give a beau-
tiful purple enamel. This preparation confiiis of equal
parts of iulution of gold, and of folution of zinc in aqua
regia, mixed together with the addition of a volatile fait pre-
pared from fal ammoniac, in quicklime, in fufficient quantity
to precipitate the two metals. The precipitate is then gra-
nefs mi^'-ht be made to communicate a like colour to faftitious dually heated, till it acquires a violet colour. However,
o-em's and glafs. On this principal Neri, in his '• Art of though a purple or red colour, approaching to that of ruby,
Glafs" dated 161 I. gives the procefs above recited. Glau- may, by the ir.ct!;ods above recited, be baked on glafs or
ber in 16+8 publilhed a method of producing a red colour enamels, and introduced into the mafs by fufion, tlie way of
bv ffold in a matter which is of the vitreous kind, though not equally diffufing fuch a colour through a quantity of fluid
perfect o-lafs. For this purpofe he ground powdered Hint or glafs is ftill, fays Dr. Lewis, a fccrct. The following pro-
fand wiUi four times its weight of fixed alkaline fdt ; this cefs for making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr.
mixture melts in a moderately llrong fire, and '.vhen cold Lev/is by an artill, wl'.o afcribed it to Kunckel. The gold
looks like srlafs, but expofed to the air runs into a liquid is directed to be diffulvcd in a mixture of one part of fpirit
ftate. On adding this liquor to folution of gold in aqua regia, of fait, and three of aqua-fertis, and the tin in a mixture of
the eold and flint precipitate together in form of a yellow one part of the former of thefe acids with two of tht^ latter,
powder, which by calcination becomes purple ; by mix- The folution of gold being properly diluted v.ith water (fee
'm<r this powder with three or four times its weight of the Colb preclpilalf, iic.) tlie folution of tin is added, and the
alkaline folution of flint, drying the mixture, and melting it mixture left to Hand till the purple matter has fettled to the
in a llrom- fire for an hour, a malsisobtained, of a tranfparent bottom. The colourlefs lio^uor is then poured oif, and the
rubv colour, and of a vitreous appearance, which neverthe- purple fediment, while moilV and not very thick, is thorouglv
lefs'is foluble in vviater, or by the moifture of the air, on ac- ly mixed with powdered f.int or land. This mixture is well
count of the redundance of the fait. The honourable Mr. ground with powdered nitre, tartar, bora,-., and arfenic, and
Boyle in a work publi(h'.'d in 1680, mentions an experiment, the compound melted with a fuitable fire. The proportions
in which a like colour was introduced into glafs without of the ingredients are 1560 parts of fand, 384 of nitre, 240
fufion- for, liavinc"- kept a mixture of gold and mercury in of tartar, 240 of bora.x, 28 of arfenic, 5 of tin, and 5 of
digeftion for fome'^months, the fire was at lall immoderately gold. Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. p. 171. 621, &c.
increafed fo that the n-lafs burll with a violent exploi'.on ; Gl-As.s, iwhtts-opaque, Rr.i/iwi-tranjpurttit, may be made of

and the lower part of the glafs was found ting?d tliroughout ten pounds <rf cither of the compofilioas for hard glafs, and

uiie

■which Agricola makes a particylar furnace, confitts of a
tower, bclities the- leer; the tower lies fli ct\ly over the
meltin^f furnace, with a partition betwixt them ai)Out a f-jot
thick, having an aperture c.lled ccchli), or luuiellii, through
which the flame or heat afcends out of the furnace into tlic
towtr: on the floor or bottom of tliis tower, the vefieL-,
falhione d by the r.rtid, are fet to be arrnealcd ; and as the

(; L A s s.

•nc pound of well calcined horn, irory, or bone ; or an oj.aque the fpacr of a few feet. The feccr.o" p '-jticn d vIJcs f Ju*

.whitenefs may be given to glafs by adding one po.md of from the leer or annealing furnace ; throi..'h tl.J boccas, or

very white arfenic to ten poimdsof flmt ghfs. Let them be working holes, when there arc more than tne, tl.c metll-is

well powdered and mixed, by grmdmg them togetlicr ; and taken out of tlje pots, and the pots put into the furnace •

then fufed with a moderate heat, till they arc thorou-rily in- thcfe b<-ccas are llopped with movc-nWc covers, made of lute

corporated. A glais of this kind is made in large quan- and brick to fcreen the cye3 of the workmen from the fire ■

titles at a manufacture near London, and ufed nnt only for and fometimcs on each fide <,f the bocca is a boccarcUa, out

different kinds of velTels, but as a white ground for enamel of which coloured glafs, or fmcrm.ctal is taken from the pilinz-

in dia.-plates and fnuff-boxes, which do not require /ininiing pot. To the furnace likcwife occafionallv heh.i.g ovens, or

with much hre, becaufe it becomes very white and fufible holes near the leer, for the calcining of tartar, iron, &c
with a moderate heat. ']'he leer, which fervcs to anneal and c«.l the veffeh, and

Glass, Yeltiiu. oee Golden-coiound Glass. ' " . . -

Glass- W/r, which are circular or otIier«-ife (hapcd hollow
yeffels of glafs, mar be coloured within, fo as to imitate
the femi-peilucid gems. The method of doing it is this :
make a flrong folutioii of ichthyocolla, or ifinglafs, in com-
moa water, by boiling ; pour a quantity of this while warm
into the hollow of a white glafs veffel ; fliake it thoroughly

about, that all the fides may be wetted, and then j.our off flame hai here a k-fs d,-gree of inteiif.ty tliaii tharwhlch "is

the relt of the moiihire. Immediately after this, th.row in fLillai.i.d by the pots, ihe ve.Telf, after th.-v have been formed,

red lead, (hake it and turn it about, throw it into many places coo! flovvly and tjradually. This has ui'uaily tv.o boccas,

with a tube, and the moilhtre v.ill make it ftick and run in or months, by uhich tlie gia'lej are put in v.iili a fork, ii.d

waves and pretty figures. Then throw in fome of the pain- placed on the'floor. 'VXvTlcfr is an avenue, five or fix vaids

tcr's blue fmak, and make it run in waves in the ball as the long, continued to the tower; tlin;uj^;h tliis the glafies,

red-lead; then do the fame with verdigris, next with orpi- when annealed, are drawn in iron pans, called /n/r/?,/, by

ment, then with red lake, all well ground ; always carting which they come to cool by degrees, being quite cold by

in the colours in different places, and turning the glafs, that the lime they reach tlie mwitli of the leer, which enters

the moillurc within may run them into the waves. Then take the " farofel," or room where tile glaffes are to be fet.
fine plafter of Paris, and put a quantity of it into the ball j The th'trd is th- " grccn-glafs furnrice," which is a kin*}

fhake it alfo nimbly about ; this will cvjry where Hick firmly of compound of all the formiT. It is m.ade Iqiiare, (the two

to the glafs, and give it a ftrong inner coat, keeping all form.-r being circular,) having an arch at each angle for an-

the colours on very fairly and flrongly. neahng and cooling tlie glafies. The metal is wrought on

Thefe are fet on frames of carved wood, and much eftcem- two oppofite fid. s, and on the other t.vo they have ibcir

cd as ornaments in many places. Neri. calcars," into whicli are made linnet-liolcs for the fire fo

GLAs.s-rf;-4^j- See Rupert's (yro/x. come from the furnace, to bake the frit, and alfo to dif-

Glass, Fortattng of. See Foliating and Looking- charge the fmoke. Fires are made in tiie arches to anneal

the veiTels, fo that tlic v.hole procefs is done in one furnace.
The materials with which the inlides of thefe furnixes are
conilrnfted are not ordinary brick (which v.culd fi)on melt
down into glafs, <;s would alio all the foftcr iioncf, ) but
hard and fandy kinds, called by Imperatus •' pyraniachij.'
Cut when bricks are uf d, they Ihouid be torrr.tc of an earth

GLASS.

Glass-^/iII, or fandkvr, is the fcum of the glafs pots,
which ariles during the vitrification of the frit. See Gla.s.*;,
f>i/>ra.

Glass, gi.Uinx of. See Gilding of aiamd zni ^Infi.

Gla.«s, jrindin^ of. See GniSDlNG

GhASf'-hoife Furnace, is the place in which the ingredi- which pofieiies in the bighelt degree the qu.:!. lies of dtnfity
■pnts or materials of glals are fuled and vitrified. There are and infulibiiity, for refilling th.r lire, which contiiuics to act
three kinds of furnaces ufed in the glafs-works. The fr/!, upon them, without cefiatiou for a long time; as the (ires in
called the " calcar," ferves for preparing or c.ilcining t!ic frit, a glafj-houfe are fvldom lulicrcd to g.; out, from the time
It is made like an oven, lo feet long, levcn broad, and two when the furnace is firll employed till it needs rep-iir, and
deep. The fuel, wliich is fea-coal, is put in a trencli, on one the interval m.ay be two or three years; the walls ot the fur-
fide of the furnace ; and the flame rcv.rberates from the roof nace, for this reafon, as well as the pots, are conittuCtcd

back upon the frit. The coals burn in an iron crate, and
■the alhes fall thence into holes underncat'i.

The_/2«-7(/ is the " working furujce,'' i^i which the ingre-
dients are melted, and the glafs is made. Its figure is
round, rcferabling a dome, three yards in diameter, and two
high, fupported on archen, beneafh which is a large fpace for
9 bri(k and copious draught of cold air from without : round
the infidc there are arranged eigh.t or more pots, and on ti'.efe
piling-pots, every where doled except at one fide opening,
which communicates with u fniall recefs formed by the alter-
nate pn/jci'tions of th? mafonry and fines of the oven or kiln,
in which rccefs the workmen Ita.id. The furnace has two
partitiu'is ; the lower, fepar.'.ting ihepots from the fire-jilace.

chiefly of clay, mixed with land, ai.d other materials cf a
refradioi-y kind, in due proportion. See GL.\ss-/)ott.

Gl.-vss ff leiid, a glals made with the a Idifon of a lar^v
cuantity of lead, of grrat ufe in the ai^t ot making counter-
Lit gem:-. The msttiod of making it is thi»: put a large
quantity of had into a potter's kiln, and keep it in a ilate
of fulioii with a modcrat'; fire, till it is calcuiid to a grey
l)ofe p(>wder: then fpread it in tie kiln, and give it a
grea-tr heat, continually lUrring it to keep it from running
into lumps; conti.iue tins fcvcral hours, til! the p^iwder be-
cjm.- cf a fair yillo.v ; then take it out and fifl it line: this
is called calcined lead.

Take of this calcined lead fifteen pounds, and cryftalline,

jwer, lepar.'.ting inepots iromine lire-]iiace, i aK.c or uus cuicaneu uau uiiet.i j.uunu,-., an^ ^■^■v.ui.ii. ,

: !S a circular liole in the centre covered with a grat, through or other frit, twelve pounds; mix thefj as well as poffiblt

vhicb the flame paffes Irom the fire-place into the furnace, together; put thsm into a pot, and let tin m m the turnace

t>eing afterwards re. rberated fro.n the arched fides and roof for ten hours; then caft the whole, which will be now per-

to thcmclting-pols, and paffing out w.th the fmoke through feclly ir.cltcd, into water; feparate the loofe lead from it,

;!.c top of the dome, wiiich is lengthened into a chimney for and Vetur;) the ir.etul into the pot; and after jlauding in

lu ion

G L A S S.

fufioti twelve hourj moiT, it will be fit to work. It is very
tC'.ider aiiJ brittle, and muil be woikcd with great can-,
taking it llowly out oi' the pot, and. continually wetting the
njai-ble it i.s wrought upon. Neri.

It is well known, that cerufs, or white lead, minium, li-
tharge, and all t!ie otlier preparation;! ar.d calces of lead,
arc eafily fufed by a moderate fire, and formed into a tranf-
parent glals of a deep yellow colour. • BuL tills glafs is fo
penetrating and powerful a flux, that it is ilccefi'ary to give
it a greater confillcn-;e, in order to rerder it fit for ufc.
With this view, two paiis of calx of L-ad, f._f. minium,
and other parts of land, or powdered flints, may be put
into a crucible of relraclory clay, and baked into a compact
body. Let this crucible, well doled wiih a luted lid, be
placed in a melting furnace, and gradually licated, for an
hour, or an hour and a half; and aflcrwards-let the heat be
increafed, fo as to obtain a complete fulion, and continued
in^that ftate for the fame time: let this crucible n.main to
cool in the furnace, and when it is broken, a very tranfpa-
vent yellow-coloured glals will be found in it. iSom.e add
nitre and common fait to the above mixture, becaufe thefe
lalts promote the fufion and the more equal diilriljution of
the fand. This glals of lead has a confiderable fpecific gra-
vity, and its lowell part is always the heaviell. It is an im-
portant flux in the affays of ores to facilitate their fcoriiica-
tions.

Glafs of lead is capable of all the colours of the gems in
very great perfection. The methods of giving them are
tthefe: for green, take polverine frit twenty pounds, lead
calcined fixtcen pounds; fift both the powders very fine;
then melt them into a gkifs, feparating the unmixed lead,
by plynging the mals in water; after this return it into the
pot, and add brafs thrice calcined fix ounces, and one penny'
weight of crocus martis made with vinegar; put this in at
fix different times, always carefully mixing it together; let
it finally fettle an hour, then mix it together, and take a
proof of it; when t!ie colour is right, let it Hand eight
hours, and then work it. If inflead of the calcined brafs
the fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the vitriolum
veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer.

For topaze-colour take cryflal frit fifteen pounds, cal-
cined lead twelve pounds; mix them well together, by fift-
ing the pov.dcrs through a fine fieve ; then fet them in a
furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous unmixed
lead, by calling the whole into water: repeat this twice;
then add half gold yellow glafs, and let them incorporate
«Hd purify, and they will be of the true and exatt colour of
the original topazes.

For fea-green, take cryflal frit fixtcen pounds, calcined
lead ten pounds; mis and fift them together, and fet them
in a pot in a furnace: in twelve hours the whole will be
melted; then caft it into water and feparate it from the
loofe lead; put them into the furnace agam for eight hours;
then feparate the loofe lead by waOiing a fecond time, and
return it to the pot for eight hours more. Neri. See Gems.
Glass, Painting in. The primitive manner of painting in
g'afs was very fimple, and of confequence very eafy : it con-
iilled in tlie mere arrangement of pieces of glafs of different
colours, in fome fort of fymmetry ; and conilituted a kind
of what we call Mofak ivork.

Afterwards, when they came to attempt more regular de-
figns, and even to reprefent figures raifed with all their
fliades, their whole addrefs went no farther than to the draw-
ing the contours of the figures in black, with water colours,
and hatching the draperies, after the fame planner, on glafl'es
of the colour of the objeft intended to be painted. For the
carnations, they thcfe glafs of a bright red; upon which

thev (Jefigncd the principal lineaments of the face, S:c. wltk
black. .

At lafl the taflc for this fort of painting being confider-
ably improved, and the art being found applicable to the
adorning of churches, bafilicas, &c. they foiuid means of
incorporating the colours with the glafs itfelf, by expofing
them to a proper degree of fire, after the colours had been
laid on. ^

A French painter at Marfeilles is faid to have given the
firlt notion hereof, upon going to Rome, under the pontifi-
cate of Julius II. But AlbffTt Durer, and Lucas of Ley-
don, were the firit that carried it to any height.

The colours ufed in painting on glafs are vei-y different
from thofe ufed either in painting in od, or water.

The black is made of two-thirds of flakes, or fcalcs of
iron, beaten up, and mixed with another third of rocaille,
or little glafs beads, li'hite, with fand, or little wh.ite peb--
blcs, calcined, pounded in a mortar, and afterwards ground
on marble ; with one fourth-part of falt-petre, added there-
to, and the mixture calcined and pulverized over again: to
which, when they arc ready to ule it, is added a little gyp-
fum, or plafter of Paris well ground, &c. For yellow,
they ufe leaf-filver ground, mixed up in a crucible, with^
fulphur or falt-petre; then well beaten and g-iound on a
porphyry ftone; and, at length, ground over again with
nine times as much red ochre. Red is made of litharge of
filver, and fcales of iron, gum Arabic, ferretta, glafs-beads,
and blood-ftone, nearly in equal quantities. This is one of
the moll difficult colours, and the preparation only to be
learned by experience. Green is made of it% uftum, one
ounce; as much black lead, and four ounces of white fand,
incorporated by the fire. After calcination, they add a
fourth part of falt-petre : after a fecond calcination, a fixth
part more : after which they make a third coftion before it
is ufed. A'^ure, purple, and 'violets, are prepared like green,
only leaving out the a;s ullum, and in the lieu thereof ufing
fulphur for azure; perigueux for purple; and both thefe
drugs for violet. Carnations are made of ferretta and ro-
caille. And laftly, colours for the hair, trunks of trees, &c.
are made of ferretta, rocaille, &c.

This account of colours we have from M. Felibien's ex-
cellent work Des Principes d'Architcfture, &c. though it
muft be owned, that all the painters an glafs do not ufe
then- ; there being few artifls of that kind but have in-
vented their own particular ones, whereof they ufually
make great fecrets. But this is certain, that thefe above
•defcribed are fufficient for the bcfl paintings of all forts j
provided the perfon has but the flcill to manage them.

In the windows of divers ancient cluirchea, chapels, col-
leges, &c. we meet with the mofl beautiful and lively
colours imaginable ; fuch as far exceed any ufed among
\is : but it is not tliat the fecret of making thofe colours
is loll ; but that tlie moderns would not go to the ex-
pence of them_; nor take all the neceffary pains ; becaufe
this fort of painting is not now fo much eftcemed at
formerly.

Mr. Walpole, in his Anecdotes of painting in England,
has traced the hillory of this art from the reformation,
wlien mifguided zeal deilrov»d moll of the monuments
of it in our chiu-clies, through a feries of protefTors to the
prefent time. Among the later proficients in this art
were Ifaac Oliver, who painted the windows at Chrift-
church, Oxford, in 1 700 ; William Price, who in the
fame year painted the windows in Merton chapel ; William
Price, the ion, to whofe art we owe tlie wii.dows at
yueen's. New-college, and -Maudlin, of whojn Mr.
W^alpole fays, that liis colours are fine, liis drawing
4 goo<l>

GLASS.

good, and his tafte in ornaments and Mofaic far fuperior
to any of his predcceflbrs, and equal to the antique.
In 1 761, Mr. Paterfon, an audioneer late of Eflex-houfe
in London, exhibited the two firft auftions of painted glafs
imported from Flanders ; and undertook alfo to eftabhth a
manufacture of painted glafs : feveral of the pieces of this
ingenious artift exliibited colours vying in perfection with
the old paintings.

Thofe beautiful works, among the painters in glafs, which
were made in the glafs-houfe, were of two kinds : in fome,
the colour was diffufed through the whole body of glafs ;
in others, whicli were the more common, the colour was
only on one fide, fcarce penetrating within the fubftance
above one-third of a line ; though this was, more or lefs,
according to the nature of the colour ; the yellow being al-
ways found to enter the deepeft.

Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong and beautiful as the
former, were of more advantage to the workmen ; becaufe,
on the fame glafs, tliough already coloured, they could (hew
other kinds of colours, where there was occafion to embroider
draperies, enrich them with foliages, or reprefent other or-
naments of gold, filver, &c.

In order to this, they made ufe of emery ; grinding, or
wearing down the furface of tlie glafs, till fuch time as
they were got through the colour, to the clear glafs : this
done, they applied the proper colours on the other fide
of the glafs. By this means the new colours were pre-
vented trom running and mixing among the former, when
the glafTes came to be expofed to the fire, as will hereafter
be (hewn.

When the intended ornaments were to appear white, or
filvered, they contented themfelves to bare the glofs of its
colour with emery, without applying any new colour at all ;
and it was in this manner that they wrought the lights and
heightenings on all kinds of colours.

The painting with vitreous colours on glafs depends en-
tirely o:; the fame principles as painting in enamel ; and
the manner of executing it is likewife the fame ; except
that in this the tranfparency of the colours being indif-
penfibly requifite, no fubftances can be ufed to form them
but fuch as vitrify perfectly : and, therefore, the great
objeft is to find a fet of colours, which are compofed of
fuch fubftances, as, by the admixture of other bodies,
may promote their vitrification and fufion ; are capable of
being converted into glafs ; and melting, in that Itate,
■mth lefs heat than is fufficient to melt fuch other kinds
of glafs as may be chofen for the ground or body to be
painted ; to temper thefe colours, fo as to make them
proper to be worked with a pencil ; and to burn or reduce
them by heat, to a due ftate of fufion, without injuring
or melting the glafs which conftitutes the body painted.
The firft thing to be done, in order to paint on glafs, in
the modern way, is to delign, and even colour, the
whole fubjeft on paper. Then they make choice oi pieces
of glafs proper to receive the feveral parts, and proceed
to divide or diftribute the defign itfeif, or the paper it is
drawn on, into pieces fuitable to thofe of glals ; having
always a \\e\v that the glalfes may join in tlie contours
of the figures, and the folds of the draperies ; that the
carnations and other finer parts may not be damaged
by the lead wherewith the pieces are to be joined toge-
ther.

The diftribution being made, they mark all the glafies,
as well as papers, with letters, or numbers, tliat they
may be known again ; which done, applying each part
of the defign on the glafs intended for it, they copy or
transfer the defign upon this glafs, with the black colour,

Vol. XV r.

diluted in gum-water ; by tracing and following all t!»»
lines and ftrokes, as they appear tlirough the ghifs, wiili
the point of a pencil.

W hen thefe firft ftrokes are well dried, which happens
in about two days, the work being only in black and
white, they give it a flight wa(h over, with urine, gum
Arabic, and a little black ; and this feveral times repeat-
ed, according as the fliades are defired to be heightened ;
with this precaution, never to apply a new v*a(h, till the
former is fuiliciently dried. This done, the lights ar^
riflngs are given, by rubbing off the colour in the refpec-
tive places, with a wooden point or t\x handle of the
pencil.

As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are ufed
with gum-water, much as in painting in miniature ; taking
care to apply them lightly, for fear of effacing the out-
lines of the defign ; or even, for the greater fccurity, to
apply them on the other fide, efpecially yellow, which
is very pernicious to other colours, by blending there-
with.

And here too, as in pieces of black and white, part'-
cular regard niuft be always had, not to lay colour on co-
lour, or lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are
well dried. It may be added, that the yellow is the oi.Iy
colour that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire ; the reft, and particularly the blue,
which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on tlie furface,
or at leaft entering very little. Wlien the painting of all
the pieces is fi:uflied, they are carried to the furnace or
oven, to anneal or bake the colours. The furnace here
ufed is fmall, built of brick, from eighteen to thirty inches
fquare : at fix inches from the bottom is an aperture, to
put in the fuel, and maintain the fire. Over this aper-
ture is a grate, made of three fquare bars of iron, which
traverfe the furnace, and divide it into two parts. Two
inches above this partition is another little aperture, through
which they take out pieces, to examine how the coc^ion
goes forward.

On the grate is placed a fquare earthen pan, fix or feven
inches deep ; and five or fix inciies lefs, ever)- way, than
the pefimeter of the furnace. On one fide hereof is a
little aperture, through which to make the trials, placed
directly oppofite to that of the furnaces deftined for the
fame end.

In this pan are the pieces of glafs to be placed in the
following manner ; firft, the bottom of the pan is covered
with three ftrata, or layers of quicklime, pulverized ;
thofe ftrata being feparated by two others, of old broken
glafs : the defign whereof is to fccurc the painted glafs
from the too intenfe heat of the fire. This done, the glaffes
aie laid horizontally on the laft, or uppcrmoft, layer of
lime.

The firft row of glafs, they cover over with a layer of
the fame powder an inch deep ; and over this they lay an-
other range of glaffes : and thus alternately, till the pan is
quite full ; taking care that the whole heap always ends
with a layer of the hme-powder.

The pan thus prepared, they cover up the furnace witK
tiles, OH a fquare table of earthen-ware, clofely luted
all round ; only liaving five little apertures, one at each
corner, and another in the middle, to fervc as chim-
nies.

Things thus difpofed, there remains nothing but to give
the lire to the work. The fire for the two firll hours mull
be very moderate ; and mult be increafed in proportion
as the' coction advances, for the fpace of ten or twelve
hours ; in which time it is ufuallv completed. At lall,
U u ■ the

GLASS.

the fifei wliich at firft. was only of charcoal, is to he of
dry wood : fo that the flame covers the whole pan, and
evjn ifTiies out at the chimnics.

Durin<r the lad hours, they make affays from time to
time, by taking out pieces laid for that purnofe, through
the little aperture of the furnace, and pan, to ky whe-
ther the yellow be p"rfeft, and the other colours in good
order. When the annealing is thought fufficicnt, thry
proceed with great haile to cxtinguifli the fire, wliich
ctherwifc would foon burn the colours, and break the
glaffes. See Paintikg.

Glass, pahiting on, f>y means vf prints. See V> \r.Vi-{\vnl-
iitg.

Gr.A??, poUfhln^ of- See PoilstriKC and GniNDiXG.

GL.Kf^-^-porCiLiin, tlie name given by many to a modern
invention of imitating the china-ware with glafs. The nie-
thod given by M. Reaumur, who wa"; the tirll that carried
the attempt to any degree of perfeftion, if delivered by that
gentleman in the Memoirs of the Academy of Seienees of
Paris, to this eKeti. This change of glafs was tiril taken
notice of by Neumann, who, in dillillmg milk in a glafs
retort, obferved, that the bottom of the veflel acquired the
appearance of porcelain, wliich he attributes to the line
white earthy matter of the milk forced into the glals by heat.
Neum. Chem. Works by Dr. Lewis, p. 571.

The mixing of glafs reduced to powder, with other Icfs
eafdy vitrifiable fubftances for forming a pafle, to be after-
wards made into a fort of a porcelain, has been a contrivance
long praftifed, but it is very troublefome, and the refult
fubjetf to many faults ; but this new ware is made of glafs
alone, and that with much lefs trouble, and without tlie
reducing it to powder. By this art, veffels of glafs are
changed into veltels of a fort of porcelain, without altering
their'form, and the nieanelt glafs miule only of fand, lime,
and fahne adies, ferves as well as the bell for that purpofe :
our common coarfe green quart-bottles, or the great bell
glalTes with wh.ieh gardeners cover their melons, S:c. being
by this means changeable into a beantifid white fort of por-
celain ware ; and this is to be done in fo cafy a manner, and
with fo fmall expence, that it requires no more trouble or
charo-e, than that of baking a common veffel of our coarfe
earthen-ware ; and for this reafon the veffels ot this fort of
ware may be afforded extremely cheap.

It is very certain, that all p.ircelain ware is a fubrtance
in the ftate of fe-rii-vitrification : and in order to bring glafs,
which is a wholly vitrified fubffancc, into the condition of
porcelain, there requires no mure than to reduce it to a leis
perfeftly vitrified ftate.

The queftion which would naturally be ftarted on this oc-
cafion, is, wjhether it be poflible to reduce glafs to a lefs
vitrified ffate, it having already undergone what is ellcemed
the laff change by fire. But when we confider, that the
mafs of antimony, the vitritieations wf many of the metals,
as the glafs of lead, and the counterfeit gems coloured by
(he metals, are more or. lefs eafily reduced again by che-
ir.iltry to metals, &c. tlie r^-dueing of fand, flints, &c. after
ti-iey are vitrified, at leall a little way back tovard their
native or prilline date, niay appear not wholly i'.npr;idieahle,
and the attempts which M. Reaumur made on this occafion,
were what gave him the firll hints of the glafs-porcelain ;
called from his'name " Reaumur's porcelain."

The method of making it is this. The glafs veffels to be
converted into procelain are to be put into a large eartheu
veffel, fueh as the common line earthen didies are baked in,
«;r into fufhciently large crucibles ; tlie veffels are to be filled
with a mixture of fine white fand, and of fine gypfum or
tU.icr-ftone burnt into what is called p laftcr of Paris, ami

all the interftices are to be filled tip with the fame powdcr»
fo that the glafs veffels may no where touch either one an-
other, or the hdcs of the velfel they are baked in. The veffel
is to be then covered dowji and luted, and the fire does the
red of the work ; for this is only to be put into a common
potter's furnace, and wlien it has flood there tlip ufual time
for the baking of the other veffel.i, it is to be taken out, and
the whole contents will be found no longer glafs, but con-
verted into a white opaque fubllance, which is a very elegant
porcelain, and ha": ahnoll the properties of that of China.
M''moirs Acad. Sciences Par. 1 739.

The powder which has ferved once, will do again as well
as frelh, and that for a great many times : nay, it feems,
ever fo often. The caule of this transformation, fays Mac-
quer, is pVobably that the vitriolic acid ot the gypfum quits
its bafis of calcareous eartli, and unites with the alkalme fait
and faline earth of the glafs, with which it forms a kind of
fait or felenites, differing from the calcareous felenites, by
the interpofition of which matter the glafs acquires the
qualities of porcelain. Dr. Lewis, from a variety of ex-
periments on the nature and qualities, and method of pro-
ducing this porcelain, has deduced the following conchi-
fiuns : I . Green glafs cemented with white fand received no
change in a heat below ignition : in a low red-heat, the
change proceeded very llowly ; but in a llrong red-heat, ap-
proaching to whitenefs, the thickell jjieces of glafs bottles
were thoroughly changed in three hours. 2. The glafs
fullained the tuUowing progreiTiou of changes. Its furface
firft became blue ; its tranfparence was diminiflied, and
v>hen held between the light and the eye, it appeared of a
yellowilh hue : afterwards it was changed a little way on
both fides into a white fubllance, externally Hill blueifli : and
as this change adviinccd Hill farther and fartlier within the
glafs, the colour of the vitreous part in the middle ap-
proached nearer to yellow : the white coat was ot a fine
fibrous texture, and the fibres were difpofed nearly parallel
to one another, a'ld tranfverfe to the thicknefs of the piece :
by degrees the glafs became throughout white and iibrous,
the external blneilhncfs at the fame time going off, and being
fucceeded by a dull whitidi or dun colour : by a ftdl l<;nger
continuance in the fire, the fibres were changed gradually
from the external to the internal part, and converted into
grains ; and the texture then was not unlike that of common
porcelain. The grains, at firll fine and fomcwhat gloffy,
appeared afterwards larger and duller, and at length the
fubilance of the glafs became porous and friable, like a
mafs of white fand (lightly cohering. 3. Concerning the
qualities of the converted glafs Dr. Lewis obferves, that the
whitenefs of tlie internal part was noj inferior to that of
porcelain, but that its furface was the Icall beautifij ; that
the thick pieces were quite opaque, and that feveral thin
pieces were femi-tranfjiarent : that while it remained in a
fibrous (late, its liardnefs became greater than tiiat of glafs,
or of the common kinds of porcelain ; it was capable of
fiiflaining fudden changes of heat and cold better than any
porcelain ; and in a moderate white heat, it was fuiible into
a fubllance not fibrous, but vitreous and fmooth, like wliite
enamel : that when its texture had been eoarfely granulated,
it was now much fofter and unfulible ; and, lallly, that
when fome eoarfely granula'ed unful.ble pieces which, with
the continuance ol a moderate heat, would have become
porous and friable, wi're iuddeidy expoivd to an intcnfe tire,
they were rendered remarkably more compacf than before ;
the folidity of fome of them being fuperior to that of any
other ware. 4: No di.ffei'ences appeared in the intirnal
colour, hardncfs, texture, or the regular fucccffum of
changer-, 'from the ule of Jiffeieiit cementing fubilances ;'

thou'jh

GLASS.

tliCTugli in rxtcrnal pppcaranccs.tlic difTcrtnccs were con fider-
able. All the pieces which liad hcon furroundod with char-
coal or with foot were externally of a deep blick colour,
which did not difappcar hy cxpof-ire to a flioiijj fue during
an hour, with free accefs of air. Coloured clays and fands
communicated diiT^rent fliades of a brown eolo'.ir ; and white
earths gave whitifli, gre\-ifli, or browiiifli tingr-.. White
fand, calcined flints, and gypfum, gave in general the
Cjreato.l whitcnefs, and tobacco-pipe cl;iy the grc:;tcll glt)lli-
neis and brightnefj. GlafffS compofed of earths witliotit al-
kaline fdlt, glafs of lead, flint-glafs, crown-glafs, looking.
glafs pliitos, a glafs prepared with calcined flints and a fixed
alkaline fait, and even green glafs which had been fiifed toge-
ther with a ninth part of alkaline fait, fiiffercd none of the
above alterations by cementation. Green bottle-glafs and
common window-glafs were moil fiifceptible of th-fe altera-
tions. 6. T!ie changes produced by cementation could not
proceed from any abforption of matter from the cementing
fubflance ; b?caufe no increafe of weight was given, and
becaiife the fame changes were produced ujion a piece of
glafs msrely by heat, without any cementing fubllancc.
See Com. Phil. Tcchn. p. 230^-255.

Mr. Gregory Watt, in his valuable paper on bafalt (Phil.
Trauf. for 1804., cited by Aikin,) alleges this porcellanous
chau-re of glafs as an illuflration of his important principle,
I'l'a. " that bodies wliofe fibres have a natural tendency to a
cryftalline arrangement, or a polarity, when vitrified by a
fufficient heat and cooled hallily in the vitreous Hate, are able
fubfequently to return to their natural cryftailine arrange-
ment of fibre, when e.'^pofed to a heat merely fufficient to
foften the texture, though not enough for hifion. This,
in the inllance of bafalt, he fliev/s by the iingular cryllalli-
zations formed in the cells of fufed bafalt, long after it had
loll the liquidity of fufion. The circumllance of no mate-
rial change occurring in the weight of glafs by this eonver-
fion into the fibrous ftate, lliev.'s inconteftably that it cannot
be owing either to any thing gained during the procefs, nor
to any material lofs of the alkali ; and this is alfo rendered
manifeR by its return to the vitreous Hate and vitreous quali-
ties when again melted. This too may again be porcel-
lanized in the fame way, and again be melted into glafs,
and fo on alternately. " Sec Poucelaix.

Gl.A-Hs-potj, the vefTels in the glafs manufafture vifed for
melting the glafs, Thofe for the white glafs works are made
of a tobacco-pipe clay, brought from tlie I fie of Wight,
which is firll well walhed, then calcined, and afterwards
ground to a i\ns powder in a mdl ; which being niixt with
water, is then trod with the bare feet till it is of a proper
conliflence, to mould ^N-ith the hands into the proper fliape
of the vefTels. ^Vhen thefe are thus made, they are after-
wards annealed over the furnace. Thofe for the green-glafs
work are made of the nonfuch, and another lort of clay from
Staffordfliire ; they make thefe fo large as to liold three or
four hundred weight of metal. And befides thefe, they have
a fmall fort called piling pots, which tiiey let upon the
larger, and which contain a finer and more nice metal fit for
the nicefl works, Neri.

The clay tirat is ufed for this purpofe fliould be of the
purell and moft refractory kind, and well c'eanfed from all
fandy, ferruginous, and pyritous matters ; and to this it will
be proper to add ground crucililes, white fand, calcined
flints duly levigated, or a certain proportion of the fame
clay baked, and poimded not very linely. The quantity of
baked clay that ought to be mixed with the crude clay, to
prevent the pots from cracking when dried, or cxpofed to a
great heat, is nut abf^lutel) determined, but depends on

the quahty of the crude clay, wliich ij more or leH fat. M .
D'Antic, in a memoir on tliii fubject, propofes the follov.--
ing method of afcertaining it : the burnt and cnid<; clav,
bemg mixed in different proportions, fiiould be fonned into
cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long and wide. Lrt
thefe cakes be (lowly dried, and cxpofed to a \iolent heat,
till they become as hard and as much contracled a) ponTibl-,
and in this Rate be examined ; and the cake, he fay:, which
has fuffercd a diminution of its bulk equal only to an
eighteenth part, is made of the beft proportions. He ob-
ferves, in general, that moil clays require that the propor-
tion of the burnt fhould be to tiie frefh as four to five.

It is of great importance that the material of which the
pots are made (liould be carefully feledled, as they are ex-
pofed to the adlion of a very fierce fire, and alfo to the fol-
vent aftivity of the glafs with its powerful fluxes. They
fhould alfo be made very thick and llrong, as they are in-
tended to lad for many months. Wficn finifhcd, they are
placed in a warm room in order to difcharge their moillure,
and any fmall fiffurts arifing from the unequal (hrinkior of
the clay are clofed by gently beating with a mallet. 1 hey
are afterwards gradually heated in a fmall oven, conftru6ted
for this purpole, and llowly brought to a red heat ; and
after rem.iiiiing for fome time in this Hate, they are removed
to the furnace, and fixed down in their places by fire-clay.
Here, on account of a further fhrinking, they remain for a
day or two bs-fore they are fit for receiving the glafs mate-
rials. Pots of this kind are faid to lail, at an average, about
a year.

Gj..\.ss Tuhes^re of various lengths, diameters, and formj,
according to the purpofos to which they are applied. Thefe
are often formed with the lamp and blow-pipe, in the manner
defcribed under the article L.VMP-^/^-a'.-rj. In this way-
tubes are fealed hermetically (fee HEiiMKTir.\r, Seal), tubes
are bent, others arc joined, bulbs are annexed to tubes for
thermometers, &c., and glafs is drawn out into threads.

It has been obferved, that glafs tubes laid before the
fire in an horizontal pofition, and with their extremities fup-
ported, have had a rotatory motion about their axes ; and
alfo a progrelTive motion towards the fire, even when their
fupport:! are inclined from the fire, fo that the tubes wilj
move a little upwards. See Phil. Tranf. N° 476. f T.

When the progreffiTc motion of the tube is (lopped by
any obdacle, its motion about its axis will ilill continue.
When the tubes arc placed in a nearly upright pollure lea;'.
ing to the right hand, the motion will be from call to wefl ;
but if thoy lean to the left, the motion will be from w.ll t(».
fad ; when the nearer they are placed to the perfetlly up-
right pollure, the lefsthe motion will be cither way.

If the tube be placed hori/onlally on a glafs plane, tho
fragment, for indancc, of coach window-glafs, indead ol"
moving towards the fire, will move from it, and about it*
axis, in a contrary- dircclion to what it had done before.
Nay, it v/ill recede from die fire and move a little up^vards,
when the plane inclines towards the fire.

Ncitiicr tl'.c draught of air up the chimney, not attraftion
or repulfion, are the caufe of thcie phenomena. It feenii
rather owing to the fwcUing of the tube toward? the fir?» ;
fi)r allowing fuch fwelling, gravity mutf pull the tube dowi,
whe.T fupported near its extremities liori/ontaliy ; and a
freih part being expofcd to the fire and fwclhng out^ again,
muft fall douhi ag;iin, and fo on fuccelfively ; which will
produce a rotatory motion towards the fire.

If the tube be fupported by two otlier tubes, and llielV be

brought near to each other, and to the centre of the lup-

ported lube, tlien its p.uts hanging over on each fide, beine

hvrger than the part which lies between the fupporiers, will,

Uu2 .ky

GLASS.

by their weight, pull liuwnvvavcl.s, and c-onrcquently force
tlif middle part, relling upon its two props, upwards : and
being lefs advanced towards the hre, as being lefs heated,
will, by their oblique fituation, pull the middle part back-
wards alfo from the Hre, which will caufe a rotatory regrelTive
motion, quite contrary to what the tube had when fupportcd
near jts extremities. And wlien a fmgle tube lies inclining
oppofite to the fire, cither to the right hand or to the left,
out of a plane perpendicular to the furface of the fire, gra-
vity will not permit the curved part to reft, but pull it
down till it coincides with a plane perpendicular to the ho-
rizon ; and confequently, as new curves are generated, new
motions will be fo too ; that is, the tube will be made to
move about its axis, with this difference, when the tube in-
clines to the right hand, the niotian will be from eafl to weft ;
when to the left hand, from weft to eaft. The juftnefs of
this reafoning is made manifeft, by bending a wire, and fup-
porting it firft near its extremities, then near its centre on
each lide, afterwards incUning it to the right and to llie
left ; the bending in every cafe reprefcnting the curved part
of the tube next the lire. This folution of the phenomena
is rendered the more priibable from hence, that when four
fupportera were made ufe of, one at each cxuemity, and two
near the middle, there was no motion at all, either backward
or forward. Nor does the incrcafe of contaCl hinder the mo-
tion, becaufe the plate of glafs was fo broad as to have a
much greater contact with the tube, and yet both the rota-
tory and regreffive motions were manifeft.

Thefe experiments fucceeded bell with tubes about twenty
or twenty-two inches long ; the diameter about one-tenth
of an inch : and they had in each a pretty ftrong piu fixed
in cork, for an axis to roll with on the fupporting tubes.
Phil. Tranf. N' 476.

Gt.A.ssi receivers, how to cement the cr,ich of. See C/EMENT
and Receiver.

G1.A.S.S, hoiu to tahe the tmprejfwn of antique gems in. See
Gk.m.

The property which glafs poftelfes in common with other
fubftances of being expanded by heat, and contracted by
cold, was long ago ohferved and evinced by Mr. Hook.
See Birch's Hift of the Royal Society, vol. i. p. 411. See

TlIKHMOMETER.

G/>A.s.s, LazL<s relnling to. No glafs fhall be imported
into Ireland, other than the manufaft ure of Great Britain,
on pain of forfeiting the fame, and ftiip, and loj-. a pound.
ig G. II. c. 12. If any foreign glafs fliall be landed or un-
(liipjied before entry and payment of the duties, or without
warrant from the proper officer, the fame ftiall be forfeited,
or its value ; ?md the mafter or other perlbn having command
of the veltel, and every other perfon concerned in fuch
landing or unlhipping, fliall forfeit 100/. 17 G III. c. 39.
And by 38 G. III. c. 33. for preventing the fraudulent
importation of glafs, every package containing any plate or
plates of glafs unframed, being plate, croivii, or Jlxel glafs,
which fliall be imported, or brought into this kingdom for ex-
portation, fliall be marked on the outfide in Roman letters
four inches long at leaft, with the word Gl-ASS, on pain of
forfeiture, together with the package, and all goods con-
tained in it. The mafter of the vcflfel importing fuch package,
(hall, in reporting his cargo, cxprcfs every fuch package of
};lafs, on pain of forfeiting the fame, and alio 100/. Nor
(hall any fuch package be imported, which fliall not contain
300 wjight, on pain of forfeiture ; but not extending to
any p"a e of glafs 60 inches in length or upwards, on account
of the package not being marked. By 43 G. III. c. 69.
For ev^»ry 100 weight of materials, &c. that fliall be made
•vCe of in Great Britain for the making of plate or JJiut glafs.

or enamel, Jlaineil, or pafe glafs, or phial glafs, fliall be paid hy
the maker thereof i/. 12s. be/. ; for every hundred weight of
materials ufed in making fpread ivindoiu glafs, commonly
called broad glafs, 'is. 2d. ; for every hundred weight of mate-
rials ufed for making all other luindow glafs (not being
fpread glafs), whether flaflied, or otiierwife manufaClured,
commonly called a-own jj-Ai/}, or Gerntanjlieet glafs, ll.^. Gd.;
for every hundred weight of materials ufed in making com-
mon lollies (noc being phials), and of veflels ufed in che-
mical laboratories, and oi garden glajfes, and of all other veffels
or utenfils made of common bottle metal, ^j. \d.; and for
every hundred weight of plate glals, and of all other glafs
manufaftures, which fliall be imported into Great Britain,
the fame not being flafl^s, in \\ hich wine or oil is imported, nor
foreign green glafs bottles, nor Irifli glafs, or glafs manufac-
tures imported direftly from Ireland, to bepaid by the importer
before the landing thereof, 2/. 2s. And any glafs-maker fliall
take out a licence, for which he fliall pay 10/., to be renewed
annually ten days at leaft before the end of the year, on
the penalty of 50/. 24 G. III. c. 41. 43 G. III. c. 69.
The place of making glafs fliall be entered, before the com-
mencement of inanufaclure, and all work-houfe.s, furnaces,
pots, annealing arches, &c. &c. on pain of forfeiting 200/.
19 G. II. c. 12. 17 G. III. c. 39. 35 G. III. c. 114.
Officers may enter and furvey, and mark pots ; and any
jierfon counterfeiting or altering fuch mark, or connivino-
at its being done, fliall forfeit 500/. ; or defacing, or caufing
to be defaced or obliterated fuch mark, incurs a forfeiture of
200.'. 35 G. III. c. 1 14. Notice of beginning to work
fliall be given in wnting, <m pain of forfeiting 20/. 19 G. II.
c. 12. And notice of filhng every pot (hall be given twelve
hours before the operation is begun, on pain of 50/. 19 G. II.
c. 12. 17 G. III. c. 39. Annealing arches are to be
made of a certain form, and numbered, on pain of forfeiting
100/. Annealing arches are to be locked, except at certain
times ; and breaking fuch lock, &c. incurs a forfeiture of
200/. 35 G. III. c. 114. The fame aft comprehends feve-
ral other provifions, enforced by certain penalties. BottleS
are not to be removed till they are weighed, (penalty ico/. )
which are to be kept feparate from thofe that are unweighecj,
on pain of forfeiting 50/. No pliials, &c. are to be made
in places entered for making common glafs bottles, on pain'
ot forfeiting 200/. Entry fliall be made of the glafs manu-
factui-cd every month within the bills, and elfewhere every
fix weeks, on pain of 20/. The maker, within the bills,
fliall, in four weeks, and elfewhere in fix weeks after entry,
pay oft' the duties, on pain of double duty. If glafs,
rtiippcd for exportation, Ihall be re-landed, it fliall be for-
feited, and every perfon concerned therein fhall forfeit 100/.
17 G. III. c 39. For the drawbacks on exportation
of glafs, fee 43 6. III. c. 69. Obftrufting officers in fc-
curing the duties incurs a forfeiture of jo/. 19 G. II.
c. 12. 17 G. III. c. 39. Penalties are appropriated, half
to the ufe of the king, and half to him that fliall fue.

G\..\ii%-Carrich Point, in Geography, a cape -of Ireland,
on the eaftern coall of the county of Wexford. N. lat.
52^ 35'. W. long. 6 12'.

Glass-C^, in Gardening, a liglit fort of creftion
formed with glafs faflies in proper frame-work, moftly up-
right in the front part and ends, but Hoping at top from.;;
back wall, or other convenient building, to the fore-part ;
the front, toj), and both ends being of glafs-work. The
fituation for this purpofe fliovdd face the fouth, in order to
have the full influence of the fun, Conflruftions of this
nature arc ufeful for protefting many forts of curious tender
plants in winter which want it only occalionally from feverc
trort, and other' fimilar caufes.

Buildings

GLASS.

Buildings ot this kind may be coiiftrudled, occafionally,
cither againft fome ready-built fouth wall, which ferves for
the back, all the other parts forward being wood-work and
gUifs ; or detached in a hinilar fituation, fo as that tlie
whole front may fland to the fouth ; the back being framed
of brick-work, &c. or of wood double planked ; but tlic
former is preferable ; the whole being generally ranged
lengthways, nearly in an eall and weft direction.

The dimenfions may be from iive or fix, to eight or ten
Kt't in width, by ton, fifteen, or twenty feet in length or
i-ore, as may be required ; and from fix or eight, to ten
: ift high behind, by five or fix to feven or eight in the
iVout, both ends in proportion with thetop, floping graduallv,
ns juil noticed, from th.e back, having an entrance, or door,
l:i front, or at one end. The glafs-work (hould be made to
i:iJe readily backwards and forwai'ds.

Sometimes fire-fiues are carried along the back and front
ii.ternallv, proceeding from an external fuL-iiace, for occa-
i:..nal iire-lieat in winter, which i-euder the.n more conve-
ii'nt and ufeful for different purpofes.

Thefe cafes, as mentioned above, are ufed as prefervatory
1, ;;artments, in which to winter many forts ot curious
exotics of the hardier grcen-houfe kind.;, which only want
protetlion from fevere cold, as well as many choice kinds of
the open ground, whicli are rather tenderilh in their minor
r.-owth, or any other particular or curious hardy plants,

liether flowers, (hrubs, or young trees, efpecially the choice

i.-r>Treen kinds, which require efFeclual protedlion from

c ravages of rigorous frofts or cutting winds, in winter
1 early fpring ; and, at the fame time, in mild open
•v, eather, to enjoy the full air by opi-ning the glafles ; all
u iiich, being iu pots, can be readily placed in this prefer-
vatory at the approach of fevere weather, and be thus kept
in o-ood condition till fettled weather in fpring, Sec. ; then
removed into tlie full air. In fummer and autumn, when
unoccupied in this way, thefe cafes may be of fome utility
to place fome curious kinds of tender plants in, when in
fljwer for feeding, to guard them from heavy or inceffant
r.in, or cold night dews in autumn, wliich, in many forts
retard, or fometimes wholly frullrate their production of
cuod feed, as in many forts of curious tender annuals ; par-
ticularly the fine double bdfams, cock's-combs, tricolors,
double ftramoniums, diamond iicoides, and various others.

They are alfo capable of being ufed in fpring and the
early part of fummer, as in April, May, and June, as a kind
of drawing-frames, for fome particular forts of curious
eanuals to bring them to a tall growth, fuch as the large
rr giant cock's-combs, tricolors, double ftramoniums,
(1, u >Ie-rtriped balfams, egg-plants. Sec. the plants being
nrft raifed in hot-beds, under garden-frames, till of twelve
or fifteen inches growth, then a hot-bed made in the glafs-
cafe, earthed at top, and the plants in pots, fingly plunged
into the earth of it ; the glalTes, in thefe cafes, lliould be
Ihut clofe, only a neceiTary admifllon of freili air beif.g given
< .ery day, by which they run up to a tall ftature in the beft
pirfeCtion of ftrength for flowering. See Annual Plantj;.

Tiiefe forts of jrhifs-cafes are alfo fometimes made ufe of
r.-; a kind of appi'.rtenances to hot-lioufes, or ftcves, detached
from them, haviiig, as obferved above, internal flues for fu'e-
::• at, when uecciTary, ferviiig as prefervatori.'S for many forts
I f exotics, whicii are tenderer than common greenhoufe
•^^:::its, but do not require the conftant full heat of the more
t iider hot-houfc kinds, but only the affiftance of moderate
iire-heat in winter, in cold nights, or when very damp,
t.oudy, foggy-weather and fevere frofts prevail. They are
iomctimes uied ia the bufinefs of forcing different kinds

of flowering plants and efculcnts, either by means of an
internal bark-bed, or flues for firc-lieat.

When intended for this purpofe, it is convenient to have
both an internal pit for a bark-bed, and flues for firc-heat
m order to ufe either feparalely, or fometimes both, as may
be fimnd neceflary. See Hot-Hou.se.

Gi.xss-Fnces, m Mining, is a term for the polifticd fur-
faces, or fllckcnfides, which are found in fome of the mineral
veins in Derbyfliirc, fomcthing like the polifhing which is
feen often on the iides of faults. Sec Slkkkxsidk.

Gl.V.s.-; Ijle, called alfo Scalpey, in Geography, one of the
Hebrides, near the N.E. extremity of Hams. It is a fmall,
low, round ifland, covered with heath, and indented by l lie
fea. Near its wettern extremity are two good natural har-
hours, and on its eaft point a light-iioufe was erected A. D.
1788. It lies at the entrance of Eaft Loch Tarbot. n'.
lat. 57 50'. W. long. 6 40'.

CjLASs-Leatl, in Mining, according to Mr. Mawe, "Mine-
ralogy of Derbyfliire," p. loj, is an opaque waxy lead-ore
found in that county : fometimes alfo it is tranfparent and
cryftallized, appearing as though it had undergone tlie action
of lire.

GL\:-iK-Loug/.; in Gcograpiy, a lake of Ireland, in the
county of Moneghcn, near which ii a village of the fame
name, about five miles from the town of Moneghen.
The lake contains 120 acres ; and a wood, fpieadmg over a
fine bold hill, hangs dovrn to the water in one deep lliade, tlnr
eff"ea of whicli is remarkably beautiful. The county around
is very fine, Young.

Glasses are diftiuguifhed, with regard to their form, life,
&:e. into various kinds, as drinking-glafles, optic-glafles,
looking-glaffes, burning-glafTes, &c.

Glasses, Drinking, are Ample \efll-Is of common glafs or
cryftal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone.

Each glafs confifts of three jiarts, vii. the calyx or bowl ;
the bottom, and the foot ; whicli are all wrought or blown
feparately.

Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious' than the
manner wherein thefe parts arc all blown ; two of them
opened, and all three joined together. An idea is onlv to
be had thereof, by feeing them actually at work.

The glafics chiefly ufed In England are made of the afhes
of fern ; cryftal glaflls being lefs frequent in ufe. The
exceeding brittlenefs of this commodity, notwithftanding the
eafy rate of each glafs, renders the ccnfumption thereof very
connd^rable. For the method of gilding the edges of drink-
ing-glafles, fee GlI-DlNt; Crt Enamel and GLifs.

Gl.vsses, Metallic, in Chemifiry, are the oxyds, or fome-
times the fulphuretted oxyds of the different' metals, vitri-
fied by heat.

Glasses, Op.'ic, are thofe made ufe of to llrengthen, im-
prove, or preferve the fight. See Optic GlaJJes.

Gl.\sses, Convex. See Conve.xitv.

Gl.\sses Concave. See Concave.

Gl.Vss, Infernal. See Ixr-KHNAL.

Glasses, Len:icular. See Le.ns.

Gl.\sses, Menifcus See Meniscus, &c.

Glasse.s, Plain. See Pl.41\ G/ii/i.

Gl.\sses, Plano-Coruave. See Pl.vno-Cgs'CAVF.

Glasses, PLmo-Con-ve.-<. See Plano-Conve.v.

Gla.sses, Teifcope. Sec Telescope.

Glass, Ohjecl. See Grject-G/.j//.

Gl.\sses, Eye. See EvE-(7«7/}.

Glass, Magnifying. Mee Mai.;xifvin<;.

Glas--, Muhiplying. See Mlltiplyinu.

Glasses, Mufical. Sec Ar.monica, •

GtA«l\ •

G L A

Glass, Perfped'ivt. Rcc rnRspEcnvE'.

Glass, Looking. S^o LooKiM«-G/rt/f, Mirbok. and
Foliating.

Glass, Burning. See BrnxTNO-GA;/}.

Glass, Wcalkr. Sec Weatiier-G/w/J.

Glass, Cupping. See Cuitini^G/^t/j-.

Glass, IVwdoiu. See Window and GLAss,/K/>r(T.

Glass, y^.vw p/"a. See Ams.

Glass, Pole of a. See Polk.

Glass, Hour. See Hovn-GZ/i/J-.

Glasf, Tin. Sec Bijmvth.

Glass, Watch. See Watch.

GLASS-W'or/. See Kali.

GLASS-Z^f^'ort, Berry-Benr;ngy in Botany. See AxABASIS.

GhX^^-JVort, Jointed. See Salk OUMA and Kklp.

GLASSHATTEN, or Gla-ittex, in Geography, a
.town of Hungary, celebrated for its hot-baths, and having
Hear it fome rich j;old mines ; 7 miles from Sclienniitz.

GLASS-HOUSE Bav, a bay on the E. coail of New
Ho'Iand, betweecn cape Morelon, and the Glafs-honfes,
which are three hills, fo called by captain Cook in 1770,
fitaat.-d in S. lat. 26"' 28'.

GLASSHUTTEN, a town of Saxony, near which is a
fjlvermine ; 8 miles S. of Drefden.

GLASS lUS, Solomox, in Biogmphy, was born in the
year 1593, and it is fuppofed he was educated at Jena,
where he was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity,
and for fome time filled the theological chair with diilin-
guifliod reputation. He was appointed fuperintendant of
the churches and Ichools in the diiciiy of Saxc-Gotha, and
exercifed the duties of his fiinftion with prudence, equity,
,and impartiality. He died at Gotha in 1656, and left be-
hind him, as a memorial of his fame and learning, a work
publidied in quarto in 1623, entitled " Philologia Sacra,"
which is pronounced by Moiheim an ineftimable and immor-
tal work, than which none can be more ufeful for the inter-
.pretution of Scripture, as it throws much light upon the
lang«bge and phrafcology of the mfpired writers. He was
autl.or, likewife, of " Onomatologia MefTi^; Prophetica ;"
" CKriilolcgia Mofaica et Davidica ;" " Exegefis Evange-
liorum et EpiiV>inrnm," and fome other pieces. Moreri.

GLASSNEVIN, in Geogaphy, a village near Dublin, in
Ireland, remarkable for the very extenfive and valuable
■botanical garden belonging to the Dublin fociety. See
Dublin Society.

GLASSY Hf.MouR. See Eye and Vitreous,

GLASTONlillRV, in Geography, a market town in
the hundred of Glafton, and county of Somerfet, Enghmd,
is fituated on the great road from Wells to Exeter. The
fcite occupied by it was orignially called Ynyfwytryn, or
the Glafs Ifland, and in Latin Avalonia.

A town is faid to have been built here, and largely en-
dowed by king Ina about the year 708 : in the next cen.-
tury it was laid wafte by the Danes, and rebuilt by king
Edmund, who granted it many additional privileges. In
1 1 84 it was de'lroyed by tire, and was again rpllored by
the muniiiccnce of Henry H. The chief celtbrliy attach.
ed to the town v/as derived from its abbey ; \\lii!.-!i, during
fix centuries, fiirpalfed iu authority and revenues every
Other in Engla-.id, excepting th.it of Wellmiiiller. The
abbots enjoyeji a ftatc of regal fplendour, with an income
of nearly 40,000/ per annum, had llie tide of loiifjs, and
fat with the barons in parliament. The abbey and its
pffices occupied an area of lai-.d of nearly fixty aerc.i within
the walls,

Tbe iall abbot, Richard Whiting, ^yho was the H.^tieth

G L A

in fucccnion, refufmg to furrender his abbey to king Henry
VHL wa?, with two of his monks, drawn on a hurdle to
the Torr, near the town, and there hanged : the abbot's
head was fet on the gate of the abbey, and his quarters
were fent to Bath, Wells, Bridgewater, and IlehelKr.

It being traditionally recorded, that this was the burial
place of king Arthur, Henry II. ordered a fearch to be
made, when a leaden crofs was difcovered with a Latin in-
fcription in rude charadlers, thus tranflated ; " Here lies
the famous king Artiiur, buried in the ifle of Avalon."
Beneath was found a coffin hollowed out of the folid rock,
wherein were the bones of a human body, fuppofed to be
thofe of Arthur ; which were then depofited in the church
under a monument. Scarcely any veftige remains of thefe
extenfive buildings, except fome ruins of the church, part
of a chapel dedicated to Jofeph of Arimathea, and tha
abbot's kitchen, which feems to be of a more recent ftruc-
ture than tlie other offices.

Among the religious relics with which the town and its
environs abound, the moft confpicuous is the Torr, or
St. Michael's Tower (on which abbot Whiting was ex-
ecuted,) Handing on an eminence eall of the town, vhere .
was formerly a fmall oratory, dedicated to St. Michael the
archangel.

The town of Glaftonbury confifts of two principal ftreets,
and is divided into two parifhea, St. John's and St. Bene-
did's. It was formerly a parliamentary borough, but was
disfranchifed on the confifcation of the abbey in 1539. A
charter of incorporation vvas granted by queen Anne, by
which the civil government was veiled in a mayor, a jullice,
eight aldermen, and fixteen burgefle;). The principal build-
ings are the two parilh churches, two raecting-houfes, two
alms-houfes, and a free fchool. The George, a refpectable
inn, was anciently an hofpital for the accommodation of pil-
grims refortinw to the (lirine of St. Jofeph. In the centre of
the town was formerly a large Hone crofs, originally appra-
priated to ihelter pcrfons who attended the market. It
was taken down about five years ago : but a plate and
defcription are prefervcd in the firft vohime of the Architec-
tural Antiquities of Great Britain. Glaltonbury is 130
miles dillant from London ; has a market on Tuefdays, and
four annual fairs : the population return, in i8oi,waS4io
houfes, and 2035 inhabitants, of whom only 104 were em.
ployed in trade, which is chiefly that of manufafturing
worlled ilockings,

South-^^■eft of the town is Wearyall hill, fo called from a
tradition that St. Jofeph and his companions, weary with
their journey, refted here ; and that St. Jofeph ihic.k hi3
hawthorn ftaff in the earth ; it took root, and conllautly
budded on Chriilmaa day. This famous thorn had two
trunks, of which one was deltroyed in queen Elizabeth's
reign, the other in the great rebellion ; but there are trees,
originally from the old Hock, Itill growing in the gardena
of GLiltonb\iry, and in various other parts of the king-
dom. Collinfon's Hill. Somerfetfltire, 3 vols. 4to. Maton'a
Weftern Counties, 2 vols, 8vo.

Gi,.\sToxBuiiv, a townfliip of America, in the county
of Bennington, and ftate of Vermont ; Ijaring Only 48 in.
habitants. — Alfo, a handfomc little town in Hartford county,
Connefticut, fituated on the E. fide of Connecticut river, op.
pofite to Weathersfield ; containing 271 8 inhabitants.

Glastomiuhv Thorn, in Botany. See Me-SI'ILL's,

GLASTITM, from the German word GI.j/!, an old name
for Woad | (fee Isatis.) Hence feveral plants Ir.tve the
fpccifie name of gtajlifolia, on account of trie filnilitude of
their leaves to that hcrp.

GLATT.

G I, A

GLATT, in Gfigrajii'y, a river of Germany, wiiich runs
into the Neckar, 2 milci N. from Suit/, in Wurtcmbcrg.

Glatt, or Glaltcn, a town of Germany, in the county
of F'.iggcr ; 4 miles E. of Dornftctten.

Gi-ATT, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the
Rhine ; 2 miles below Eglifaii.

GI.ATTEN, a mountain of Switzerland ; lo miles
S S. W. of Claris.

GLATZ, a principdity of Silefia, bordering on Bohc-
TT.ia, and fuiToundeJ by mountams. The internal territory ii
niountainoi!<:, interfetted with vallies, meadows, corn-fields,
woodlands and fmall rivers. It produces wheat, generally
fiifficient for its inhabitants, and has pallure for a great
luimber of cattle. It contains quarries of mill-fio-ies, free-
ilone, and marble ; as well as a great variety of precious
[loneii. It has alfo mines of coal, copper, and filvcr ; with
fveral mineral fprings. From 1561 to 1742, Glat/. was
; Tne.xed to the crown of Bohemia ; in i 742 it was ceded by
tie cmprefs Maria Therefa to Frederick II. king of Pruf-
1 a, and his heirs. It forms one circle, divided into fix dif-
trifts.

Glatz, the capital of the principality above-mentioned,
i; htMated on the NeilTe, and built on the fide of a moun-
tain, having upon its fummit a llrong catHe. The town
<ontains about 4C0 hpiiles within the walls, and as many in
f "Lir fauxbourgt. It is a place of conlldcrable trade. It
}ius been frequently pillaged and burnt ; 54 miles E. of
lireflau. N. lat. 50' 16'. E. long. 16 26'.

Gl.\t2 Kogcl, a mountain of Auilria ; 12 miles S. of
Steyr.

GEA'VACIA, a town of Walachia ; 35 miles W. of
E.ichnreft.

GLAUBER, JoHK Rodolph, in Biography, a Qclcbrated
chemill of Amilerdani, who was eftecmed the Paracelfus
< f his age, was born in Germany in the beginning of the
fixteentii century. He travelled much in the purfuit of
chemical knowledge, and collected many fecret proceffes ;
and his experiments contributed to throw much light on the
r.impohtion and analyfis of the metals, inflammable lub-
.' .nees, and falls. In faA h.e palTcd the greater part of his
..:'e in the laboratory. He did not always fee the pi-oper
uiplication of his own experiments, and vainly fancied that
t > had difcovered the panacea, and the philofopher's Itone,
■ nicii were at that lime objecls of purfuit : and the dif-
.-jointment of many perfons, who had been feduced by Ins
} -1 inifes. contributed to bnng the art of chemillrj- into
t .jntempt. His theory is full of obfcurity ; but his practice
f.a^ perhaps been mifreprefented by thofe who lillened to
hii> vain and pompous pretenfions ; and who accufe him of
a ciilionourable traffick, in firft felling his fecrets to chemills
at an enormous price, of again difpofmg of them to other
Verlons, and iaitly, of making them public in order to extend
: reputation. Cilauber publilhcd about twenty tieatiles;
. I'.TT.e of which he appears in the charaifierof phyfician,
. otiiers in that of an adept or iretalhirgill ; in the Litter'
Ji' moil particularly excelled. However, it would be un-
.. .t not to give him the praife of acutenefs of mind, of
: :ility and addrefs in t)ie profecution of his experiments,
..'. . of cxtenfive chemical knowledge. He wa.s the inventor
•-,• a fait, which to this day retains his name in the Ihops
^ : oiir apothecaries. The works of Glauber have appeared
■. ; different languages; the majority of edr.ions are in
Cl'-rman, fome in Latin, and others in French. A col-
lection of the whole in l>atin was publilhcd at Frankfort
in 1658, in 8vo. and again 165911) 410. An Euglilh tranl-
k.tion wr.s publiJhed by Clwillopher Pack, London, 1 6S9, in
tv^Q, Elov. Dir't. Hiil.

G L A

Or.AvnKR Sail, native or natural, in Minrrahgy, tlic
fulphat of foda of chemifts, was difcovered by baron Born
in the fait mines of Upper Auilria ; after which Mi.nnet,
Volta, Suckow, Gmelin, Breiflak, Palla.s, and others have
added to the lill of the hicalities of this falint fubllancc,
which is more frequently .''ovind in a native Hate than ha«
been fuppoied by fome writers. It generally occurs as
mealy clHorefcence ; fomelimes maflive, feldom Aaladiti-
cal or cryftallized : in which latter cafe the cryftaU
are defcribed as acicular and as fix-fided prifms, mure or lefs
flatly acuminated by three planes, fet on the lateral edges,
or fometira''S on the lateral planes : they are (liiiiing : their
hiternal lullre is vitreous. Fracture of the cryllals fmall
conchoidal. It varies from tranfparent to opaque accordiiifr
to its freflinefs. It is brittle. Its talle is a mixture of ialt
and bitter. Befides in the above forms, it occurs alfo, and
moR frequently, did'olvcd in certain mineral waters, in the
neiglibourhood of fait mines and fait hikes, where alfo the
etfiorefccnce is moftly found on moorifh ground, fand Hone,
marie flate, and new walls. For the chemical character of this
fait, fee Soda, Sulphat of.

Brongni.ut has given the mod complete lift of the locali-
ties ot Glauber fait. In folution it occurs in the waters
of fevend l;:k."S ot Aultria and Lower Hungary, efpecially
in that of Nerlicdel, between the counties of Ocdcnburg
and Wiefelburg. It is met within Switzerland; in Spain,
round a fource in the neighbourhood of Aranjuez, and near
Vacia-Madrid, a.* e.llorcfcence, at tlie bottom of a^ravine:
the foiirce which ifTiies from the r^ine contains a great
proportion of this fait. Alfo the water of the Tagus is
laid to hold it in folution. In France it has been found netir
Grenoble. The ilccp fides of the Solfatara of Poiizzole
yield this fait, in one place, on the north tide. It is
common in the lakes of Siberia ; and it has been obferved
that the bottom of the lake Gunilkoi, between Toion and
Ilynllcoy, is covered with a crull of Glauber fait as foon as
the temperature is below the freezing point. Pallas tells
us that the apothecaries of Orenburg annually coUett a
quantity of this fait, which is depofitcd in autumn at the bot-
tom of a lake between the Tobol and Mioes. It is alfo found
in a lake near Gouricf ; in another between Utoilka and
MiniulkaVa, in the neighbourhood of EnifTey ; likewife at
the foot and in the middle of the chains of the Ural moun-
tains, near Tlheliabinik : in the lait of tliefe places, the iaic
ilTiies in the fpring feafun out of the earth in the form of cfflo-
refcence or froth. The clayey foil of that nttghbourhood does
not contain any G.auber fait ; whence this is fuppofed to bf
formed, in the fame manner as falt-petre i', at the lurfacc of
the earth, and by the aftion of the atmofphere. Lalllv, this
f.ilt is alfo obtained from the alum-flatc of Ditttweiier, near
Saarbriick, in the department ot !a Sarre, and from Ui«
akiuiniferou'! waters of Freycnw.-.lde, in Brandenburg.

GL.\L"r.KK'ii Salt, in Citmi/!ty and Materia Midica. See
Siilpi: It of Soda.

Glalbish's spirit of AFitrine Salt. Sec MuRIATlC yiciil.
Gi.AUlint's Spirit nf Nitn. See Niriiic ylciJ.
GLAUBERITE, a lately difcovered minersl, belong-
ing t > the chUs of ftdts, and of which M. Broitgiiiait lu*
given the defcription and analylis. This fubdaixo iValled
glauberite by its diicoverer, both in honour of the well-
known Glauber, and on account of its cont;iining a confidrr-
able quantity of the fait which boars the name of that alche-
n;ir ) was found among pieces of rock-falt brougiit from
Ocana in New Caflile, in cryllals r.-t'e:nbluig thofe of thuin-
lioiie, or axinite. They were (chici'iV on account of thjir ir,«dr
of occurring) mii'taken in Spain for.gypR-cr>-ftalj.

Tlu; form of thefe fecondury cryllalc, is that uf an oblique

*ery

G L A

vci-y fliort prifm with rliomboidal bafe. The planes of
the baie arc generally fmooth and Ihining ; the lateral planes
ilriated parallel to the edges of the bafe. Cleavage double,
the one parallel to the bales, the other lefs diftinft and pa-
rallel to the edges of the bafe ; in all other direftions the
frafture is vitreous. Hence the primitive form is an oblique
prifm with rhomboidal bafe, the obtufe angles of which cor-
refpond with the obtufc angles of the fecondary prifm. TV.e
cryilals arc from topaze yellow to nearly colpurlefs ; they are
tranfparent, and, provided they are kept dry, preferve their
tranfparency and folidity though cxpofed to the air. . Their
hardnefs furpaffes that of fulphat, but is inferior tp' that of
carbonnt of lime.

Expofed to an intenfe heat, the glauberite decrepitates and
melts into a white enamel. Immerfed in water, its furface
is covered by a milk-white crull, whicli penetrates deeper
and deeper, till the whole cryllal is white and opaque
throughout : taken out of the water and dried, the white
cruit crumbles into dull, leaving the nucleus, if there be
any remaining, unaltered and pertcftly tranfparent. Specific
gravity about 2.73.

From M. Brongniart's experiments it appears, that
glauberite is effentially compofed of anhydrous fulphat-of
lime and of fulphat of foda, equally anhydrous. 2. That
thefe two falls exill in this fubllance nearly in the following
proportions :

Anhydrous fulphat of lime .... 0.49

Anhydrous fulphat of foda .... 0.51

100

A trace of water, indicated by the calcination, is not
brought into account, as little as the accidental admixture
of a fciurcely perceptible quantity of iron, to which the yel-
lowifli colour of this fubftance appears to be owing.

Mr. B. adds the following obfcrvations : the above-men-
tioned pieces of fait from Ocana, which contain this fub-
ftance, have generally fome clay adhering, which penetrates
into the llriac of the furfaces, but feldom into the fubftance
of the glauberite.

The efflorefcence on glauberite, when moiftened, and the
property this fait poffeifes of becoming opaque in water,
proceed from this, that the water, by diffolving the fulphat
of foda, transforms the fulphat of lime into a Ipongy fub-
ftance, and thus produces a phenomenon which is the reverfe
of that exhibited by the hydrophane.

The exiftence of native fulphat of foda, or Glauber fait,
is well known to mineralogifts, and, indeed, it has been met
•with in the neighbourhood of beds of rock-falt ; but this
was only as folution in the water of lalt-fprings, or as efflo-
refcence near falt-mines : in a folid and cryllallized ftate, en-
tirely deftitute of water of cryftallization, and intimately
imited with felenite, it had never before been obferved. Even
the anhydrous fulphat of foda was almoft entirely imknown,
till Berthier proved that it conftitutes nearly the fifth part
of thofe hard fcales found at the bottom of the pans in which
the fea-falt is obtained by evaporation.

It reniains to be afcertained, under which ciixumftances
the rock-falt occurs which contains the glauberite, and
particularly in what relation this latter ftauds to it, and whe-
ther it occur in the rent-s or on the furface of the beds. See
Journal des Mines for 1808.

Haiiy places the glauberite feparately at the end of the
fuhjlances acicUfcrcs ; and it appears to this mineralogift, that
the integrant molecules of the two falts of which it is com-
pofed exill together in the glauberite. He refers, for an
analogous combination, to Leblanc's experiments, according

G L A

to which a folution of fulphat of copper and fvilphat of iron
mixed, yielded cryftals compofed of thefe two fubftances,
while their primitive form proved to be that of the latter,
which had impreftcd on this mixture the character of its par-
ticular cryftallization. The qneftion, therefore, is, whe-
ther the glauberite be in afimilar cafe. Its form has, indeed,
nothing in common with that of the anhydrous fulphat of
lime ; but we are totally unacquainted with the cryl"-
talline form of the anhydrous fulphat of foda. But
even if it (hould be found that in this cafe the two molecules
combine in fuch a manner as to produce a third of a different
form from either, this circun. tance could, according to
Haviy's opinion, not be add'.'.ced as an objeftion againll the
th?ory of cryftallization, and muft be confidered as a pro-
blem, the folution of which is more interelling to the chemiif
than to the mineralogift.

GLAUBOTTE, in Geography, a town of Priiftia, in
Natangeii ; 14 miles "S.E. of Bartenftein.

GLAUCEDO, in Surgn-y. See'GLAUCOMA.

GLAUCHA, in Geografhy, a town of Saxony, in the-
lordrnip of Schonburg, on the Mulda, containing about
600 houfes ; the inhabitants are employed in the manufac-
ture of ftufFs ; 46 miles W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50' 45'.
E. long. 12' 25'.

GLAUCHE, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Magdeburg, adjoining to the town of Halle, but governed
by its own magiftrates ; in which are four fcminaries, where
the languages, theology, mathematics, mufic, &c. are taught
by 120 prt-ceptors.

GLAUCION, in Orn'ilhology, a fpccies of /Inas, the
grey-headed duck. See Duck.

GLAUCIUM, in Botany, is fo named from its glaucous,
or fea-green, colour. Whether the plant intended by Pliny
be the Yellow Horned Poppy, according to the opinion ge-
nerally received, or any maritime Ipecies oi Euphorbia, leem«
a point not eafily determmed. rxau-. lov of Diolcorides appears
to be the juice of the firft-mentioned in its wild ftate, though
he compares it to his unxiv ze^kIiIi-, (which is evidently the
Yellow Horned Poppy itfelf,) faying the plant which yields
the 'y^xuxlov, and grows at .Terufalem, has almoft the leaves
of the ^rivjjit x^fzlili.;, but thicker, and fprcad on the ground,
ftrong fmelling, and more bitter, yielding plenty of faffron-
coloured juice. Poffibly this may refer to one of our other
fpecies of Glaunnm, if not to the common wild luteum.
Moft commentators have taken Argemone me\icana for the
plant of Diofcorides ; but that is a tropical produftion, un.
known in Europe, as we prefumc, previous to the difcovcry
of America, thoHgh now naturalized in the Eaft Indies ;
fee EciiTUUS. Neither does the above defcription fuit this
plant, for its leaves are much thinner than thole of the
Horned Poppy, and their juice pale yellow ; nor are tlicy*
fpread on the ground. Matthiolus feems to take the drug
Gamboge for •; A-y-v/.m-, but this does not at all help us, as to
the botanical quelHon, nor has it any probability in its
favour. — Tourn. Inrt. 254. t. 130. Sm. Fl. Brit. 563.
Prod. FI. Grxc. v. i. 357. Juif. 236. Girtn. t. 115.
(Chelidonium ; Linn. Gen. 262. .Sclireb. 350. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 1 141. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 450. f. 2. Mart.
Mill. Diet. V. 2.) — 'Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynla.
Nat. Ord. Rhicadea, Linn. Papaveracc-a, Juif.

Gen. Ch Cal. Perianth inferior, of two ovate, concave,
bluntilh, deciduous leaves, often tipped with a point near the
fummit. Cor. Petals four, large, roundifti, flightly concave,
nearly etjual, with a ftiiiiing fpot near the bafe. S/am. Fila-
ments numerous, ftiorter than the corolla, flat, incurved,
rather dilated upwards ; anthers ereft, roundifti, of tw.>
lobes. Pi/?. Germen nearly cylindrical, curved, longer than

tho

G L A-

the fl.amen'! ; ftyle none ; fligma with two or tliree lobes,
downy. Perlc. Pod linear, curved, very lonjf, of two or
tlnvc cells, and as many concave vaKes. Seei/s niimeroii?,
globular, dotted. Reapiiicle linear, fpongy, parallel to the
valves, its furface cellular to recfflve the feeds.

Eff Ch. Calyx of two leaves. Petals four. Pod fu-
perior, linear, of two or three cells and two or three valves.
Seids numerous, dotted.

Ohf This genus is very naturally diitinguifhed from
Ch'Moniiim by its habit, and effeiitialiy charaftcrizcd by
linvuig more than oue cell in its pod, and no crcil to its
iieds.

I. G. luteum. Yellow Horned-Poppy. Scop. Carii. v. i.
569. G^rtn. V. 2 166. (G. flore lutco ; Tourn. Iiilt. 254.
Chelidonium glaucium ; Linn. Sp. PI. 724. Engl. ISot.

t. 8. Papaver conuitum, flore luteo ; Ger. enl. 367 )

Stem fmooth. Stem-leaves rounded, waved. Pods roughirli
with minute tubercles. Fiowers llaiked. — Native of lun-.'y
fea-lhores throughout Europe, flowering in finnmer and au-
tumn. Root perennial, tap-(haped. Whole hrrli roiigl.illi
and verv glaucous. Slenu three feet hi;di, fprcading,
branched, leaty, fmooth. Radical Lliiks nuini-rou;'., pitma-
tilid in a lyrate form ; the reft rounded, wavy or linuatcd,
alternate, felTile, clafping the Hem. Flowers folilary, on
axillary or terminal ilalks, two inches broad, of a full
Ihining yellow. Their caly.x is hifnid and deciduous, and
the petals lall but one day. Tlie ^5<Zr are often near a foot
long, cylindrical, but coniprefied.

2. G.ftdvtim. Orange Horned-Poppy. Sm. Exot Eot.
V. I. II. t. 7. (G. glabrum, flore phcenicco ; Tourn ]nll.

Z54 ? Chelidonium corniculatum ; Donn. Cant. ed. 5.1-^1 .1
— Stem fmooth. Stem-leaves rounded, waved. Pods rough.
Flowers nearly fefhle. — Suppofed to be a native of the
fonth of Eui-opp, but we know it as a garden plant only.
This diifers from the former in the rather more bine call of
iti herbage, nearly or quite feffile^yZsTw/v, and Imaller petals
of a rich tawnv orange-colour. We have thought the rool
annual, but we lind it will lurvive a mild winter, about as
well as the hrft fpccies, v.-hich indeed is often killed, and
never lives many years, at Icaft in a garden. The G, /;//-
nsim, whether a diltinci fpecies or only a permanent variety,
propagates itfelf by feed and remains unaltered. Its flowers,
contrailed with the leaves, have a lingularly elegant effect.
Their petals fall, in hot weather, before noon, but in the
autumn will endure till the ne.Kt morning, or longer, wliieii
is alfo the cafe when they are gathered and placed in a room.
-^If our quotation of Tournefort be right, our plant is
floured in Lobel's Icones 271, f. 2, but not happily.

3. G. rubruin. Red Horned-Poppy. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. V. 1.357. (G. orientale, flore magno rubro ; Tourn.
Cor. 18 ! — Stem hairy. Stem-leaves pinnatilid, cut. Pod
Ihditly hairy.— ^Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp by the way-
fidc between Smyrna and Bnrfa, as well as in the ifle of
Rhodes Tlie root feems to be aiuiual. Slims fpreading,
or nearlv proftrate, clothed with fuft expanded liairs.
titcmknves elongated, and deeply piniatlfid, by «wliich it
eji'enliaily differs from both the piecediig, as it does from
t'.e following in the foft hairs, initcid of rigid briiUes,
winch clothe the pods and ftem. The Jloivers arc Italkcd,
v.ith obovate petals, narrower and flatter than in either of
tiie termer, of a tawny red, witii a violet Ipot on the claw.
L-obei's Papaver corniculatum phoeniceum alterum, Ic. 271.
f. 2, agrees with this rather than with the lalt in its petals,
and fomewhat in its leases; but if Tournefort be correft,
it cannot be deligned for the prefent Ipecies, which he gives
in his Corolla as diflerent from all he had prcvioufly cnu-
jneratcd, including Lobel's plant.
Vol.. XVL

4
9^.4.

'435-
. comi-

G L A

G phaniccum. Scarlet Horncd-Poppy. Sm. Fl Brit-
Prodr. Fl. Gric. V. ,. 357. E„g|. ]lct. t. '
l'iriutum,fiorephflcniceo; Tourn. Intl. 2 r4 G
cuatum ; Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 32. Chehdonium' comi_
culatum; Lmn. Sp. PI. 72+. Papaver con,utum, flor.
p!.ocn,ceo; Lob. Ic. 27.. f. ,.)- Found in cultivated
helds in the fouth of Europe ; a doubtful native of Enaland.
though ealdy natundi.ed in a garden. It isannual. flower.
nig in fummcr and autumn, and grows rather more en-rt
and bulhy than the lall, from which it dilferd in the nirA
clolc-prefTed brillles which clothe the pods. The pj.
moreover are larger, rounder, and of a rich fcarlet, tIioui/1

each n:nrL-f^.1 vwitl, ., ,ri..t.^^ f....» 1:1-, .r. I_ii , . , .. ^-

iVt

I

each marked with a violet fpot like the lall ; and the fprr-ad
ing bniMes on the Jlan are very diflerent from tjje foft hair^
ot that ipecies.

5. G. vioLc.um. Violet Horned-Poppy. Sm. Fl. Brit.
565. Prodr II. Gr^c. v. ,. 3,-8. (G. flore violaceo ;
lourn Inft. 254. Chelidonium hybridum ; Linn. Sp. PI
724. Engl. Bot. t. 20:.)- Leaves bipinnatifid, linear.
i^uds ot three valves. - Native of tiolds in the fouth of
Em-ope; rare in England. The root is annual. Sttm
biahciod, upright and bulhy, a foot high, occafiODalTx-
iinooth, or ck.ihed with fpreading hairs, as is likewifc Un-
cale with the /t«i..-j-, which are twice, or even thrice, pin-
natifid ; their fcgments linear and acute. Fhwert rather
large, of a line violet colour ; their pods of three valves.

thoii!

.•iy llage

were
enUeavour

.h fcaicely three-celled, e,\cept in an
their formation.

Gj.alcilm, in Ornithology, a namegiven by BrifTon to the
An .\ s Fuligula or tufted duck. See D U( K ; and alfo to ttie
Av As Mania, or fcaup-duck. See Dlck.

GLAUCOM.\, or Gi..\lco.sis, a term, in Sarrrrr,
importing, with the Greeks, according to Mr. .Samuel
Sh.irp, what the Latin writers ueder:iaiiJ bv /i^fuf^a, 3nd
\s hat we call a catarmV. This dif-:ife, as we have cffewherc
explained, is an opacity of the cryitalline lens. (See Ca-
T.VK.VCT.) MAilre-.Tcan, St. Yve.,, ar.d other oculills. hoiv-
ever, think, that glaucoma is a Cat;u-;id complicated with
the gutta ferena, or an infenfilde Hate of tlie retina and
optic nerve. (See Gt'tr.v S!;iti;.sA.) The word is derived
from y?.z!;,to-, ilii^, the pi.pil frequently having that colour.
Scmie writers have regarded glaucoma 'as a defect of fight,
originating from an opaque, or otlicrwife morbid ftate of the
vitreous humour. Such a cafe is uncommon j b'lt
an opacity of this kind to impede vifion, an end
Ihoiild be made to difperfe it with fmall dt).'es of calomel,
and by expoihig the eye to the vapour of ether. In the
event of thefe means failing, the opacity might be broken
and diilnrbed with a couching-neodle. The fungus hx-
matodes of the eve mullbe difcriminated. Sec Ff.scis.

GLAUCOPIS, in Ornill.'Qlcgy, a genus of llie order
Pica;. The bill is incurvate and arched ; the lower man.
dible Ihorter, and carunculate beneath at the bafe ; noHrils
deprefled, and half-covered with a fomee.hat cartilaginous
m.embiane ; tongue fnbeartilaginoiis, divided at the end,
and ciliated ; legs formed for walking ; toes three before
and one behind.

The only fpecies of this extraordinary gcniks at p- ,' ■
known, is the wattle bird of Dr. ForJli-r.'defcribeii
Voyages of Captain Cook, and which appears, fi.iM ;,: •
later obfervations of other naturalills, to becxclufivelv con-
iilied to the Auftialafian regions. Its fi/.e is equal ti) lliit
of the jay, the leiigtli from the bill to the tail iiiteen iucld-s.
The bill remarkably llrong, an inch and a quarter in L ^'1 .
and of a black colour. 'I'lie iiodrils are fituated in :, 1 -
low at the bafe of the bill, and arc haU-cuveivd bv a
branous cartilage \\hich fall.-, over as a cover. Its .^

X.X ,,,

G L A

are pendent from the bafe of the lower rr.andiblo on eacli fule,
and in texture rcfL-mbk the wattle of tlie common cock ;
the colour at firll blue, and afterwards fine orange. The
irides fine blue. From the forehead to the eye the colour is
deep black : the other parts of the plumage dark afli-colour.
The tail long, wedgc-thapcd, and compofed of twelve
feathers. Legs long, and the hind claw much longer than
the reft.

This bird inhabits New Zealand, where it fubfifls on
berries and infedls, and is fometimcs feen perched on trees,
though rarely, as it is ufually feen walking on the ground :
its note is a kind of whiftHng or rather murmuring noife ;
and the flefli favour)- and delicate.

GLAUCUM, in jindent Geography, a promontory of
tlie Libvan nome, on the confines of Marmariea and Egypt,
upon wliieh was a town, of the fame name. Ptolemy.

GLAUCUS, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Achaia,
near Patras. Paufanias. — Alfo, a river of Afia Minor, in
Lycia, having its mouth N. E. of the town of TelmilFus,
jn the gulf of Glaucus.— Alfo, a river of Afia, in the
territory of Colchis, where it difcharges itfelf into the
Phafis.' Pliny. — Alfo, a gulf of Afia Minor, in a diredtion
fi-om N. W. to S. W. More anciently this gulf was deno-
minated the gulf of Telmiifus, from the name of the town,
lituated near its termination in the eaflern part of it.

Gt,.\ucu.s, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Ch/elodon ; which
fee. — Alio, a fpecies of iVomfcr. — Alfo, a fpecies of Falco,
'.vhicli fee refpeftively.

GLAUX, in Botany, fo called by Pliny, and r^«vJ by
Diofcorides, is of luicertain derivation, though fome have
deduced its name from ikXk, imJh. Moll probably tlie
word glaucous is fimilarly derived, as it conveys the idea of
a milky green colour. — Linn. Gen. 114. Schreb. 159.
Tourn. 60. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1210. Sm. Fl. Brit.
26^. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. Lamarck Dift. v. 2. 722.
JufT. 333. — Clafs and order, Pcntandna Monogytiia. Nat.
Ord. Cu/ycaulhcKj:, I^inn. SaRcanis, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none : unlefs the corolla be confidered
as fuch. Cor. of one petal, five-cleft, bell-fhaped, erect,
permanent, with obtufe revohite lubes. Stam. Filaments
five, avvl-tltaped, ereft, the length of the corolla ; anthers
ronndilh. PijI. Gernun ovate; (lyle filiform, as long as
the ftamcns ; ftigma capitate. Peric. Capfule globofe,
pointed, of one cell, with five valves. Seciis five, roundifh;
receptacle very large, globofe, bellowed tor the feeds.

ElT Ch. Caly.x of one leaf. Corolla none. Capfule of
one cell, with five valves and five feeds.

I. G. marilima. Black Salt-wort. Linn Sp. PI. 301.
Engl. Bot. t. 13. This is the only fpecies known, being,
very frequent in falt-marflies throughout Europe, and flow-
ering ill fimimer. The i-oot is perennial and creeping.
Stem about four inches high, ereil, fomewhat branched,
thickly covered with ovate, feffde leaves, and flefii-colourcd,
purpliih, or whitilh flowers Dr. Withering has remarked
that cows eat this herb, and that it is ufed for a pickle,
being found every where from Lapland to tlie Archipelago.
The defcription in Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 141. is fo
exaft that it is impofilble to be miftaken ; yet we do not
f.nd this plant in the Prodromus F!or:e Grxcx, becaufe Dr.
Slbthorp did not himf.;!f obferw it in bis journey.

GLAZIC, in Geo^-^raphy, a fmall illa'nd in the Englifh
Channel, near the coall of France. N. lat. 47 26'. W.
long. 256.

GLAZIER, an artilieer or dealer in glafs.

GLAZING. The Roman method of glazing fome of
their urns might give our workmen a hint toward a method
jjrcatly fiiperior to any thing now in pradic; for the glaz-

G L A

ing of earthen-ware. There is a fort of red urns found
in Yorkfltire, which are, inllead of glazing, covered all"
over inlide and out with a fine coral-coloured varnifli, that
gives tiiem a beauty, which no earthen-ware of our times
can attain ; and is not only far more durable than our way
of doing it with lead, which is apt to crack and fly, both
with wet and with heat, but far more fafe and wholefome ;
and being well known to be a vapourable metal, and its
fumes very noxious, there is great rcafon to fufpecl that
it muft be unwholcfome when brought to the fire. This
ancient glazing feems to liave been done either by the
brufli, or elfe by dipping, for both the infide and out-
fide are varniflied witli equal regularity ; and fomething
may be gueflTed at as to the materials they uied in it, from
what Pliny has left us. This author occafionaliy obferves,.
that fuch earthen-ware as was painted with bitumen never
loll its beauty ; and afterwards, that it was a cuftom to
cover over v.hole flatues with this fort of glazing, whicli-
lie obferves did not only make a fmooth coat, but funk into
the matter of the ilone or earth, and therefore this could
not be likely to crack and fly off like our lead-coats on
plates, &c. which is merely a cruft laid over them. Hook's
Philof. Colled, p. 89.

A common glazing for any kind of earthen-ware may be
made of white fand forty pounds, of red-lead twenty
pounds, of pearl-afhes twenty pounds, and of common
fait twelve pounds. Powder the fand by grinding it, and
then add it to the other ingredients and grind tliem toge-
tlier : after which calcine them for fome time with a mo-
derate heat, and when the mixture is cold, pound it to'
powder ; and when wanted for ufe, temper it \^ ith water.
Tlie proportion of thefe ingredients may be occafionaliy
varied. We may obferve, in general, tliat lead ought to
be excluded from the compofitlon of glazings, and other
fluxes fubllituted in its (lead. See Coi.iCA Dammonhrum.

A tranfparent glazing may be prepared, without lead,
by calcining forty pounds of white fand, twenty-five pounds
of pearl-aflies, and fifteen pounds of common fait ; and
proceeding as before : and a more perfed tranfparent glaz-
ing may be made of fand forty pounds, of wood-aflies
pcrfedly burnt, fifty pounds, of pearl-aiTies ten pounds,
and of common fait twelve potinds. The fol owing recipes
are taken, for the moil part, from Kunckel, who fays-
tliat they are the true glazings ufed at Delft, and' other
Dutch manufadories.

Glazing, Blach, is made of eight parts of red-lead, iron
filings three, copper-afhes three, and zaffre two meafures..
This, v.-hen melted, will make a brown blaolt ; and if you
want it blacker, add more zaffer to it.

Gl AZIXG, Blue, is thus prepared: take icad-aflies, or red-
lead, one pound, clear fand, or powdered flints, two pounds,
common fait two pounds, white calcined tartar one pound,
Venice or other glafs hal£ a pound, zaffer half a pound:
mix them well together, and melt them for fcveral times,
quenching them always in cold water. If you would, have
it fine and good, it will be proper to. put the mixture into a
glafs furnace for a day or two.

Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound of
tartar, a quarter of a pound of red-lead, half an ounce of
zaffer, and a quarter of a pound of powdered flints, which
are to be fufed and managed as in the lall recipe. Or, take
two pounds of calcined l;ad and tin, add five pounds of com-
mon f;dt, five pounds of powdered flints, and of zaffer,
tartar, and Venetian glafs, each one pound. Calcine and
fufe the mixture as betore.

Or, again, take of red-lead one part, of fand three parts,

and of zaffer one part. For ?. violet blue glazing, take four

8 eunccs

GLAZING,

ounces of tartar, two ounces of red-leaJ, five ounces oi
■powdered flints, and lialf a dram of mang-.mefe.

Glazing, Brown, is made of red-lead and flints, of each
fourteen parts, and of manganefe two parts, fufed : or, of
red-lead twelve parts, and manganefe one part, fufed. A
Lrown glazing, to be laid on a white ground, may be made
of manganefe two parts, and of red-lead and white glafs, of
each one jiart, tv>ice fufed.

Glazing, Fle/h-coloureil, is made of twelve pai-ts of lead-
afli'-js, and one of white glafs.

Glazinc, Co!('-co!oureil. To make gold-coloured glaz-
ing, take of litharge tln-ee parts ; of fand, or calcined flint,
one part : pound, and mix thefe very well together ; then
i",in them into a yellow glafs with a ftrong lire. Pound this
glafs, and grind it into a fubtile powder, which moillen with
a well faturatcd folution of filver ; make it into a palte,
which put iiito a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give
at tirll a gentle degree of fire ; then increafe it, and contirue
it till you have a glafs, v/tiicli will be green. Pound this
glafs again, and grind it to a fine powder ; m.oillen this
powder with fome beer, fo that by means of an hair pencil
vou may apply it upon the veflels, or any piece of earthen
•j/are. The veflels that are painted or covered over with
this glazing, muft be firft well heated, then put under a
muffle ; and as foon as the glafs runs, you muft; fmoak them,
by holding them over burning vegetables, and take out the
veflels. Mr. Heinfius of Peterfburg, who fent this receipt
to the Royal Society, ufes the words afflare deles fiimiim,
wiiich is rendered fmoak them, in the 'i'ranfadions. Phil.
Tranf. N'465. § 6.

Kunckel gives feveral preparations for a gold-coloured
yellow glazing. This mav be produced by fuflng a mi>;-
ture of three parts of red-lead, tv.o parts of antnnony, and
one part of faffron of Mars ; by again melting the powdered
mafs, and repeating the operation four times ; or, by fufing
four or five times a compofition of red-lead and antimony,
of each an ounce, and of locales of iron half an ounce : or by
calcining and fufing together eight parts of red-lead, iix
parts cf flints, one part of yellow ochre, one part of anti-
mony, and one part of white glafs. A tranfparent gold-
coloured gla/ing may be obtained bv twice fulliig red-lead
and white-flints, of each twelve parts, and of filings of iron
one part.

Glazing, Green, may be prepared of eight parts of li-
tharge, or red-lead, eight parts of Venice glafs, four parts
of brafs-duft, or filings of copper ; or, ot ten parts of
iitharge, twelve of flints or pebble, and one of ers ujhim, or
eopper-aflies.

A fine green glazing may be produced by ufing one part
of the Buhemian granate, one part of filings of copper,
one part of red-lead, and one part of Venetian glafs ; or by
fufing one part of white glafs, the fame quantity of red-
lead, and alfo of filings of copper ; powdering the mafs,
•and adding one part of Bohemian granate to two parts of
this powder. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and
grinding to-rether anv of tie yellow glazings with equal
quantities of the blue glazings ; and all the fliades and teints
of green will be had by varying the proportion of the ore
to the other, and by the choice of the kind of yellow and
blue.

Glazing, Iron-colonred, is prepaied of fifteen parts of
lcad-a(hes, or red-lead, fourteen of white fand, or flints,
and five of calcined copper. This mixture is to be calcined
and fufed.

Glazing, lAver-cohureih is prepared of twelve parts of li-
tharge, eight of fait, fix of pebble or flint, and one of ir.an-
ganefe.

Glazing, Purph-br^'wii, confiflsoflcad-a/hcs fifteen }>a.'f«,
clcar-fand, or powdered flints, eighteen parts, marigarcf-
one part, and white glafs fifteen meafures ; to which fon p
add one mcafure of zaffer.

Glazing, R d, is made of antimony three poundi, li-
tharge, or red-lead, tlirec, and mil ot iron, one ; grind
them to a fine powder. Or take two pounds of antimony,
three of red-lead, and one of calcined fdifron of Mars, and
proceed as before.

Glazing, Sea green, is made of five pounds of lead afhes,
one pound of tin-aflicf, three pounds of flint, ihrc? quar-
ters of a pound of fait, half a pound of tartar, and ha!/ »
pound of copper dull.

Glazing, White. A fine white glazing for earthfn-ware
is thus prepared : Take two pounds of lead, aiid one of tin ;
calcine them to afl-.es : of th.is take two parts, calcined flint,
white fand, or broken white glafs, one part, and fait one
part : mix them v.eil together, and melt them into a cake
for ufc. The trouble of calcining the tin and lead niaj- L*
prevented, by procuring them in a proper ftate.

The white glazing for common ware is made of forty
pounds of clear fand, feventy-five poonds of litharge, or
lead-aflies, twenty-fix of pot-aflies, and ten pounds ot fait :
thefe are three times melted into a cake, quenching it each
time in clear cold v.atcr. Or, it may be made of fifty
pounds of clean fand, feventy of lead-afl)cs, thirt/ of wood -
aflies, and twelve of fait.

A very fine white gla/.ing msy he obtained by calcbiog
two pans of lead, and one part of tin j and taking one part
of this mafs, and of flints and common fait, of each one part,
and fuiing the mixture. See Delf-civ;;-.-.

A white glazing may be prepared by mixing one hundred
pounds of mafticot, fixty-pounds of red-lead, twenty pounda
of calcined tin or putty, and ten pounds of common fali ;
and calcining and powdering the mixture feveral timc3._

Glazing, Tel'ow, is prepared of red-lead, three pounds;
calcined antimony and tin, of each two pounds : or, accord-
ing to fome, of equal quantities of the three ingredients.
Thefe mufl: be melted into a cake, then ground fine ; and
this operation repettted I'everal times : cr, it may be made
of fifteen parts of lead-ore, three parts of litharge of filver,
and fifteen parts of fand.

A fine yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five
parts of red-lead, two parts of powdered brick, one Jiart of
fand, one part of the white glazings, and two parts of anti-
mony, calcining the mixture and then fufing it. Or, take
fiiur parts of v.hite glafs, one part of antimony, three parts
of red-lead and one part of iron feales, and fufe the mixture:
or, fufe fixteen parts of flints, one part of iron-filings, and
twenty-four parts of litharge. A light yellow glazing may
be produced with ten parts of red-lead, three parts ot anti-
mony, and three of glafs, and two parts of calcined tin.
Sec GoU-ccloured Glazing.

Glazing, Citron-yelloiu, is made of fix parts of red-lead,
fcven parts of fine red brick-dull, and two parts of a;:iimony.
This mixture muft be cidciiied day and night for the fpace
of four days, in the afli-hole of a glafs-houlc furnace, and at
la'.l urged to fufion.

Glazing of Delj-'-ware. Sec DELF-Ti'.uv.

Glazing of Pore. 'lain. See Poucelain.

Glazing of Stone-ware, ar.d Queen's 'u-^-e. See Poi-
TEHY.

Glazing/o;- Tobacco Pipes. See ToBACCO-rirKs.

Glazing, in Pt:inling, a ter.n of the art, exprcffiveof

a peculiar mode or variety in the pradice of it. It confilH

in laying a tranfparent colour, made ven thin by a gieat

quantity of oil. or other vehicle, over a fi>Iidbody of opaque

X X 2 culour ;

GLAZING.

colour ; and its Intent is, to give a greater degree t)f clear-
nefs and brilliancy to the colour produced by tliis procefs,
tkiin can be obtaiiicd by mixing togetlier in fubllance the
two colours thus employed. lu this mode their hues are
blended, without dilparagement of each other; whereas, in
mixing them in tlie ordinary way, a certain diminution ol
their brilliancy talces place, produced l)y the difTunilar nature
of their qualities.

Gla/.in'j; appears to h;'.ve been praftifed very early in oil-
painting ;'^and probably the ufe of varnilhes over pictures
painted with water-colours may have hr(l ihewn its utdity.
Indeed it could not fail to be the cafe, if the varnilh em-
ployed happened to be tinged with any colour; for the
luilre pictures acquiredby that circumllance mull be llriking-
iv engaging : a harmony and fweetnefs are tliereby gained,
■\vhich all other means are vainly employed to obtain. It is
therefore i'urprizing that all thofe wlio prattifed the art of
painting after the difcovery of the ufe of oil, fliould not have
given in to tlic application of it. Yet it is certain that the
Roman fchool is remarkably deficient in the knowledge of
the value of this praAice, and moll frequently negicdted to

which lie propofes to ufe to A\e general hue of the pidlure
bi-fore he applies it. It is not poflibh- to give rules more ex-
plicit on tills matter ; tlie indelinlte fubdivlllons of hues which
all colours are capable of, mult for ever leave to the reeling and
judgment of the artilt their peculiar application. It is hardly
neccirary to ilale that a glaze of red, over blue, will produce
purple ; of blue, over yellow, green ; and of red, over yel-
lov.', orange ; but it may aid the Ihident in his practice, if he
coniiders, that all the varieties of tone the original colours
are capable of, will, when equally employed, produce a cor-
rcfpoiiding compound ; and, of courfe, if his pitture be of
too red a Ime, thougli of a light tone, a correfponding one
of blue, or of yellow, will cliange it to the one he may re-
quire ; and if he ule the blue and yellow together as a green,
it will produce a ncg.itive colour ; totally deftroying thered ;
but the varieties are too conipHcated and numerous to fol-
low.

Glazixos/" Cloth. The procefs of glazing is ufed for
all the llout fabrics of cotton goods, and fometimcs for
thofe of linen. It is a part of the general proceffes of
iinilhlng goods for the market, and which is carried on by

life it • owing probably to the employment painlnig found thofe who are generally called cloth-lappcrs, or calender
in frefco. The Venetian and Dutch frhools, on the other rr^i i ■ • .,

hand, employed it in perfeftion, and it is in their works that
a knowledge of it may bell be acquired.

The principal difficulty attending the ufe of glazing, is to
avoid the too common application of it ; as it does not fuit

men. The glazing is done by puttnig on the cloth a fraall
quantity of white wax, fuch as that ufed in the manufattm-e
of wax candles, and the glofs isafterw?rds effefted by the
friction of any fmooth body on the furface of the cloth. By
the ordinary procels the apparatus is very hmple, confiit-

the reprefentations of all fubilances, in its more immediate ing merely of a fmooth table, a little inclined towards the
fenfe ; though one general glaze over a picture, completed
in its forms, will at all times benefit the work ; if it hap-
pens not to be too low, or infipid, in its tones of colour.

AU kinds of gems and poliflied fubilances, fuch as metals,
fdks, velvets, &c. arc iniperfettly wrought to effeft, when
it is not employed ; and ilefli, which is in nature compounded
of a great variety of colours, is feldom quite perfeA in its
hue, when glazing is not employed to fmidi with. It is a

fpeciesof it, produced by the yellow varnifh being but par-
tially removed from old pictures, which gives them their pe-
culiar and brilliant luilre. It is quite impoflible to make any

etfecl exadliy like it with frelh colours, unlefs fome artifice

be ufed to forerun the eficfts of time ; fuch as rubbing in

dirt, aud then partially removing it, &c. tricks which picture

dealers are pcrfedly converfant with; and by which many

an ingenious copy is paffed oif upon tlie unlearned amateur,

to the enrichment of the dealer, and the future annoyance of the

buyer, when lime and improved information let him into the

fecret.

Glazing is the moft valir.-.b'.e part

painting, when judicioufly employed ;

broken tones of colour, whicli leave

the pallette, but deceive the cy

hues, and dazzling efFcft

of liglit,

of the practice of
as it produces clear
no ren.c:i.brancc of
by the variety of
produced by one
colour ihining through another hi difierent degrees of illu-
mination ; much more like the effefts of natural objects,
than the ufe of O] aque colours can poiTibly produce. But
then great dexterity and judgment are reqiiirtd to ufe it pro-
pr-rlv in fo general a manner. A well-informed and fcienti-
fic artill knows the tone which one colour glazed over an-
other wiU produce ; aud without that knowledge, a dirty
dulnefs may be the eRVft, inilead of the clearnefs required :
and if not fucccfsful, it is always injurious ; tiure is no me-
dium in the application of it. If the under colour is not
improved, it is fure to be deteriorated ; and it will require
repainting, to reilore its original fiernneis. So that when
a painter has prepared a work for glazing, {which fliould
always be done with great clearnels and precifion,) the moll
extreme caution is requiiite in adapting the tone oi the glaie

operator, like a common writing deilc, ii])on which the cloth
to be glazed is fpread inioothly, and drawn over, as occa-
fion requires, from one end of the piece to the other. Above
this is a lever, fufpended from any convenient fixture to the
roof, the lower end hanging in contaft with the cloth,
and by movhig this backward and forward, the ne-
ceflary friftion is produced. The end of the lever next
to, and in contatl with the cloth, is faced with a fmooth
piece of flint or pebble, finely pohfhcd, and of a cylindrical
form, the under furface of wlilch is in contaft with the
cloth. This lever being drawn backward and forward by
the operator's hands, the whole clotli is polillied or glazed in
fuecelfion, the joint at the top of tlie lever being fitted into
a horizontal fiider, which allows the poliflier or liint to be
mov.-d from one fide of the cloth to the other. In this way
of glazing, the whole is performed by the ]iower of a ir.an's
arms and hands ; and, from the pofition of his body being-
conilantiy inclined over the table, is found to be a very hibo-
rious and fatiguing operation. The great number of people
neceffarily employed by this operation, and the difficulty of
getting large quantities of goods rapidly glazed to anfv.cr
the demands of hurried (hipments for exportation, fuggellcd
lately the idea of a more fpeedy and efficacious manner of
perferming the operation of glazing by an improveir.ent and
alteration in the conftrudtion of the common five-howl caleu-
dcr. This improvement was planned and execu'ed at the cx-
tenlive works of the late Mr. John Mil'er of Glafgow, who
furnifiied the inventor with the means of carrying his plan
into effltl, and upon a proof of its efRcacy on trial, his ma-
jelly's royal letters patent for itsexcliifive ufe to the invi ntor
or his aliignees witliin Scotland were obtained in the ufual
form. Two or three machines were t'aen conilrutted for his
own works, to which, as far as we know, they are flill con-
fined ; and thefe machines have given the moll univerf?! fatis-
faftion to all who have had their goods glazed by lh<m,
while at the fame time an im.imnfe reduction of labour has
, been effedied by their ufe.

The patent glazing machine, like the common calender,
confifts of five bowls, or cyh'nders, four of which are of

call

G L A

•

call iron, fmootlily turned, and finely poliflicd on the furface,
and t!ic large or intermediate cylinder is generiilly of pallc-
board on an iron axis. In the common operation of fmootli-
ing by means of the calender, the velocity of the cylinders
revoK ing upon their own axes, is in the ratio of their refi)ec-
tive diameters, fo that an equal niiantity of fuperficiesis con-
ftantly expofed of each. In the glazing-calender, or machine,
it is only njcelTary that the motions of one of the cylinders
(lioiild be fo much accelerated as to produce the friction
necefTary to efftCl the glazing by rubbing againfl: the otlier
cylinders with which it is in contact, fo as not to be liable to
tear or othtrways injui-e the fabric. This motion is pro-
duced by means of wheels placed in the following manner :
On the axis of the main cylinder A, is a caft iron wheel of
any convenient diameter and number of teeth. This wheel
■works into the ftuJ-wheel B, the number of whofe teeth is
not materi;-.! to the fpeed, and whofe diameter may be regulat-
ed fo as to pitch well into the remaining- wheels. The
wheel is placed to revolve loofely on an iron ilud, fcrewed
into the f;ame-work of the machine. The Ihid-whecl B
gives motion to the fccond ftud-wheei C, and it continues the
motion to the wheel D, which is fattened on the axiiof the
firil iron cylinder. The upper cylinder works merely by-
friction, as in a common calender, and when the intermediate
ftud-wh-el B is removed by beisg taken off the ilud, the
ivhole cylinders will revolve exactly as in the common ma-
chines, without producing any glazing effeft. The timpli-
city of this machine, the regularity of the glofs which it
gives, and the immenfe faving cf labour, are powerful re-
commendations in its favour. The great quantity alfo which
may be effefted by it in a very limited time, renders it pe u-
liarly adapted to meet the occafional exigencies of the ex-
porter ; and the additional advantage of its facility of adapta-
tion to the purpofe3 of the common calender, when glazing
is not required, adds to its value and utility. Upon prefTmg
occafions, one of thefe engines, by being conftantly employ-
ed night and day, will glaze from 600 to 800 pieces of cloth,
of 28 yards each, weekly.

Thofe employed in the late Mr. Miller's works are driven
by means of a fteam engine, by which alio various other kinds
of machinery, adapted to the various operations of the bu-
linefs, are fet in motion Should any machinery of this de-
fcription be conftrudled in works wliere there may be a ge-
neral neceiTity of keeping them conflantlv employed for the
purpofe of g'azing, it will be very necelfary that care ihould
be taken that the moving power, w-hethcr water, ileam, or
horfes, fhould be ample ; as it muft be evident, even to thofe
who are not practically converlant with tiie calculation of
power and reilflance, that this calender, when employed to
glaze, muft require conllderably greater force to keep it in
motion, tiian when the cyhnders revolve in the ratios of their
diamet;rs, for the mere purpofe of common calendering or
fmoo thing.

We are not in pofTefiion of fufficient ila!a to enable us to
afcertain, with any tolerable precifion, the quantum of re-
fiftance added by the friction; nor are we aware that any ac-
curate experiments have been made for that purpofe : but it
is evident that it muft be very great in all cafes. It is reafon-
■ alfo to infer, that it may be confiderably increafcd or
. viiilicd by the texture or fabric of the Ituif upon which
t! I . gl.izing operation is performed. Hence, if thefe machines
I employed conftantly in large works, and fet in motion by
I fime power, which alfo drives machinery adapted to other
I rpofes, care muil be taken that the power be fufficient to
cf.=d; all the various purpofes to which it is applied. And
■" dd this be attempted, under the impreffion that the glazi.ng
^at be performed by the fajne power as common calender-

CLE

!ng, a deficiency wotild be found, which muft render it nc
cehary to difengage part of the machinery, in order to .five
fufficient momentum to the reft. This i., perhaps, one oAU-
moft common, and at the fame time, moft ruinou. errors
into wlnca the projecfors of large works, who are not mccl.a-
nics, are apt to ^al . In the /irft inftance, delirous that a
large cftabidiment fhould be fel to work at the leafl poffible
expence, they too frequently calculate too barely, and are
hen obliged either to abandon their whole fcheme at a Rrcat
lols, to work It under lerious and ruinous inconvoniencM, or
to repair, at a triple exj.ence, what ihev have left deficient
at lirlt.

GLAZOY,m Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the co.
vernment "f \ mtka on the Tchevtza ; 56 miles J- .S.E.^f.
V latka. N.lat. 58=" 5. E. long. 51''.

GLEAD, or iiL.WY, in OrmihrJogy, a name ufcd in the
northern parts of the kingdom for the rnlhu,, i,v Lite. S.j

GLEAM is popularly ufed f<,r a rav or beam of hAA.
Among falconers a ha^vk is faid to gleam, when fhe call.
or ttnows up hlth from the gorge.

GEE AN, in Geography, a 'river of England, whidi rifes
a.jout fouror five miles N. of Stamford in Lincoln/hire, and
runs mto tne eftuary called the Wafti, five miles N.E. of
0]ialding.

GLEANING, the ad of gathering or picking up the
ears of corn left behind, after the field has been reaped; and
the crop carried home.

By the cuftoms of fome countries, particularly thofe of Me.
lun and Eftampes, all farmers and others are forbidden, either
by themfclves or fervants, to put any cattle into the litlds, or
prevent the gleamng in any manner whatever, for the fpace of
twenty-four hours after the carrying off the com ; op penally
of c<)nlifcation, &c. It hath been faid, that by the com-
mon law and cuftom of England the poor are allowed to in-
ter and glean upon another's ground after the harveft, »iU.out
bemg guilty of trefpafs. Gilb. Jo. 253. Trials per p,,U,
ch. 15. 438. This humane provifion feems to be borrowed
from the Mofaic law. Levit. xix. 9. xxiii. 22. Deut. xxiv
uj, &c.

Gleaning is a practice that is little heard of in the more
northern parts of the kingdom, but which prevails greatly in
fome of the fouthern diftrids. Tlie cuftom is of .rn-at ^iti-
quity ; and whether or not the poor have any legit] right, in
this country, to glean, except by the exprcfs permiflion of the
farmer, it has however been fo long fanclioned by its coiui-
miance, that it is but rarely interrupted or put a flop to bv him.

In fome places where it is carried on to excefs, it would
fcem neceftary for the farmers to m.ikc regulations in refp.cl
to It, that ftiould not be broken through on anv account
whatever. If this be not the cafe, the abufc is frequently
fo great that they are much injured by it, " as the poor glean
an-.ong the (heaves, and too often from them," as is notorious
to thofe who have attended to the pradlcc. It has been there-
fore fuggefled to make it a rule not to fLffer a gleaner to en-
ter a wheat field until it is wholly clearei! of the crop, w hicli
would, no doubt, prove a very beneficial ngulali.in. It
dots not, however, upon the whole, appear that much ben< -
nefit is derived to the poor from the culioni, while it e\i-
dently leads to idlencfs, immorality, pilfering, and a loofei.efs
of difpi.fition.

GLEBA Alaxa, a name by which fome call the ycU
lowifli white tripoli.

G1.E3.1:, /lililiai. In the civil law, fiavos were faid to be
annexed to the glebe; /. c. they went with it, were fold wi>h
it, &c.

The right of patronage fhould be annexed to a glebe.

2 GLEBE,

G L E

GLEBE, Gr,EBA, in Nataral Hiflory, Chm'tJIry, Sec. a
clod, or piece of ftone or earth, frequently containing fome
inotal, or mineral.

Tlic glebes are carried to the forges to be walhed, purified,
and melted, &c.

Gr.uDE, or Glfbe-land, is properly ufed for cluuch-land ;
«' Dos vol terra ad ecclefiam pertinens."

Glebe-land is moll commonly ufed for land belonging to a
parilh-church, betide the tithes.

Thus, Lmdvvood : " Glebe efl terra in qua confiftit dos
ecclelix ; generaUter tamen fumitm- pro folo, vel pro terra
culta." Thougli in the moll general, and extenfive ufe
of the word, glebe is applicable to any land or ground
belonging to any benefice, fee, manor, inheritance, or the
like.

If any parfon, vicar, &c. hath caufed any of his glebe
Jands to be manured and foweJ at his own colls, with any
corn or grain, the incumbents may devife all the profits and
corn growing upon the faid glebe by will. (Stat. 28 H. 8.
cap. II.) And if a parfon fows his glebe and dies, the executors
fliall have the corn fowed by the teilator. But if a glebe be
■in the hands of a tenant, and the parfon dies after feverance
of the corn, and before his rent due ; it is faid, neither the
parfon's executors nor his fucccffor can claim the rent, but
the tenant may retain it and alfo the crop, unlefs there be a
focci.-il covenant for the payment to the parfon's executors
proportionably, &c. "Wood's Intt. 163.

GLEBF.C, in Geography, a town of 7\merica, in the
ftate of Virginia ; 10 miles S.E. of Tappahaiioe.

GLEBOUS, in Rural Economy,?!, term fometimes provin-
cially iignifying the turf or gralfy furface.

GLEBOW, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land ; 18 miles S. of Mittaw.

■GLECHOMA, in Botany, is derived from r>.t;xiv of
Diofcorides, though the latter is iifually taken for Pulegiuin,
or Penny-roval. — Linn. Gen. 291. Schrcb. 388. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 3. 85'. Mart. Mill. Dia.v. 2. Sni. Fl. Brit. 625.
.TuflT. 113. — Clafs and order, DiJynamta Cymnofperm'ia. Nat.
Ord. Verlicillatx, I^inn. Labia'.ie, JufT.

«Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, tubular, cylindrical,
ftriated, very fmall, permanent ; its mouth having five fliarp
unequal teeth. Cor. of one petal, ringeiit ; tube flender,
compreffed ; upper lip creft, obf.ife, lower lip fpreading,
larger than the upper one, obtufe, three-cleft, its middle
!obe lari-er, cmarginate. Stam. Filaments four, under the
upper lip, two of which are Ihorter ; each pair of anthers
♦brining themfelves into a crofs. Pijl. Germen four-cleft ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, bending under the upper lip ; ftigma
cloven, acute. Perk, none ; the calyx iiouriAiing four, ovate
Jh'Js in its bofom

ElT. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Each pair of anthers converging
in form of a crofs.

I. G. hederacca. Ground-ivy. Linn. Sp. PI. 807. Engl.
Bot. t. 853. — " Leaves kidney-lhaped, crenate.'' — Found in
woods and hedges, flowering in April and May. Root peren-
nial, and creeping. Leaves on fjut-ftalks, doited beneatli
with glandular points. Flozvers axillary, about three to
pach leaf, prettily fpeckled w:lh white and blue. Calyx
ilriated. Jhilh: rs white. Ground-ivy has been fo long and
fo generally known, that it has obtained various appellations,
Uich as Ale-hoof, Gill, Robin-run-in-the-hcdgc, Cat's-
foot, &c. Before the introduction of Hops its leaves feem
to have been ufed for flavouring and clarifying ale. Gerarde
has enumerated a long train of " Vertues" fuppofed to be
pofleiTed by this plant ; and when infufed into tea or ho-
ney, it is Hill a favouiite medicine with the common people
for coughs. Many animals eat it, though it is faid to injure

P L E

horfes if taken too copioufly. The fpecific charafter is nov^
fuperfluous, as two fpccies enumerated in the firil edition of
the Species Phmtarum are now referred to other genera.

Gl.ECllOM.v Hederacca, groiir.d-'ivy or gill, in the Ma-
teria Medlca, is a well known plant, growing commonly un-
der hedges and flowering in April. Ground-ivy has a pecu-
liar ftrong fmell ; the leaves, according to Dr. Withering, be-
ing befet underneath with hollow dots, in which are glands fe-
crctingan eflfenlial oil, ard above with little eminences, which
do not fecrete any odoriferous oil ; for this furface, when
rubbed, yields no peculiar fcent, whereas the under furface
affords a pleafant reviving fcent. The tafte is bitterifli, aiid
fomewhat aromatic. This plant was formerly fuppofed to
p-.^fTefs great medicinal powers, not difcovered by later expe-
rience ; accordingly it is omitted in the materia mtdica by tlie
London college. Its qualities have been deferibed by diuer-
ent authors, as peftoral, detergent, aperient, diuretic, vulne-
rary, corroborant, errhine, &c. and it has been recommended
for the cure of tliofe difeafes to which theie powers feem to be
moll adapted, but chiefly in pulmonary and nephritic com-
plaints. In obillnate coughs it is a favourite remedy with
the poor, who, probably deriving benefit from it, perfiil in its
ufe. Ray, Mead, and fome others, fpcak of its being ufe-
fully joined with fermenting ale ; but Dr. CuUen obferves, " it
appears to me frivolous. In fiiort, in many cafes where I have
feeii it employed, I have had no evidence either of its diuretic
or of its peftoral effetts. In common with many others ot
the verticillata;, it may be employed as an errhine, and in that
way cure a head-ache, but no othcrways by any fpecific qua-
lity." It is ufually taken in the way of intufion, or decoc-
tion, as tea. Woodville Med. Bot.

GLECPIONITES, a name given by the ancient Phy.
ficlans, to a fort of wine impregnated with penny-royal,
much recommended in all obllruftions. It takes its name
ixoxw gleehon, the Greek w:s.w\e oi penny-royal, or pulegium.

GLEDITSIA, in Botany, named by Clayton, and
adopted by Linnceus, in honour of Dr. John Gottlieb GIc-
ditfch, profelfor of medicine and botany at Berlin, an advo-
cate of Linna;us againil Sigefljeck, and author of a Syjlema
Plantarum, founded on the infertion of the llamens, as well
as of an arrangement of Fungi, and various otlier botanical
treatifes in Latin and German. He died in 1786, aged 72.
Linn. Gen. 549. Schrcb. 735. Ait. Hort. Kew.v. 3.444.
Mart. Mill. Did. V. 2. JufT. 346. Lamarck Illullr. t. 857.
Ga;rtn. t. 146. Clafs and order, Polygamla Dieecla ; or
rather Dliccia Hcxandrla. Nat. Ord. Lomentaceii, Linn.
hcgumhinfit, .lulT.

Gen. Ch Male, Cal. Perianth of three fmall, fpreading,
acute leaves. Cor. Petals three, roundifli, fefiile, fpreading,
refembling the calyx-leaves. Nedlary turbinate, united by
its border to the other parts of fructification. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, thread-fliaped, longer than the corolla; anthers
oblong, compreffed, two-lobed, incumbent.

Female, on a feparate plant, Cal. Perianth like the male,
but of five leaves. Cor. Petals five, long, acute, rather
fpreading. Neftaries two, fliort, like abortive filaments.
Pyi. Germen fuperior, broad, compreffed, longer than the
corolla; ftyle fliort, reflexed; iligma thick, the length of
the ftyle, to which it is longitudinally affixed, downy in the
upper part. Perk. Legume very large, broad, compreffed
quite fiat, divided by numerous tranfverfe partitions, and
filled with pulp. Seeds folitary, roundifli, hard, and poliflied.
At the fummit, generally, of the male fpike is an united
flower, with four calyx-leaves and as many petals, with a
neftary and ftamens like tiie male, but with a piflil, pro-
ducing perfeCl fruit, as in the female. Hence Linnxus re-
ferred this genuf to his clafs Pslygamla, but if it remains

there

G L E

here it mull latlier be on account of the difTL-rence of ftruc-

•!;re in its male and female flowers, than for their fliglit

:xual anomalies. Even for this difference of ilruchire we

ii.ould rather place it in D'lada. See Sni. Introd. to Botany,

470, 485.

Obf. This genus has gonfiderable affinity with Ccra'onia,
ipecially in the fruit. We cannot apply the term a»ten!iim to
1: i inflorefcence, which is a fpike.

Eir. Ch. Male, Calyx of three leaves. Petals three. Nec-
tary turbinate. Stamejis fix.

Female, Calyx of ftve leaves. Petals live. Nectaries two.
Pillil one. Lcgum/<

Some flowers united, four-cleft.

The fpecies of Gkihtjia are as yet a mafs of confufion.
0.tr:n:a:ithos, Linn. Sp. PI. 1509, the original one, a na-
ve of North America, was cultivated by bilhop Compton
; 1 70c, and is a tall handfome tree, which bears our cli-

Ue well, except being fomctimes broken, like Rr,l>i/iia
I'iiiidj-acac'ui, by ftrong wirids. It is remarkiible for its
i:ii-(^e trifid or compound fpines, which grow on the trunk
to the length of fix or eight inches, from a very flender bafe.
The leaves are deciduous, bipin.nate, large, con'llling of
J innumerable elliptical, {lightly toothed, nearly fmooth leaf-
lets, half an inch or near an inch long. Flowers greenilh,
iu axillary fpikes. Some leaves appear to be fimply pinnate,
but we know not whetlier this is a fpecific difference or not.

A very dillincl fpecies is cultivated with us by the nan.ie
of G.chiiK'nJis, which Linnceus alfo had at Upfal, but lu
doss not feem to have defcribed it The fpines are com-
pound. Leaves fimply and abruptly pinnate, of feven or
eight pair of thin, fquarifh, unequal-fided, crenate leaflets,
graduallv larger upwards, the terminal pair being fometimes
twice thedimer.fions of the next.

In Sion garden?, belonging to the duke of Northumber-
land, is a tree of another fpecies, of which we find no men-
tion. Its leaves are fimply pinnate like the laft, and the
leaflets alfo gradually larger upwards, but they are cori-
aceous, elliptical, their fides very feldom unequal. The
calyx -leaves and petals are narrower, {l-.orter, and blunter-
than in G. triacanlhos. Of its fpines we have no account,
but the leaves and flowers were communicated to us by Mr.
Hoy, in Auguft 1 796, as a GleJrlJin not in the Horljs
Kfwfnfii, where, indeed, all that are known are made varie-
ties of the tr'iaianthos. From the new edition of this valu-
able work perhaps more information may be expected.

G. infrmis, firit mentioned by Linnxus in the fecond edi-
tion of Sp. PI. 1509, feems to have been adopted without
a fp;cin-.en, from Plukenet's t%. 123. f. 3, to which is added
Miller's t. 5~, which la!t reprefents a Mimofa, nor does any
lubfequent writer appsar to know any thing of this fpecies.

It would be a tedious and unprofitable taflc to attentpt a
determination of the fynonvms of this genus, even if the
fpecies were denned. The latter is a defirable ob'ieft, and
worthy the attention of thofe who have perpetual accefs to •
the old botanic gardens about London, and can obforve
thefe trees at different periods of growth. It is ncceffary to
determine whether the fimply «ir doubly piunated leaves
mark a fpecific diftinction; whether the fpines vary accord-
JB"- to the age of the tree; and whether the legume is, in
any fpecies, conftantly fingle-feeded, or merely from acci-
dental abortion. Travellers in America can fcarcely be ex-
pefted to throw any light on fuch botanical queilions as
thefe, though a careful obferver, refident there, might ren-
der highlv important fervices to botany, and to the moll ufe-
ful arts of life, by determining firll the fpecific differences,
and then the economical qualities, of all the American trees,
among wliicb- the Qitd'iiju claim a dillinguiflicd place. The

G L E

labours of a Lambert among tJie Pines, and a Michaux
among the Oaks, are models for future enquirer-.

Gj-EDIT.si.i, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the
deciduous tree or ftirub kind ; of which the fpecies ufuallv
cultivated is the ihree-thorncd acacia (G. triacantho*/,
which feldom rifes higher than a fhrub in this country.

There are feveral varieties with different numbers of
fpines, and with llronger and weaker fpines.

Method of 6.v.'/.7rr.— Thefe trees a.-c capable of being in-
crcafed by lowing the feeds, which are obtained frelh from
America, m a bed of light tarth, in the carlv fpring fcdfon,
watering them otcafionally ^viun the feafcn' is dri-. It is,
however, a much more expeditious practice to fow them in
pots, and plunge tliem in a moderate hot-bed. The plai.ts
fliould be kept clean during the fu-lt fmnmer after they
appear, and in tlie fuccecding winter be well prottcttd from
icvere fiolls, efpecially fuch'as are in pots.

The young plants may, moil of them, in the following
fpring, be removed and fet out into nurfcry rows, at a foiA-
or cigliteen inches diilant from each other, and eight or ten
inches in the rows, ouch fmall plants as remain, may be
put out in the fame manner in tlie next autumn or fpring.

The plants fliouId continue in this fituation till they liave
had two or three years grow th, after v.iiich thev may be
tranfplanted into the fituations in which thev are to remain
any time towards the latter part of the fpring feafon.

Thefe plants are found to fuccced bed in fituations where
the foils are of the more light deep kinds; and rather {hel-
tcred from the inclemenor of the atniofphere.

They arc all very ornamental trees, and well adapted to ■
large ftirubberies, plantations, and pleafure grounds. When
planted alone, on lawns, and large open fpaces that arc
kept in fhort grafs, they produce a fine appearance. They
have, however, the difadvantage of putting forth their
leaves at rather a late pe.iod,

GLEE, a nnillcal term derived by Skinner, Junius, John-
fon, and all the etymologitts, from 5)35j,e, Saxon, jey,
mhlb, /port.

^is incrrtr mni commau'.iCct) ije
"^0 lualicii l;ini bcih gnmc nnD glee.

Chaucer, Rim. S . Tap. v. 126.

The term, we believe, is noc to be found in mufic-books,
or mufical writers, before the n-.iddle of it.e 17th century.
The firll time it appears in the title of a colli ction of canon's,
rounds, and catches, is in a publication by John Playford. ■
1667, under the title of " Dialogues, GIees,^A>-n?s, and
Ballads, of two, three, and fourVoyccs."

A glee in rauiic imphes nothing more in its original fcnfe, •
in our printed mufic-books, than " a fong of tiinv or more
parts, upon a gay or merry fubjecl, in which all the voices
begin and end together, finging tiic fame words." When
fubjects of fug.ue or imitation occur, and the compofition is
more artificial than fimple counterpoint, it lefs relcmbles a
glee than a madrigal, wliich it miglit, with more 1 ropriety.
be called, if the words arc ferious: for a ferious glee feems
a lolccilm, and a direct contradiclion in terms. The word
glee, in Saxon, CJerman, and Englilh dictionaries ancient
and modern, implying viirik, merriment, and in Chaucer and .
other old authors, inujfic itfelf.

GLEET, in Surgery, commonly fignifies the continuatioB
of a thin difcharge from the urethra, after the inflanimator)-
fymptoms of a clap have for fome time ccafed. However, the
running whicii talces place from the urethra, in cafes of ■
ffrirturcs, difcafed prollate gland, tvc. is alfo frequently
called a gleet. A mere gleet, unattended with any oilier
dileafc of the pacts, is not accompauicd with the remarkable

G L E E T.

pain and fcalding L-nfation in making water, -wliicli are pr^j-
duced by gonon-iKta. The latter uiTeftion may be coiili-
dercd as acute, while the gleet is quite of a chronk nat;ye.
It was one of the opinions of Mr. Himter, that a gleet dif-
fered from a gonorrhaa, Hkewife, in not being infectious.
I't is well known that it was one of the doctrines of this emi-
nent furgeon, that the poifon of gonorrhtca, and that wliich
is produclivc of lues venerea, are of the fame quality, and
tliat the diderent effedls are owing to the different ftructure
of the parts concerned in the two difeafcs. We need not
here enter into an invelligation of this part of the fnbjcft.
All that we willi to obferve is, that if Mr. Hunter means,
when he ftates, that a gkct diifers ftrom a gonorrhoea in not
being inficfwiis, that a gleet is not ciipnhlc of comvmmcatir," the
•vena-ad Hi/cafe, no one can queition the accuracy of the ob-
fcrvation. But, on the contrary, if the aifertion implies that
the matter of a gleet, when applied to the pudenda mulie-
bria, will not bring on a pain in making water, a difchnrge,
&c. then we dilfent from the opinion ahogether. We have
known an inftance, in which a gentleman, who had h'.id a
gleet upon him for upwards of a year, and who, on the pre-
iumption tliat it was not infeftious, ventured to have con-
nection with a young woman, of whofe continency, with re-
o-ard to othei- men, we ourfelves entertain no doubt. How-
ever, there may be gleets of various kinds, and fome oi them
may be infeAious, and others not fo. AVhen, after a go-
noi'rhoea, a thin <lifcharge continues, fur along while, to take
.place from the urethra, the complaint may depend upon a
weaknefs of the veflela, or, as Mr. Hunter exprefles it, upon
a habit of aftion, which the parts have contracted. \Vlitn
a gleet arifes from a ilriftui'e in the paffage, or from a difeafe
.of the proilate gland, the caufe mull be referred to irritation,
and the cure depends on the removal of the original com-
plaint.

Gleets, which are the confequcnce of gonorrhoea, are
often exceedingly difficult of cure, and what is very curious,
it frequently happens, that, after they have reilited every
fjrt of remedy, and after the patient has long given up the
ufeof medicines and injeftions, a fndden cure Ipontanecufiy
occurs. Many gleets undergo a temporary iloppage under
particular modes of treatment ; but, as foon as tliis is re-
mitted, regularly return again. A vafl number of gleets
depend upon the prefence of a ftrifture in the urethra, and
of courfe aie not curable by injections. We have often
thought that in all cafes of gleets, it iliould be the invariable
cuftom of the furgeon to introduce a bougie, for the purpofe
of afeertaining whether there is any obilruclion in the
paffage ; for, when the difcharge depends on a llrifture, the
patient might make ufe of balfams, turpentines, and bougi-'s,
for years, and )'et reeei\'e no beneht whatever. At all
events, whenever a gleet refills ordinary means, the Hate of
the urethra and of the proilate gland ought to be exam.incd.
See PiiosTATE Gland, D'lfci'fe of; and Stuictuke.

Mr. Hunter was of opinion, that the fpontaneous difap-
pearance of a gleet, after a long refiilance to every fort of
medicine and application, vtry frequently depended upon
accidental changes in the patient's conllitution. It was
another fentimeut of this celebrated furgeon, that fome gleets
were connected with fcrofulo. This idea is founded on the
circumilance, that more gleets may be cured by fea bathing,
than any other kind of bathing. It is alfo fujjported by
the faft, of fea water being ftnnetimcs an cffeftuai m.eans of
cure, when employed as an injeition.

We have alu'ays found fault with this plan of judging of
the nature of difeafes. If a diforder yields to mercury,
praclitioners are apt to decide immediately, that the com-
plaiui is venereal. If a malady, like a gleet, gives way to

fea bathing, which benejits ftl-ofuloiis complaints, fuch
furgcons, as reafon on Mr. Hunter's principles, will imme-
diately fetdown the cafe as fcrotulous. It is never remem-
bered in this calculation, that trercnry cures many difeafes
belides the venereal ; and fo does lea bathing many com-
plaints belides thofe which are of a fcrofulous nature.

■Gleets have alfo been reprefented as always conncftrd
with a relaxed conllitution, though we think we have feen t!ie
complaint in fubjcdls, who were llrong, robud, and young,
with every apjjearance of general health, and ivhofe flate
feemed to us a ilriking contradiftiou to the foregoing obfer
vatinn.

Gle?ts, as we have before Hated, are often exceedingly
difficult of removal. Sometiines, indeed, they may be got
rid of with tolerable cafe ; but in other inftanccs, they com-
pletely fruilrate the art of lurgery, and the patient, tired of
the inefficacy of di.ffercnt remedies, relinquiilies tlie trial of
all. In llight cafes, and occaf.onally in inveterate ones, a
cure may b« ciFefted by exhibiting internally the balfam of
copaiva, the oleum terebinthina;, or the tinfturc of lyttis
(cantharides). It is we'l worthy of notice, that when a
cure can be accomplillied by thefe means, benefit is foun
derived from their employment. For this reafon, when
they neither dimiiillh, nor remove the g'eet in the courfe of
five or fix days, Mr. Hunter made it a rule never to continue
tlieir ufe any longer, but have rccourfe at once to other
methods. We have already remarked the great tei'dciicy of
many gleets to return, after being for a time Hopped by dif-
ferent modes of treatment. Hence practitioners fiiould
never difcontiniie the fucccfsfu! plan im.mcdiately the dif-
charge ceafes, but perilft in its adoption for ten days or a
fortnight, after all the fymptoms have cntii'ely gone off.

In relaxed habits, gleets are very likely to be cured by the
cold bath, fea bathing, bark and Heel m.edicires. Cold
bathing indeed often fuccceda in every kind of conllitution,
wl-;cn other methods are of no avail. We have known Hrong
yoimg m.en laboiu'ing under gleets, who could not get rid of
them in any Vi-ay in London ; but who got \\'ell almoH imme-
diately on going to the fea fide, and bathing thei-e. There
can be no doubt alfo, that fome beneficial revcdution in the
fylleni, arlfing from tlie charge of air, might have a confi-
derable Hiarc in .the cure. We lately had tmder our care a
gentleman with a gleet, which had lailed nine months, but
difappeared all at once on the patient going for a Hiort time
to a part of the country which was not near the fea.

There are two principal kinds of injeflions in ufe for the
cure of gleets, to'z. ailringcnt and irritating ones.

The altringcnt ones are, for the moH part, fuch as the
decotlion of bark, and folutions of zincum vitriolatum,
alum, or acetite of lead. An injection of proper Hrength,
containing cuprum vitriolatum, bolus gallicus, and camphor,
is alfo an exceedingly eligible one.

The beH irritating injection which we know of, is that
made by difiblving two grains of the hydrargyrus muriatus
in eight ounces of dillilUd water.

Bougies may alfo be confideredas aftingon the imelhra as
irritating applications, and hence tliey are occafionally re-
comm.ended to be worn for the cure of gleets. In general,
common bougies are eniploy-ed ; but fometimes others, medi-
cated with camphor or turpentine, are ufcd.

In irritable conllitntions, the latter kind of injeClion and
the bougies may excite a good deal of irritation, pain, Hran-
gury, 5:c. fo that fome circumfpedliini is neceii'ary in the
employment of fuch means. We may Hate, indeed, that no
endeavour fliould ever be taade to cure a gleet, by exciting
irritation in the urethra with llimulating injections, or bou-
.gics, before milder means have failed, ^\'e Jiave found a

weak

CLE

CLE

■iTsak injeclion of the hydrargyrus muriatiis more frcqucntlv
iuccefsful than any other. One grain to fix ounces of
water is quite ftrong eiioughto begin with, and the ftrength
n:ay be gradually augmented, in proportion as the urethra
appears capable of bearing it. The practitioner muft not
leave off the injeclion as loon as the difcharge ceafes ; for
if he does fo, the gleet will generally recur, 'i'he plan
fliould ftillbc followed up for about a fortnight.

When gleets are to be cured by bougies, it is neceflary
to wear thcfe inftruments about a month or fix weeks
before any dependence can be put in the permanence of the
cure.

Neither the furgeon nor the patient fnould be deterred
from perfiiling in the trial of irritating injeftions or bougies,
by the circumllance of their appearing to increafe the dii^
charge at firft;. Tliis they always do.

Mr. Hvmter thought that moderation and regularity in
diet were conducive to the cure of gleets. So is a quiet kind
of life in the generality of cafes, but there are inllances in
which gleets feem to be benefited and cured by rough excr-
cife on horfeback.

A return or an increafe of a gleet is very apt to be tl:e
confequence of intcrcourfe with women, and the patient
often thinks that he has received a frcfli infection. Mr.
Hunter thought that the cafe might be difcriminatcd by the
fliort time which intervenes between the connection and the
re-appearance of the difcharge. Gleets are often fo exceed-
ingly obftlnate, that the furgeon cannot be informed of too
many modes and principles of cure. On this account we
deem it right to mention that gleets feem to be curable on
the principle of counter-irritation. Hunter has feen a gleet
flop on the breaking out of two chancres on the glans penis,
and the difcharge has been known to ilop as foon as a bliftcr
was applied to the under part of the penis.

Gleets have likewife been cured by eleftricity.

Women ai'e hable to gleets, and the difeafe being iltuatcd
in lefs irritable parts, whatever injections ai'e ufed, may be
made flronger than for male patients.

It is almoil unneccflary to remark, that balfams and tur-
pentines, internally given, can have no ipecific effect on the
parts affeclcd in women, as they liave on the urethra in men.
Hence it would be abfiu-d to prefcribe fuch medicines ior
female patients.

GLEIBERG, or GLlTZBEno, in Gcogra[>hy, a town of
Germany, in the principality of NalTau Weilburg ; eight
miles NE. uf Wetzlar.

GLEICHAN, a county of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Golha, divided between the princes of Gotha,
Hohenloe. Katzlield, and Schv.artzburg, fituated on the
banks of the Ohr, between Erfurt and Gotha.

GLEICHEN, Frederic vox, in Biography, was
born in the year 1714. He v.-as intended and educated
for the profeffion of arms, and fpent the early part of his life
as an officer in the fervice of Bayreuth, and was dilllnguiflied
bv his attention to military difciphne. He rofe to the raiik
of lieutenant-colonel, and obtained the favour of tlie mar-
grave. His honours did not fit cafy upon him, lie lighe<l
for retirement, and in i 756 his wiihes were accompliihed ;
he obtained a dilmiiHon from the fervice v.-itli a handfomc
penlion, to which was afterwards added the rank of pnvy
counfellor. He now had leiliire to dillinguilli liimfelf as a
^hilofopher, a nauurahft, and a writer. His attention was
accidentally excited to microfcopical obfervations, and not
Xatisficd with the inllruments already in exillcni-e he con-
ftrufted an univerfal microfcopc, with which he combined
the folar microlcope. His principal obfervations relate to
feminal animalcula, and infufion animals : lie v.-ould fit day
Vol. XVI.

after day at his glafs, and was always difpleafed if he ex-
perienced any interruption while engaged in his favourite
purfuit. By daily pradtice he had acquired uncommon
acutenefs of fight, whicli was of the grcattll advantage to
him in his refearclies. Tliougli he had an ardent attach-
ment to fcience for the love of it, yet he dcvifed various eco-
nomical plans, from wliich he cxpeftcd to derive great emo-
lument, but they were the fchcmcs of a tlieoriu, and did
not prove of real advantage cither to himfelf or the world.
He died in June 1783, leaving beliind him numerous workt
in natural hiftory, as " Obfcrvalion-; on the Parts of Frudtr-
fication in Plants when in bloom, and on tlit- Infcfls found
in them :'' " Hiftor)- of the Common Houfc Fly:"
" Treatife on feminal Animalcula and infufion Animals t""
" Effay towards the Hittory of the Trec-loufe of the Elm :"
this infect, the aphis ulmi campellris, oft our author the
labour of eight years ; it is the caufe of ih.e bladders nn
the leaves of the elm-tree during the fpring. Gen. Biig.

GLEICHENBERG, in Geo^r.iphu a toxui of 1!.-
duchy of Stiria ; ic miles N. of RackHburg.

GLEICHENBERGAN, or Gi.lk iif..\i BF.nn, atown
of Germany, in the county of Heniiebcrg ; four miles K
of Romhild.

GLEICHENIA, in Bolmiy, named by the writer of
this article in honour of Philip Fn-dcrick, Baron von
Gleichen, author of a fplendid microfcopical work on the
llrufture and phyfiology of the parts of frnftification in
feveral plants, puhlilhed at Nuremberg, in foho, with
coloured plates, in 1764. As tlie feeds of ferns wen-
among the fubjetts to whicli Baron Gleichen paid great
attention, a genus belonging to this curious tribe wai>
judged peculiarly proper to commemorate him. Smith in
Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, v. 5. 419. t. 9. f. 10.
Trafts, 258. t. I. f. 10. Swartz. Fii. 165. Brown. Prod.
v. I. 160. (Mertenfia ; Wiilden. in Aft. Holm. ann. 1804.
165. t. 4, 5. Swartz. Fil. 163.) — Clafs and order, Crypli-
gam'ia Fl'kes : (eti. y^iinulala. Nat. Ord. Filiccs (hrffcr/e.

Elf Ch. Capfules in a fimple, concentric, orbicular feries ;
eacii feries contlitu'ing a round feparate dot, on the back of
the leaf. Cover none.

This genus was firft founded on the OnorUa polyttotTnidft
of LinniFus, an elegant and fingular fern, native of the Cape
of Good Hope. In this the capfules arc ufually three, nrclr
four together, half immcrfed in the uitder fide of the frond,
and as each burils by a longitudinal filfurc, they all together
liave exactly the appearance of a ling'e capfn'c, of three
cells, and three valves, the partitions feeming to originate
•from the centre of each valve. Traces of a jointed ring
appear on fome of the valves only, and rather refemblc the
corrugations of thofe fcri'.s termed J^'iriouJIy m.rvlatetf.
Several other fpccics, ftriclly allied to the origina! one in
habit and appearance, fo as to be at firll fight fcarcely dif-
tinguilhable from it, have been found in New Holland,
and have been defined by Dr. Swartz and Mr. Brown.
In thefe the capfules arc not immerfed in the leaf, though
each feries ftands in a flight depreflion. In G iluaifti of
Brown there are only two together ; in others three, four,
or even fix. Thefe new difcovercd fpccies evince the pro-
priety of Mr. Brov.n's meafure, of reducing the I'.'rrUnfa
of AVilkleiiow and Swartz to GlticLii'ia, as tlicir fruAifica-
tions exactly agree. nicrjKOptcns of Bornhardi docs not
in our opinion fo well afibrt with llicm, having an irregular
accumulation of ftalked capfules in each dot, though its
habit is pi-ecifely that of McrUnfi.t. Mr. Browni, having
examined thefe feins alive, determ.incs them to he fur-
nilhed with a complete, ftriated, tranfvcrfe, rarely oblique,

"■iiKT- ™ .

Y y ThK

G L E

This genus naturally divides itfelf into two fetlions.
The original Ghkhniic, of whicli there are five i'vecies, have
the uhinuitcbranchcs of their repeatedly forked lleiii pinnate,
their leaflets or pimi.t deeply piunatifid, with ihorl, triangular,
or rounded fegments, each i'egmcnt bearing a tingle dot
or fcries of capfules. Tlie Mertenf^ ha%e their ultimate
branches deeply pinnatilid, tlis fegments linear, with a
row of numerous dots on each fide of the midrib of each
focrment, efpecialiy at its lower half. Of thcfo we arc
ac^iuainteJ with five or fix fpecies, all natives ot the ball
or Weft Indies, or of New Holland and its neighbourhood.
GLEICHENSTEIN, in C-ogmp/iv, a town and caftlc
of Germany, in the territory ofEichsfeld; leven miles S.L.
of ?Ieilit;enlladt. r -- ■ ■

Gl.EINSTOLLEN, a town of the duchy ot btina ;

lAmilesS. E. of Voitiherg. , , . , ,, , ■ .

GEEISS, a town of Switzerland, in the \ alais ; 20

miles E. of Sion. . ,., - . ,

GLEIWITZ, or Gi.iwicK, a town ot Silelia, in the

principality of Oppchi : 20 miles N. E. of Ratilbou. N
lat. 50" 17'. E. long. It) 35'

GLEN River, is a river of Lincolnfiiire, which rifes chapels which appear to be of later conllrnft

G L E

ftrcams fall into the valley, and, forming a junftion, afTumc
the name of Avonm<n-e. One of thefe itreams, called St.
Kevin's kecve, is ilill an objeft of fopcrftition ; weak and
fickly children being dipped in it every Sunday and Thnrf-
day before fun-rife, and on tlie third of Juno, which is
St. Kevin's day. The two lakes in the vale are divided
from each other by a rich meadow ; the reft of the foil is
fo rocky as to be incapable of tillage by the plough. The
names of the adjoining mountains, in which the word Derry
often occurs, are fuppofed to denote that tlioy were formerly
covered with wood ; at prefent they have only brown heath,
or more fable peat. Between the cathedral and upper lake
is a group of thorns of great fizc ; and near the cathedral
the trunk of an aged yew, which meafiires three yards in
diameter. From the remains of walls above, and the traces
of foundations below the furface of the earth, the town is
fuppofed to have been once pretty large, but the only ftreet
appearing is the road leading from the market place into the
conntv of Kildare. It is in good prcfervation, being paved
with tlones placed edgewife, and ten feet in breadth. There
are feven churches of conlideralile antiquity, and fome

^ ■ St.

near Roptlev, and purfues a courfe UL-arly S. S. E. to Brace-
brough, when, turning fuddcnly N. E., it palles to Kates
bridge and through the Fens, bv Surlleet, to the lea at
Fofdyke Wafli^for the greater part of its courfe
throun-h the Fens this river is naviirable for barges, a cir-
cumlbncc which was over-looked in compiling the^ alpha-
betical lift of inland navigatious in our article Can.il.
The fmall river or drain called the Bourne, which branches
from the Glen and proceeds up to Bourne town, is alto

Kevin was the patron faint, and his iianie confequcntly rs
given to many of the furrounding objetts. He is faid to
have founded the town or monaftery in the fixth century ;
but Ecdwich attributes the creilion to the Oilmen, who
infellcd Ireland, in the ninth century. Some figures in a
chapel, containing the tomb of St. Kevin, funiifli tome plati-
lilile arguments in fupport of tliis opinion. There arc two
round towers at Glendalougli, botli of which are adjoining
churches, but neither the cathedral nor abbey has fuch an

liavicrable for fome ditlance upwards. The South Forty- addition, though if a belfry were the objeft of thefe build

foot" navigable drain commences very near to this riVL>r,
below the mouth of the Bourne, and proceeds by a cir-
cuitous route to Boilou. See Solth Fouty-foot.

GLEN AA, a mountain in tlie county of Kerry, Ireland.

See KlLLAIlSEY

ings, the preference would probably liave been given to
them. Tiiefe towers were alfo, in Mr, Ledwich's opinion,
the work of the Oilmen. The arguments for and againil
this opinion will be confidered under the article Round
Towers. A monallcry having been founded here, and the

GLEN^'^N Islands, a duller of fmall illands in the fuppofed miracles of St. Kevin having been proclaimed

Atlantic near the coall of France. N. lat. 47 ' 43'. W. numbers flocked to liis flirine ; as Girald Cambrcniis fays,

lone. %' ?" • '" what had been a barren wildernefs, were to be found, after

GLEN ARM, a pofl. town of the county of Antrim, a few years, not only churches and good houfes, but much

Ireland on the call coall of it, adjoining which is Glenarm wcaltli. According to tlie Irilh annals, the town thus

caillc the feat of the coiuitefs of Antrim. The town is founded was often plundered by the piratical freebooters

plcafantlv fituated on t!ie fea-iliore, near the bay of the of the north, who, as they fubfilled folely by depredations,

fame name. It is 104 miles N. from Dubhn, and 24 N. without reluftance, frequently pillaged their own country-

from Belfall. men. In 1162, Laurence O'Toole, afterwards archbifliop

GLENAVY, a poll -town of the county of Antrim, of Dublin, was clefted abbot ; and in a few years after earl

Ireland lituated near the e.ailern border of Lough Neagh. Strongbow granted the abbey and parfonage to Thomas,

It is '7 miles N. from Dubhn on the road to Antrim. the nephew of Laurence. The charter is one of the moft

GLENCOE, a vale of Scotland, in the county of Ar- valuable and ancient in Ireland, as it prcferves the pofiefTions,

ir-le near Loch I.,even, where, in the year 1691, theinha- privileges, and immunitiej of the abbey. Previous to this,

bitants were maffacred contrary to the faith of a royal pro- Glendalough had alfo had a bifliop ; but, in 1152, Cardinal

climation • 1 7 miles N. of Inverary. Paparon endeavoured to unite it to the tee of Dublin. This

GLENDAl^OETGH, Glandelough, or Glendalloch, was refilled, and, in 1179, pope Alexander III. confirmed

commonly called the Sn'cn Churches, an interefling objeft to the city to its bilhop, laving the rights of the abbot. A

travellers in the county of Wicklow, Ireland, 22 miles S. letter, written in i 214, is quoted by Ledwich, to fliew that

from Dublin, and about feven or eight miles well from GLnidalongh was at that time become a nell of thieves and

Rathdrum. Its name is derived, according to Mr. Ledwich, robbers. In the reign of king John, the fee was united to

from its beinn- fituated in a valley with lakes, from gkii, a that of Dublin ; but the feft of the O'Tooles, who were very

valley and locf}, a lake. That this was the true origin of powerful, kept it, in fome degree, independent until 1497,

the name feems to be confirmed by Hovedcn, who was when the bilhop formally fnrrendered his right and claim in

chaplain to Henry II., and who calls it equivalcntly in t!ic Chapter-lioufe of St. Patrick, Dublin. The Seven

Latin Epifcopatus Billagnenfis, the bilhopric of the two Churches, when approached by the bridge of Derrybawn,

lakes. Glendalough is furrounded on all fides, except to the form a very plfturelquc and plealiiig Icene. The bridge is

eail by ftupendous mountains, whofe vatl perpendicular thrown over the Avonmore, and is compofed of three ellip-

hcight throws a gloom on the vale below, well fuited to tic arches. Derrybawn, covered to a great extent with an

infpire religious dread. From thefe, many mountain- oak coppice on one fide, and the huge broccagh on the

6 othci>

G L I

other, confines tlie view up the river to the valley ; at the
end of wliich tlie great round towc-r, and the otjier ruins,
appear to great advantage. As tlic new military road has
made Glendalough ealily acccfllble, it is frequently vifited
by travellers. Ledwich's Antiquities.

GL.ENE, yxnn, properly fignifies the cavity or focket
of the eye.

Glen'E is more frequently ufed by anatomifts for the flial-
lower caN-ities of bones, into which fome other bone is
received and articulated.

By which it Hands diftinguiflied from cotyk or acetabulum,
which is a deeper cavity, intended by nature for the like
purpofe.

GLENEGAD Head, in Geos,raphy, a cape of Ireland,
in the peninfula of Inis Lowen, county of Donegal. W.
long. 7 41' from Greenwich, N. lat. ^^"^ 20'.

GLENGARRIFF, a harbour of Ireland, in the county
of Cork, on the north-eait part of Bantry-bay. The ar-
butus grows in this neighbourhood in great perfection.

GLENGARY, the name of a county in Upper Canada,
bouEded on the E. by the line which feparates Upper from
Lower Canada ; on the S. by the river St. Lawrence ; and
on the W. by the townfliip of Cornwall, running N. 24^
W., until it interfetts the Ottawa or Grand river, thence
defcending the faid river till it meets the fore-mentioned
feparating line. Glengary county comprehends all the
iflands contiguous to it in the river St. Lawrence.

GLENICZA, a river of the duchy of Waifaw, which
runs into the Obra, near Koilen.

GLENKEN'.s Canal, is the parliamentary name of an
inland navigation, made lince the year 1802, in Kirkcud-
bright county in Scotland. See Cakal.

GLENLUCE, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Wigton, which fprang from an abbey of Cilicrtiaiis,
founded in 1190, called " Vallis Lucis.'' It is fituated at
the northern ^(.^^trenlity of a large bay to which it gives
name ; 18 miles W. of Wigton. N. lat. 54" 58'. W. long.
4° 27'. The bay extends on the S. coail of Scotland
from the Mull of Galloway to Burrowhead. N. lat. 54^
50'. W. long. 4 50'.

GLENMORE, a fmall ifland on the W. coall of Scot-
land, at the mouth of Loch Suart. N. lat. 56 38'.

GLENOID, m Anatomy, ixom y^r.-.r, the articular cavity
of a lone, and ul^;, form, a term applied to certain arti-
cular furfaces, particularly where the hollow is not deep.

GLERS, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Tyrol ; 21 miles W. of Bolzano.

GLESE, a river of Louiliana, which runs into the
Miihrippi, N. lat. 37= 15'. W. long. 90" 14'.

GLESUM, or GL.i:suM, in Natural HiJlor\', a name
given by many of the ancients to the common yellow amber
or fuccinum. The word fi;em.s to have been originally
German, and to have bicn adopted by the Romans in their
conqueils in that part of the world. They fcem to have
uled the word in genenJ for any tranipareiit fubttance,
and thence to havT; applied it to amber as a tranfparent
llone. See Gl-.v.s.?.

GLETCHERHORN, \n Geography. See .TrxopnAU.

GLIANY, a town of Poland, in Galicia ; 20 miles E.
flf Ltmbi-rg.

GLIESA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 2j
irJles VV . N. \\. of Tornea.

GLIGVI, a town of Alia, in Dagcftan ; 90 miles N.
of Tei'.is.

GLIKEON, a town of European Turkey, i:i the pro-
■■-ince ot Epire ; 26 miles W. of Arta.

CLIMS Holm, one of the fmall Orkney iUands, which

G L I

affords padures ; 2 miles S. of Pomona, between that and
Barray.

GLIMMER, or Cat-silver, m Mineralogy, accordingto
Dr. Woodward, " Method of Foffih," p 14, arc names for
Mica, wliich fee. Glift, fpangles, daze, and filvcr, are other
names by which the miners and quarrymcn dcfignate the
fhining plates of this fubftance v.hich they meet with dif-
pcrfcd in the earths and flones in their works. The late
Mr. \yilliam Martin obfcrvcs, " Outlines," p. 141, "Glim-
mer is frequently difpcrfed through the fand-ftones and
clay, forming vegetable petrifaftions, but never conRitutcS
their whole lubilance."' In Derby (hire, it is not uncommon
to find nodules, or round nefb or malTes of mica, in thin
and feparate plates, in the firft, or millftone grit, which
fall out on oipofure, and leave ;pherical holes, a circum-
Itance which has, according to Mr. Farcy, given rife to
rock-bafins or holes on the tops of large loofc blocks of
ftone wlu-re the water Hands in many inftanccs after rain,
but not perpetually, as the vulgar opinion is. See Rock-
Basin.s.

GLINA, in Geography, a river of Croatia, which runs
into the Save ; 12 miles W. of Patrinia.

GLINLOUGH, a lake of Ireland, in the northern
part of the county of Leitrim, from which a fmall river
(lows to Sligo bay.

GLINNINO, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Novogorod, on the Mlla ; 12 miles vS. E. of Borovitchi.

GLINSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Tchernigof, on the river Sula ; 80 miles S. E. of Tcher-
nigof.

GLINUS, in Botany, derives its name from -, >.;»^,- or
■>^?lvo , a word ufed by Theophrallus, and denoting a kind
of maple, though we cannot trace any fimilil^ide between
that tree and the little herbaceous plant, to which the name
was applied by Loefling ; but it was adopted by Linnius.
— Linn. Gen. 243. Schrcb. 328. Locfl. Iter. 145.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 929. Mart. Mill. Dicl. v. 2. La-
marck Did;, v. 2. 728. Gxrtn. t. 130. JulT. 316.— Clafs
and order, Dodecandria Per.tagynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllei,
Linn. Ficoid-it, JufT.

Gen.. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, acute,
concave leaves, coloured within, permanent, and downy.
Cor. none ; neftarics about five, rcfembliiig narrow petals,
fhorter than the calyx, and unequally two or three-cleft.
Slam. Filaments about fifteen, awl-(haped, flat, as long as
the calyx ; anthers incumbent, oblong, comprcfled, two-
lobcd. Pifl. Germen of five fides ; ftpes fivo, (hort ; ftig-
mas . fimplc. Peric. Capfiile ovate, with five cells, five
fides, and five valves. iVc.v.'j- numerous, roundifh, in a fingle
row at the bafe of the valves, tubi-Tcled, each attached by
a long thrc.id-hke llalk.

Eir. Ch. Calyx five-cloft. Corolla none. Nectaries
cloven brillles. Capfule five-cornered, five-celled, five-valvcd,
with many feeds.

I. G. lotoides. Linn. Sp. PI. 663. Burni. Ind. 112.
t. 36. f. I. " Stem hairy. Leaves obovatc.'" — Native of
Spain, and found b)- IvOefling in a gravelly foil near Tala-
vera del Dadajoz, alio in a dried-up rivulet between Mcrida
and TruMilU). Root annual. Stems procumbent, jointed,
hairy. Leaves obovate, on foot-t'.alks. Fhtcrrs nearly
fefiilc, crowded together, fomctimcs on very fiioii hairy*
Ihtlks. A figure ot this fpecies is dellincd to appear in
the Flora Grxca, t. 472, from a drawing made at Sinyrn.i,
and from which it appears that what Gxrlner confidercd a<
jx-tals, are more probably nectaries, as not being estcrnal to
the llamens ; after idl, ' they ought perhaps to be called
Y y 2 /w/r«

G L I

harrtn JUamtnts. They feeiti, frotti the JricJ IpeL-imcns, to
be ranged nlternately with the real (lamcns.

2. G. dlaammuks, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 929. Phik.
Amal. 10. t. 556. f. 6. — " Leaves round, hairy. Stem
ihrubby, proftrate. Leaflets of the calyx lanceolate." —
Native of India. It feems doubtful whether G. dichim-
tw'ulcs be not merely a variety of htoidej ; but as Willdenow
iVill keeps them feparate, on the authority of a dried fpe-
cimcn, we have retained the fpecies.

3. G. fitjorus. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 929. Vahl. Symh.
3.64. — " Leaves cbovate, plaited. Stem ihrubby. I^eaf-
Icts of the calyx ovate." — Native of inundated woods in
Arabia Fehx during the rainy feafon. The v.hcle plant is
hoary, from very thick hairs, which are longer than in
G. lotoidcs This fpecies was fir!l defcribed by Vahl, from
Forn<al's fpecimen which we have examined. The pubef-
cence is beautifully Ikllated and very denle.

Glinu.s, in Ichthyolo;yy, a name by which Bellonius and
fome other authors have called a fmall fea-filh, more com-
monly known by the name of the dracunculus.

GLIS. In the common acceptation of the word, this
only fignifies the dormoufe : but Linnaeus has ufed gUrcs
in a larger fenfe : and, in his Syftem of Zoology, makes
it the name of the fourth order of the mammalia clafs of
animals. The charafters of the creatures of this clafs are,
that they have only tv,-o fore -teeth in each jaw ; they have
no clentes caiiini, or dog-teeth; and the feet have toes, and
arc formed for leaping when they run. The animals of this
clafs are the feveral fpecies of the HvJInx, Cavia, Ciijlor,
Mils, j4rdomys, Sc-iiinis, Myoxiis, D'tpiis, I.cpiis, and Hyrax ;
which fee reipeftively.

Gli.«, a name given to feveral fpcei-.'S of ATyoxus ; of
D'Mphis ; of Mus ; and of Ardomys ; which fee refpeci-
ively.

Glis Volans. See Ve.'^pf.rtilo Spiiftr.a.
GLISCHROMICTHES, in Natural Bllcry, ihe mme
of a genus of compound earths. The word !s derived from
■j>.i7x;r,., touch, and p.i;c5rij, tiiixi-<l. The bodies of this genus
are loams compofcd of fand and a n-.ore v.'eid clay, and
are of a tough and firm texture.

The earths o.' this genus are ufed in making bricks,
aud on fome other occaiions ; and are of feveral dillinct
fpecies.

GLISSA, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-fi{li of the
tunny kind, but of a perfectly fm-octh fkin, and wholly free
from fcales. It ufually grows to the length of two cubits,
and the thickncfs of a man's body : it is of a very round
body, and has very rough jaws, hut no diCiinct teeth ; its
tail 13 forked, but not fo arched or Imiated as that of the
tunny ; it lives in deep water, and is a hlh of very delicate
'taite. Geiner. De Pifc. p. 1158.

GLISSON, Fr.vxcls, in Biography, was born at
Rampilham, in Dorfetihirc, in the year 1597, and educated
at Caius college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow,
and in 1627 v.-as incorporated MA. in Oxford. He then
applied himfeifto the (tudyof phylic, in wliich faculty he
took his degree of doftor at Cambridge, and in that univcrfity
was made regius profelTor of phyfic, which office he held
aboui" 40 years. He fettled in London for the praftice of
his profeSion, and was admitted a fellow of th.e College of
Phyficlans in 1635. la 1639 he was chofen reader ot ana-
tomy in the college, and in that department acquired great
reputation by his ledtures " De Morbis Partium," which
he was particularly requeued by his colleagues to make
public. During tlie civil wars he retired to Colchelter,
where he practifed with great credit in tliofe times of confu-
f^oiij and was in the town at its memorable fiege by the par-

4

G L O

liamcntary forces in 1648. He was one of that fmaU, but
illuftrious fociety, who inltituted a weekly meeting in Lon-
don about the year 1645, for the purpofe of promoting
inquiries into natural and experimental philofophy, which,
after havinj>- removed to Oxford during tiie troubles, was
augmented in London after the reiloration, and became
ultiniatclv the Royal Society. He was afterwards feveral
years preiident of the College of Phyficians, and died in 1677,
in the parilh of St. Bride's, London, aged So. Gliffon left
the following works: i. " Ti-a6tatus de Rachitide, feu
morbo puerili Rickets difto," firft publifhed in 1650 ; it
went tlu'ough feveral editions abroad, and two tranllations
into Englidi the year after its publication, by Philip Armin,
and Nicholas Culpepper. 2. "Anatome Hepatis, &c."
London, 1654; afterwards reprinted at Amfterdam and the
Hague. This work contains a much more cxatl defcription
of the liver than had before appeared. The capfule of the
vena portarum was fuppofed to be firll dlfeovered by him, and
lias ever iince borne liis name ; but Walfcus and Pecquet had
fcen it a fliort time before, and he has only the merit of
having firll examined and defcribed it with accuracy. Dr.
Gliffon's largeft work is a metaphyfical piece, •v'rz,
3. " Traclatus de Natura Subftantia- tnergetica, feu de
Vita Nature, ejufque tribus primis Facukatibus," Lond.
1672, in 4to., a profoimd and laborious performance, in the
very depths of the Arillotelic philofophy, with all its nu-
merous diviHons, and an extraordinary effort of the under-
ilanding in a man of an advanced age. — 4. His latl
publication, " Traifatus de Ventriculo et Inteflinis, cui
prremittilur alius de partibus continentibus in gcnere,
et in fpccie, de iis Abdominis," Lond. 1676, 4to., Amfl.
1677, i2mo, contains every thing at that time known
concerning the alimentary canal, arranged in a clear manner,
witli various new oblervations. In a word, Gliflon was ex-
ceeded in judgment and accuracy by none of that group of
Engliih anatomills, who followed the fteps of Harvey with
great ardour and iuccefs ; infomuch that Boerhaave terms
him " omnium anatomicorum exattiliiniMS,'' and Haller
fpeaks in praife of all his writings. Aikin Biog. Mem. of
Med. E!oy. Did. Hill.

GLISTER. See Clystku.

GLITNESS, in Geographv, one of tl;e fmallcr Shetland
i/lands, on the E. coall of Shetland; 11 miles N. of Ler-
wick. N. lat. 60' 22'. W. long. I- 16'.
, GLIUBEN, a town of European Turkey, in Dalma-
tia; 18 miles S.E. of Mollar.

GLIZADE, in Fencing, is an operation perform.ed by
dextroufly making your blade flip along that of your adver-
fary by a movement of the wrill, and a quick forward ex-
tenlion of the arm, witliout deviating from the line of direc-
tion. This is a iimple, and at the fame time a maflerly
movem.ent in fencing.

C-LOBBA, in Botany, a Malay name adopted by Rum- '
phius and Linnaeus, under which, however, lliey have in-
ci.:ded a very heterogeneous alfemblage of fpecies. AVe fliall
fpeak only of fuch as agree in generic cliarafter «ith the
o.'iginrd one, fcen and defcribed by Linnreus, and preferved
in his herbarium. Linn. Mant. 2. 143. Schreb. 25. Willd..
Sp. PI. V. I. 153. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. Rofcoe in Tr.df
I..ii>n. Soc. V. 8. 355. t. 20. f. 13. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
V. I. 9. Juii. 63. Lamarck Di<5l. v. 2. 729. — Clafs and order,
Monaiidria Mcnogyma. Nat. Ord. Siilaminee, Linn. Cannt,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
permanent ; its border three-lobed. Cor. of one petal ; tube-
l-);'.g, C)lindrical, flender; outer limb in three, nearly equal,
ovate, fpreading lobcc; inner of yvo fimilar lobes, and a

central,

G L O

jtitral, vertical, prominent lip, cloven at eacli extremity.
5" ,ifn. F:hment one, promin.n':, long, linear, channjUeJ,
d ;;it_-d at its fummit; anth'r oblong-, of two dillincl paral-
le lobes, attached by its back to the dilated part of the
f.lam.-nt. Pifl. Germen inferior, rounditli; ftyle thread-
lliaped, the length of the filament and embraced by it;
ihjrma. obtufe. Perk. Capfule roundiih, of three cells and
thre.' valves. Seeds n\imerous.

Eff Ch. Anther in two parts. Filament elongated, in-
curved, bearing a lobed appendage. Style thread-lhapcd,
embraced by the anther. Corolla with three outer lobes and
three inner, the middlemoft vertical and cloven.

1. G. maranllna. Linn Mant. 2. 170 Sm. Exot. Bot.
V. 2 85 t. 103 (Colebrookia bulbifera; Donn Cant. 1.) —
Appendage of the lil.iment four-Iobed, divaricated, terminal.
Spike not taller than the leaves. Braclcas elliptical, broad,
longer than the calyx — Native of Bengal, from whence it
was fent by Dr. Roxburgli to the late lady Amelia Hume
in 1800. It flowers in the ftove in July and Auguft. Root
perennial, tuberous. Stems feveral, herbaceous, about two
feet higli, fimple, leafy. Leaves elliptical, acute, entire,
with one rib and numerous parallel firaple veins; fniooth
above; foft and finely downy beneath ; their fcotilalks long,
(lieathing, bearded at the top, which is extended upwards
into a pair of rounded auricles. Spike terminal, folitar)-, fim-
ple, creel, more or lefs lax, about as tall as the leaves, or
rather under that height. Bracleas alternate, fefiile, elliptical,
broad, concave, many-ribbed, fomewhat downy, minutely
dotted; the lower ones each bearing one ovate bulb; tiie
upper ones a clufter of {•tsexA f.o'-juers, each of wiiich is
accompanied by its own f.'.ialler braclea. TXvti'i Jhiucrs are
very traniient, (lender, orange-coloured, witii a deeper Ipot
in the centre of the lip.

2. G racsmcfa Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 115. t. 117. (Deo-
fara; of the inhabitants of Nepal.) — Appendage of the fila-
ment arrcw-fhaped, narrower than tlie anljier. Cluiler elon-
gated, cylindrical. Bracleas fliorter than the calyx, deci-
duous.— Gathered by Dr. F. Buchanan in the woods of
Upper Nepal, flowering in .lune. Habit of the lull, but
talLr, with larger more pointed leaves. The tnflorcjeaiee is
much more linking, and confifts of a long terminal rncemus
of numerous orange-coloured Jloirers, which are twice the
fize of the former, ar.d eiTentially diflinguifhed from that by
the arrow-fhaped form of tlie appendage to their filament,
which does not extend beyond the anther, c-ccept at its
rounded termination.

3. G tsirjicohr. Sm. Exot. Bot v. 2. ) 16. t, 117, a, I, c,
(Hura .Siamer.fium ; Koenig in Retz. Obi. fafc. 3. 49 ) —
Appendage of the filament four-lobed, divaricated. Chiller
fomewliat corymbofe. Bratieas fhorter than the calyx. Lip
towards the middle of the filament — Found by Koenig plen-
tifullv in graiTy (hady parts of the ifiand called Young Cey-
lon, in the Eaii Indies. The ehifler of flowers is fhorter and
more corymbofe tl-.an in G. racemofa, and the corolla is vane-
gated with orange, white, and different fliades of violet.
The appendage of the filamient nearly refembles that of G.
niarantina, but the fituation of the lip, thrull, as it were,
half way up the filament, above the other lobes of the corolla,
is altogether peculiar. For this, however, we depend on a
drawing made by Mr. Sidney Parkinfon, and communicated
by fir Jofeph Banks, of the accuracy of which we have no
reafon to doubt. Kcenig mentions a more dwarf variety,
found near the town of Malacca. Cm this be what has
lately been introduced into the ttoves about London by Dr.
Roxburgh, and which we have feen and exair.ined at fir
Abraham Hume's, and at Mefirs. Lee and Kennedy's, flow-
ering in June 1810L It is figured in Curtis's Magazine,

G L O

t. 1320, where Dr. Sims has, we think, juftlv made thii
pretty plant a new genus, by the name of Man'lf a fallal -.ria.
It differs from Globba in having a radical, not tenninal, in-
florefcence, which, as far as wc know, is an infallible indi-
cation of a generic difference in this natural order, and there-
fore the flower affords, as was neceffarily to be expected
clear effential characters of diltinftion, in tlie two Ion"-
linear appendages to the lower part of the filament, which
fupply the place of two of the inner fegments of the cjrolla,
while the lip, which makes the third, is not bifid at its
upper extremity. The large purple brafiecs, and the branch-
eA fl'/ivcr-JIalk, are alfo remarkable. S.

GLOBE, in Geometry, a round or fphcrical body, morf
uf.ially called 7s,fphere; v.hicli fee.

The earth and water together arc fuppofed to form a
globe; hence called the terraqueous globe.

The planets, both primary and fecondai y, are fuppofcd,
as well as our earth, to be folid globes.

The earth is, in a particular fenfe, called the globe, or
globe of earth ; though it is now well known that this is
not its true figure. Sec Figure of the Earth.

Globe, Refjlance of a. Sec Resist.wci;.

Globe is more particularly nfed for an artificial fplicre of
metal, plafter, paper, or fome other matter; on whofe
convex furfacc is drawn a map, or reprefentation, either of
the earth or heavens, with the feveral circles conceived
tiiereon.

Globes are of two kinds, terrejlrinl and cehfih! : each of
very confiderablc ufe, the one in ailronomy, aad the other
in geography, to perform many of the operations thereof in
an ea.fy, fer.fible manner, fo as to be conceived without any
knowledge of the mathematical grounds of thofe arts.

Th.e fundameiital parts, comni<m to both globes, are an
axis, reprefenting that of the world, and a fphcrical fhell or
cover, which makes the body of the globe, on whofe exter-
nal furface the reprefentation is drawn.

Globes, we have obfervcd, are made of divers materials,
I'iz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, &c. Thofe commonly
ufed are of plafter and paper; the conftruclion whereof is
as follows.

Globes, Conflru^kn of. A wooden axis is provided,
fomewhat lefs than the intended diameter of the globe ; and
into the extremes hereof two ir»n wires are driven for poles:
this axis is to be the beam or bafis of the whole itrudlurc.

On the axis are applied two fpherica', or rather hemi-fplie-
rical caps, formed on a ki;;d of wooden mould or block.
Thefe caps confift or pallcboard and paper, laid, one lay
after another, on the mould, to the llucknefs of a crown
piece- ; after which, having ilood to dry and embody, mak-
ing an inciilon along the middle, the two caps, thus parted,
ai"e flipped off the mould.

They remain now to 1ie applied on the poles of the axis,
as before they were on thofe of the mould ; and to fix them
in their new place, the two edges are fown together «ith
packthread, &c.

The rudiments of the globe thus laid, they proceed to
ftrengthen and make it fmooth .and regular. In order to
this, the two poles aiv halped in a me!;.lli:ie femi-circlc of
the fize intended; and a kind of plafter, made of whiting,
water, and glue, heated, melted, and incorporated trgc-
ther, is daubed ;J1 over the paper furface. In proportion as
the plafter is applied, the ball is t:irned rcund in tlie fenv-
circle, the edge whereof pares off whatever is fupcrfluoiis,
and beyond the due dimenfion, leaving the rcll adhering iu
places that are ftiort of it.

After fuch application of plafter, tke ball (lands to dr)- ;
wliich done, it is put again in the femi-eircle, artd frrfti

matter

GLOBE.

matter applied: thus they continue alternately to apply the
compolitioii, and dry it, till fuch time as the bali every-
where accuratL-ly touches the fcmi-circle ; in wliich ilatc it is
perfeftly fmooth, regular, firm, Sec.

Tlie ball thus finifhed, it remains to pafte the map or de-
fcription thereon : in order to this, the map is projected in
feveral gores or gufTets, all wliich join accurately on the
fpherical furface, and together cover the whole ball. To
dirett the application of thefe gores, lines arc drawn by a
femi-circle on tlie furface of the ball, dividing it into a num-
ber of equal parts correfponding to thofe of the gores, and
fubdividing thofe again anfwerably to the Unes and divillons
of the gores.

The papers thus pafted on, there remains nothing but to
colour and illuminate the globe, and to varnilh it, the bet-
ter to refill dull, moiilure, &c.

The globe ,itfe!f thus finiflied, they hang it in a brafs
meridian, with an hour circle and quadrant of altitude, and
thus fit it into a wooden horizon.

Globes, Defcript'wn of the. The things common to both
globes are cither delineated on the furface, or added at. ap-
pendages without it.

Without the furface are, i. The two poles whereon the
globe is turned, reprefenting thofe of the world. (See
Pole.) 2. The brazen meridian, which is divided into de-
grees, and pafFes through the poles. 3. The wooden hori-
zon, whofe upper fide reprefents the horizon, and is divided
into feveral circles ; the innermoft whereof contains the
twelve figns of the zodiac, fiibdivided into their degrees ;
the next the Julian ; and the third the Gregorian calendar ;
without fide of all thefe, are drawn the points of the winds.
4. A brafs "quadrant of altitude, divided into 90 degrees, to
be fattened on the meridian at the diilance of 90 degrees from
the horizon. 5. The hour-circles, divided into twice twelve
hours, and fitted on the meridian, round the poles, which
carry an index pointing to the hour. A mariner's compafs
is fometimes added on the bottom of the frame, and fome-
times a femi-circle of pofition.

On the furface are delineated, i. The cquinoftial line,
divided into 360 degrees, commencing from the vernal in-
terfeClions. 2. The echptic, divided into twelve figns, and
thefe fubdivided into degrees. 3. The zodiac. 4. The
two tropics. And, 5. The polar circles. All which fee
under their proper articles.

What elfe belongs to globes, cither as to conftruclion or
defcription, is different as the globe is either celejlial or ter-
reftr'ujl-

Our common globes, though inftruftive inflruments for
explaining the firft rudiments of geography and the fpherical
doctrine of aftrononiy, yet labour under feveral defects ; as
they do not ihcw how the phenomena, illuftrated by tliem,
arife f»om the motion of the earth, which is the principal
thing beginners efpecially fnould have in view, and as they
are only formed for the prefent age, and do not ferve the
purpofes of chronology and liillory, which they might be
made to do, if the poles, whereon they turn, were contrived
to move in a circle round thofe of the ecliptic, according to
its prefent obliquity.

Mr. John Senex, F.R.S. invented a contrivance for reme-
dying thefe defefts, by fixing the poles of the diurnal motion
to two ihoulders or arm.s of brafs, at the diilance of 33°;:
from the poles of the ecliptic. Thefe (lunilders are ftrongly
faltened at the other end to an iron axis, which pa,Tes through
tlie poles uf tlie ecliptic, and is made to move round with a
very lliff motion ; fu tiiat when it is adjutted to any point of
jhe ecliptic, which the equ.:tor is made to interftd, the
diurnal motpo of Uie globe on its axis will not be able to

difturb it. When it is to be adjufted for any time, paft or
future, one of the brazen fiionlders is brought under the me-
ridian, and held fall to it with one hand, whilft the globe is
turned about with the other, fo that the point of the echp-
tic, which the equator is to interfeft, may pafs under o de-
gree of the brazen meridian : then holding a pencil to that
point, and turning the globe about, it will defcribe the equa-
tor according to itspolition at the time required ; and tranf-
ferring the pencil to 23 ', and 66 \ on tlie brazen meiihan,
the tropics and polar circles will be fo defcribed for the fame
time. By this contrivance, the ccleftial globe may be fo
adjuflcd, as to exhibit not only the rifings and fettingsof the
ftars, in all ages and in all latitudes, but llkevvife the other
phenomena thai depend upon the motion of the diurnal axis
round the annual axis. Senex's celellial globes, efpecially
the two greatell, of feventeen and twenty-eight inches in
diameter, have been conftrudled on this principle : fo that by
means of a nnt and fcrcw, the pole of the equator is made
to revolve about the pole of the ecliptic. Phil. Tranf. N°
447, p. 201. 203. or Marty n's Abr. vol. viii. p. 217. and N'^
493, art. 18 in Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 290.

Mr. Jofeph Harris, late affay-maller of the mint, contrived
to remedy the former of the defects above-mentioned, by
placing two horary circles under the meridian, one at each
pole ; thefe circles are fixed tight between tv>'o brafs collars
placed about the axis, fo that when the globe is turned,
they are carried round with it, the meridian Icrving as an
index to cut the liorary divifions. The globe, in this ilatc,
ferves readily for folving problems in north and fouth lati-
tudes, and alfo in places near the equator ; whereas, in tlie
common conftruttion, the axis and horary circle prevent the
brafs meridian from being moveable quite roiuid in the hori-
zon. This globe is alfo adapted for (hev.ing liow the vicifTi-
tudes of day and night, and the alteration of their lengths,
are really oecafiuned by the motion of the earth ; for this
purpofe, he divides the brafs meridian, atone of the poles,
into moiiths and days, according to the fun's declination,
reckoning from the pole. Therefore, by bringing the day
of the month to the horizon, and rectifying the globe accord-
ing to the time of the day, the horizon will reprefent the
circle feparating light and darknefs, and the upper half of the
globe the illuminated hemifphere, the fun being in the ze-
nith.

Mr. Harris alfo gives an account of a cheap machine for
(hewing how the annual motion of the earth in its orbit caufes
the change of the fun's declination, without the great ex-
pence of an orrery. Phil. Trani N 456, p. 321, &c. or
Martyn's Abr. vol. viii. p. 352.

The late Mr. George Adams, mathematical inftrumcnt
maker to his majefty, has made iome ufeful improvements
in the conftruction of the globes. His globes, like others,
are fufpended at their poles in a ftrong brafs circle, and turn
therein upon two iron pins, .whicli are the axis. They have
befides a thin brafs femi-circle, moveable about ttie
poles, with a fmall, thin, Aiding circle upon it. On
the terrellrial globe, the thin brafs ferai-circle is a move-
able meridian, and its fmall fiiding circle the viuble horizon
of any particular place to which it is fet. On the cehilial
globe, the femi-circle is a moveable circle of declination, and
its fmal! annexed circle an artificial fun or ph.aet. Each
globe hath a brafs wire circle, placed at the limits of tlie twi-
light, which, together v;ith the globe, is fet in a wooden
frame, fupported by a neat pillar and claw, with a mag-
netic needle at its bafe. On the terreilrial globe the diviiion
of the earth into land and water is laid down from the lateft
difcovcries ; there are ,.!lo many additional circler., as well as
the rhumb-lines, for folving all the neceflary geographical anti

nautical

GLOBE.

nautical problems. On the celeftial globe, all the foutliern
cotiilellations, lately obferved at the Cape of Good Hope
by M. de la Caille, and all the ftars in Mr. Flamltted's
Britilh Catalogue, are accurately laid down ajid marked with
Greek and Roman letters of reference, in imitation of Bayer.
Upon each fide of the ecliptic are drawn eight parallel
circles, at the diltancc of one degree from each other, includ-
ing the zodiac ; and thefe are crofTed at right angles with
fegments of great circles at every fifth degree of the eclip-
tic, for the more readily noting tlie place of the moon, or of
any planet upon the globe. The author has a!fo infertcd,
from Ulngh Beigh, printed at Oxford in'i665, ^'"^ manfions
of t'p.e iVIoon of the Arabian Aftronomers, fu called, be-
caufe they obferved the moon to be in or near one of thefe
every night during her monthly courfe round the eartli, to
each of which the Arabian characlers are fixed. On the
ftrong brai's circle of the terreftrial globe, and about 23^n
on each fide of the north pole, the days of each month are
laid down according to the fun's declination ; and this brafs
circle is fo contrived, that the globe may be placed with the
north and fouth poles in the plane of the horizon, and with
the fouth pole elevated above it. The equator, 0:1 t!ie fur-
face of either globe, ierves the purpofe of the horary circle,
by means of a femi-circular wire placed in tlie plane of the
equator, carrying tv.-o indices, one of which is occafionally
to be ufed to point out the time. For a fartlier account of
thefe globes, with the method of ufing them, the reader
may confult Adams's Treatife on their ConllruiSion and Ufe,
&c. 1769.

Globe, Celejlial, is an artificial fphere, on whofe convex
furface the fixed ftars are laid down, at proportionable
diftances, together with the principal circles of the
fphere.

The furfaceof the celeftial globe may be efteemed a juft
reprefentaticn of the concave expanfe of the heavens, iiot-
withltanding its convexity ; for if the eye were placed in the
centre of it, and the globe made of glafs, the ilars that
are drawn upon it would appear in a concave furface, exaftly
correfponding to thofe in the heavens. The ufe of thefe
globes is to exhibit the phenomena of the motions of the
fun and ftars, in an eafy and obvious manner ; which, tliough
fomewhat inaccurate, is yet exafl enough for the common
ufes of life, and may favethe trouble of trigonometrical cal-
culations.

To exhibit the JIari, circles, isfc. on the furface of a given
fphere or ball, and fit for the ufes of ciflronomy. — I. AlTnme
any two points diametrically oppofite to each other, as P and
Q (Plate XIV. j}Jlronomy,fig. 1 17.) and in thefe fix up axes,
P A and Q C, tor the bail to turn round on. The points
P and Q, or A and C, will exhibit the poles of the
world.

2. Divide a brazen circle A B C D into four quadrants,
A E, E C, C F, and F D ; and fubdivide each quadrant
into go degrees, numbered from the points E and F, to-
wards the poles A and C.

3. Inclofe the globe in this circle, as in a meridian, at the
points A and C, fo as it may freely turn therein.

4. Apply a ftyle or pin to the furface of the globe, in the
firft degree of the meridian, and turn the ball round ; by
this means will a circle be defcribed on the furface, repre-
fenting the equator to be divided into degrees.

5 From the pole of the world P towards M, and from
the other pole C towards N, number 23^ degrees ; the
points M and N will be the poles of the ecliptic.

6. Apply a ftyle to the meridian, in the point M, and
turn the globe round ; by this rotation \vill the arii\ic polar

circle be acfcribed : and after the fame manner it the an-
tarftic polar to be defcribed about the point N.

7. Number 23J: deg. from the equator towards the poles
P and Q, and note the points H and I ; then applying a
ftyle to tiie meridian, as before, two circles will be defcribed
parallel to the equator, whereof that drawn tlirough H will
be the tropic of Cancer, and the other through I the tropic
ot Capricorn.

8. Flang the g'obe within the meridian, in the poles of
the ecliptic, as before in the poles of the world ; and ap-
plying a ftyle to E, turn it round: by this means will the
ecliptic be dehneated, which remains to be divided into
twelve iigns ; and each of thefe, again, di%ided into thirty
degrees.

9. AVhile the globe remains thus fufpended, bring the
degree of longitude of any ftar under the meridian ; and in
the meridian, number as many degrees towards the pole
as is the degree of latitude of the place : the point of in-
terfeClion is the place of that ftar on the furface of the
globe. After the like maimer may the place of the ftar be
determined from the right afcenfion and dechnation given,
the globe being fuppofed fufpended from the poles of \.\e
world, cr the equator.

10. All the ftars of a conftellation tluis laid down, the
figure of the conftellation is to be defigncd ; after which it
may either be coloured or engraven.

11. Place the globe with the meridian, in a wooden frame
or horizon, DEL, fupported on four feet, in fuch manner
as to be divided thereby into two hemilpheres, and that the
pole A may be raifed or deprcfTed at pleafure.

12. On tlie limb or edge of the hori/on dcfcribe a circle,
which divide into 360 degrees, and infert the calendars and
winds.

1 3. Laftly, To the pole A fit a brazen circle, divided
into twenty-four horary parts, and numbered twice twelve,
fo that the line of divifion of XII. may be in the plane of
the meridian, on either fide tlie pole ; and on the pole itfelf
apply an index, to turn round with the globe. See Horary
Circle. Thus is the globe complete.

It may be here obferved, that as the longitude of the
ftars is continually increafing, a common globe does not
remain of perpetual ufe : but the increafe in feventy-two
years only amounting to a degree, the whole will make
no confidcrable error in a hundred years ; the defign of
a globe being only to reprefent things fomcthing near the
truth.

Globe, to make a celejlial. This method is that the moft
frequently uied ; and we only premifed the former as being
the moft ealily conceived, and leading more naturally to
this.

1. From the given diameter of the globe, find a right
line A B, fg. llS. equal to the circumference of a great
circle, and divide it into twelve equal parts.

2. Through the feveral points of divifion, 1, 2, 3, 4,
S:c. with the interval of ten of them, deicribe arches, mu-
tually intcrfccting each other in I) and E : thefe figures or
pieces, duly pafted or joined together, will make the whole
furface of \\\i globe.

3. Divide each part of the right line A B into thirty
equal part.^, fo that the wliole line A B, reprefenting the
periphery of the equator, may be divided into 360 de-
grees.

4. From the poles D and E, _^^. 119. wiili the interval of
23.t deg. defcribe arches a, b ; thefe will be twelve parts of
tlie polar circles.

5. After the like manner, from the fame poles D and E,
with the interval of 66; deg. reckoned from the equator,

dcfcrilc

GLOBE.

dcfcribc srclics c, d; tliefe v.jll be twelfth parts of tlie
tropics.

6. Throiigli the degree of the equator e, corrcfpondiiig
to the right afcenfion of any given ftar, and the poles D
and E, draw an arch of the circle, and taking in the com-
pafTes the complement of the declination from the pole D,
diTcribe an arcli interfee\i]ig it in / ; this point i will be the
place of tlrat liar.

7. All the liars of a conftcllation being thus laid down,
the figure of the conllellatiou is to be drawn according to
T3aycr, Hevelius, or Flamfteed.

8. Lattly, after the fame manner are the declinations and
right afcenlions of each degree of the ecliptic d g to be de-
termined.

9. Tlic furface of the globe thus proje&ed on a plane is
to be engraven on copper, to fave the trouble of doing this
over again for each globe.

10. A ball, in the mean time, is to be prepared of paper,
plalter, fee. after the manner above dlretled, and of the
intended diameter of the globe : on this, by means of a
fcmi-circle and ilyle, is the equator to be drawn : and
through every gotli degree a meridian. Tlie ball thus di-
vided into twelve parts, correfponding to the fegments be-
fore projeiied, t'ley are to be cut from the printed paper,
and palled on the ball.

IT. Nothing now remains but to hang the globe, as be-
fore, in a brazen meridian and wooden liorizon ; to which
may be added a quadrant of altitude H I, fig. 120. made
of brafs, aud divided in the fame manner as the ecliptic and
equator.

If the declinations and right afcenfions of the ftars be not
given, but their longitudes and latitudes in lieu thereof, the
lurface of the globe is to be projeftcd after the fame man-
ner as before: except that, in this cafe, D and TLyJig. 121.
are the poles of the ecliptic, andyi the ecliptic itlelf ; and
•that the pol.ir circles and tropics, with the equator g d, and
the parallels thereof, are to be determined from their de-
clinations.

One of the fullelt catalogues of the ftars is that of Mr.
Flamlleed ; wherein the right afcenlions and declinations,
as well as the longitudes, latitudes, &c. are every where
cxprefled.

Globk, ufe of the cckjl'wl. Tlie ufe of this inftrument is
very cxtenfive ; there being fcarcely any thing in the fpherical
ailronomy but may be exhibited thereby.

The prmcipal points are contained in the following pro-
blems, with their folution ; which will let the reader enough
into the nature and rcafon of this noble inftrument, to apply
it, of his own accord, in any other cafes.

To find the right ofcmfion and decUiiat'ion cf afar, rejtre-
fented on the furface of the globe. — Bring the ftar to the gradu-
ated fide of the brazen meridian : then the number of de-
grees intercepted between the equator, and the point on the
meridian cut by the flar, gives its declination ; and the de-
gree of the equator which comes under the meridian, toge-
ther with the liar, is its right afcenfion.

To find the longitude and latitude of a flar. — Apply the
centre of the quadrant of altitude over the pole of the
ecliptic in the iame hemifpliere with the ftar, and bring
its graduated edge to the ftar : the degree on the quadrant
cut by the ftar is its latitude, reckoned from the ecliptic ;
and the degree of the ecliptic cut by the quadrant its lon-
gitude.

To find the fun s place in the ecliptic. — Seek the day of the
month in the proper calendar on the horizon, and againft
the day in the circle of figns is the fign and degree the fun
i s ill for that day ; this done, find the fame fign upon the

ecliptic, on the furface of the globe ; this is the fuu's place-
for that day.

'To find the declination of the fin. — The fun's place for the
day given being brought to the meridian, the degrees of
tlic meridian intercepted between the cquinodlial and that
place, are the fun's declination for that day at noon.

To fnd the place of a pdanct, ivith its right afccnf.on and
declination ; its longitude and latitude for the time Icing given. —
Apply the centre of the quadrar.t of altitude on the pole
of the ecliptic (the pole, we mean, of the fame denomina-
tion with the latitude), and bring it to I'ne given longitude
in theechptic : this point is the planet's place ; and bringing
it to the meridian, its right afcenfion and declinatio}i will be
found, as already fliewn of a ftar.

To reffify the globe, or adjufl it to the place, ijfc. fo as it
may r.pnfent the prefent fate or fitiiation of the heavens, —
! . If the place be in north latitude, raife the north pole
above the horizon ; if in fouth, raife the fonth pole ;
till the arch intercepted between the pole and horizon
be equal to the given elevation of the pole. 2. Fix the
quadrant of altitude on the zenith, i. e. on the latitude
of the place. 3. By means of a compafs or meridian
line, place the globe in fuch a manner as that the brazen
meridian may be in the plane of the terreftrial meridian.
4. Bring the degree of the ecliptic the fun is in to the me-
ridian, and fet the horary index to tu'elve ; thus will the
globe exhibit the face of tl;e heavens for the noon of that
day. 5. Turn the globe till the iiidex come to any other
given hour : thus will it fliew the face of the heavens for
that time.

To ino'zv all the flars and planets by means of the globe.—

1. Adjuft the globe to the ftate of the heavens for that
time. 2. Look on the globe for fome one ftar which you
know, e. gr. the middlemoft ftar in the tail of the Great
Bear. 3. Obferve the pofitions of the other more con-
fpicuous ftars in the fame conftellation ; and by tranf-
ferring the eye from the globe to the heavens, you will
cafily note the fame there. 4. After the fame manner may
you proceed from this to the neighbouring confteUations,
till you have learned them all.

If the planets be reprefented on the globe, after the man-
ner above defcribed, by comparing them with the neigh-
bouring ilars you will likewife know the planets.

To find the funs oblique afccrfiun, his eaflern amplitude, and
O'z.imutb, with the time of rifng. — i. Redtify the globe for
the hour of twelve, and bring the fun's place to the
eaflern fide of the horizon : then the number of degrees,
intercepted between that degree of the equator now come
to the horizon and the beffinning- of Aries, is the fun's
oblique afcenfion. 2. The degrees on the horizon, in-
tercepted between the eaft point thereof and the point
wherein the fun is, is the ortive or rifing amplitude.
3. The hour, pointed to by ths index, is the time of the
fun's rifing. 4. Turning the globe till the index points
to the prefent hour, lay the quadrant to the fun's place:
the degree cut by the quadrant, in the horizon, is the fun's
azimuth.

To find the fun's oblique defcenfion, "jieflern amplitude, and
azimuth, ivith the time of flting. — The folution of tliis
problem is the fame as that of the former ; excepting
that the fun's place muft be here brought to the weftern
fide of the horizon, as in the former it was to the
eallern.

To fnd the length of day and night. — i. Find the time
of the fun's rifing, which being numbered from mid-
night, the double thereof gives tlie length of the night.

2. Subtradl the length of the night from the whale day, cr

twenty-

GLOBE.

twenty-four hours, and the remainder is the length of tlie
day.

To Jind the r'ljmg, fitting and culminating of a Jlar ; its
continuance above the horizon for any place and day ; toge-
ther ivith its oblique afcenjion and defcenjion, and its eajlern
and wejlern amplitude and azimuth. — i. Adjufl the globe
lo the ftate of the heavens at twelve o'clock that day.

2. Bring the ftar to the caflern fide of the horizon :
thus will the weftern amplitude and azimuth, and time
of riling, be found, as already taught of the fun.

3. Bring the fame ftar to the weftern fide of the hori-
zon : thus will the weftern amplitude and azimuth, and
the time of fetting, be found. 4. The time of rifing,
fubtraftcd from that of fetting, leaves the continuance
■of the ftar above the horizon. 5. This continuance
above the horizon, fubtradled from twenty-four hours,
leaves the time of its continuance below the horizon.
6. Laftly, the hour to which the index points, when tlie
ftar is brought to the meridian, gives the time of its cul-
mination.

To find the altitude of the fun, or flar, for any given hour
of the day or night. — I. Adjuft the globe to the pofttion
of the heavens, and turn it till the index point at the
given hour. 2. Fix on the quadrant of altitude, at
90 degrees from the horizon, and bring it to the fun's or
liar's place ; the degrees of the quadrant, intercepted
between the horizon and the fun or ftar, is the altitude
required.

The altitud; of the fun by day, or of a Jlar by night, being
given, to find the time of that day or night. — I. Reftify the
globe as in the preceding problem. 2. Turn the globe
and quadrant, till fuch time as the ftar, or degree of the
ecliptic the fun is in, cut the quadrant in the given de-
gree of altitude ; then does the index point at the hour
fought.

The azimuth ofti'e fun or a Jlar given, to find the time of
the day or night. — Reftify the globe, and bring the quad-
rant to the given azimuth in the horizon ; turn the globe,
till the ftar come to the fame : then will the index (liew
the time.

To Jind the interval of time between the rifmgs of tivo flars,
or the culminations. — I. Raife the pole of the globe fo
many degrees above the horizon, as is the elevation of
the pole of the place. 2. Bring the iirft ftar to the ho-
rizon, and obferve the time the index points to. 3. The
fame do by the other ftar : then fubtrafting the former
time from the latter, the remainder is the interval between
the rifmgs.

After the like manner is the interval between two cul-
minations found, by bringing both ftars to the meridian.

The day of the month being given, to Jind luhen any Jlar audi
come to the meridian. — Reftify for the fun'r. place ; turn the
globe till the given liar comes to the meridian ; then the
index will point to the time fought.

To Jind when any given Jlar will come to the meridian, at any
given hour oj the night. — Bring the given liar to the me-
ridian ; fet the index to twelve at noon ; then turn the
globe eaftward, till the index points to an hour as far
diftant in the forenoon from twelve as the given hour is
in the afternoon, obferve the degree of the ecliptic then at the
meridian, over-againft ^vhich degree, in the calendar, is the
day of the month, when the given ftar will be upon the
meridian at the given hour.

By obfervution of a flar upon the meridian, to find the hour

of the night Reftify for the latitude and the fun's place ;

bring the given ftar to the meridian, and the index will
ftew the hour of the night.

Vol. XVI,

To find the beginning and ending of the crepufculum or In:.
l'Sht~-i Rectify the globe, and fet the index to the
tweltth hour, the fun's place being in tlie mcridiaa.
2 Note the fun's place, and turn the globe weft ward, at
alfo the quadrant of altitude, till the point oppofitc the
fun's place cut the quadrant of altitude in the eighteenth
degree above the horizon : the index will then ftiew the time
when the twilight commences in the morning. 3. Taking
the point oppofile to the fun, bring it to the eallern hemi-
fphere, and turn it, till it meet with the quadrant of altitude
in the eighteenth d-gree : then will the index Ihew the tiror
when tlie twih'ght ends.

Given the fun's longitude and the obliquity of the ecripiic, la

Jind the fun's right afcenjion and declination Find the fun's

longitude or place on the ecliptic, and bring it to t.Sf
brazen meridian. Then the arc of the.-quator, between th-
iirft point of Aries and the brazen meridian, (hews the fuc's
right afccnfion ; and the arc of the brazen meridian between
the equator and the ecliptic (liews the declination.

Given the obliquity nj the ecliptic and the fun's declinaiion, la
Jind the fin's longitude and right afcenjion. — Mark the fun's
declination on the brazen meridian, and turn the globe till
the ecliptic comes under the figure ; then will the diftance
from the meridian to the firft point of Aries fhew the fun's
longitude on the ecliptic, and its right afcenfion on the
equator.

Given the obliquity oJ the ecliptic and the fun's right afcenjion.
required the fun's declination and hmgititde. — Bring the fun's
right afcenfion in the equator to the brazen meridian, then
will the intercepted arc of the ecliptic to Aries fliew the fun's
longitude ; and the arc of the meridian, that is between the
fun's right afcenfion and longitude, will fhew the declination.
To find on what day the fun begins tofli'ine conjlantly at any
g'lv'en place in either oJ the frigid zones, and how long he con-
tinues to Jhine without interm'iffion at the Jame place . — Subtraft
the latitude of the given place from 90 ', and find in what
two days of the year the fun's declination isexaftly equal to
the remainder, and of the fame kind as the latitude of the
place ; then on the firft of thofe days in the fpring quarter,
the fun ccafes to fet at the given place, and (hines withou^
intermiftion there till he arrives at another point of the
ecliptic, as many degrees on the otlitr fide of the fummer
folftice, when his declination is again equal to the comple-
ment of the latitude : the fpace of time between thofe two
days is the length or duration of the longcft day.

To Jind the latitude of thofe places in the north frigid zone,
where the fun begins to Jhine conjlantly on any day between tlie
vernal equinox and the fummer f-jl/lice, or in the fouth frigid zme
on any d.iy between the autumnal equinox and the winter foljlice.
— Find the fun's declination for the given day ; fubtraft it
from 90', and the remainder will be the latitude of thofe
places : where the fun begins to (hine conftantly the latitude
is of the fame kind as the fun's declination.

To determine under what latitude ttvo given fiars rife or fet at
the fame injiavt. — Bring one of t!ie ftars to tl;e horizon, and,
keeping it there, raife or deprefs the pole till the other is on
the horizon at the fame time, obferving whetlier this is
effl'tled on the ealt or weft pofition of the horizon ; then
the degree of tlie meridian, inttrfeCled by the horizon, will
be the latitude of the place required.

To Jin J at ri'hat place a given Jlar is vertical at any given hour
at London ; e. g. at what place will Capella be ifrtical
the 2d of M.irch at 10 o'clock afternoon, at London time.

N B. — This problem requires the afliftance of both the
terreftrial and celeftial globes.

1. Find, as above, tlie time of the meridian paflage of the
. Z-: ihu-:

GLOBE.

<Ui- : in tlie prcfcnt inftancc Capella pafTcs about 6 (.'clock

in the aflcrnooii. . ,. , , /- < A„rl-

2 Find under xvliat m.r.dian thoy reckon fi o clock

ts.hf'n it is 10 with ur, Nvh.ich will be four lunn-s to the

^^\l Obferve under this meridian the place ;vhofc latitude
i, equal to the declination of the liar, which, n, this example,
is nearly 46 : and this place, which is near Louiibiirg, m
North America, will be the place required.

To f.v/./.;.'n theph^mtna of thv kirvjl-moon by the globe, lee

Globe, Terrcjlrlil,h an artificial fphere, on whofe furface
arc delineated the principal places of the earth, m their pro-
per fituations, dillanees, &c together with their circles
imai^ined on the fr.rface of the tervellnal fphere. 1 he
ufe of the terrelh-ial globe, is to exhibit the fevera affcftions
and phenomena of the different places of the earth, depend-
in-T on magnitude, fee. in an cafy obvious mamier, without
the trouble of trigonometrical calculatuins. _

Globe, To .»,>•«.? ^ /.rr.y/^vW.-The contraction of a
terreftrial globe, whether ot metal, plalVer, paper, &c.. is
Ihe fame af that of a celellial. The fame circles are deli-
neated on both: and as for the places, «.. cities, towns,
&c. they are laid down from the longitudes and latitudes
^iven, as the Ihirs arc from their right afcenfions and dcclina-

""tlence all problenvs depending on the circles, may be
equally wrought on either globe; as the afcenfions, dcleen-
fions, amplitudes, a/.imuths, rifings, fcttings, altitudes, &c.
of the fun ; the lengths of day and night ; hours- of tlie
day and nigla v crepufcula, c;c. _ ,■ . .1

We {hall here, therefore, only give what is peciihar to the

teiTcftriiil ""lobe. , , . i t

Globe, Ufe of ihe UrreflnJ. To f.d //:. lo„^>tuds and
hlU„.le of any piece Mnnitcd en the ^A>f..-Bnng the place
to the graduated fide of the brafs meridian : the degree of
the mendian it cuts is the latitude required ', and the degiTC
<,f the equator, at the fame time under the meridian, is tlie
longitude required.

■he hn-Alude and hu'.ude pven, to frJ the plucv on the globe.
—Seek, "in the equator, tire given degree of longitude, and
brincr it to the meridian : then coimt from the etiuator on
the meridian the degrees of latitude -iven, towards this or
that pole, as the latitude is either north or louth : the point
under this is the place required

tlie hours remaining : thus will tlie place vequii'cd be und*r-
the point of the meridian before noted. 3. If the hour he
after noon, turn the globe in the fame manner towards the
well, till the index points at the given hour : thus, again^
will the place required be found under the point of the meri-
dian before noted.

Ill IJt-lUlL 1IV^L\-Vi.

If, at the fame time, yoj note all the places which are
under the fame half of the meridian with the place found, you
will have all the places to which the fun is tlien in the meri-
dian ; and the oppofite half of the meridian will fliew all the
places in which it is then mid-night.

tteeb 111 XNltl^U IL 1? IIIV II I111V»-11I^ !J W.

A place beiii;; giv^n in the torrid z,one, to Jisd the tiuo days ht
e year -wherein the fun is •vertical in the fame — i. Bring the

The hour bein^giv-n at anyplace, to fnd it'hat hour ,1 :s m
«„V other part "of the ..■«■/./.— Bring the given place to the
meridian, and fet the hour-index to the given hour ; then,
bv turning the globe, bring any place to the meridian, and
tlie index will point to the hour of that place.

To find the antteci, periicci, and antijyjdes of any place. —
I The o-lven place being brought to the meridian, count as
many degrees on the meridian from the equator tov/ards
the o'her pole : tiie point which is thus arrived at is the
place of the antocci. 2. Note the degree of the mendian
over the given place and its antccci, and turn the globe till
the opDoflte degree of the equator come under the meridian ;
cr" wh'ch amounts to the fame, till the index, which before
l^o'od at twelve, come to the other twelve : then will the
place, corrcfpoiiding to the former degree, be the periocci ;
and tiie latter, that of the antipodes.

'To find what pLice of ihe earth the fun u. verttca! to at any time
^ij'ilLli. liring the fun's place found in the ecliptic to
the m.eridian, and the index to the hour of ti<Vlve, noting
what point of the meridian corrcfponds thereto. 2. If the
.riven hoar be before noon, fubtraa it from twelve hours,
Snd turn tU^' glubi' towards the weft, till the index points at

111

irjc jcci, -^u^,^,,. ...^ J,.: .^ - fame — i. Bring the

given place to the meridian, and note the degree of the
meridian correfponding thereto.. 2. Turn the globe about,,
and note the two points of the ecliptic paffiug through that
degree. \. Find on what days the fun is in thefe point:'
of the ecliptic : for on thofc days he is verticaJ to the given
place.

To find ihofe places in the torrid •z.one to 'which the fun is ver-
tical on a ^iven day. — Bring the fun's place in the ecliptic to
the meridian ; then turning the globe round, note all the
places which pais through that point of tlie meridian : thofe
are the places required.

After the fame manner may be found what people are
afcii for any given day.

2'he day and hour at any place being given, to jiiid luhere the
fun is vertical at that hour. — Bring the fun's place to the
meridian^ and the degree over it is- the fini's declination at
that time ; then bring the given place to the meridian, and
fet the index to the given hour ;. turn the globe till the index
points to twelve at noon, and the ph.ce on the globe which
lies under the degree of the fun's decimation lias the fun then,
vertical.

yl place being given in the frigid -zone, to find the time 'when
the fun begins to appear abcve the Z'a/'iis,?, and ii'henit btgins to
df appear ; andalfo tke Lng.'h cf ihelongej} day or night in that ■
place. — Reftify for the latitude ;. bring tlie afceiiding j^art
of the elliptic, /. e. for latitudes north of the tropic of
Cancer the femicircle intercepted between Capricorn and
Cancer, to the fouth point tii the horizon j; obferve the
degree ef the ecliptic which cuts that point, and find when
the fun enters tltat degree,, and tliis wilLgivj the time when
the fun begins to appear in that latitude. Bring the de-
fcending part of the ecliptic to the fame point of the horizon,
and the calendar will {liiw when the fun leaves that latitude
and difajipears. Again, bring the afcending part of the
ecliptic to the north point of the horizon, aiid the degree, aS:
before, will lliew in the caUndar uhen the longell day be-
gins ; and by bringing the defcending part cf the ecliptic-
to the fame north point, we Oiall find, in the fame manner,
when the longeft day ends.

To find the latitude of the places 'wherein any given day is of
nn'i given length. — I. Bring the fun's place for the given day.
to tiie ecliptic, and !et tlie index to the hour t>f twelve.
2. Turn thu globe, till the index points at tlie hour of rifing or
fetting. 3. Raife, and dcprefs the pole till the fun's place ap-
pear in the eallern and weftern fide of the horizon : tlien will.
the pole be duly elevated, and, confcquently,. tlie. latitude -

To find the latitude of thofe places in the frigid acni iwhere
the fun does not fet for a given number of days. — I. Count fo -
many degrees from the next tropic, towards the equinoftial,
point, as there are units in half tlie number of the given
days ; becaufe the fun, in its proper motion, goes nearly,
a degree every day. 2. Bring tlie point of the cchptic,
thus found, to the meridian ; and ita diilance from the pole

w,ill

GLOBE.

wiH bo equal ta the elevation of the pole, or latitude of the
places required.

Any hour of the day or night being given, to Jliczu all thofe
places to which the fun r'lj'es and fets ; luhere it is noon or viid-

'light ; and where d'ly or night 1. Find wliat place tiic fun

is at that time vertical to, as already taught. 2. Let this
place be brought to the zenitli of the wooden liorizon,
:. e. elevate the pole as the latitude of that place requires ;
then will tlie places on the eaftern iide of the horizon be
tliofe the fun is fettiiig to ; and on the weftern fide, thofe
he rifes to : thofe under the upper feir.i-circle of the meridian
Ir.ive it noon ; and tliofe under the lower, midnight. Laftlj-,
to thole of tiie upper hemifphere it is day ; and to thofe in
the lower, night.

Hence, as in the middle of an ecli])fe, the moon is in tliat
degree of the cch;)t!c oppofite to the fun's place ; by the
prelent jjrobleni it may be (liewn what places of the earth
then fee the middle of the eclipfe, and wliat the beginning
or end in 2;.

To Jind luhat places of the earth a planet, e. gr. the moon, is
•vertical to any diij of the year. — I. Mark the planet's place
on the globe, as abuve taught. 2. Bring this place to tlie
meridian, and note the degree over it. 3. Turn the globe
round, and the places which pafs under the point are thofe
required.

The declination of a Jlar, or any other phenomenon, given, to
find -what parts of the earth the fame is vertical to. — Count as
many degrees in the meridian, from the equator towards
one pole, as are equiil to the given declination ; viz. towards
the north, if the declination be to the northward ; and
towards the fouth, if the declination be fouth. Then turn-
ing it round, the places that pafs through the extremity of
this arch in the meridian are the places required.

'To d. terniine the place of the earth where any Jlar, or other
telejlial phenomenon, will be vertical at a given hour 1. Ele-
vate the pole "acc(«'ding to the latitude of the place, from
v/hofe noon or midnight the hours are numbered. 2. Bring
the fun's place for that day to the meridian, and fet the
index at twelve o'clock. 3. Determine the place of the
ftar on the furface of the globe, and bring it to the meri-
dian ; the index will fliew the difference of time between the
impulfe of the fun and ilar to the meridian of the place :
note the point of the meridian over the place of the liar.
4 Find in what places of the earth it is then noon, and let
tlie index to twelve o'clock. 5. Turn the globe towards
the well, till the index has palled over the interval of time
between the culmination of the fun and liar. Then, under
the point of the meridian, before oblerved, will the place
required be found. And hence may always be found what
place a liar, or other phenomenon, riles or lets to at any given
time.

To place the globe in fuch manner, under any given latitude,
as that the fun Jhall illuminate all thofe regions ivhich hi afnially
illumines on earth. — I. Ileftify the globe, i.e. elevate the
pole according to the latitude of the places bring the place
to the meridian, and fet the globe north and fouth by the
compalTes ; thus, the globe having the fame fitualion «ith
regard to the fun as tlie earth has, that part ihereoi will be
illuminated which is illuminated on earth. Ilence alio the
globe being lituate in the fame manner, \\l,en the momi
Ihines, it will (hew what parts are then ilhiminaled by the
Jiioon.

And in the like maimer, we may find when the fun and
jnoon rife and fet at any given time.

To find the dijlaiue of two places on the gl'be. — Take the
^iven places in the conipalTes, and apply tl.eni to the equa-

tor : the degrees wliidi there fuLtcnd being reduced into
miles, leagues, or the like, give the diflances required.

rile fame may be done, and that more comniodioufly, by
laying the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude over
the two places, and noting the degree intercepted.

Jo ^nd how any one place bears from another. — Bring One
place to the meridian, and lay the quadrant of ahitudc
over the other, and it will fliew on the horizon the point of the
corapafs on which the hitter bears from the former.

Problems on the terreftrial globe may fometimes be ad-
vantageoufly iolved, by conlidering the liuri-zon as the circle
of illumination, and bringing the fun's place to llie zenith.

To find for any given day and hour thofe places where the fun
is then rifing or felting; thofe places where it is noon, and in par-
ticular that place wh re the fun is vertical ; thofe places thatha^e
morning or cv.ning twilight ; and thofe places where it •aas
midnight. — Find the fun's place in the echj>tic for the given
day, bring it to the brazen meridian, and mark its declina-
tion.

Klevate the (north or fouth) pole as many degrees abo\c
the horizon as arc equal to the fun's declination (north or
fouth). Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet tho
index to the given hour, then turn the globe on its axis, till
the index comes to the upper twelve, and fix the globe in
that portion. All theie places along the wcllern edge of
the horizon have the fun riling, thofe along the callerii edge
have the fun fetting : it is noon to the places under the
brazen meridian, and amongll thein the iun is vertical to
that place, which Hands under the degree of the lun's decli-
tion.

Thofe places that are within iS of the weftern femi-
circle of the horizon have ii;orning twilight, and thofe
within 18 of the ealhrn femi-circle have evening twilight :
and it is midnight at a'l thofe places under that part of the
brazen meridian which is below the horizon. In fliort, it
is day to all places aViove the horizon, and either twilight
or dark night to all thofe which arc below it.

The dav and hsur of a lunar eclipfe being giv n, lo f,nd ikofe
pfnceT where i! wil! bt vifiLlc. — Find the place where the fun
will he vertical when the eclipfe begins, and rettify the
globe, in refped to latitude, for the antipodes of that place.
Then bring the antipodes to the upper part of the brazen
meridian, and fix the globe in that pofition, and the begin-
ning of the eclipfe will be vifible to all places which- are
then above the horizon.

To find the proportion which the' land bean to tie fea. — For
this purpofe Dr. Long propofcs to take the papers of a
l.irge terreilriij globe, and after f^parating the land from
the fea with a pair of fiiil"ar>, to weigli them carefully ia
fealcs. This method fuppofes the globe to be cx.-.c-ly de-
lineated, and all the papers of equal thickr.efs. By an cx-
perif.ent on the papers of Mr. Senex's lewntecn inch glob?,-
he found that thofe comprehending the fen woi^heJ 549
grains, and the otliers only 124; whence he iniers, thai
almoll tliree-fourth parts of the furface of our earth between
the polar circles are covered with water, and that littlr
more than one-fourth is dry land. Dr. Long omitted
weighing the papers witliin the polar circles, becaule the
proportion which the land bears to the fea within them 1'?;
not afcertained. Long's Allron. vol. i. p. J 68. See Mag
niiiidc of the Earth.

Gl.on.'^, To conlh-u.1 a dial by the. See Dial.

The celellinl globu has been improved by Mr. Fergiifon :

in this globe, (P/j/fX\'. .dfironorr.y,Jig.lZ2.) anarchMKH,

of I'^h', is fixed on the north pole of the axis, above the

hour circle ; and at the end is fixed an ttprijjht pin HG,

7., r 7. Aaudin^

GLOBE.

ftandinn- direaiy over the north pole of tlie ecliptic, and horizon is moved in reAifying it for different latitudes. To
perpendicular to that part of the furface of the jrlobc. On the middle of the femi-circle is fixed a pin, which always
iln/nin are two moveable collets at D and H, to which

this pin are two moi
are annexed the quadrantal wires N and O, carrying two
little balls rcprcfenting the fun and mooi.. The collet D is
fixed to the circular plate F, on which are engraven the 29,;
davs of the moon's age, beginning under the wire N, which

keeps in the zenith of the horizon, and on this pin the qua-
drant of altitude q turns ; the lower end of which, in all
pofitions, touches the horizon as it is moved round the fame.
This quadrant is divided into 90 degrees from the horizen
to the zenithal pin on which it is turned, at 90. The great

wire as it turns round, car'Jies with it the plate F. Thefe flat circle or plate A B is the ecLptic, on the outer edge oF

wires are fixed or (lackened by the fcrew G, and the two which the i'lgns and degrees are laid down ; and every

little balls are made to rife and fet at the fame time and on fifth degree is drawn through the reil of the furface of

the fame point of tk- horizon, for the day to which t_bey this plate towards^ its centre.
are reftilied, as the fun and moon do in the heavens.

On this plate are feven
The grooves, to which feven httle balls are adjullcd by Aiding'

gxwu>. ... .ight ang
over S to ftand upright upon it : from this line, on the con-
vex edge, are drawn the t,\ degrees of the moon's latitude
on both fides of the ecliptic ; and when this piece is let up-

rately ftampt with the following charaftcrs : g', ^, $,0,
J, If, Ij . This plate or ecliptic is fupported by four
ftrono- wires, having the lower ends fixed into the pedeftal

risjht on the globe, its graduated edge reaches to the moon at C, D, and E, the tourth being hid by the globe. The
on the wire O, bv which means (he is eaiily adjuiled to her ecliptic is inclined 23^ degrees to the pedeftal, and is there-
latitude found by an epliemeris. The horizon of this globe fore properly inclined to the axis of the globe \\hich ftands.
is fupported by two femi-circular arches, becaufe pilh-.r? upright on the pcdellal

would' flop the progrefs of the balls, when they go below
the horizon in an oblique fphere. This globe is rectified by
elevating the pole to the latitude of the place, bringing the
fun's place in the ecliptic for the given day to the brazen me-
ridian, and fetting the hour-index to twelve at noon ; then,
fetting the fun direftly over his place in the meridian, and
the nwon over her place in the echptic, by fixing her wire

To retiify thh miuhine. — Set the Sun, and all the planetary
balls, to their geocentric places in the ecliptic for any given
time, by an ephemeris ; then fet the north point of the ho»
rizon to the latitude of your place on the brazen meridian,
and the quadrant of altitude to the fouth point of the ho-
rizon ; which done, turn the globe with its furniture till the
quadrant of altitude comes right againft the Sun, I'/'c. to his

under the number that exprefles her age for that day on the place in the echptic ; and keeping it there, fet the hour in.

plate F; and, laftlv, laying the curved edge of the pafte- dex to the XII. next the letter C.

boai-d S over the ecliptic below the moon, andadjufting the By this machine the following problems, as well as many

moon to her latitude over the graduated edge of the pafte- others, may be refolved.

board. Havino- thus reftified the globe, turn it round, and To Jiiul the amplitude, meridian alt'itiides, and times of rlfn^,

oblerve on what point of the horizon the fun and moon balls cidmiiiating, and fetting of the fun, moon, and planets. — Turn the

rife and fet ; for thefe agree with the points of the compafs globe round eaft ward, or according to the order of the figns ;

on which the fun and moon rife and fet in the heavens on the and as the eaftern edge of the horizon comes right againlt the

given day : and the hour-index fhews the times of their fun, moon, or any planet, the hour-index will ftiew the time

rifine and fetting, and alfo the time of the moon's paffing of its riling ; and the inner edge of the ecliptic will cut its

over the meridian. This globe is alfo contrived for exhibit- rifing amphtude in the horizon. Turn on, and as the quad-

J!i<T the phenomena of the harveft-moon, &c. Phil. Tranf. rant of altitude comes right againft the fun, moon, or pla-

vo ,g„_ gi-t. 21. in vol. xhv. p. 535, or Fergulon's Aftron. nets, the ecliptic cuts the meridian altitudes in the quadranti

201^ and the hour-index fhews the times of their coming to the

Globe Dial/im;. See Di.\li,ixc. meridian. Continue turaing, and as the weftern edge of

Globe.s P^/t;;/, are thofe with the improvements of Mr. the horizon comes right againft the fun, moon, or planets,

■Neale for which he obtained bis majcfty's letters patent; their fetting amplitudes are cut in the horizon by the ecliptic ;

bv means of which he folves feveral aftronomical problems, and the times of their fetting are fhewn by the index, on the

which do not admit of folution by the common globes. hour-circle.

GloBE Planetary, is a mr.chine contrived and defcribed To find the altitude and azimuth of the fua, moon, and planets,

■bv Mr. Fergufon ; in which T [Plate XV. Aflronomy, at any time of their being above the horizon. — Turn the globe

V 12'?') is a terreftrial globe fixed on its axis ftanding up- till the index comes to the given time in the hour-circle ; and •

rfo-ht on the pedeftal C D E, on which is an hour circle,
having its index fixed on the axis, which turns fomewhat
tightly in the pedeftal, fo that the globe may not be liable to
fhake ': to prevent which, tlie pedeftal is about two inches
thick and the axis goes quite through it, bearing on a
Ihoulder. The globe is hung in a graduated brazen meri-
dian, much in the ufual way ; and the thin plate N, N E,
E, is a moveable horizon |;raduated round the outer edge,

keep the globe fteady, and moving the quadi-ant of altitude
to each pkmet refpectively, the edge of the ecliptic will cut
the planet's mean altitude on the quadrant, and the cptadrant
will cut the planet's azimuth, or point of bearing on the ho-
rizon.

The fun^ s altitude being given at any time cither before or
aft.r noon, to find the hour of the day, and the variation of the .
compafs, in arty ino'uin latittuk. — With one hand hold the edge

for fhewin<^ the bearings and amphtudes of the lun, moon, of the quadrant right againft the fun ; and, with the other
and T)Iane?s. The brazen meridian is grooved round the hand, turn the globe weftward, if it be in the forenoon, or
outer edee • and in this groove is a (lender femi-circle of e.iftw.iid if it be in the afternoon, until the fun's place at
brafs the ends of which are fixed to the horizon in its north the inner edge of the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the fun's
atJid fouth poiats ; this femi-circk Hides in the groove as thq obferved altitude ; and then the liourindex will point out

7 *^?

G L O

tTie time cf the day, and the quadrant will cut the true azi-
■ aith, or bearing of the fun for that time: the difference
r tween which, and the bearing (liewn by the azimuth com-
pafs, Ihews the variation of t'le compafs in that place of the
earth. Fergufon's Aftron. p. 292, &c.
Globe Amamnth. See Gompiir.j:ka.
Globe Animalcule, in Natural Hi/lory, is a fingiJar, mi-
nute, aquatic animal, whofe form feems exaftlv globular,
without either head, tail, or fins. It moves in all dircftions,
either rolling like a bowl, or gliding along fn.oothly with
out turning itfelf at all. Its whole body is tranfparent, ex

Common receptacle oi-

G L O

enclofing the folitary, ovate feed}.
long, divided by fcales.

Elf. Ch. Common calyx imbricated; proper one tubular,
mfenor. Partial corollas with the upper lip cloven ; under
one three-cleft. Receptacle chaffy.

I. G.hngtfolia. Long-leaved ' Globularla. Willd. Sp.
V. I. 53(^; (Alypum five Herba terribilis ; Sloan. Jam,

I. 19. t. 5. f. 3.)— "Stem fhrubbv. Leaves linear.

PI

la:icoolate, entire. Hads of flower's axiliar)-." This

green-houfe fhrubisa native of Madeira, flowering in July

. J -., • , u, , r - r ^"dAuguft. The -^W of this plant i,^ hard and white,

oept where it is covered with circular black Ipots ; fome of with a very large ^/M, and an unequal light brown or erc-y

which have fix or feven, fome one, two, three, four or five, bark. Leaves growing very thick towards the ends of the

branches, /'/omr^ confilling of feveral fpherical heads, of a

and others none at all. Thefe Ipots arc probably the eggs
or young ones of the animal. The general appearance of blueifh colour
the body exhibited a kind of fliort moveable hairs or briiUes,
bv means of which it is conjeftured the motions of the ani-
mal may be performed. Baker's Microf. 1753, P- S^^'
&c.

Globe, Daify. See Globulai;i.\.

Globb Fijh, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome fpecies
of the oftracion are called. See Ostk.\cion".

Globe Flower, in Botany. See Sph.eraxtiius.

Globe Ranunculus . See Trollils.

Globe 77'//?Zf. See Ecinxops.

GLOBULAR Chart, a reprefentation of the furface, or

fome part of the furface, of the terraqueous globe upon a rica five G. frutefcens ; Pluk. Amalth"t. 58. f. 5.) " Stem

plane; wherein the parallels of latitude are circles nearly ''---'' t^ i- 1 1 , ., . .

concentric : the meridians, curves, bending towards the
poles ; and the rhumb-lines alfo curves.

The merits of this chart confiil in this, that the diftances
between places on the fame rhumb are all meafurcd 'by the
fame fcale of equal parts ; and the diftance of any two
places in the arch of a great cu-cle, is nearly reprefented in
this chart by a ftraight line. Hence land-maps, made ac-
cording' to this projeftion, would indifputably have
"reat advantages above thole made any other way. See
Map.

But for fea charts, and the ufe of navigation, it is yet
controverted, whether the globular chart be preferable to
Mercator's, where tl;e meridians, parallels, and particularly
the rhumb-lines, are all ftraight lines ; inafmuch as ftraight
lines are found mere eafy to draw and manage than cun-es,
efpeciallv fuch as rhumb-lines en the globular chart are.

This -projeftion is not new, though not much taken notice of fphere, hairy. — We are not acquainted with any figiu-e ot
till of late. It is mentioned by Ptolemy in his Geography ; this fpecies.

j'l'.'^/pappous, all over downy.

2. G. Alypum. Herb Terrible. LIeu. Sp. PI. 139.
(Alypum montis Ceti ; Ger. em.. 506.)— "Stem ihrubby.
I-eaves obovato-lanceolate, three-toothed or undivided.
Heads of flowers terminal." — A green-houfe fhrub, found
m various parts of the fouth of Europe, flowering from
Auguft to November. Root woody. Leaves alteruate,
fafciculated in the lower axillje, near an inch long, glaucous,
fome are undivided, others three-toothed. Flo'u.'crs blue or
purple. The whole plant is bitter, and purgative in a vio-
lent degree.

3. G. bifnagarica. Linn. Sp. PI. 139. (Scabiofa bifnaga-
a five G. frutefcens ; Pluk. Amalth. t. 58. f. 5.) " Stem

ihrubby. Radical-leaves wedge-lhaped, abrupt ; Item-leaves
lanceolate." — Native of the woods of Indi.i. Stem of many
ftraight, hard, leafy bratiches, each about five or fix inches
high. Flo'V.-trs in a blue terminal head.

4. G. -vulgaris. Blue Daify. Linn. Sp. PI. 139.
(Aphyllanthes anguillarx ; Camer. Hort. t. 7.) — "Stem
herbaceous. Radical-leaves three-toothed. Stem-leaves
lanceolate." — A hardy perennial, common in fome parts of
Europe, and flowering in May and June. Root woody».
Stfm a fpan high, terminated by a head of deep blue Jlvwers.
Willdenow mentions two varieties of this fpecies, oue with a
Itajlefs Jlcm, the other with white jlrj-wers .

5. G./puKfj. Linn. Sp. PI. 139 — " Radical-leaves ere.
nate-prickly ; rtem-leaves entire, pointed.'' — Native of Spain,
Albinus having gathered it in Granada. It flowers in Mav.
— Radical-leavss numerous, fnuU, ftitf and notched, each
notch ending in a prickle. Flowers compofir.g an oblon-^

zs alfo by Blundcville, in his Exercifcs. See Chart.

Globular Projeflion. See Projection.

Globular Sailing. See Great-circle S.^ilino.

GLOBULARIA, m Botany, \^-as fo called by Tourne-
fort, becaufe its flowers grow in the iliape of a little globe
or ball.— Linn. Gen, 47. Schreb. 63. \Villd. Sp. PI.
V. 1. 539. Ait. Hort. Kev.-. ed. 2. v. I. 222. Mart. Mill.
Di6t. V. 2. Larr.-.uck Diet. v. 2. 730. Illuftr. t. 56.
Tourn. t. 269. Ga;rtn. t. 44. Jufl 97. — Clafs and
order, Tetrar.ilria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn.
Lyfimachis, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca!. Common perianth imbricated, with equal
fcales, the length of the diik ; proper perianth of one leaf,
tubular, five-cleft, acute, permanent. Ccr General one
nearly equal ; proper one of ?. iingle petal, tubular at the
bafe ; limb in five fegments ; the upper lip very narrow,
cloveu, iTiorteft ; the lower ccnfifting of three larger, equ;d
fcgmcnts. Stam. Filaments four, fimple, as long as the

6. G. eorJifolia. Linn. Sp. PI. 139. Jacq. Auflr.
t. 245. — " Stem nearly naked. Leaves wedge-fhaped, witii
three points ; the middle one very fmall." -Native both of
hills and vales in Hungar)-, Auttria, and Switzerland,
flowering from April to July. Root creeping, each jouit
throwing out a cluiler of leaves, from t-he centre of which
Iprings a fmooth purplilh ^cni about four inches lojig, ter-
minated by a head of blue j^owers.

7. G. naru Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 542. — " Flower-llalks
naked, very fliort, leaves fpatulate, foinewhat ovate, en-
tire."--Found in tlve fouth of France, and on tiic Pyrer.ie.-,
where our dried fpecimen was gathered by Dr. Noehden.
— Root woody and very thick, bearing numerous tufts of
little haves, among which aril'e the ilvort, folitary dower-
ftalks. FLwers forming a terminal head. — It has never
been figured.

8 G. nac'icaulis. Linn. Sp. PI. 140. Jacq Amir,
t. 230. — " Stem naked, leaves entire lanceolate.'' — Native
proper corolla ; anthers diiUnct, incumbent. Fiji. Germea of mountainous and ftoiiy places in Auilria and Switzerland,
foperior, ovate; ftyle fimple, the length of the fhtmens ; flowering in July. — iJoj/ perennial, fibrous, creeping, throw-
ftiema obtufe. Peric. none ; proper calyx fhutting up and ing out numerous, tiiickilh, tii-m liavt., darker on the up-
per

G L O

per fide. Fhwir-Jlall about fix inches long, fn.ooili, ilri
ated, purplifli towards the top, bearing a roimdiHi heud o

G L O

hXxie floiL'crs- , .

9. G. on-.ntaHs. Linn. Sp. PI. i+o— " Stem nearly naked.
Heads of flowers alternat--, fefiile, leaves o\ate, fomcwh.^t
lanceolate, entire."— This fpecies is a native of Nato'.a.
—Root peicnnial. Leavcj numerous, oLovate, rumung down
into the foot-ttallis, acute, undivided, naked. 5/«» a foot
high, herbaceous, perfectly fimple. Leaves alternate, iinall,
lanceolate, remote. Heads ofjowers alternat-, feffile, from
fevento ten, at the fummit of'tlic llcm. — Linnseus d- fcribed
G. cnetita'is, having received it from M
no\vhere figured.

GlO!!UL.\ri.\, in Gan/etiin!;, contains plants of lli:; herba-
ceous, riowery, perennial kind ; of which the fpecies chieHy
.cultivated are the three-tooth-leaved globularia (G. aiy-
pum) ; and the common globularia or blue daify (G.
vulgaris) ; but others may be cafily raifed.

There are two varieties of the lad fort, one with a white
flower, and another that has a leaflefs Hem

cipality of Oppeln ; 19 miles S. of Oppeln. N. Lit. 50''
f 16'. E. long. ly'^ 48'.

GLOGNITZ, a town of Auftria ; 28 miles S. of
Vienna.

GLOKEN-SPEISSE, in Mineralogy, a term ufed by the
Germans to c.xprcfs a fort of impiu-e regulu-s of bifnnilli,
obtained by accident, fometimts in the making of fu., 't.
The bifmuth ores are often fo intimately mixed with tiic
cobalt, that they cannot be feparated from them. In
this cafe, the arfcnic being raifed in the flowers, there re-
mains at the bottom, inllcad of the fi.-icd vitrifiable earth
Biorling, but it is of the cobalt, a fort of impure rcgulus of a reddifli co-
lour. This is bifmuth, with an admixture of the earth
of cobalt, and other extraneous matter. They fometinies
call this whole matter by the coir.mon name of fpeifie ;
but more ufually they feparate it into two parts, and call
the under part, which is moll folid, glokeu-fpiiffe, and
the upper part they dilUnguifli by the name of xs ealda-

GLOMERELLS, inour Old Writers, commilTaiios ap-
Method of Culture. — In the tirfl.it may be efFetted by plant- pointed to determine differences between Icliolars of a
ing cuttings cf the young branches in April, jull before fchool or univerfity, and the townfm.en of a place. In tl.e
t'hey begin to flioot, in pots of light fitlh mould, plunging edic5\ of the bifliop of Ely, anno 1 276, there is mention of
them in a very moderate hot-bed, and giving tliem due themaller of jhe glcimerells.

CrLOMME, or Gi.o.ME.N-, in Ge;graphy, called alfo the

Stor Eh, or great river, the cliief river of Norway, fpring.^

from the lake of Orefund on the north of the Fccmund,

and after running a courfe nearly fouth about 3C0 Britiflr

ri'.e fecond fort may be readily incrcafed by parting th(> miles, difcliarges itfelf into the Northern Ocean near Frede-

■ ' rickfladt, to which town about 50,000 trees are annually

floated upon it. This river, being full of cataratts and flioals,
is not navigable. Before it receives the Wormc, which
ilfues from the lake Miofs, it is about as broad as the Thames
at Henley. In its courfe it prefents a broad furfacc, fome-
times watering pleafant vallies, fometimcs intercepted by
fand-banks, over which it frequently fliitts its courfe, fome-
timcs winding betueen rocky cliffs, and precipitating itfelf
in frequent cataraCls. Near Kongfwinger it is as broad as

vater and fliade, till they have flricken root. Aiter this
they fhould be removed 'from the bed, and be gradually
hardened to the open air, being protctfed during the winter
Hionths

roots, as in th? common daify, planting them out in tli
early part of the autumn, in moift fhady fituations. They
fucceed bed in fuch loamy foils as are rather moift in their
quality.

Tlie firft affords variety among potted p'ants, and tlic
latter in the fronts of the more moifl: and fluidy borders
and clumps of pleafure -grounds.
-GLOBULE, Globulus, a \\ti\Q gkle ; otherwife call-

ed ^fpl>e . „ ^.

Thus the red particle.-; of the blood are called globules of tlie Thames at Putney. Its rugged courfe, however, muit

the blood, on account of their rednefs and fmallnefs. (Sec
Blood. ) The Cartefians call the particles broken ofi' the
matter of the firft cl:merit, globules of the fecond element. See
Gartk>i.\n-, &c.

GLOBULUS Nam, is ufed for the lower, flexible, car-
tilatrinous part of the nofe.

GLOCHIDION, in Botany. See Bk.\di.ej.\.

GLOESZTI, in Geography, a town of Walachia ; 50
miles N. of Buchareft. N. hit. 49- 13'. E. long;. 26 i6'.

GLOGAU, a principality of Silefia, on the E. fide of mals tliat are extremely fat.

render it a tremendous torrent.

GLON, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Ammcr,
near Crantzberg.

GLONS, a town of France, in the department of the
Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Liege. The place contains 1,500, and the canton 8,850, in-
habitants, on a territory of 107^ kiliometrcs, in 23 com-
munes.

GI^OR-FAT, \n Rural Economy, a term applied to ani-

the Oder, bordering on Poland ; producing corn and wine
in abundance, in fome parts affording mines of iron.
The pailures feed many flieep, and the wool is wrought into
different manufaftures. It is divided into iix circles. In the
year 1241, it was governed by its own princes ; but after-
wards it belonged to the king of Poland, to tliC king of
Bohemia, to the emperor, and laft of all to the king of
Pruffia.

Glog.\U, Gros or Great, the capital of the principa-
lity of the fame nimc, built in 1 110 on the S. fide of the
Oder, taken by the Prulfians in 1741, and ftrengthened by
new fortifications. " It is the feat of a governor, a command-
ant, divers tribunals, and a bifliop's court, &c. It contains
two Catholic churches, of which one is collegiate, tliree

GI..ORIA P.\TRl,in the Liturgy, a formula of words re-
peated at the end of each Pfalm, and on otlier occafions,
to give glory to the Trinity ; called alfo the lioxnlugy.
It is tlius denominated, becaufe it begins in the Latin
oiTice with tliefe words; Gloria Patri, q. d. Glcry be to the
Falhir, Slc.

Pope Damafcus is commionly f;nd to have firft ordered
the reliearfal, or rather, fingiiig the Gloria Patri at the end
of Pfalms. Baronius, indeed, will have it to have been
ufed in the times of the apoftles : but its ufe, then, he al-
lows to have been more obfcure, and that it did not become po-
pular till after the rife of Arianifm, when it was made a
kind of fymbol of orthodoxy.

The fifth canon of the council of Yaifon, held in 529,.

cOBvents, a Lutheran church and fchool, and a chapel, for, decrees, " tliat the name of the pope fliall always be re-

Calvinitts; 62 miW N.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 51^ 39'. hearfed in the churches of France, and after the Gloria

E. long 16 5'. Patri fliall .^e added _y7t»; erat in principio, as is done at

Gi-OG\v, Olcr, ox Little, a town tif Silefia, in the prin- Rome, in Africa, Sec. on account of the heretics^ who

fav,

G L O

f-iv, that the Son of God had hh beginning in time."

Fie.iry.

Gl.oiiiA in cxcelfis is alfo a kind of hymn relicarfed in di-
vine fervice, beginning with the words Gloria in e.xnl/Js Deo,
iff in terra pax h(/ininibus, 5:c; Gloiy be to Ccd on hii^h, on
earth peace, &c.

GLORIOSA, in Botany, fo named on account of the
fplcndour and magnilicencc- ot its flowers. Tournefort, ob-
jecting to the name given by Linnaeus bccaufe it is an adjec-
tive, called this genus l\Ic',honi-a, in wliich lie has been
followed by JufTieii, and indeed by all French botaniils,
though the Linnxiin ichool have refufed to adopt this barba-
rous name. — Linn. Gen. 164. Schreb. 220. Willd Sp. PI.
V. 2. 95. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.434. Mart. Mill. Did.
V 2. Gxrtn. t. 18. .lufl". 48. — Clafs and order, Hexandrid
Mnnogynia . Nat. Ord, Sarminlacsre, Linn. LiUa, .Tuff.

G'n. Ch. Cal. n;ine. Cor. Petals fix, oblong-lanceolate,
waved, verv long, entirely bent back, furniflied at the bale
of their infide with a honey -bearing furrow, between two
ridges, i'tom. Filaments fix, a wl-ihaped,fhorter than t lie corolla,
horizontal ; anthers incumbent. Pijl- Germen globofe ; ftyle
tiircad-fhaped, longer than the ilamens, horizontal ; tligmas^
three, thrcad-lhaped. Peric. Capfule fuperior, oval, with
three lobes, three cells, and three valves. Seeds numerous,
globular, covered with pulp, and difpofed in two rows.

Eff Ch. Corolla of fix waved and reflexed petals. Style
oblique.

1. G./iiperki. Superb Lily. Linn. Sp. PI. 437. Re-
dout. Liliac t. 26. — " Leaves furnifhed with tendrils." —
Native of Malabar and Guinea. It was introduced into
Kew Garden in 1690 by the firft earl of Portland. A ten-
der Hove plant, flowering in July and Augull. Th'^Jltm is
herbaceous, about a fathom high, round, having two oppo-
Cte lateral branches, and putting forth a flower-llalk from the
bofom of each leaf. Z,eav.'S alternate, fraootli, each ending
in a tendril. Flcwers pendent, of a moil beautiful red and
vellow colour. Petals lanceolate, long, waved at the edge,
reflexed near the hafe. This remarkably handlome plant re-
quires exceflive heat to make it flower.

2. G /implex. Linn. Maut. 62. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2, 96. —
" Leaves pointed.'' — Native of Senegal. The leaves are
not furnifhed with tendrils. Flo-wers blue. — There is no
figure of this fpecies known. It was merely taken up from
Miller, nor has any thing been found « liich anlwers to the
dcfcription.

Obf. This very beautiful genus is nearly allicrd to Erythro-
mum.

Glorio.sa, in Gardenif^, comprifes a plant of the
herbaceous, flowering perennial kind ; of which the fpecies
cultivated is the fuperb-lily (G. fuperba.)

Method of Culture. — It i.; capable of being increafed by
planting the off"sets from the old roots, either in the autumn
after the ftems decay, or in the early fpring before they flioot,
in pots filled with light earth, plunging them in the bark-
bed of the ftove. The old roots, when taken out of the
ground, fliould be preferved in dry fand during the winter
in the Hove, or in a dry warm room. It is the practice of
fome to let the roots remain during the winter in the mould,
};^eeping the pots in the tan-bed ; planting out the offsets early
in the fpring. In cither way they llunild have very little
v,ater given them.

When the ftems appear they fliould be fupported by flicks,
End in hot dry weather a little water (hould be fparingly
given, as there may be occafion. And the pots in which they
lire pkintcd fliould be fmall, that they may be confined, and
put Fjrth ftronger Hems. Two-penny pots will be large

b

G L O

enough for the roofs of the grcatcft fized plants of this na*
turc.

The plants afford much effeft by their beautiful flowers
among thofc of the ftove kind, when properly intermixed
with them.

GLORIOUS I>;t,.\KDS, in Geography, two fmall iflando in
the Indian fea. S lat. II 3a'. E long. 47° 15'.

GLOSKAR, a fmall iflaiid in tlie^Baltic, E. of Abnd.
N. lat. 60 20'. E. long. 20 13'.

GLOSS, Glo.<-s.\, a comment on the text of any author,
to explain his fenfe more fully and at lirgc, wIiL'ther in
the fame language, or in any other. See Commentaky.

The word, according to fome, comes from v'i'o'^, tongue ;
the office of a glofs being to explain the text, as that of the
tongue is to difcovcr the mind. Others derive it frcTm the
l..ViUn qlofs, oi yy.y.-j>:, a fjkr-in-hiw, which among lawyers
fometinies Hands for lifter ; the glofs being, as it were, filler
to the text.

Nic de Lvra compc»fed a poftil or glofs on the Bible,
in fix volumes folio. The Fivncti fav, jiroverbiaHy of ail
ill comment, that it is glofs d'Orkans, plus obfcun yui U
texte.

Glcs.s is alfo ufed for a literal tranflation, or an interpre-
tation of an author in another language, word for word.
Young fcholars need an interlin'-ary glofs for the under-
ftanding of .luvcnal, Horace, SiiUull, Perfius, &c..

Gloss is alio ufed in matters ot Commerce, &o. for the
lu'lre of filk, fluff, or the like.

GLOSSARY, GLO.'i.sAuiLM, a kind of dictionary for
explaining the obl'cure, ancient, and barbarous words and
plirafts of an altered, corrupted, or refined language.

Spelman's gloflfary, entitled Archaiologicum, is. in excel-
lent work ; though that author did not begin to lluuy in thii
way till fifty vear.-; of age. M. Du Gauge's Latin Gloflary
in fix volumes, Paris, fol. 1733, IJalil, fol. 1762, is a work
in high eftimation, and containing a fund of the moft curious
and amufing intelligence. Cliarpentier's fuppk'inent to this
work, in 4 volumes, fol. Paris, 17-66, is neceffary to render
tliis fet of books complete. Du Caiigc's Greek Gloflary in
two volumes, fol. Lugd. i6SSr is an e:icellcnt performance,
full of uncommon erudition.

The Greek, Latin, and French gloflaries of Du Gang's
form a feries of the moft inftniclive articles in the ftudy of
jurifprudence and belles lettres. There is an abridgment
of tliis work in 6 vols. 8vo. ; which, however, contains fome
matter not common to cither of tile preceding. This .-vbiidg-
ment is exceedingly rare. As a caution to the purcluifers of
the Greek Glofl'aiy, we inform them tliat in the articla
" Monetn" (Coins, vol. iv.p. 904.) there Ihoidd be lo plates
of engTavings of coins, and monograms of various princes
and fovereignsof Europe, which are fometimes wanting, and
thus tlie value of the edition i5 materirJly depretiatcd.

Lindenbroek has a Gloflary on the laws of Charlcraagne,

&c.

GLOSSOCATOCHOS, in Surgery, an inftmment for
deprefTing the tongue. It is delcribed by Paulus jEginets,
and the term is derived from y?.:»j-<,-:., the tongue, and «'i!x-"»
lo r prefs.

GLOSSOGE LE, denoting a fweUing and protrufion of
the tongue. The word comes from yXij-c-x, tbc longui, and
r.y,>.r, a tumour,
■ GLOSSOCOM.A, a rr^traftion of the tongue.

GLOSSOCOME, in the JnJ/.-vmenral Mufic of the Creeisi
a name given by the ancients to a kir.d of cale for the glottis,
or tongues of their flutes, which probably were hautboys,
and, confequently, their glottis was a reed. See Glottis.

GLOSSOCOMON, in Muhanics, is a name given by Hi-

ero.

G L O

G L O

«ro, to a machine compofcd of divers dented wheela, w'ltli pi-
nions ferving to raife huge burdens.

Glossocomon, a term in Surgery, derived from yXwtrax,
the tongue, and ho^fu, to guard; originally a cafe for the reed of
a hautboy, but ufed metaphorically to fignify a cafe for a
fradlured limb.

GLOSSODIA, in Bolatiy, (>>.i;?o'iJt-, having the form
or appearance of a tongue ; in allufion to the peculiar ap-
pendage to the internal part of the flower, which refenibles
the tongue of a fcrpent, and affords the cflential charader.
Brown Prod. Nov. HoU. v. i, 325. — Clafs and order,
Gynandr'ia Monogyitla. 'Nat. Ord. Orchide,t.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of three equal fprcading
leaves. Cor. Petals two, equal to and refembling the calyx.
Neftary of a different form, (hortcr, undivided, not glandular,
accompanied, at its bafe above, by a cloven tongne-lhaped ap-
pendage, between it and the ftyle. Slam. Anther terminal,
its cells clofe together ; maffes of pollen two in each cell,
compreffed, powdery. P'ifi. Germen inferior : llyle co-
lumnar, with a dilated membranous border at each fide.
Peck. Capfule. Seeds numerous.

EfT. Ch. Calyx and Corolla equal. Lip fliorter, undivided,
without glands, with an appendage at its bafe. Style dilated
at each fide. Anther vertical.

1. G. major. Brown 326. — " Appendage cloven halfway
down ; its lobes fpreading, acute."

2. G. minor. Ibid. — " Appendage cloven to the bafe ;
its lobes parallel, obtufe."

Both fpecies are natives of the country near Port Jackfon,
New South Wales. Their iulis are undivided, with a la-
minated coat, and grow in the earth, not parafitically. Heri
hairy. Leaf {olitavy, radical, its bafe enclofcd in a mem-
branous flieath. Stali radical, bearing generally one blue
flower, rarely two, and furnifhed with one iraclea belides
■what accompanies each flower. Brown.

GLOSSOIDES, in Natural HiJlory,?i name givenbyfome
authors to a fpecies of ftonc, refemblmg the figure of the
human tongue. This is a mere accidental configuration of a
common flint or pebble, perfeftly indeterminate in ilze and
colour, and owing its form to no animal mould, as the ftones
found in fhells ufually do, but is a mere lufus natura in the
concretion of the flone.

GLOSSOMA, in Botany, fo named by Schreber, from
y>.ui;oi,, the tongue, and wp.o^-, the Jhoulder, alluding to the
tongue-fliaped appendages borne by the anthers. Schreb. 792.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 664. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. ( Votomita;
Aubl. Guian. v. i. 90. JufT. 382.) Clals and order, Tetran-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rhamnis ajftne, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbinate,
four-toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals four, equal, lanceolate,
acute, much longer than the calyx, recurved. Nedlary a ring
round the bafe of the ftyle. Stam. Filaments four, very
fliort ; anthers oblong, nearjy united into a cylinder, elon-
gated at the top if. to a membranous lanceolate expaniion of
two cells, opening inwardly. P'tfl. Germen inferior, obovate ;
llylelhread-lhaped, as tall as the llamens ; fligmas four, acute.
Peric. Drupa pear-fhaped, of one cell, crowned by the
calyx. Seed folitary, ovate, flriated.

EfT. Ch. Calyx fuperior, four-toothed. Petals four.
Ajithers cohering, each crowned with a lanceolate mem-
brane. Stigmas four. Drupa with one furrowed nut.

Obf. The above characters appear to be taken by Schre-
ber from Aublet, nor liave we any better materials. The
only fpecies kjiown is,

1. G. arborefcens s Willdenow. (Votomita guianenCs ;
Aubl. v. I. 91. t. 3^5.) — h.Jlirub of a middling lizc, whofe
trunk is five or Ibc feet, high, and five or lis inches tliick ;

the wood yellow, hard and compa£l. Branches knotty,
fpreading varioufly, leafy. Leaiies oppofite, ellipticalf
pointed, entire, fix inches long, thick and firm, of a flrining
green, placed on fhort ftalks, with a deciduous flipula at
each fide of their bafe. Flowers white, on fhort, um-
bellate, axillary ftalks, their petals about half an inch long.
This plant is found in the extenfive foreftsof Guiana, about
the habitations of the natives. Nothing is recorded re-
fpccting its qualities or ufes.

GLOSSOPETALUM, fo denominated by Schreber
from the tongue -like appendages to the petals. Schreb. 205.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1521. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 2. (Goupia ;
Aubl. V. I. 295. Juff. 378. Lamarck. lUuftr. t. 217.) —
Clafs and order, Penlandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofce,
Linn. Rhanmi, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth half inferior, of one leaf, minute,
five-toothed, permanent. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, fpread-
ing, acute, much longer than the calyx, each bearing at
its point a lineai'-lanceolate, abrupt appendage, almolt of
the length of the petal, bent back and lying upon it. Stam.
Filaments five, very fhort ; anthers roundifli. Ptjl. Germen
roundifh, encircled by a glandular ring, which bears the
petals and ftamens ; ftyle none ; ftigmas five, acute. Pcric.
Berry roundifli, with five furrows, of one cell. Seeds five,
angular.

Eft". Ch. Calyx half inferior, with five teeth. Petals five,
each bearing an inflexed longitudinal appendage. Berry with
five feeds.

Obf. Schreber, p. 826, fufpefts this genus not to be
diftincl itoiw Aralia, but the habit confirms JufTieu's opinion,
who ieparates them widely. Two fpecies are defcribed by
Aublet.

1. G. glabrum. (Goupia glabra ; Aubl. v. i. 296. t. 116.)
— " Leaves fmooth." — Native of the forefts of Guiana,
30 leagues from the fea, bearing flowers and fruit in Novem-
ber. The trunk is 60 feet or more in height, and two or
three feet in diameter, ferving to make canoes ; the bark
fmooth and grey; the wood white and light. Branches
drooping, furniflied with alternate leaves of an ovate, point-
ed, fomewhat unequal figure, entire, rigid, fliining, and
fmooth, with a branching rib, and fine tranfverfe veins at
the back. Flowers yellow, fmall, many together in foli-
tary axillary umbels. Berry black, globular.

2. G. tomentofum. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1522. — " Leaves
downy.'' — Native of the forefts of Cayenne and Guiana.
Not half fo lofty as the former. The barl is wrinkled and
dark-coloured. Leaves clothed on both fides with fome
fhort hairs. Their juice, which, as well as the bark,
is bitter, is ufed to cure inflammations of the eyes.

GLOSSOPETRA, or Glottopeth.^, in Natural
H'ljlory, called alfo icklhyodonles , Jliarh's teeth, dog-jijlj's teeth,
&c. a kind of extraneous fofTil, fomewhat in form of a ft-r-
pent's tongue ; frequently found in the ifland of Malta and
divers other parts. Some of them are in a high ftate of pre-
fervation, having their enamel and points perfect, and their
fharp edges finely ferrated as in the recent teeth.

Naturalifts have been much divided as to the nature and
origin of thefe bodies. Steno, De Corpore folido intra foli-
dum contento ; 01. Wormius, DifTert. de GlofTopetra ; and
Reyfchius. De Gloffopctris Lunebergenfibus, treat of them
at large.

The vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of ferpents
petrified ; and hence their name, which is a compound of
y}\i!'TTy., tongue, and irsTpz, Jlone. Hence, alfo, their tra-
ditionary virtue in curing the bites of ferpents.

The general opinion of naturalifts is, that they are the

teclh

G L O

teetli of firties, left on land by the waters of the deluge, and
fince petrified.

They even fpecify the very kind of fifli, and take it to be
that which Theophraftus and tlie Greek writers call icxpj^jtpia,-,
and the moderns thejljark or Ji-a-dog.

Camerarius cannot perfuade himfclf that the gloffopetrx
found in England, Malta, and round Montpelier, were ever
the teeth of a fea-dog, or any other fifh. The chief difficul-
ty, he fuggefts, is the fmall quantity of volatile fait and oil
which they afford by diftillation. To which Dr. Woodward
anfwers, in defence of the common fyftem, that having lain
fo long buried under ground, it is no wonder they fiiould
have loll the belt part of their volatile principles It is cer-
tain, that human bones and ficulls, long interred, do not afford
nearly the quantity of thofe principles that thev would hare
done immediately after the perfon's death.

Another fcruple, propofcd by Camerarius is, that the glof-
fopetrK, when expofed to the naked lire, turn to a coal ; and
not to a calx ; contrary to what is afferted by Fabius Colum-
na. Dr. Woodward anfwers, that it is likely enough the
gloffopetrx, in burning, may aflume the form of a coal, be-
fore it arrive to that of a calx.

The feveral fizes of the teeth of the fame fpecies, and
thofe of the feveral different fpccies of Iharks, afford a vaft
variety of thefe foffil fubftances. Their ufual colours are
black, blueifli, whitifh, yellowilh, or brown ; and in (hape
they ufually approach to a triangular figure. Some
of them are fimple ; others arc triculpidate, having a fmall
point on each lide of the large one ; many of them are quite
iVraight, but they are frequently found crooked, and bent in
jjl direftions ; many of them are ferrated on their edges, and
others have them plain : fome are undulated on their edges,
and flightly ferrated on thefe undulations. They differ alfo
in fi/.e as much as in figure ; the larger being four or five
inches long, and the fmaller of lefs than a quarter of an
inch.

They are moll utaally found with us in the (Irata of blue
clay, though fometimes alfo in other fubftances, and are
frequent in the clay-pits of Richmond and of Sheppy illand,
and in other places. They are very frequent alfo in Ger-
many, but nowhere fo plentiful as in the illand of Malta.
In the Britilh ftrata they rarely occur. Mr. Farey has found
them in thefe llrata only in five places, viz. in the London
clay, probably obtained from the clay-pits above-mentioned ;
in a bed of the foft or upper chalk in Kent, at Harefield,
near New Mallou, Sec. ; in a green fandy ftratum below the
chalk, N. of Dunllable, &c. ; in the Stonesfield and Colly-
-ivcllon flate feries, above the Bath free-ftone rocks, at En-
flone in Oxfordfhire, where Woodward procured fpecimens
of thefe teeth in the jaw, &c. ; and in tiie thick grey linie-
rock which lies under and lurrounds the South-Wales coal
bafons (Phil. Tranf N 334.) Gloffopetrx are fome-
times found in gravel-pits and other collections of alluvial
matters. It is feldom pofiible to determine to what place in
the feries of ftrata thefe belong, and they fliould therefore
be carefully ditliuguilhed from fuch as are actually found in
the ftrata.

The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe tolTil teeth ;
thev call them cordials, fudorifics, and alexipharmics : and
the people of Malta, where they are extremely plentiful,
hang them about their children's necks to promote dentition.
They may pofTibly be of as much fervice this way as an
anodvne necklace ; and if fufpended in fuch a maancr that
the child can get them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs
and fmoothnefs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral. See
Sehi'KNt'n TongiKs.

GLOSSO-PHARYNGEUS, io Jnatamy, from >?.i3-sr«,
Vol.. XVI.

G L O

the tongue, and ;«pi/><, a name given to thofe fibres of the
conllridor pharyngis fupcrior, which arife from the fide of
the tongue.

GLOSSO-SP.-XTHA, in Surgery, an inftrument, called
by ioiTx fpcculum lingua, and ufed to dcprtfs the tongue, in
order to look into the fauces.

There are many inflammatory difordcrs of the mouth,
fauces, and palate, which require a deprelTion of the torgue,
v.-hile tliey arc infpedled and treated with proper remedies.
The handie of a filver fpoon is made to fupply the place of
tins inftrument in moft cafes, and anfwers the purpofe very-
well. Whichever is ufed, care lliould be taken to deprefi
very gently, to avoid giving the patient pain, as alfo to
avoid irritatnig the mouth and inflamed parts.

When injections are to be made into th- mouth, this in-
ftrument or the fpoon fiiould alfo be ap[ lied, and the fyriagc
ihould be conveyed into the mouth over it.

GLOSSO-STAPHYLINUS, in /}natomy,iTOm -, >:..r«,
the tongue, and t^Jlai, the uvula, another name for the con-
ftriiftor illhm.i faucium. See Dkglutition.

GLOTTIDIS RiMA, the fame opening as the glottis.
The term rima particularly denotes its flit-Uke form.

GLOTTIS, from y>.^-r:x, the tongue, is the opening
through which the air paffes to and from the lungs in refpira-
tion. la tliis paffage the voice is formed. See Deglu-
tition and L.VRYNx

Julius Pollux makes the glottis a joint or part of a flute,
and Hefycbius fnys that the glott were little tongues, a<Sled
upon by the breath of the player. This defcription of He-
fychius feems to confirm the idea of the ancient nominal
flutes being a kind of hautboys.

G1.OTTI.S, in Ornithology, a name given by many authors
to a bird of the long-legged kind, approaching to the nature
of our red-lliank, but larger and longer legged, and generally
known by the name limofa. See ScoLOP.\.\ G/ottlt.

GLOUCESTER, m Geography, a city in Gloucefter-
fliire, England, is fituatcd in a vale, on a gentle einineHce,
rifing, on the eaft fide, from the river Severn. This opulent
city appears to have originated in a Roman ftation which
was fituated at King's Holm, near the north-eaftcrn extre-
mity of the prefent city. The Romans continued to oc-
cupy this Ipot till the diftraftions of their own empire oc-
cafioned them to quit tlie ifiand. Its government then re-
verted to the Britilh princes, under whofe domination it
continued till about the year 577, when, according to the
Saxon Chronicle, it was furrcndercd to the Well Saxons,
and was reputed one of their principal cities ; it was after-
wards fuhjugated by the Mercians, who alfo obtained pof-
feffion of the other parts of the county. Under the Saxons
it acquired the appellation of Gleau-ceilre. The (Ireugth
and confequrnce of the city rendering it an object of frequent
enterprife, its vicinity was feveral times the fcene of action
between the Britons and Saxons. By thefe conflicts,
its buildings were nearly ruined ; and the whole place might
have funk into complete decay, if Wolpherc, Ion of king
Penda, had not enlarged and adorned it, about the year 679.
Tins rertoration was jo perfect, that Bedc informs us, it
was elleenud, ;il;out the commencement of the 8th century,
as one of the noblell cities in tlie kingdom. Its early im-
portance is evinced by its having been the refidcnce of
various Saxon monarehs ; and hence it was denominated a
royal city, as it is cxpiefsly teniied in a grant made by king
Edgar to the mor.ks of \Voi-ccller, dated at Gloucefter iu
the year 964. Bv this monarch a battle was fought here
with the Danes, whii had twice plundered the city in the
])recei!ing reigns, and who again ravai;ed, and partly con-
fumed it by fire, in that of his Ion F.'hi In'J. Several of
3 A. the

GLOUCESTER.

tlie Norman and Englifli kings alfo occafionally rcfidcd
and tranfafted public biilinefs in this city. A memorable
era in the eventful liiRory of Glouceftcr oritjinatcd JH a
contefl between Henry III. and the barons. That monarch,
in 1263, appointed fir Maci de Befilc, a French knight,
flieritT of the county, and conftable of the caftlo witliin t'le
city. The preference thus given to a foreigner war. violently
refented bv the indignant nobles, who immediately made
choice of fir William Tracy, a native of the fliire. He
accordingly proceeded to exereife the duties of his office in
holding a county court, but was I'uddenly interrupted by
l)e Belile, who, entering with a party of the king's troops,
fei/ed the kr.ight, and, with circumilances of peculiar
cruelty, hurried him to the caIHe, where he was committed
to clofe coufuiement. After this outrage, the barons de-
pu;ed lir Roger de Clifford, and fir John Giffard, with
their dependants, to befiege the caftle, for the double pur-
pofes of refcue and revenge ; in a few days they obtained
an entrance, and compelled De Befile to retire to the keep ;
he afterwards furrendered, and was fcnt as a priloner to
Erdefley calUe, in the marelies of Wales. In the year 127S
Edward I. afiembled a parliament here, and leveral laws,
connefted with the (latute of Quo Warranto, were enacted,
and have, from that period, been known under the general
appellation of the Statutes of Gloucefter. In the coiirfe of
the two next centuries, four parliaments were held here.
Thcoppofition of the Glouceftrians to the royal caufe, dur-
ing the reign of Charles I., is generally fuppoied to have
operated fatally agalnll his interell throughout the kingdom :
fo early as the year 1641, they declared for the parliament ;
railed a company of volunteers, which they added to their
trained bands ; procured cannon from London and Brillol,
and repaired and ftrengthened the fortifications : though
frequently befieged by the royalifts, they fuccefsfully re-
filled every attack.

The eccleilaltical Hate of Gloucefter, during the Roman
and former part of the Saxon period of its hiilory, is involved
in much obfcnrity : but in the year 657, Edwy, king
of Northumberland, having fubdued Mercla, eretted Litch-
field into a bilbop's fee, and included Gloucellcrlhire within
its diocefe. This biiliopric was foon afterwards divided
into the five Imaller of Litchfield, Dorchefler, Leiceiler,
Hereford, and V/orceifer ; to tlie laft of which this dlllriti
was annexed, and continued lubjetl;, till the reign of
Henry VIII., who, by letters patent, dated September ■^d,
1541, and afterwards ccnfirmed by aft of parliament, eretted
" tlie city of Gloucefter, the county of that city, and all the
county of Gloucefter, into a billiopric, with a dean and
chapter, by the name of the diocefe of Gloucefter ; and
ordained that fuch part of the then vlll and county of
Briftc'l, as formerly was in the diocefe of Worceilcr, fhoiild
be from thenceforward in the diocefe of Gloucefter for ever.''
The church appointed for the cathedral of the new fee, was
that belonging to the abbey, founded by Wolpficrc, firft
Chriftian king of JMercia, and Ethelred, his brother and
fuccefTor, in the year 681. The New Minfter, as it is
termed in the records, was burnt, with the monaftery, in
1087 or 1088 ; probably at the fame time that the city was
partly deJlroyed by the adherents of R.obert, brother to
William Rnfus. Serlo, then abbot, began a new church in
.June, IC89; the iirft ftone was laid by Robert, bifhop of
Hereford ; and on the completion of the edilice, in the
follov.'ing year, it was dedicated to St. Peter, by tiie bifhops
of Worcefttr, Rochefter, and Bangor. The abbey was
again dcftroyed by fire in lioi or 1102, but tl;e church
was faved. The prefent magnificent and ir.terefting edifice
has been erefted at <;ifferent periods, and confequeutly dif-

3

plays various fpecimens of ancient eCclellaftical archhcfture,
in the Saxon, Norman, and Enghfli ftyles. The convcrlion
of the abbey church into a cathedral was the ciiief caufe of
its prcfervatiun at the reformation ; and, to tlie honour of
the inhabitants of Gloucefter, it became the objeft of their
peculiar care during the civil wars, after which they ob-
tained a grant of it from Oliver CromvvcH. Hence the cathe-
dral has been transferred to the prefent age, as nearly perfeCli
in all its parts, with regard to its general cunftruclion, as it
■was left by the nioft favoured of its aichitec'ls. The eras of
erection of the principal parts are known ; and htnce the
charactcriftic ftyles of each can be fatisfactorily afcertaincd.
The lower part of the nave, the chapels that furround the
choir, and the crypt, are prefumed to have behmged to the
building erefted by bifliup Aldred, before 1089: the toof
of the nave obtained its fmiflilng and form in 124S Jn
1310 the fouth aide was begun ; and part of the fouth tra';-
fept was added in 1330. The building of the north Iran-
fept and choir commenced about the fame year ; the latter
was completed in 1457. Between the years 1351 and 1390,
the elaborate cloittci'S were finifhed. The chapel of our
Lady was built between the j-ears 1457 and T498 ; and the
centre tower between 1457 and Ijio. The interior of this
fplcndid fabric confifts ot a n<v.e, choir, fide a:fl.s, and tran-
fepts, with a chapel of our Lady, and feveral finaller chapels
or oratories. From theinterfeftion of tlie nave and tranfepts
rifes a high tower, and on the fouth fide is a handfomc prc-
jeiting porch. The roof is fuftained on twenty-eight co-
lumns, which extend in two rows from the weft end (o the
high altar, where the vrefbytery forms nearly a fcmi-circular
fweep : the tranfepts have no ifoLted pillars. The chapel
of our Lady is, as ufiial, attached to the prefbytcry ; and
there are chapels in the north-eaft and foutlv-eall angles of the
tranfepts and choir, with two others projecting in the fvvecp
between thofe and the chapel of our Lady. The outline, or
ground plan of the cathedral, is probably the fame at pre-
fent as deligned by bifhop Aldred previous to the year 1089 ;
and the crypt remains ahnoll as ptrfett as the mafons left it.
The architecture of this fubterraneous and gloomy place is
niafiy, and fuited to the immenfe weight relimgon the archts,
wliicli are turned upon huge lliort pillars, and I'.re.igthcned
by groins of proportionate foli.iity. The nave is an intereft-
ing fpccimen of the flyle which continued to prevail for
nearly two centuries after the Norman eonqiieft. The arcade
of ponderous round culumns, and the rows of femi-circular
arches .above, imprefs the mind with ideas cf the ftrength,
folidity, and profound iulemnity wh.ch mull have accompa-
nied its original ftate. The architedture of the well end is
very diiTerent from the other parts of the nave ; and the
vault is covered by interfefting ribs, and ornamented key-
flones ; but the remainder is of the plaineft defcription, v/itk
three ribs only to each pillar ; yet the key-ftones arc carved.
On each fide are eight malTive columns ; the arches between
them are bounded by large mouldings, carved into i;ig-zags,
and other ornaments. Direitly over each colunm, and at
fome diflanee, is a range of heads of various charafters ; foir.e
ferene, and others terrific. Thefefervcas 'orackcts to cluftcrs
of fhort pillars, whofe capitals difplay the moll beautiful
variety of foliage, on which zig-zag firings extend, ferving
as a bafe to other cluilered pillars wilh equally elegant capi-
tals : from thofe the ribs of the vault commence. The gal-
lery windows, pierced thrcugli the wall above the arches, are
divided by fhort thick pillars, and hounded by others, with
zig-zag arches : a twifted ftring fe])arates them from the
clereftory windows. The north and fouth aifles of the^nave
are nearly in the ftyle of the weft end, with pointed v/indow5,
rich ramifications in the arches from the muihons, and fillet-
ed

GLOUCESTER.

t^il vaults. The ai-cli of entrance to tlie cloiders from the
north aido is ir.oll elaborately and exquilitely adorned by pil-
lars, buttrefles, niches, pinnacluo, foliage, and panncl,-, and
the fmgular ornament of twilled pi'inacles under the arch.
Intiieiouth aille, nail-headed moiddnigs are introduced asem-
belliiliments on each fide of tlie windows. An advanced
gradation of Ilyle is exhibited in tl;e interior of tlie fouth
tranfept ; but the moll perfect and ornamental degree is dif-
played in the chapel of our Lady. The choir is divided
trom the nave by a ikrcen, deilgned by Kent.

The dimenlionsof the cathedral and its feveral parts are
asfoUov.-: entirelength,inf:do, four hundred and twentv-tiiree
feet : length of the nave, o.ie hundred and feventy-one feet ;
breadth, forty-one ftet two inches ; height, ilxty-feven feet feven
inches : breadth of the north aille, twenty feet ten inches ;
heigh.t, forty feet fix inches ; breadth of the fouth aide, twenty-
t «-o feet ; height, forty feet : length of the fouth tranfept, li.K-
ty-fixfeet ; breadth, forty-three feet fix inches; lieiglit, eigltty-
fix feet : length of the north tranfept, fixty-fix feet ; breadth,
forty-three ieet fix inches ; lieiglit, feventy-eight feet :
length of the clioir, one hundred and forty feet ; breadth,
thirty-four feet fix inche.-; ; height, eiglity-fix feet : Icngtii
of our Lady's chapel, ninety-two feet ; breadth, twen-
ty-four feet four inches ; height, forty-fix feet fix inches :
height of th-? tower, including the pinnacles, two hun-
dred and twenty-five feet. The great cloiller.=;, which
were completed by abbot Frouceller, are the moll elegant
and perfect of the kind : the fides and roof are profufely ein-
bellifneil, and the windows are filled with mullions and
tracery.

This cathedral contains feveral curious fpecimens of monu-
mental fculpture. On the tomb of Edward II., which was
erecled by hisfon and fuccefibr, and exhibits great pcrfeftion
of art, is a recumbent figure, in alabafler, of the deceafed
monarch, regally robed and crowned. Another monument,
worthy of notice, is that to thememory of alderman I'lHck-
leach, and his wife, whofe figures, in white marble, lie on a
table tomb, dated 1639, and feem accurate copies of the
portraitsby Vandyck : they are evidently the work of a flvil-
fid artift. A third, deferving obfervatioii for its defign and
clafTic ftyle, difplays a group by Flaxman, erected to com-
memorate Mrs. Morley, who died at fea, in childbed : {he is
reprefented as rifing from the waves with her infant in her
arms, and condufted by two angels. Between the north
aide and the choir is a monument, ereClcd by abbot Parker
to perpetuate the memory of king Ofric : and in a chapel
nearly oppofite, is a figure, fappofed to reprelent the unfor-
tunate Robert Curtois, duke of Normandy, and eldell fen
of William the Conqueror.

The walls that furrounded Glouceftcr are mentioned in a"
ancient prophecy, attributed to Merlin ; and tradition afcribes
thcmtoCiii'a, the fecond king of the fouth Saxons. The
Norman conqueror caufed them to be (Irengtliened and em-
battled : and they were again repaired in the nineteenth of
Edward III. Leland defcribes Glouceller as " wcll-builded
of lymbre, and llroiigly defended v.ith walles, where it is
not fortified with the deepe ftreanie of Severn water." 1 he
walls were completely demolifhed after the Relloration ; and
the only memorial of their former ftrength now remaining is
the Well Gate : tliis is embattled ; and was creded in
the time of Henry VI 11. The caftle, was probably
built about the period of the Norman invalion ; the remain.T
were lately dellroyed ; and on its fcite was built the county
gaol, wliich was completed in 1791 : it confills of three di-
vifions, refpeftively named the Penitentiary Hoiifc, the
Bridewell, and the' SherilF's Prifon : tl;ffc all hav? their dif-

tincl and appropriate regulations. Tiis gaol contains 2oj
feparate cells ; 164 for fleep, and 39 for employment.

In this city and its fuburbs were formerly elever parocliial
churches : but only fix are now (landing ; ihofe of St. Mi-
cliHcI, St. Mary de Crypt, St. Nicholas, St. Mary de Lode,
St .(uhn, and St. Aldule ; the others having been either de-
llroyrd at the fiege in 1643, or lince taken down. In St.
Michael's parilh i ; a BliR- Coat hofpital, fo called from the
fimilarity of its regulations to thofe of Chrill Church, Lon-
don, founded and endowed in 1666 by fir Thomas Rich,
bart. Among other benevolent cilabliflimcnts that confer
honour on the inhalMlants of Gloucefter, may be mentioned
the county infirmary, erected by voluntary contributions, and
opened in the )eari755. ^''^ annual receipts, arifing from
donations and the interell of funded property, amount to
between two and three thoufar.d pounds.

The principal trade of Glouceller refults from the navi-
gation of the Severn, from the hemp and flax-dreffing bufi-
nel.N, and from the pin manufaclure. The latter, which is
the principal fource of labour to the inhabitants, appears to
have been introduced into this city by John Tilfby, in the
year 1626, and is now carried on to a far greater extent
than at any other place in England ; there being nine nnaiiu-
fae.torics, which furnifli employment to about 15CX) perfons.
The pins conveyed annually to the metropohs, arc faid to
amount to the value of 20,000/. ; but the principal demand
is from Sp.iin and America. A bell-foundry has been efta-
blifiird here above three hundred years. The clothing trade,
formerly the chief fupport of the inhabitants, is now nearly
loll : one fulling mill only remains.

Various and important privileges have been granted to
Glouceller by feveral monarchs : it was erected into a
borough by charter from king John ; Henry II. granted the
burgelfes tlie fame liberties and cuftoms as had been enjoyed
by the citizens of I^ondon ; by the aft 33 Hen. VHI.,
which ellablilhed the bilhopric of Glouceller, it is ordered
that the town fiiould thenceforth be termed a city. It is
alio privileged as a county within itfelf. Tiie corporation,
afting under a charter of Charles II., confills of a mayor,
twelve aldermen, a high ficward, recorder, town clerk, two
fiieriffs, common-council, &c. The title of mayor firll oc-
curs in the year 1483. The high llewards have generally
been perfons of great eminence. Two reprefentatives to
parliament are elefted by the inhabitants and freemen ; the
number of voters is about 3,000; the earlieft return was
made in the twenty-third year of Edward I. The cleftions
are carried on in an ancient ilruilure, called the Booth-hall,
wliich is alio .Tppropriated to the affizes and other county
bufinefs. The public aflairs of the city are traufafted at
the Tholfey, a building luppofed to have derived its name
from the toll formerly received in it by the lords of the
manor. Very confiderable improvements have been made,
within the lall feventy years, in the appearance and buildings
of this city. It confills, principally, of four fpacious ftrcets,
m.eeiing each other at right angles, and taking their names
from tlie filuation of the gate which originally ilood at the
bottom of each, as Eall Gate ftreet. Well Gate llrx.»et,
Nortli Gale ilrcet, and South Gate llreet. At tiic intcr-
fcClion of the llreets, formerly ilood a large and beautiful
crofs ; but falling to dec.ty, and impeding tlie pafiagc of
caniages, it was removed in 1750 : its fcite ftill retains the
name. The city is well paved and lighted : and its elevated
lituation, with a gradual defcent on every fide, grvatly con.
tributes to health and cleanlinefs. The markets had long
been efiabliflud by prefcriptivc right ; but thofe now held,
on V/ednefdays and Saturdays, were chartered by Henry 111.
Three fairs ;'re held annually and much frequented. Tlie
X A 2 houfei

GLOUCESTER.

houfes and population have varied confiderably in different hay, corn, himher, butter, checfe, &.c.

ages, according to the degree of fecurity or danger which
the inhabitiKits experienced : the progrefs has been fevcral
times interrupted by fires and civil commotions. vSincc the
fiege in 1643, the increafe has been regular. On the lalt
t-numeration, under the aft cf i8oi, the houfes, in the city
alone, amounted to 1368, the population to 7265: the
inhabitants of t!-.e fuburbs being 1500 more. Glouceller
is fituated ic6 milci W. from London.

Among the more eminent natives of this city is Robert
of Glouceller, who wrote a chronicle ef Britain in verfe,
from the age of Brutus to his own time, the reign of
Henry 111.

On the north-weft fide of Glouceller is the celebrated ifle
of Ahiev, a fmall traft, formed by the feparation of the
llream ef the Severn into two channels. This was the feene
cf a combat betv.'een Edmund Ironfidc and Canute the
Dane, in the year 1016.

In the fouthern fuburbs of Giouccfler are the remains of
Lanthony priory, foimded in 1187. After the diffolution,
the monadic buildings were converted into the offices of a
farm. The only parts now left are a large barn, and the
principal entrance, or gateway ; on which are the arms,
amon"- others, of the Bohuns, earls of Hereford, who were
great bcnefaftors to the priory. Rudder's Hiftory, &c. of
Glouceller. B;-auties of England and Wales, vol. v.

Glouc-f..stku r.iiil Btri/ey Cami/, is the parhamentary name
of a canal of very large dimenlions, following the E. fide
of the Severn river between Berkley and Glouceller, of
which Mr. Robert Mylne and Thomas Dadford were the
enc-ineers ; the other particulars will be found i.i our article
Can.^l.

Gloucesteh, or Cape Ann, a townfliip of America, in
Effex county, Maffachufetts, whofe eaft point forms the
N. fide of the bay of ManTaehufctts. It contains 5313 in-
habitants, and is divided into five pai'ifhes, befides a lociety
ef Univerfalifts. It is a poft-town and a tov.m of entry.
The harbour is open and acceffihle to large fliips, and it
is one of the mod eonfiderable filhing towns in the conmion-
wealth. At the harbour, properly fo called, are fitted
out annually from 60 to 70 bankers, and from Squam and
Sandy bay, two fmall out-ports, the bay fiiliery is carried
on with great fpirit, and to a large amount. Thatcher's
illand, on which are two lights, lies clofe to the S.E. fide
of the townfhip, which is itfelf joined to the continent by
a bank of fand, that is rarely overflowed with the water.
Here is a fine white fand, fit for the manufafture of glafs.
The harbour is defended by a battery and citadel eretted
in 1795: — 16 miles N.E. by E. of Salem, and 34 N.E.
of Bollon.

Glouce.ster, the N. wcdernmoft townfliip, and the
large'!-, in Providence county, Rhode illand, being \\\
miles fquare, containing 40C9 inhabitants.

Gloucester, the name of a county in New Jerfey,
bounded N. by Burlington county, S. by Salem, Cumber-
lur.d, and Cape May counties, E. by ihe Atlantic ocean,
and W. by Delaware river. Its length on the Delaware
IS about thirty miles, and on the fea it is about 22 miles.
Great and Little Egg harbour rivers are both nuvigable for
veffels of about 2CO tons about 20 miles from their mouths.
The flreams which- fall into Delaware river are navigable for
fmull velTels, a few miles up from their mouths, and afford
fome fhad, roach, herrings, snd per^h. Its adjacent iflands
are Red Bank, Pett, a"nd Old Man's creek. The foil
of the county is a mixture of fand and loam, and
the traft bordering on tlie Delaware is in a high ilate of
cultivation, The chief prcduflions are beef, pork, fifh',

It id divided int"

teiitownfhips, ivs. Woodbury, Waterford, Newtown, Glou-
celler townfliip, Gloucefi;cr town, Dcptford, Greenwich,
Woolwich, Egg harbour, and Galloway. Miilicus river di-
vides the county from Burlington, and is navigable 20
miles for veffels of 60 tons. Maurice river runs fouth-
erly about 40 miles through Cumberland county into Dela-
ware bar, and is navigable for veffels of ico tons 15 miles,,
and for Ihallops 10 miles further. It contains 16,115 inha-
bitants, of whom 61 are flaves. In this county are found
quantities of bog-iron ore, which is mannfaftured into pig^
and bar iron, and hollow ware. Here is alfo a glafs-
houfe. The chief town is Woodbury, nine miles S. of
Pliiladelphia.

Glol CE.STER, a fmall town in the above-mentioned county,-
on the E. fide of Delaware river, three miles below Phila-
delphia.— Alfo, a poll-town in Virginia, in the county of
its own name, on a point of land on the N. fide of York
river, 17 miles dillant from York town.

GLOLCE.sTEn, a county in Virginia, fertile and well culti-
vated, bounded N. by Piankitank river, which feparates it
from Middlefcx, E. by Matthews county and Cliel'apeak
bay, N.W. by King and Queen, S. and S.W. by York
river, which divides it from York county. It is about 5J
miles long and 30 broad, and contains 3272 free inhabitants,
and 4909 flaves. The low lands produce excellent barley^
and Indian corn, the ftaple produce of the county.

Gloucester Houfe, a ftation belonging to the Hudfon-
bay company, fituated in New South Wales, on the N. fide
of the waters which form a communication through a chain-
of fmall lakes, between Winnipeg lake and Albany river.
Henley houfe lies N.E. of this, nearer the moutli of Al-
bany river in James's bay. N. lat. 54°. W. long 87" 30'.
GloucivSTER, a townfliip in the county of Dundas in
Upper Canada, which is the feventh in afcending the Otta-
wa river ; E. of, and contiguous to, the river Rondeau.

Glouce.ster, Cape, a cape on the S. coaft of Terra del
Fuego. — Alfo, a high promontory on the E. coall of New
Holland. S. lat. 19^ 59'. E. long. 148' 11'. — Alfo, a
cape on the coall of New Britain. S. lat 5 54'. E. long.
148^ 15'.

Gloucester IJland, an ifland in the S. Pacific ocean,-
about fix miles long, and from one to a quarter of a mile
broad, difcovered and fo called by captain Wallis m 1 767.
It is furrounded by rocks, full of trees, and inhabited by
perfons who appeared armed with long pikes or poles, but
deflitute of canoes. S. lat 19' 11'. W. long. 14c' 4'.

Gloucester, Duh of, IJlanJs, two iflands in the S.
Pacific ocean, difcovered and fo called by Captain Car-
teret in 1 767, which were covered with trees, but ap-
peared to be uninhabited. The foutheiTimoll of them'
was a flip of land in the form of a half-moon, low,
flat, and fandy ; the appearance of it was pleafont, but it
had n-ither vegetables nor water ; but it abounded with-
birds, fo tame that they might be taken by the hand. The
other ifland veiy much rcfembled this, and is dillant from it
about five or fix leagues ; they lie W.N.W. and E. S. E. oi
each other. One of them is in S. lat. 20" 38'. W. long,.
146°: the other in S. lat. id'' 34'. W. long. 146' 15 ; the
variation 5 ' E. Thefe iflands are probably the land feen-
by Ouiros, as the fituation is nearly the fame.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE, one of the weflern coun-
ties of England, is furrounded by Herefordlhire, Oxford-
fhire, Bcrkfliire, Wiltlhire, Somerfetfhire, and Monmouth-
(hire. It compreh-ends an area of nearly ieventy miles in
one direction, by forty in a traufverfe line. This diflricl,
during the Romaa domination in Britain, \v,is much, occu-

pietf

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

pled by the Romans. Mr. Foftrrooke (one of the hirtoriaiis
of the county) obfcrves, " from t lie ruins whicli have at
various times been excavated, it is evident that this county,
from Cirencellcr to Painfwick, Bifley, Sappcrton, Wood-
chefter, Uley, Kmgfcote, and other adjoiniriff pUices, was
mvich peopled with Romans, or Romanized Britons; that
Cirenceller was the great nietropohs, or refort of pleafiu-e
and amufement ; wliile Gloucelter, and the hills about the
Severn, were the great military pofitioiis ; the city, on ac-
count of the river, having peculiar advantages with refpeft
to commerce." 'I'ire principal Roman roads which patfcd
through this county, were the Ikcnild llrect, the li-
ning or Ermiug Itreet, the Fufs-way, and the Via Julia.
Under the dominion of the Sa.\on?, Gh)ucellerlhlre formed
part of the Mercian kingdoni, and Vv'^inchcombe and King-
ftanlea- arc mentioned as refidertces of the Anglo-Saxon mo-
narchs. On the divifion of Mercia into five biHiopries,
after the converlion of the Saxons, the greateil part of
this county was included under that named Wiccia, and
from this appellation the Dobuni, the early inhabitants
of this part of Britain, were afterwards termed Wiccii.
Gloucefterlhire is feparated into four divifions ; thefe
are fubdivided into twenty-eight hundreds, containing 320
pirifhes, one city, and twenty-eight market towns. The
number of houfes, as returned under the population act,
amounted to 37,276; of inhabitants, 187,164; of wliich
90,237 were males, and 96,927 femsles. The whole county,
with the exception of the chapelries of Icomb, and Cov.hony-
born, is included within the diocefe of Gloucefter ; which
comprehends one arch-deaconry, and ten deaneries. I'he
number of reprefentatives returned to parliament are eight ;
two for the fliire, two for the city, two for Tewkftiury,
and two for Cirencefter. The general afpect of Glouceiler-
ihire is greatly diveriilied ; nature having divided it into
three dillridls of very diflimilar character, reipeiTtivelv named
the Hill, the Vale, and the ForeiL The Hill 'diftrid,
including the Cotfwolds, and the Stroudwater liills, may
be regarded as a continuation of the central chain proceed-
ing fouth from Derbyiliire, and paffing through this county
with a fmaller elevation into Wiltihire ; there fwelling into
the S.ilifbury Downs, and afterv>-ards running weft towards
the Land's End in Cornwall. The extent of the Cots-
wold hills, from Broadway hill to near Tctbury, is thirty
miles ; and from Birdlip hill to Burford, about twenty
miles: the area they include is eftimated, by Mr. Marfliall,
to contain nearly 20o,oco acres. The furface is billowy ;
and the climature, confidering the natural elevation of the
land, unufiially mild. The fides of the hills abound with
fprings ; and almoft every dip has its rill, and every valley
its brook. The primary object of the Cotfwold hulbandry
is fticep ; thefe have been long famous ; and it is a prevading
tradition, that the Spaniards originally proeift-ed their breed
of fine v.'o.olled fheep from thefe hills, though this alfertion
is contradicted by feveral modern writers. The inclofures
are chiefly ftone v,-alls, about four feet and a half higii, ex-
clufive of a coping of flat ilones. The Vale dil'.ricil includes
the entire traft bounded on the eaft by the Cotfwold hills,
and by the river Severn on the weft ; and is ufually fub-
divided into the Vales of Evefliam and Gloucefter, and the
Vale of Berkeley ; the latter of which is feparated from
the former by a natural interfeftion, and is very diiferent in
produce and rural management. The Foreil ditlrift is
ieparaied from the reft of the county by the river Severn ;
and is principally comprehended by the Foreil of Dean,
which was formerly of particular value, for the gocdnefs
and ftrength of its timber. Its oaks v.vre fo gr'-utly re-
Howned that Evelyn cbferves, that in Eliicabelh's reign,

an ambalTador was purpofely fent from Spain to procure it«
deftruclion, either by negociition or treachery. It alfo
abounds in beech ; and the foil is confidertd as peculiarly
favourable for the growth of the Stire apple. It, priu-
cipal minerals are iron, ore, and coal : iron appears to have
been wrought here even in the time of the Romans ; and
fo early as the reign of Edward I. fcvcnty-two furnaces,
for melting iron, are recorded to have been built here.
In a furvey made in the feventeenth year of Charles I. the
foreft is eftimated as originally containing upwards of 43,00c
acres, of whicIi above 14,000 were woodland. Several
thoulaixl acres have, hoxvever, been granted away, by dif-
ferent fovereigns, and difafforelied. Tlie miners liave dif-
timil courts, and, like thofe of Dcrbyfliire and Devonftiire,
are governed by their own cultoms.

The principal rivers conncd^.cd with Glouccfterfiiire, are
tlie Severn, the Frome, the V>'ye, and the Ills or Thames.
Tlie canals that interfeft the county are diftinguiftied by the
names of the Thames and Severn,, the Stroudwater, the
Berkeley, and the Hereford and CTlouctfter. The Severn,
the fecond eommercial river in England, renders cflential
fervice to a large portion of this county. It enters GIou-
ceftecfiiire near the ancient town of Tewkefbury, where,
uniting its waters with the Uj^per Avon, and purfuing a
fouth-weftcrly courfe, it traverfes a wide vale, which is rich-
in pafturage, and in fome places abundantly wooded. About
one mile above Gloucefter, it divides into t«o dreams :-
tliefe again unite a little below the city, forming the tract
of l.inj called Alney ifland. In the eourfe of its padage
thrjugh the county, it receives the ftreams of the Upper
Avon, the Chelt near Wainlode. tlie Leden near Ovec's-
bridge, the Frome at Framiiode, the Avon at Berkeley,
and the Lower Avon below Brillol. The Wve feparates
part of this county from Monmouthfliire and Herefordlhia*,
and forms the grand natural v.eftern boundary to tlie foreft
of Dean, v.hoie noble wooded eminences conllitute many
fine features on its meandering banks. The Thames, the
moft importint of the Brilifli rivers, has its fource in this
county, at a place called the Thames-head, near the village
of Cotes, about two miles foi:th-well of Cirencefter. Near
this place the Thames and Severn canal emerges from under
ground, and receives a conliderable quantity ot water, occa-
fion;dly from this fpring. The junction cf the Thames and
Severn was an objeCl of favourite fpeouhition with the Lon-
don and Briliol merchants for many generations; but was
not completed till near th.e clofe of the laft century, an acl for
that purpofe was obtained in 1783, and the dehgn was
brought to perfeClion in 1792, when the full vefiel paffed
from the Severn into the Tliames. This c.".iial begins at
Wallbridge, near Stroud, (at the place where the Stroud
navigation ends,) and proceeds in a devious eourfe through
the county to Lechlade, where it joins the Thames. This
eourfe includes a diftance of thirty miles, fevcn chains and a
half. Th.e water, in its progrefs from Stroud to Sappertop,-
( fevcn miles three furlongs), is raifed by means of locks
241 feet 3 ir.ches: between Sapperton and Lechbdc it falls
130 feet 6 inches. The Stroadwater canal encounters many
obftaelcs; yet in defiance of all oppofition, an aCt was ob-
tained in 1775, under the operation of which it was finilhcd.
The manufaftures of Glouceftcriliire are numerous:
clothing ftuffs, blankets, rugs, carpets, ftockings, &c. arc
made in different p.irts of the county. Bar iron, cdj^e tools,
wire, nails, and many oth.cr articles, aix- alfo mani.hic"tur«d
-in large qwantilies Near Bridol a«c fome extmlive foun-
derics ; as well as different works for making brals and wire,
vitriol, rcd-kad, ial-ummoiii.ic, &c. At Gloucefter, vail
Quantities of gins aie made; and. at Frampton-Cotlercl is a

conliderable

G L O

conriderable niaimfaftory of folt-tiats. Several authors liave
employed llieir pens in defciibiiig the topoirraphy and aiiti-
quitios of this county : the principal of theie are fir Ilobcrt
Atkins's " Ancient and prefent State of Gloiicei'erlhire,"
fol. 171 2, focond edit. 176>!. Riiddi-r's " New Hillory of
Gloucellerlhire," fol. 1779: Blsland'.; " Hillorical, Monu-
mental, and Genealogical CoUertion.;," Sec. folio, one volume
and part of a fecoud, 1791 : Lyfons's " CoHcaion of Glou-
ccfle.-fliire Antiquities," folio', 1801: Rudge's "Hiilory
of the County of Gloucetler, coniprefled and brought down
to the Year 1S03,'' 2 vols. 8vo. Foftjrooke and Yates's
" HiHory of Gloucellerniire," 2 vols. 410. 1805. " Beau-
ties of England and Walea," vol. v. contains a concife and
general account of the county.

GLOVE, CnrROT)ii:c.A. a habit or covering for tlie
hand and wrift, ufed both for warmth, decency, and as a
fhfltcr from the weather.

Gloves are diftinguifned, with refpeol to commerce, into
leather gloves, filk gloves, thread gloves, cotton gloves,
worlUd gloves, &c.

There are alfo gloves of \elvet, fattin, taffety, &c. Lea-
ther gloves are made of fnamoy, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buif,
Sec. There are alfo perfumed gloves; waihed, glazed,
waxed gloves; and white, black, fnuff-colour, &c. gloves;
fmgle, lined, topped, laced, fringed with gold, lilver, fdk,
fur, &:c.

It is a proverb for a glove to be good and well made,
three kingdoms mufl contribute to it ; Spain to drefa the
leather, France to cut it, and England to few it. But, of
late, the French feem to have appropriated the funiJiions ot
the other two; the gloves of the French manufafture being
now faid to have the advantage, in point of drefling and
fewing, as much as of cutting.

By 34 Geo. in. c. 10. the Brilidi duty on gloves and
mittens impofed by 25 Geo. Ill c. 55. is repealed, except
the duty on licenies; and by 36 Geo III. c. 80. the faid
duty on licences is alfo repealed. By 6 Geo. III. c. 19.
and 25 Geo. III. c. ^^. foreign manufaftured leather gloves
or mitts ihall not be imported, under the penalty of forfei-
ture; and the importer or feller incurs, befides forfeiture,
a penalty of 200/. with double colls.

Glove, to throw the, was a praftice or ceremony very
ufual among our forefathers, being the challenge whereby
another was defied to fingle combat. It is flill retained at
the coronation of our kings, when the king's champion calls
his glove in Weilminfter-hall.

Favyn fuppofes t'lc cullom to have arifen from the eafleru
nations, who, in all their fales and deliveries of lands, goods,
&c. ufed to give the purchafer their glove by way of livery
or inveftiture. To this effeft he quotes Ruth iv. 7 where
the Clialdee paraphrafe calls glove what the common vcrfion
renders by flioe. He adds, that tlie rabbins interpret by
glove, that palfage in the cviiith Pfalm, " In Idumeam ex-
tendam calceamentum meum, Over Edom will I call out my
ftioe.'' Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove,
declared thereby his acceptance of the challenge ; and as
part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the glove off
his own right hand, and ca:l it upon the ground, to be taken
up by the challenger. This had the force of a nuitual en-
gagement on each fide to meet at the time and place which
fhould be appointed by the king, parliament, or jndges.
The fame author aiTerts, that the cuilom which ob-
tained of blefTuig gloves, in the coronation of the kings of
France, is a remain of the eaftern praftice of giving poffef-
fion with t!ie glove. Lib. xvi. ]> 1017, &c.

The delivery of a glove was in frequent ufe formerly, as
a fymbol of inveiliture. See Du Cangc, GlolF. Lat.

G L O

Gloves were alfo ufed to fignify the fleward's or baiiifT's
fee, or pari of the price of the inveftiture or purehafe-money
of the land. " Si aliquam territorii partem vemmdari conti-
gerit, domini venditiones habebunt ; feilicct, tot dcnarios
quot venditor inde habuerit folidos. Major vero terrtc illiui
pro i-jautls accipient duos donarios." Where auant'i figniiies
glofcs, or, in French, gants.

Hence the cummon cullom, in many- bargains, of giving
fervanis money for a pair of gloves.

■ Ar.ciitntly it was prohibited the judges to wear gloves on-
the bench; and at prefent, in the llables of moit; pru.CL .
it is not fafe going in without pulling off the gloves.

GLOVER, Ricii.-VKD, in Biogrrphy, was born at Lcn.
don in 17 12. He received the elementary inllrmSicns in
clafficul learning at Clieam, and exhibited a confiderable
talle for tlie clafllcs, and an attachment to fciencc. Wiien
he was only 1 6 years old, lie wrote a copy of verfes " To
the memory of fir Ifaac Newton," which is prefixed to
Dr. Pembcrton's view of tlie Newtonian philolopliy. lie
engaged in commercial purfuits, and became eminent in the
mercantile world, to which he was introduced by Ins f.iilier.
In 1737, he m^arried a lady with a handfome fortune; and
in the fame year he publidied his epic poem of Leonida^.
Glover had joined the oppofition of the day, at the head
of which was Frederic prince of Wales, and his poem,
founded on the llruggles of free Greece againft Afiatic
delpotifm, was calculated in a high degree to ierve a gene-
rous caufe. It abounds in noble fentiments, and is conlider-
ably varied by incident and defcription. Its plan is admira-
bly adapted for poetical cffedt : it was received by Lyttle-
ton and others with high applaufe, and very foon pnfied
through three editions. " But it labours,'' fays the critic,
" under that want of intereft which attends all modern epics,
efpecially fuch as are built upon lome ot the fubaltern events
of ancient hiilory ; and its poetry is not of a charafter fuffi-
ciently elevated to engage the reader by the beauty of
detached paffages.'' The reputation which it firft acquired
foon fublided, and it now lives rather in memory tlian in
the aftual acquaintance of readers. He publiflied in 1739,
his poem, entitled " London, or the Progrefs ot Commerce:"
and the ballad of " Holler's Glioil." Mr. Glover was not
only a poet but an ardent politician, and v,-as diltinguilhed
in various inllances for his eloquence in the caufe of freedom.
His talents gained him great credit, and he was appointed
by the merchants of London to conduit an application to
p;n-liament, complaining of tlie negleft with which their
tr.'.de had been treated. The fpeech which he pronounced
:it the bar of the houfe of commons on this iubjecl, in
January 1 742, was greatly admired, and was pubhllicd.
His celebrity as a public charafter, did not favour his pro-
grefs in comrrerce ; his affairs became embarrafled ; he was,
to ufe a modern fafliionable phrafe, obliged to fufpend his
payments, and at length retreated from acliive life, to
praiftiie economy in an obfcure fituation The ducheis of
Marlborough bequeathed him, and Mallet, five hundred
pounds each on condition of their joining to write the
hiftory of the great duke. Glover renounced the talk, and
Mal'.et never executed it. He now wrote feveral pieces {or
the llage, whicli being fuccefsful to a confiderable degree
hi:; circumftances became fo much improved, that he ven-
tured to return to public life, and fat as member for Wey-
mouth, in the parliament of 1761. His commercial know-
ledge made him extremely ufeful on feveral important
occafiinis. In the year 1775-, he took an active part in an
application to parliament on behalf of the Weil India
merchants, and for his zeal and alliduity he was coinpli-
niented with a valuable prefent of plate. He died in

November

G L O

Novcnibor 1785. and k-ft Scliiiid him anothor poem, entitled
the '•■ Allicnaid," relating, in thirty bo()l<s, the wars between
the Greeks and Perfians. This was publilhed in 1788, in
three vohimcs I2m<.)., but it faik-d compk'tcly in attradling
public attention.

Glov;;u, in Gco^rnphy, a townfliip of Arm^rica, in the
ftate of Vermont and county of Orleans, N. E. of Crafts-
borough, adjoining. It has 36 inhabitants.

Glovkh'j- Raf, rocks on the bay of Honduras. N. lat.
l6\ W. long. 88 20'.

GLOW-WORM, in Entomikgy. Sec CI^I^•nKI,.^. C<in-
tharh and CicimL/ri have been often ufed, indifcriininately,
for the glow-worm ; but they form two dilUm'l genera of
the fame order in the Linnx-an iyilem. See Cantii.\1{1s.
The gloW-wonn is often feen in the day time.

The male and female differ greatly in this fpecies of infeft.
The male ha.s wings, and is a fmall fly ; the female has no
wings, but is a large crawling worm.

The body of the male is oblong, and fomewhat flatted ;
the wings are fltortcr than the body ; the head is broad, dun,
and flat ; the eyes are large and black. This has no light
iffuing from it, and is not commonly fuppofed to be at all
of kin to the glow-worm.

The female is what we exprefsly call by this name ; this
is a very flow-paced animal, without wings, and fomewhat
refembling a caterpillar ; the head is fmall, flat, hard, and
black, and fliarp towards the mouth : it has fliort antenna,
ar.d fix moderately long legs ; the body is flat, and is com-
pofed of twelve rings, irhcreas the body of the male confifts
0!)ly of five ; it is of a du&y colour, with a ftreak of white
dov.-n the back. It is often feen in the day-time, but it is
not known except in the dark ; at which time it is eaiily
diftinguiftied by the glowing light, or lambent flame, that is
feen near the tail, iflTuing from the under part of the
body.

Tlie common glow-worm is frequently met witli under
our hedges, and, if carefully taken up, may be kept alive
many days on frefh turfs of grafs ; all which time it will
eontinue to fliine in the dark.

The light of this little infeft is fo rtrong, that it will (hew
itfelf through feveral fubilances, in which the creature may
be put up ; a thin pill-box eafily (hews it through, and even
though lined with paper, the light is not impeded in its
pafTage by both. The creature is fluggifli, and appears
dead in the day-time, and its light is not diilinguifliable,
even if carried into a darkened room, unlefs the creature be
turned upon its back, and diflurbed, fo as to be put in
motion, and then it is but very faint ; after fun-fct the light
begins to return, and with it the life and motion of the
animal. The motion and light of this creature feem, in
fome meafure, to deper.d upon one another ; it never fhine.s
but when the body is in fome fort of motion ; and when it
Ihines moll, the body is extended to one-third more than its
k-ngth in the day-time. In the time of brighteil fr.ining, it
will fometimes on a fudden turn its body about, and the
light will not be larger than the head oF a pin ; and, 011
being touched, it will then immediately extend itfelf, and
the light will become as large and bright as ever. Phil.
Tranf. N" 71.

Two points feem to be agreed upon by natnralifts, with
regard to the light ifTuing from the tail of a glow-worm ;
firit, that it is phofphoric, and fecondly, that its ufe is to
attraft the male infeft. Should the iingularity, if any
fiich there be, in the natural hiflory of thi'-. animal, which
fliDuld render a proviflon of this kind niore i:cce!rary for the
glow-worm, thin for other infefts, be a fubjeft of inquiry ;
it may be obiirved that this llngiJarity Jeen-.s to be the

G L O

difference, which fubfifts between the male and the female,
which diderencc is greater than what is found in any other
fjjecies of animal wliatever. The glow-worm, as we have
()bfervcd, is a female caterpiihir, the male of nhicli is a fly ;
lively, comparatively fmall, difliinilir to the female in ap-
pearance, probably alfo as dill.ngui(hcd from her in habits,
purfuits, and manners, as he is unlike in form and external
conftitution. Hence it appears, that the caterpillar cannot
lueet her companion in the air. The winged rover di("daiiis
the ground. They might never therefore be bro ght toge-
ther, did not this radiant torch direct the volatile mate to
his fedentary fcinale.

" In this example,'' fays the ingenious author now cited,
" we fee the refources of art anticipated. One grand opera-
tion of chemiftry is the making of phofphorusj and it was
thought an ingenious device, to make phofphoric matches
lupply the place of lighted tapers. Now this very thing is
done in the body of the glow-worm. The phofphorus is not
only made, but kindled ; and caufed to emit a fteady and
genial beam, for the purpofe which is here Hated, and whiet
I believe to be the true one."' Palcy's Natural Theology,

tjj.ow-rvorm, Flying, ciandria I'olans. In the warmer
months of the year, this creature is fometimes caught in our
houfes flying to the flame of a candle, ;md when examined
in the dark, it is found luminous at thefc times, though
perhaps lei's-, or not at all fo, at others ; which may be a
reafon of its not being known, though caught in the fields ;
and to this it may be owing-, that many who have dcfcribtd
it have thought it not a native of England. Without wings
It is frequently enough found iu form of the common glow-
worm, and then always (hines. Aldrovand has very well
defcribed the dchirlela vohws, and fays, that it lays eggs
which hatch into fmall worms, and that thefc after a timt;
beconie flies, by the fame fort of change wliich happens to
caterpillars and other reptiles which become butterflies, and
other fpecies of w-ingeJ infers. Mouffett, and Thomas
Barthoiine, both defcribe the animal much as Aldrovand
has done, but they allow the male only to have wings ; but
Juhus Scaliger contradiifls this, and fays, that he has caught
them both winged in the aft of generation : this is a plain
proof that both fexes are wingod ; yet it has not happened
that both fexes have been acknowledged to be fo, even by
thofe who have quoted this palTnge. And Mr. Waller,
who gives an account of them in the Philofopliical Tranf-
aftions, obfervcd them in the fame manner in the aCt of
copukition both winged, and with no other difference be-
tween them but that th? female was the larger of the two,
which is the cafe in regard to many infcfts. Julius Scalig.
Excrc. 191. Pl-.il. Tranf N 167, p. 841.

The male and female in this -winged Hate both fliine in hot
weather, and their light is fo vivid as to be eafily feen even
while there is xi candle in tlie room ; the vibrations of it are
iiTcgular and its colour greenilh. The luminou» parts arc two
fmall fpecks under th.- tail at the end, and the light continues
in thcfe fome time after the tail is cutott, but then gradually
goes o-ut.

The parts of infefts continue alive iu fome degree for a
conhderable time after they are cut off, and probably the hght
in the tail of this animal continues jull as long as tkat lort
of life remains in it. MouiFett, cap. 15.

The ufe of tliis light feenis to be to direft the animal in its
coiirfc, and in the taking of its prey, and to this purpofe it
is admirably placed. The tail is eaiily bent under the btlly, and.
then throws the light full upon any objedl about or under the
head of the animal, and tiie eyes are placed not on the upper
part but. on tlie under f:de ot the head; fo tkiL they haTe-
^ all

G L O

all the advantages of it, vvliile the liglil 'in this part is not of-
fenlive to the eyes, as it naturally would have been if carried
before the head. The creature can, upon occafion, cover
this light, fo as not to be known, or purfned by it, by-
its enemies. Thomas Barthol. de Luce Anim. lib. ii.
cap. 12.

This infecl is of the beetle kind, of a brown and duflcy
colour. It has hard cafe or (hell wings, as the other beetles
iiave, and when thefe are expanded, thei-e appear a pair of
verv lai'ffc mciubranous ones ; its head is covered with a fort
of (hield or broad-ln-immcd hat ,; under this hat arc placed the
eyes, which are black and large, and are moveable, fo that the
creature can, upon occal'.on, thrull them forward : it has two
hairy anteunx, and iti •legs are like tl-.ofe of the common fly,
hard, {'lelly, and hairy. Its eyes afford an elegant objeft for the
ir.icrofcope, being compofcd of an infinite number of leufcs,
asthofe of the libclhc.and other infetls. Aldrovand. de
Iflfedl. lib. i. cap. 8.

GLOXINIA, in Botany, named by the late M. L'He-
vitier in honour of Dr. Benjamin Peter Gloxiu, a native of
Colmar, in whofe inaugural diti'ertatiou, publidied at Straf-
burg in 1785, are given the- charadlers of i!/rf/-/)'/;/<2 and fome
nrin-hljouring genera, among which the plant now under
our confideration is comprehended. The fame work alfo
contains the firft defcription and iigure of the Salvia Lonii-
roidi-s, imnecefiarily changed by L'Heritier afterwards to
S.formofa ; and one of Cyperus agyptiaciu, whicli proved the
Schoeniis nmcraiatus of Linnaeus. L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. 149.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 331. Willd. Sp. PL v. 3. 229. Mart.
Mill. Ditt. V. 2. Clafs and order, Didynanun Angiofpcnina.
Nat. Ord. Perfonatcc, lAna. Campanulacca, Jul!.? or rather a
new order, dillinguiflied by lateral, not marginal, recepta-
cles of the feeds. JiiJ".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five oblong, fpread-
ing, neai-ly equal leaves. Cor. of one petal, obliquely bell-
(luipcd ; gibbous at the bafe ; its border in five rounded ob-
t-id'e lobes, the four uppermoft recurved, the lower one pro-
minent, concave and inflexed. Slam. Filaments four, much
fliorter than the corolla, with the rudiment of a fifth ; in-
ferted into the receptacle, connefted with the bafe of the
corolla, incurved, downy, converging laterally in the upper
part, two of them rather the (hortell ; anthers ovate, peltate,
two-celled, cohering together, their lobes diverging. Pifi.
Germen inferior, turbinate, furrowed ; ftylc cylindrical, as
long as the ilamens ; fligma capitate. Peric. Capfule imper-
feftlv two-celled, with two valves, and two lateral divided
receptacles. Surds numerous.

Efl" Ch. Calyx fuperior, of five leaves. Corolla bell-fliaped,
with an oblique irregular border. Filaments, with the
rudiment of a fifth, inferted into the receptacle. Capfule
with many feeds, inferted into lateral receptacles.

l.G.macuIdla. Curt. Mag. t. 1 191. (Martvnia pcrennis ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 862. Hort. Chff. t. 18. Ehret. Pict. t 9. f. 2.

Mart. Mill. Dirt. v. 3 Native of South America ; the ftcds

having been fent from Carthagena by Mr. Robert Millar, be-
fore 1739- It requires with us the confi:ant heat of a bark
ftove, by means of which it flowers late in autumn. It is
propagated abundantly by the little tuberous roots, which
are perennial. The Jlem is herbaceous, fimple, leafy, round,
very fmooth, fpotted with purple. Leaves large, oppofite, re-
curved, ftalked, broad-ovate, acute, ferrated, fmooth and
(hining, pale at the back, with prominent Teins. Flowers
axillary from the diminifhed leaves, or brafteas, at the upper
part of the ilem., folitary, ftalked, large, drooping, of a
line blue with a dark fpot at the bottom within. Their fcent
is very ptculiar, rcfembling mint, which no writer feems to
Jiave noticed. I

G L U

■GI>UBOKAIA, \u Geography, A lownoi RufTia, in the
government of Kolyvan ; 72 miles E. of Semipolatnoi.

GLUCHOV, or Gr.UKiloi', a town and dillrift of No-
vogorod tievcrfkoi, fituateJ on the river Yefma, falling inta
the Seim ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Novogorod Severflcoi.

GLUCK, le Chevalier Cjini.sToriiEU, in Biography, a mu-
fical compofer of great fire and originality, who, durmg the laft
30 or 40 years of the preceding century, acquired great re-
nown, but chiefly in Franc;-, by a fpetics of compofition,
congenial to the national t.ifte, which Lulli and Rameau had
formed, and in whicli the Ihort and llmple airs required no
great abilities in the fingers ; but the dramas beini'- written
in the language of the country, and the poet being regarded
as a mucli more important p-..rlonage than the compofer of
the mufic, the feveral charafters required great aftors lather
than great fingers.

This eminent compofer was born in the Palatinate, of a poor
family, aVjout the year 17 16. His fatlior, during the infan-
cy of his fon, removed into Bohemia, where he died, leaving
his offspring in early youth, without any provifion, fo that
his education was totally neglected ; but nature had given
hira an inflinftive love for mufic, which is taught to all chil-
dren, with reading and writing, in the Boliemian fchools, whe-
ther of charity or iupcrior foundations, in all the towns and
villages ; in churches and in the ftreets. men, women, and
children fing in parts, and play upon fome inftrument, and often
on many inilruments. This was the cafe Vi-ith the young
Chriftopher, who travelled about from town to town, fup-
porting liimfelf by his talents till he had worked his way to
Vienna, where he met with a nobleman who became liis pa-
tron, took him into his fervice, carried him into Italy, where
he procured him lelTons in counterpoint, at Naples, by which
he profited fo well, that before he left Italy he compofed fe-
veral dramas for difierent theatres, which acquired him repu.«
t-ation fufficient to be recommended to lord Middlefex as a
compoler to our lyric theatre in the Haymarket, then under
his lordfliip's direction. But, unluckily, arrivmgin England
in 1745, after his firft opera of " Artamene" had been per-
formed ten nights, in which the famous air " Rafferena il
mefto ciglio," fung by Monticclli, was conftantly en-
cored, the rebellion broke out, and the great Opera-houfe wa»
fliut up, on account of the popular prejudice againft the per-
formers, whc, being foreigners, were chiefly Roman Catho-
1 ics. Nur was the Opera-houfe allowed to be opened agaiii,
till .January yth, 1746, when "la Caduta de' Giganti," fet
by Gluck, v.as performed before the duke of Cumberland, in
compliment to whom the -whole was written and compofed.
The fingers were Monticelli, Jozzi, aud Ciacchi ; with fig-
nora In.er, Pompcati, afterwards better known by the name
of madarae Cornelie, and Frafi. The firft woman, Imer,
never lurpafied mediocrity in voice, taftc, or aftion ; and the
Pompeati, though nominally ftcond woman, had fuch a
mafculine and violent manner of finging, that few female
fymptonis were perccjtible. The new dances by Auretti,
and the charming Violctta, afterwards Mrs. Garrick, were
much more applauded than the foiigs, which, however, for the
time, hadconfiderable m< rit. The firft air in G. minor is cf
an original caft. but monotonous. The fecond air has genius
and defign in it. I'hen a duet, in wliich he hazarded many
new paflages and effects. The following air, for Monticelh,
is very original in fymphony and accompaniments which a
little difturbed the voice-part in jjcrformance, we well re-
member, and Monticelli called it aria tedefea. His con-
temporaries in Italy, at this time, fecmed too much filed
down ; and he wanted the file, which, when ufed afterivards
in that country, made him one of the greatcft compofers-of
his time. The next air printed, is m a very peculiar inea-

fitre,

1

G L U C K.

fiire, nnd like no other that we recollect : it has great merit
of novelty and accomjiaiiiiiiciit ; the voice-part wants only a
little more grace and quiet. The following fong, fct for
Jozzi, a good mufician with little voice, is full of new and
ingenious pafTages and cfTefts ; we (hould like much to hear
tliis air well performed at the opera ; it is kept alive from
beginning to end. Soinething might be cxpetled from a
young man able to produce this opera, imperfeft as it was.
It had, however, but five reprcfentations.

From London he returned to Italy, and compofed fevera!
op'.'ras in the ftyle of the times, fuch as tliat of Terradeglas,
Galuppi, and JomL-lli ; and we heard little of him till he en-
lifted v.ith the Italian poet Calfabigi, with whom he ;oined
in a confpiracy againft the poetry and mufic of the mclo-dra-
ina then in vogi'.tMn Italy and all over F.urope.

It is extraordinary that Calfabigi, editor of the beautiful
Paris edition of th.e works of Metallafio in 1755, in the
preface to which there is the higheft and feemiiigly moil cor-
dial praifc of the works of the imperial laureate, iliould be
tlie firft, ten years after, to find them io defective ; writing his
" Orfeo" in a different ilyle, and joining with Gluck in de-
crying t:;e lyric ftyle botli of tl-.e mufic aiid poetry of the
Italian opera.

In 1764, tho year in which the late emperor Jofeph was
ci'owned king of the Romans, Gluck was the compofer, and
GuEda;;-ni the principal linger. It was in this year that a fpe-
cies of dramatic mufic, different from that which then reigned
ill Italv, was attempted by Gluek in his famous opera of
" Orf.-o," v.hich, witli Guadagni's admirable aftion, fuc-
ceeded fo well, that it was foon after attempted in otlier
parts of Europe, particularly at Parma and Paris. Tiiis is
r.ot the place to difcufs its merit ; v^-e (hall here only obferve,
tliat the timplifying dramatic mullc in Gluck's manner, in fa-
vour of the poet, at the expence of the compofer and finger,
is certainlv very rational, where an opera is performed in tliL-
language of the country, and the nngerr. have no grjat abilities
to difplay, as in prance ; but in England, where we have fre-
quently fingers of uncommon talents, and where fo fmall a
pai"t of an opera audience underftands Italian, by abridging
the fymphonies, and prohibiting divilions and lural cadences,
in favour of an uninteUigible drama, we fhould loie more
than we fhould gain.

After its fuceefs at Parma and Paris, " Orfeo'' was ex-
hibited at Bologna, Naples, and in 1770 in London ; when
the principal parts were filled by Guadagni and Grafli, after-
\Vards Mrs. Bach.

The unity, fimplicity, and new dramatic excellence, which
at Vienna, and afterwards at Paris, rendered this drama fo
intereiling as to make the audience think more of the poet
than the compofer, were greatly diminifhed here, by the he-
terogeneous mixture of mufic of other compofers in a totally
different ilyle.

In 1769, Calfabigi and Gluck, encouraged by the fuc-
eefs of " Orfeo," produced " Alcefle," a fecond opera, on
the reformed plan, at Vienna, which received even more ap-
p'laufe than the tirtt. In 177 i, the fame poet and mufician
brought a third opera, " Pande ed Helena," on the fUge at
Vienna, written and compofed in the fame new, or rather
old, French Itvle, with better mufic, in v.hich Millieo was
lb-- princijial finger, and which afforded the audience lucli
pleafure as feemed to have imprefred the lovers of mufic
in the imperial capital with a partiality for that fpecies
of dramatic mulie, which was not likely to be foon ob-
literated.

In J 772, Gh:ck fet to mufic an opera taken from Racine's
" Iphigenie," in v.'hich he fo far accommodated liimtelf to
the national tafte aiicl ftyle of Fraiite, as ireijtieiitly to ijni-
•VoL. XVI.

tate and adopt them. And as tliis opera was intended for
Paris, his friends feared for its fuccc s, as there was fre-
qu-'ntly mcioii\, and always meafure, in hi, mufic, though fet
to French luortlj, and for afirious French opciM.

But the year 1774 ^'•'^^ r-ndercd a remarkable era in the
annals of French mufic, by t!ie arrival of the chevalier Gluck
at Pari--, whofe operas. Ijy Lis conforming to ihc gm.vs of
the French language, and flattering the ancient natii^iial tafic,
were received with acclamation. He began his carver in this
capital by hi< celebrated opera of " Orphce," of which tl e
reputation v. as already eftabliflicd ; and this was followed by
" Iphiguiie," taken from one of Racine's beft tragedies,
which had all the fuceefs that may be itnagincd from the
force of his genius applied to a favourite drama, fet in the
ftyl.- of their favourite compofers, Lulli and Rameau,

In his opera of " Cythere AITiegce," 177J, where m.ore
delicacy and tendernefa, than force, were required in the com-
poiition, he was not fo fuccefsfiil Nor was his " Alccftc,"
the year following, received with the fame rapture ?.s at Vi-
enna. Indeed his " Armide," in 1777, did not quite ful-
fil the ideas of grace, tenderncfs, and pathos, which fome of
the fcenes required, and auditors accullomed to Italian mufic
expefted : however, his operas were excellent preparations
for a better ftyle of compofition than the French had been
ufld to ; as the recitative was more rapid and tlie airs more
marked, than in Lulli and Rameau : there were likewife more
energy, fire, and variety of move.ment, in his airs in general,
and infinitely more force and effect in hisexpreflion of grief,
fear, rcmorfe, vengeance, and all the violent paflions.

Gluck's mufic is fo truly dramatic, that the airs and
fcenes, which have the grcateil efilcl on the llagc, are cold,
or rude, in a concert. The fituation, context, and intercft,
gradually excited in tl:e audience, give them their force and
energy.

Indeed, he feems fo much the national mufician of France,
that fince the -jeft days of Rameau, iki dramatic compofer has
excited fo much entlmfiafm, or had his pieces fo frequently per-
formed. It has been faid in the " Journal de Paris," that
each of his pieces had fupported two or three hundred rcprc-
f'ntations. The French, who feel very enthufiaftically what-
ever mufic they like, heard with great rapture the operas of
Gluck, which even the enemies of \\\i genre allowed to have
great merit of a certain kind ; but though there is much
realgenuis and intrinfic worth in the dramatic compofitions of
this mailer, the congeniahty of his ftyle with that of their
old national favourites, Lulli and Rameau, was no fm^dl me-
rit with the friends of that muiic. The almolt univcrfal cry
at Paris was now, that he iiad recovered the dramatic mufic
of the ancient Greek;; ; that there was no other worth hear-
ing; tliat he was tlie only mufician in Europe who knew how
to exprefs the paflions ; thele and other encomiums prepara-
lorv to his apotheofis, were satcred and publiflied in the jour-
nals and iiev.fpapers of Paris, accompanied with conllant and
lontempt nous ceiifures of Italian mufic, when Piccini arrived.
This admirable compofer, the delight and pride of Naples, as
Gluek of \ienna, liad no f'ooner erected liis " indard in France,
tluui ;ill the friends of ll;ilian mufic, of R'lutl'eau'.^ doflrines,
and of the plan, if not the language, of Metallafio's cr.unas,
enliiled m his ferviee. A furious war broke out, all Paris was
on the ijii! vii-e ? No door was opened to a \ ifitor, without this
quelHon being afked pivvioustohis admiilion : " Monfieur!
elKs vous Piccjnifte ou Gluckifte ?'' Thefe difputes, and thofe
of mulioal critics, and rival aitiils throughout the k-ngd )m,
feeiii to us to have loured and diminifhed tlie pleafure arifing
fro;r, mufic in proporliiin as tlx ari !: ■.-. advanced to pt . v. er .->».
^Vheu every j V.i-ak '•> 1 pfl.'ue in a !rv;:i,-i! coi. nofition 1. to
be aiialyfwl and JifTcaed during peiiormBncc, ali dilight .i.id
n. B eiitnufialn

G L U

pnthiifiafm vani<h, and the whole becomes a pi'jce ol" told
mechanifm. It is ci-rtainlv nccclTary for profcffors to lludy
caiife and effect, and to make thcmfelvcs well acquainted with
t!ie fundamental rules of their art ; but \vc would advi(e true
lovers of niulic to ////Vn more than talk, and give way to their
feelings, nor lofe the plcafurc which melody, harmony, and
expreffion ought to give, in idle enquiries into the nature and
accuracy of tlieir auricular ftnfation.

The cliovalier Gluck, after returning to Vienna fnim Pa-
ris, and being rendered incapable of writing by a paralytic
ftrokein 1784, only lingered in a debilitated Hate till the au-
tumn of 1787, wlien he died at the age of fevcnty-three.

Gluck had great merit as a bold, daring, nervous com-
pofer ; and as fuch, in his French operas, he was unrivalled.
But he was not fo univerfal as to be exclufively admired and
praifed at th? expence of all other compofers ancient and
modern. His flyle was peculiarly convenient to France,
where there were no good fingers, and where no good
iinging was expected or underilood by the public in ge-
neral ; and where the poetry was fel up againft mulic,_with-
out al!o\ving equality, or even an opportunity of m;;n:teiliiig
her moll captivaling vocal powers.

It is, however, allowed by an exclufive admirer of Gluck,
in the Encycl. Meth., th.at " the Italians have the glory of
having furnilhed examples of almoil every kind of beauty
of which mufic is fufceplible, and of having diffeminated
their talfe in every part of Europe ;" but adds, that " France
will owe to the celebrated Gluck the having firft conceived
the fv'ilem of a mufic truly dramatic, and our theatre w;U
fui-niih true models of it lo o.her nations, and to poilerity.
Let us halleu to (leal from the Italians and the Germans the
glory of laying t'le true foundation of a mufical fyilem and
of transforming the moll amiable and touching of arts, into
a fcience a; interciling as it is fertile."

Gluck, in a moment oi fraiichife, over a bottle, faid " the
French area very good fort of people, who love mufic, and
want fings ia their op;ra? ; but they have no fingers." And
Sacclnni, being a(l<ed liow his opt> r» vvere executed at Paris,
faid, " Godf;>rb:d I f.iould ever go to hear them perform-
ed!'' Andtlicfeare the people who are to furmlh models
of dramatic mufic to Italy, and to all the relk of Earopc !
. GLUCKSBURG, in dc^^rnphy, a town of Denrn^ark,
with a fortrcfs, m the duchy of bk-lwick ; nine miies E. of
Flenlburg.

GLUCKSTADT, a fea-port town ef Germany, in
the duchy of Holllein, belonging to Denmark, fituated on
the Elbe. This tov.'n is regular and well-buih, and its mar-
ket place comm.ands ihe chief llreets. Several canals run
through it, and the principal one erodes near the market
place, and is here connefted with anctlier, which divides the
town into tv.o nearly equal parts. Ou the land lidc it may
be laid under water. Glucklladt is the feat of the king's
regency, and of the ofEces and courts connedted with it.
Here is alfo a granunar-fchool. The Calvinills are permitted
to have a church, the Roman Catholics a chapel, and the
Jews a fynagogue. In 1738a commercial college was in-
ftituted here by king Chrillian VI., as it was a place of
fome trade; and in 1750, king Frederic V. ellablilhed an
ofhce for keeping the harbour, adjoining to which is a bafin
for the reception of vefTels, in good condition. Gluckftadt
was built in 1620 by permiffion of Chriilian IV. in a waile
called the Wildernefs, and in the patent granted to it, he
ordered that it ih.iuld be called Glucklladt, or the Fortunate
Town ; he alfo conferred upon it many cufloms, rights and
privileges, fuch as were enjoyed by the town of Wilier ;
and it was fooa aiter invelled v. ith th* Lubeck and Ham-

G L U

burgh rights. It is diftant 28 miles N.W. from liamburglu
N. lat. 53 51'. E. long. 9 20'.

GLUE, Gl.LiTEK, a vifcid, tenacious matter, fcrving as
a cement to bind or connect divers things together.

Tliere arc divers kinds of glues made ufe of in the divers
arts ; as the common glue, glove glue, parchment glue : but
thetwola;l are more properly called y;ac.

The common or llrong glue is a commodity ufed by
numerous kinds of artificers ; as joiners, cabinet-maker?,
cale-makers, hatters, book-binders, &:c and the cunfumption
thereof is very conliderable. The bell is that made in Eng-
land, in fquare pieces of a ruddy brown colour : Flanders
glue, which is whitilh and tranfparent, ii held the next after
the Eiighlh. The moll ordinaiy glue of France is black
and opaque.

Glue is made of the (kins of all kinds of beads ; as oxen,
cows, calves, (heep, &c. The older t!ie beall is, the better
is the glue that is made of its hide. Indeed, it is rare they
ufe whole fl-ciiis for this purpo.^c ; thofe being capable of
being app'ied to better purpofe ; but they make ufe of the
fliavings, parings, or fcraps of the hides, and alfo horns ;
and foip.etimes they make it of the feet, fuiews, nerves, &c.
of heads ; and alio of tlie pelts obtained from furriers.

That made of whole llcins is the befl , and that of finews,
iiC. the word : and hence, chiefly, arifjs tlic difference of
glues, and the advantage of Englilh and Flemifli glues.

Glue, method of making Mr. Clennell, in the Monthly

Magazine for 1802, gives the following llatcmcst of the
general mode of its manufacture. Tne materials above
cimmerateJ are " iirll digelted in lime-v.ater, to cleanfe tiiem
from greale or dirt ; they are then ileeped in clean water
with frequent (lirring, and afterwards laid in a heap and tl;e
water preiTcd out. They are then boiled in a large brafs
cauldron with clean water, fcuir.nnng off the dirt as it rifes,
and it is further cleanfed by putting in, after the whole is
diffolved, a little melted alum or lime finely powdered. The
icumming is continued for fome time, after which the mafs
is drained through badtets, and fuffered to fettle, that the
remaining impurities may fubfide. It is then poured gra-
dually into the kettle again, and further evaporated by boil-
ir.g and fcumming, till it becomes of a ckar dark brownifh
colour. When it is thought to be drong enough, it is pourtd
into frames or moulds about fix feet long, one broad, and
two deep, where it gradually liardens as it cools, and is cut
out when cold by a fpade into fquare cakes. E.ich of thefe
is placed in a fort of wooden box open in three divifions to
the back; in this the glue, while yet foft, is cut into three
llices, by an inllrument like a bow, with a brafs wire for its
ilring. The dices are then taken out into the open air, and
dried on a kind of coarfe net-work, faftened in moveable
fheds four feet fquare, which are placed in rows in the glue
maker's field. When perfectly dry and liard it is fit for fale.
That is thought to be tlie bell glue which fxvells conhderably
without melting by three or tour days' imnurfion in cold
water, and recovers its former dimenlions and properties by
drying. Glue that has got froll, or that looks thick and
black, diould be melted over again. To know good from
bad glue, the purchafcr diouId hold it bet\seen his eye and
the light, and if it appears of a Ihong dark colour, and free
from cloudy and black fpots, the article is good.'' Vvhen
glue is ufed by the carpenters, they break it and foak it for
about 24 hours in cold water ; and tlien melt the leaked
pxecesj caufing it to fimmer for a quarter of an liour over a
flow tire and frequently (lirring it. W hen.cooled it becomes
a firm gelly, which may be cut by any inllrument. It is
merely warmed for ufe, and in ihis ftatc fpread over the
furfaceof the wood with a ilifi brufh. In an interval from

one

i

G L U

one to tliree days tlie pieces of wood will be fo perfcclly ce-
niCHtcd, that boards, thus cclicring, will as ri.-?.dily break in
any part as feparate at th? jiiiittioi;. Glued boards will not
fet in a freezing tempcratnre; the ilifFcning being occalloncd
by the evaporation of the fuperflnnus matter of the glue,
whicii is prevented by a confidcrable degree of cold.
Glue, Bees. See Wax.

Glue, Fyh, is a lort of glue made of the nervous and mu-
cilaginous jjarls of a large fiili, found chieily in the Ruffian
feas.

Thcfe parts, being boiled, bear a near rcferr.hlance to that
vifcid matter found on the ftins of cod-fi(li Wlven boiled
to the confiftence of a jolly, thev fjinad it on a leaf of
•paper, and tonn itii;to cakes; in which ftatc it is fcnt to us.
Filh-glue is of confidorahle ;ife in medicine, and divers
others arts; where it is better known under the name of
ii'mglais and ichthvocolla. See IsiNtJLAW.

A flrong ai.d nnc gluo may be prepared with ifinglafs and
fpirit of wine thus: fteep the ilinglafs for twenty-four houi's
M fpirit of wine or common brandy. When the meiiilruum
lias opened and mollified the ifinglafs, they mull be genllv
boiled together, and kept ihrring till they appear well
mixed, and till a drop th.ereof, fulTcred to cool, prefcntiy
turn? to a Itroii;;- jelly. Then Rrain it, while hot, through
a clean iinen cloth, into a veiTcl to be kept clofe Hopped.
A gentle heat luffics to diiTolve this glue into a tranfparent
and almoit colourlels fluid, but very ihxmg; fo that pieces
of wood, glued together with it, will feparate elfewhcre
than in the parts joined. Boyle's Works abridg. vol. i.
p. 130.

A ftrong compound glue may be niade by infufing a mix-
ture of common glue, in fmall pieces, with ifinglafs glue,
■in. as much Ipirit of wine as will cover them, tor about
twenty-four hours: then melt the whole together, and add
as much powdered chalk as will make it an opaque white.

A ftrong glue, that will refill moifture, may be obtained
by diffolving gum fandarac and maftic, of each two ounces,
in a pint of fpirit of wine, and adding about an ounce of
clear turpentine: then take equal parts of ilinglafs and
parchment glue, and having pounded them into fmall pieces,
pour the folui ion of the gums upon them, and melt the mix-
ture in a covered veffel, with a heat lefs than that of boiling
water: then ilrain the glue through a coarfe linen cloth,
and putting it again over the fire, add about an ounce of
po\\'dcrcd glafs.

Or, a llroiig ghie, that will refill water, may be made
bv adding lialf a pound of common ifinglals glue to two
. quarts of Ikimmcd milk, and evaporating the mixture to a
• Cupconfillcnce.

A glue, that will hold againfl fire and water, may be
made by mixing a handful of quick-lime with tour ounces
■of linfeed oil, boihng them to a good thicknefs, and
fpreading the mixtiiR^ on tin plates in the (liade : it will thus
become exceeding hard, but will eafily be dilTolved over a
^re, and be fit for ufe. See C.t;MKXT.

GLUMA, a h'lifk, in BoUmy, is the peculi.ir calyx of

grafl'es and grafs-hke plants, and indeed their corolla, at

-lead what is fo termed by Linnseus, is of the fame chafly

■nature. Huflcs or Glumes are ufuallv comprelfed, embracing

each other at the bafe ; more rarely thev are deprelied, flat-

'ttned vertical! V, as i Onaking-grafsor Briza. To thehuilc

belongs the ari/!a or awp, (fee AliLsiW,) which is a briille-

ihaped appendage, ufnal'y fpiral, and poffeffing the pro-

-pertics of an hvgi-omotcr. It originates from the midrib or

kee! of the hul1<, and in either terminal or dorfal, being in

-he latter cafe placed fometiincs verj' far do^vn the back of

•!.f huik, i.s ill rriany fpcc es of jiiK'ia., and in thcfe inilanccs

G L U

it belong .^ to the glumes that conftitute the cQrolLi, not the
calyx. The arl/la, though fo remarkable, is by i;o means
always conflant in the fame fpeeics, tliough nearly invariably
foil! the flowers of the fame individual phmt.

Hufes are moflly furnifl-.cd with one central longitudinal
rib, though the inner j/;/)?;* of the corolla in grafles have two
nearly marginal o:ies. They have in mod inllaiices, befidis
the centra! rib, a greater or lefs number of lateral ones, all
likewife longitudiirdl, of great ufe in difl.ingnifiiing fpccics of
Poa and other difficult genera. Tliiir margin is commonly
thiii and more or lefs membranous or fcariofc. Some glumg
always remain feparate and diftinft from the feed which they
commonly enfold ; others are clofcly incorporated with that
jiart as it ripens, of whicii a curious example n-.ay be fccn in
Bri%a.

Some forts of viviparous grafles exemplify the trans-
formation of glumes into leaves in a remarkable maimer, the
awn remaining at (he fummit being perhaps the only indica-
tion of their original nature. See jlira Uvigalti, En^I.
Bot. I. 2 1 02. The fame metamoqihofis of a petal into a
leaf is indeed not rarely fecn in a Tuhp and other cultivated
flowers. We have a wild fpecirr.eii of a fimilar change in
tl;e ylnevKre a!pir.a, part of whofe leafy involucrum is be-
come a perfect petal.

Glumes are, we believe, invariably permanent, never de-
ciduous, till the feed ripens, when thofe of the corolla fall
off along with the feed, ferving the purpofe of a fcricar-
p:um.

GLUMACEOUS Flowers, a term applied by fomr
botanills to the flowers of the natural order of gralFcs,
expreffive of their chaify nature.

GLUMMEN, in Geography, a town of Prufiia, in the
province of Nstangen ; 24 miles S. of Konigihcrg.

GLURANTZ, or Gluks, a town of the county of
Tyrol, fituated on the river Adige, built in 1362, and fur-
rounded with walls in 1530. It wast^.ken by the French in
1799 ; 36 miles W. of Brixen. N. Lt. 46 38'. E. long.
10 26'.

GLUS, in Surgery, a fpecies of dyfury, attended with a
copious quantity of mucus in the bladder. Hence, tlie ma-
lady has been named elyfuria mucofa.

GLUT, Mnong Falconers, the flimy fuVilance that lies in
a hawk's paunch.

Glut, in Rural Eccnomy, a term fomctimes provincially
applied to a large wooden wedge.

GLUTA, in Botany, fo called by I.innneus, from thf
Latin word glulus, thru!l clofe togetlier, in allulion to the
clofe application of the claws of the petals ti.> tb^- llalk which
elevates the organs of frurtification. Profeflbr Martyii
feems not to have been a« arc of this derivation. We are led
to it bv the repeated indication of the circumtlance in Lin-
na;us, and his ufe of the word aitghitiruita, even in the
generic character, as well as in his iubfequcnt obferrations.
Linn. Mant. 2. 160. Syil. Veg Ed. 14. 82:. Schreb. 146.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1 120. Mart. Mill. Dicl. v. ». Jufi
427. Clafs and order, PenUndria Alons^'nia. (Lii>niu,-^
refers it to GynanJria Penlandria.) Nat. Ord. CappariJcs,
Juif.?

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, membra-
nous, bell-fliaped, obtufe at the bafe, cloven half wav
down into two lobes, deciduous. Cor. Petals live, equoi,
lanceolate, biuntifh, fomewhat oblique, four times the length
of the calyx ; their upper part fpreading horizontally; their
claws cohering round the llalk of the germen, and attached
to it. Slom. Filaments five, brillle-lhaped, rather fliortci-
than the pctr!:, inferted into the fummit of the flalk of the
(rermcn : wthcrs vcrfatile. r,ither oblong. Ptfi- Genuri;
•^ B 2 obor-ilf ,

G L U

G L U

obovaie, (landing on a cylindrical ftalk, which is rather
longer than the calyx ; ityle tliread-ihaped, cijual to the
filaments; fligma fimpV, obtiife. Perk, aiicl Sa'ili un-
known.

Etl". Ch. Calyx bell-fhapcd, cloven, decidiums. Petals
five ; their clav.s cohering ronnd the llalk of tlie gernien.
Stamens inferted into the top of that Ihtlk, below the
germen.

1. G. Benghas. I.inn Mant. 2. 293. Native of Java,
where it is called Benghas, and, if wc Tnilhike not, in the
Malay language Dodcc. This plant is unknown to all
botanifts except Linnj:u5, by whofe herbarium alone it can
be determined. His remarks have led the ftudents of natural
orders wide of the truth concerning it, for nothing can be
more unlike PaJJifora. To Sttrcuha it ha? fomc refcmblancc,
and we have been much inclined to refer it to .TniTieu's
Malvxeff, efpecially from its likenofs in fome rcfpeAs to
the AJfon'ia of that author and of Cavanilles ; but on exanii-
nation this likenefs proves fallacious. The moil probable
place for it is amongft or near the Cn^pandei, birt. the fruit
being unknown, leaves this matter in great doubt. After
all, it may be thought to belong to fome new order, wliich
the ihidents of natural arrangement are but too prone to
make on every emergency, and the French in particular
feem to think they (hew their ikill by their refinements on
this head ; whereas it is but an eafier fault, though a more
fatal one, than that of making too many genera, and ought
to be watched with tenfold care.

The Gluta Benghas appears to be a Jhrub or tree, with
{lightly pubefcent branches and buds. Leaves fcatlered,
moll numerous about the ends of the branches, from three
to ten inches long, elUptic-lanceolate, bluntifh, entire,
tapering down at the bafe into a (hort footftaUc ; they are
fmooth on both fides, furnifhed v.'ith one rib and many trani-
verfe veins connefted by innumerable reticulations. Stimulus
none. F!o<u;ers nearly the fize of Cl.mat'ts FInmmula, or, as
Linnxus fays, of a cabbage blolTom, in a corymbofe pani-
cle ; whether terminal or axillary cannot be determined from
the fpecimen, though he alferts the former. There is fome
appearance of a glandular deprcilion at the back of tlie foot-
ilalk where it joins the leaf S.

GLUTEA, AliTEKiA, in Anatomy, a large artery dif-
tributed chiefly among the glutei mufcles. See Ar-

TEllV.

GLUTEN, Axi.MAL, in Chemljlry. See Animal Fibre
and Blood.

Gluten', Vegetable, a fubflance refembling the former,
and found in feveral vegetables. (See Vegetable Fibre.)
Beccari lirft found that wheat-flov.'er contained gluten in con-
fiderable quantity, and from this it is obtained by the fol-
lowing procefs. (Aikin's Diit.) " Moillen any quantity
of wheat-flour with a little water, and knead it with the hand
into a tough duftile palle, then let a very flender ftream of
water keep dropping on the palle, while it is inceflantly
worked about with tlie hands, and the water will run off
white and turbid, owing to the fecnla or ftarch which it
carries off. The pafte in the mean time gradually becomes
more of a grey and almoll femi-tranfparent appearance ; and
when the water runs off quite clear, nothing is left in the
hands but pure gluten. No other precaution is required in
this preprjation but that of not drenching the flour at firll
with water, but onlyufing a very fmall quantity with much
kneading, that the gluten may not be carried off along with
the ftarch. Good wheat-flour will yield in this way about
a fourth of its weight of gluten, and no other flour but that
of wheat will yield it, except in a very fmall proportion, and
hence probably the peculiar property of wheat-flour to make

bread nrithout any other addition than a ferment." See

BilE.AD.

Gluten is contained in fmall quantity in feveral vegetable
jiiiois and other parts, and may be fcpnratcd from them.
Bird-lime is fuppofed to be chiefly gluten, and the green
fecula of plants abounds with it. See Bikd-lime and
Fecula.

GLUTEUS, in Anatomy, a name given to three large
mufcles, concerned in the motions of the pelvis and thigh,
and diftinguiflicd from each other by the epithets magnus,
ni^dius, and minor. They occupy the outer and pofterior
part of the pelvis, trom winch they arife, and f>..rm the larg-e
flcfliy prominences named the buttocks.

The gluteus magnus, or maximus, le grand fefller, ilii-
facro-femoral, is a very broad, thick, and bulky mufcle,
. compofed of large fafciculi loofely connedted together, and
feparated to a confidcrable depth by adipofe and cellular
fubilance, of an irregularly quadrilateral iigiii-e, and fituatcd
obliquely at the outer and back part of thf hip. The round-
ed fwelling, which forms the outline of the buttock at its
back part, and the projection of which hides the termination
of the large intelline, is formed entirely by this mufcle. Its
external furface has the fame degree of convexity as tliat of
the buttock ; the internal, which covers the tuberofity of the
ifcliium, and the great trochanter, is proportionallv concave.
It arifes, ill. By Ihort aponeurotic iibres, from about one
inch of ihe pollerior extremity of the crifta ihi, where the
bone extends beyond the facrum, and from the neighbouring
part of the immediately fubjacent notch. At this origin an
iipoiieurofis mav be obferved, continuous with that of the
thigh, and of the vertebral mufcles. 2dly. From the liga-
ment connefting the pollerior end of the iliac crilla, to the
back of the facrum ; and here it is continuous with the ten-
dinous origin of the latiflimus dorii, longiffimus dorfi, and
facro-lumbalis. sdly. From the external margin of the fa-
crum, near its lall foramen, from the tubercle at the fide of
the termination ol the canal containing the medulla fpinalis,
and Irom the articulation between the facrum and coccyx.
4thly. From the pofterior furface of the coccyx. 5thly,
From the furface of the great facro-fciatic ligament. From
thcfc points the fibres all proceed obliquely downwards
and outwards, nearly parallel to each other ; the mufcle is
at firft rather thinner and narrower, and grows broader and
thicker as it proceeds. Its upper margin isclofely attached
to that part of the femoral fafcia which covers tlie gluteus
medius. The fuperior fibres, having turned over the great
trochanter, join the upper part of the common tendon. The
latter is moll intimately connected to the fafcia lata, fo that,
on the firft infpeftion, the gluteus magnus appears to be in-
ferted into this fafcia, throughout the whole line of its front
edge : we cannot, however, eafily diftinguifli thefe parts by
cutting through the mufcle, and turning it afidc. The com-
mon tendon receives the mufcular fibres from above the tro-
chanter, to below the quadratus femoris, where it begins to
be attached to the bone. It is very firmly attached to tlie
rough line, which commences at the root of the trochanter,
and joins the hnea afpera, occupying by its infertion a fpace
of about three inches ; it is fituated here between the vallus
externus and adduftor magnus, to the former of which it is
connctled by tendinous and mufcular fibres.

The exterior convex furface of this mufcle is covered for
a fmall fpace towards its upper part by a thin plate of the
fafcia lata, and is every where elfe immediately fubjacent to
the integuments. The inner furface covers the os innomina-
tum, the facrum and coccyx, the origin of the vertebral muf-
cles, the gluteus medius, the pyramidales, the gemini, the
obturator internus, the quadratus femoris, the tuberofity of
6 the .

G L U

tire ifchium, t^; - rir-Tins of the femitendinofus and biceps,
the adducflor magnus, the fciatic nerve, and the great tro-
chanter. A large fynovial membrane, placed between this
mufcle and the lall-named eminence, favours their reciprocal
motions. The cavity does not in general contain mucli fluid ;
and it fometimes exhibits internal folds.

The gluteus m.'ditis, le moycn fefiier, ilio-trochanterien, is
a thick a:ij broad miifcle, flattened and triangular, partly-
covered by the preceding, but placed more at the fide of the
pelvis. It arif'S by very fhort aponeurotic fibres from the
external furfaco of the os innominatum, immediately under
the criila ilii, running forwards to the front as far as tiie ante-
rior fuperior fpine, and backwards to the facro-fciatic notcli:
downwards it u bounded by the curved line, wliich marks the
circumference of the gluteus minimus. Anotiier origin of
this mufcle is from the fafcia lata, where that aponeurofis is
fixed to the cnila ilii, and where it feparatcs this mufcle from
the tcnfor vaginx. From this double origin the fibres all
take their courfe downwards, the anterior or Ihortell being
at the fame time direfted obliqu.-ly backwards ; the middle,
which are longer, paffing perpendicularly, and the pofterior
or longell, coming obliquely forwards. In this way they all
converge to meet in a broad aponeurofis in the radiate fibres,
beginning in the fubllance of the mufcle, higher behind than
before, and defcending, as it i-eceives the mufcular fibres
fucceffively, to the great trochanter, to be fixed to the upper
and anterior part of tliat eminence. Many of the anterior fibres
are mixed with thofe of the gluteus minor ; fo that the
two cannot be completely feparated without dividing fome
of the mufcular fubllance.

Its external furface is covered behind by the gluteus
magnas, in front by the fafcia lata. The inner furface
covers the gluteus minor, the gluteal artery, and the furface
of the bone. Its front edge is in contaft with the tenfor
vagiax ; the pofterior with the pyramidalis.

Gluteus minor, or minimus, le petit feflier, ilio-ifchii-tro-
chanterien. Tliis is the fmallell of the three glutei, and
covers the os innominatum by its whole inner furface, being
equally covered on the outfide by the preceding mufcle.
It is thick and flattened, and has a triangular figure. It
arifes from tlie furface of the os innominatum by very fhort
aponeurotic fibres ; beginning at the anterior fujicrior fpine,
and following a curved line, which extends from tiie latter
procefs to the facro-fciatic notch. Prom this line, of which
the convexity is turned upwards, it covers the bone as far
as the edge of the acetabulum. The mufcular fibres all
defcend in a converging manner ; the middle taking a per-
pendicular courfe, while the anterior are dirccl;ed backwards,
and the pofterior forwards. They arc all implanted in a
broad radiated aponeurofis, which lies on th:; external fur-
face of the mufcle, except towards the front, where it is
covered by a few fibres of the preceding mufcle. This
aponeurofis, as it defcends, forms a ftrong tendon implanted
immediately within the lormer, in the upper and anterior
portion of the great trochanter. It has fomc connexion
to the capfular ligament of the hip ; and a fmall fynovial
membrane is interpofed between it and the trochanter. It
is covered by the gluteus medius, and very (lightly by the
pyramidalis : it lies on the bone, on the capfular ligament
of the hip, and the origin of the rectus cruris.

Motions proflucal by the glute't. — The mufcles, which we
have ]uft defcribed, move the thigh and pelvis reciprocally
on each other. Tlieir ailion on the pelvis may be obfervcd
both in Handing and walking. When we fupport the
trunk in the eiecl; attitude on both feet, the glutei magni
fix the pelvis firmly behind, and counteract that tendency
which the body naturally has to fall forwards. Hence thJe

G L U

bulk and power of thefe very mufcles in the human fubjeft
afford a clear proof that man was defigncd for the attitude
on two feet ; this gives to the human frame the buttocks,
which are feen in no other animal, bccaufe man is the only
biped among the mammalia. In the cafe now under con-
fideration the glutei magni are affifted by the femi-tcndinofi,
feini-membranofi and bicipitcs ; and antagonized by the
pfon: and iliaci, which poflcfs a force much inferior to that
which oppof.s them beliind, bccaufe they are aided by the
weiglit of the trunk. When the pelvis has been bent for-
wards, the gluteus magniis will rcftore it ; and if the cir-
cumftances admitted of this part being carried backwards,
the fame mufcle would produce that motion. The other
two glutei are not cffentially concerned in the attitude of
ftanding on both fi.'et ; but they are the principal agents in
fupporting and balancing the trunk on one foot, by inclining
the pelvis over the head of that thigh bone on which the
body refts, fo that tlie centre of gravity of the trunk may
be in a line drawn through tliat lower extremity. In, this
cafe their exertion counteracts the tendency of the trunk to
tall on that fide wliich is not fupported. Tliefe mufcles
are further employed in the fame kind of way in progreffion :
the glnteus magnus balances the peK-is while one leg is
carried before the otlier, and brought to the ground ; and
the two others fupport the trunk laterally, v.liilc the limb
of the oppofite fide is in the air. In the attitude on
one leg, the gluteus magnus can rotate the pelvis on the
thigh-bone of its own fide, fo as to turn the fymphyfis pubis
towards the oppofite fide. When the glutei move the
thigh on the pelvis, the magnus reftores the bone to its
former pofition, where it had been previoullv bent : and, if
the pelvis be carried forwards, it may move the former Hill
fartlier in the direction of extenlion ; the medius and femi-
raedius move the thigh away from the oppofite lim.b- The
g. magnus has the eft-cl alio of rotating the tiiigh outwards ;
while the anterior fibres of the two Imaller mufcles will
rotate it inwards. The fonn.T is a tenlor of the fafcia
lata.

GLUTTON, in Zodcgy. See Ursus GuIj.
GLYCAS, Micii.vLL, in Biography, a Greek hiflorian,
who is fuppofed to have flourifhcd in the 12th or 13th cen-
tury, though by fome others he is referred to the 15th. He
was a native of Byzantium, but ipent a great part of his life
in the ifiand of Sicily. He is principally known by his
" Annals," in four parts, containing the hi.lory of the
world, from the creation to the birtli of Chrift, and that of
the Byzantine emperors down to the death of Alexius Com-
nenus in 11 18, iiiterlperfed with a number of theological,
pliilofophical, and phyfical difcuffions. An edition of the
" Ann;Js" in Greek and Latin was given to the public by
father Labbe, in 1660. The third part has been pubhihcd
feparatelv by Meurfius, with a verfion and fcholia. Several
letters of Glycas have been publillied in dilferent collections.
He was undoubtedly a very learned man, and thecorrcfpond-
ence which he maintained with the literati of his age (hew
that he flood in very high reputation. Morcri.

GLYCERIA, in Botany, from >Xuxifo,-, yir.-r.', the feeds
being eaten in Germany, and called Manna-feeils, on account

of their fwcet ta'le. Brown Prod. Nov. Hull. v. i. 179

Clats and order, Triar,-irut Dlgynia. Nat. Ord. Gnimina.
This new genus of graffes is founded by Mr. Brown on the
FeJIucii fuitaiis of Linnwus, Poafuitans, Sm. Tl. Brit. 95,
with the following characters.

" Glume (Calyx) of two valves, containing many flowers.
Spile/ei cylindrical, awnlefs. Pcr'uiitth (Corolla) bcardlefs,
its valves of equal length. Scale under tlie gcrmen foliurj,
flefliy, like a half fliield. Stigmas doubly cumpound. Seed

uncoB-

GLYCINE.

vmcoiiiu.floi3, oblong, with a furrow at oiii? fide. Pla-uicrs
fomewhat panicled."

We cannot but afltnt to llr? propriety of fcparating the
grafs in qucllion from Poa and Fc/luca, as far as habit is
concerned, but we are very certain that PoaJiJlans, mcr'sl'imai
frocumhcnsy and r'lgida of Fl. Brit, and Cynofiirus durus of
Linnius cannot fail to go along with it, though we fear th;-
characters given by tiie iagacious writer above quoted will
not be found to liold good in all, if in any, of thcfe. Perhaps
the following d-linition of Clyctrui, formed on fimple and
obvious l..inn,tan principles, may be unexceptionable, as
embracing them all, and prcferving an analogy with genera
already ellabliflied.

Calyx of two valves, containing many florets. Spikelet
linear. Corolla of tr.'o oblong, obtufe, bcardlcfs v.ilvcs.

GLYCINE, from -, ^i:tu-, fivcet, the particular applica-
tion of which is not very obvious, having originated merely
from the fweet tafte noticed by Cornuti in the leaves r;id
tuberous roots of G. ylfios. This indeed is the original,
and perhaps the only true Glycine, the nvmierous afTerablage
of fpecies ranged under this genus, by recent writers, being
very anomalous in fruclffieation, efpecially tliofe of New
Holland, as will appear by Mr. Brown's delinitions when
the fecond part of his valuable work appears. — Linn. Gen.
37^. Schreb. 495. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1053. Mart.
i\Iill. Dift. V. 2. Ait. Ilort. Kew. v. 3. 34. JuiT. 357.
Lamarck lUudr. t. 609. G^rtn. t. 154. Clafs and order,
D'uulclphia D.'canJrid. Nat. Ord. l\ipii:otuicea; Linn. Lc-
guminvj'a, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. CjI. Periantli inferior, of one leaf, comprerfed,
two-lipped ; upper lip notched, obtufe ; lower longer, three-
cleft, acute, its middle tooth longeft. Cor. papilionaceous.
Standard inverlely heart-diapci!, deilexcd at tl'.e fides, gib-
bous at the back, emarginate at the top, and llraight, till
driven back by the keel. Wings Imall, oblong, ovate to-
wards the extremity, bent downwards. Keel linear, falcate,
curved upwards, preffing the llandard upward by its obtufe
and dilated extremity. Stani. Filaments in two fets, (one
fimple, tlie other in nine divifion?,) {lightly feparated at the
top, revolute ; anthers fimple, Pift. Gcrmen oblong ; ftyle
.cyhndrical, rolled fpirally ; lligma obtufe. Perk. Legume
oblong. Seeds kidney-lhaped.

Etr. Cli. Calyx two-tipped.. Stamens in diftinft fets.
Keel of th.e corolla forcing back the ilandard with its
point.

Obi. Glyclnt Aphs and frutefcens have a two-celled le-
gume. G. mcnolea is a fingular inllance of a feparatlun of
fexes in flowers of this tribe.

This genus has accumulated from two fpecies (G. Apics
and Jru!r/cenj'j in the Hcrlus Clijfort'ieinus., to eight in the
firft editian of Specifi Plantantm, nine in the fecond, fifteen
in the foarteentii and lall edition of Syjlema Vci^etnhiUum, and
finally to forty-four in Willdenou-. Thefe now form a very
lieterogeneons affeniblage, and tl-.e New Holland ones con.
ftitute a diilinct genus, the Kcnnedia of Ventenat, dilHn-
guifhed by its fpontancouliy reflexed llandard, and legume
of many cells. The whole requires a thorough revlfal.
Some are of opinion that G. Apios is genericaliy diltincl
from all the other.'", and if fo it would be mod convenient,
though this is one of th» original fpecies, to give it tlie generic
name of yipioj, retaining Glycine for fuch more common and
more numerous ones as may anfwer to the ufual idea (jf th.e
genus, an effcntial charailer being felefted to combine them
together.

Glycixe, in Gardenir.v, contains plants of the fiinibby
climbing kind ; of which the fpecies cultivated are the

3

flirubby glycine, or Carolina l;!dney-bcan tree (G. fru-
tefcens) ; the two-fpotted glycine (G. bimaenlata) ; th :
reddidi-flowered glycine (G rubicunda) ; and the fcarlet
glycine (G. corcinea.)

M thod of Criture. — In the firfl it may be effefled by
laying down the young brandies in the early autumnal
feafon. When well-rooted in the following autumn, thev
may be taken off and planted where they are to remain, or
in nurfery-rows, being watered when the weather is hot,
and the roots protefled in the winter by fome fort of flrawy
material. They are found to fuccecd befl in dry, warn',
light forts of ground.

And the other kinds may be raifed by fowing iIt;
feeds when they can be obtiiined from abroad, or prodi.-ccd
here in pots of light earth, in the early fpring, being after-
wards removed into other pots, and placed in the green-houfe,
or Cape ilove. It has been fuppoled by Mr. Curtis, tliat
the two laft mav fuccecd in the open air, when planted out
in warm {lieltered fituations, and proteiled during the winter
feafon by fome convenient matting or other means.

All the forts are ornamental in their flowery climbing
growth ; the firft in the open ground, and the latter in the
green-houfe and ftove colleftions.

Glycine, Glucme, Fr. in Chenujlry. This earth was
firll difcovered by M. Vauqnelin in 179S. He detedcd it
in the analyfis of the beryl, undertaken at the defire of
Haiiy, who wiflied to have it afci.rtaincd by a ftrift chemical
inquiry, whether the beryl and emerald were as fimilar in
th.eir compofition as in the form of tlieir cryftnlli/ations.
The refults of this inquiry were conform.able to the expcfta-
tions which gave rife to it, and the exiftence of a new earth
in the beryl and emerald was confirmed by the experiments
of Klaproth. Vauqnelin, in the raemoirin whichhe announced
his difcovery, called the new Inbftance merely the earth of
theberyl : afterwards, with his affociates, Guyton, Fourcroy,
and Chaptal, he determined on the name ^htcinc, derived from
the Greek y^ty.or, fweet, becaufe all the iolnble falts of this
earth have the property of producing a certain fweet aftrin-
gent talle. ^'I'hen the name was feletted, the charafter on
which it was founded was pecuhar ; but though it ceafed
to be fo on the difcovery of yttria, yet as the name conveys
no eiToneous ideas of the body, to winch it is applied, th.'re
is no impropriety in adhering to it : befides, the taile ftill
ferves as a phyfical ehai-afterilUc ; for, according to Vau-
qu-.-'in, the fweetnefs of the falts of glycine has a fenfible
difierenee from that of the falts of yttria, particularly of the
fiilphat.

Glycine, in its pure ftate, has not yet been difcovered in
nature : indeed, its occurrence in compound minerals is ex-
ceedingly rare, for it has only been found in the beryl, or
ultramarine, the emerald and the gadolinite ; and it enters
but fparingly into the compofition of thefe bodies ; the
bervl, in which it is moll abundant, containing, according
to the analyfis of Vauquehu and Rofe, no more tl-.an 14 /fr
c:;tt. From the analogy which exifts between glycine and
ahimine, the former is very liable to be taken for the latter
b)' chcmifts who do not pay particular attention to accuracy
in their analytical inquiries. The firft an.nlvfes of the
emerald made by Klaproth and Vauquelln afford %n inllance
ot this kind : and M. Bindheim committed a fimilar errer
in his analyfis of the beryl.

To obtalit glycine in a Hate of chemical purity, finely
powdered beryl is to be fufrd with three times its weig'it of
cauflic potafli in a filver or platina cr-ucible ; tlie crucible is
to be expofed for two hours to a ftrong red heat, and the
mixture in fufion is to be frequently Ithred with an iron
rod, in order to keep ' the earth as much as pofiible

fufpended

GLYCINE.

fi'.fpfnded and e:<pofed by an sstcnl of furfiicc to the action
of tlic alkali. If the treatment dofcribcd is pioperlv con-
d'ltteu, the fiifed mafs, wlicn lofteiied with water, will be
entirely diiTolved by muriatic acid, afiittcd by a llijrht digell-
i"ng heat : the muriatic iolution thus procured mull be eva-
porated to drynefs. A hrge quantity of water will difTolve
the foliible falts, and leave the principal part of tlie illex,
which is to be fejiarated and well wafhed on a filter. The fil-
tered foluticn is to be precipitated by carbonat of potafti.
The precipitate, confiftiiii; principally of alumine and theearth
in queftion, is to be difTolved in dilute fulphuric acid, and
evaporated to the proper confidence to afford cry (lals of alinn.
If the precipitate produced by carbonat of potafli has been
•well walhed, it is nt'cefiary to add a little potadi to tlie ful-
phuric folution. When the foKition, on a fecond or third
evaporation, and addition of potalh, ceafes to yield any
more cryftals of alum, the mother liquor is to be mixed with
a folution of carbonat of ammonia, greatly exceeding the
quantity necelfary to faturate the acid, and to be transferred
to d bottle having a ground Hopple : the mixture is to be
well agitated, and carbonat of ammonia is to be added till
the precipitate which firit appeared is re-diflolved, or no
longer diminifhcd by frcfh portions of the carbonated alkali.
The fo!ution of the triple compound of glycine carbonic
acid and ammonia is to be filtered in order to feparate the
fniall remaining quantity of alumine, and then boiled till the
vapour ceafes to change the colour of turmeric paper, or till
it no longer has an ammoniacal fniell ; when all the carbonat
of ammonia being driven off, the whole of the glycine will
be found precipitated in the form of a white granular pow-
der coi.bined with carbonic acid. This powder is to be
wafhed in a filter, till the water ceafes to afford a precipitate
with muriat of barytes and lime -water ; it is then to be
dried, and heated to rednefs : by this means, the water and
carbonic acid, amounting to about half the weight of the
whole, will be expelled, and the glycine, if it does not
effcrvefce v\'ith acids, will be left in a perfectly pure ilate.

G-vcine thus procured, is a fnow-white powder, foft
and fo;.ievv!iat uncluous between the fingers, ver\- adheiive
to the tongue, and dellitute both of fmell and taffe. Its
fpecific gravity is 2.976. It produces no change in the co-
lour of vegetable blues. Neither oxygen nor nitrogen has
any aiticn on it, nor does it fuffcr any change by cxpofure
to the atmofphere ; as carbonic acid and moiitnre do not ap-
pear to beabforbedby it. It forms, with a fmall quantity
of water, a (lightly duclile pafte, that po'feffes much lefs te-
nacity than that of aluiy.ine. Glycine has not yet been fufod ;
ft neither contracts nor hardens Avlien heated, nor is it altered
by cxpofure to the mo ft intenfe fire. With borax it forms
a' white tranfpareut glafs, which does not become opaque on
cooling. It refufes to combine dircClly with f-.iipliur or
phofphorus, but it appears from Fourcroy that a lulphurct
may be formed by decompofing the fulphat of glydnc by
cjiarcoal. Glycine is foluble in a faturated folution of f«l-
phuretted hydrogen. A hydro-fulphuret of this earth, it is
likewife faid, may be obtained by difiblving the fulphurct in
water. In thefe properties it approaches the alkaline earths,
and conllitutes apparently the link of union between them
and the clafs to which it belongs. It is diffolvcd by both the
fixed alkalies in their liquid Hate, but in a lefs degree than
alumine, and, like aluniine, it is not taken up by ammonia. It
is diffolved in a folution of carbonat of ammooia, as has al-
ready been mei.tioned. It very readily unites with acids.
All its foluble falts produce, when firll tilled, the fcnfation
of fweetncfs, which gradually becomes aftringer.t.

In relation to its affinity for acids, glycine appears to be
fctermediatc between alisiDine and magnelia, for it decom-

pofes only the falts of alumine, yttria, and zircon. And the
Older of its affinities ismuch the fame, according to Fourcroy,
as that of the other earths, fulphuric acid holding the «rft
place, and nitric, muriatic, phofphoric, fluoric, boracic, and car-
bonic following. No experiments have been undertaken
yet, to afcertain what combinations glycine is capable of form-
ing with the earths and metall-e oxyds.

Yttria and alumine are the only earths for which gly.
cine is liable to be miftaken : the properties in which it re-
fembles them are, rather unfortunately, of a mod linking
kind, but it has a number of other characters which are very
diltinft, and fully demonilrativc of its peculiar nature. Gly-
cir.e is fimilar to alumine, in being foluble in caullic folutiolis
of the fixed alkalies, and in fome of its phyfical qualities;
but it differs from alumine in affording with acids fweet alirin-
gent falts ; in not yielding alum with fulphuric acid and pot-
alh ; in pofrefllng a greater affinity for acids ; in being en-
tirely foluble in carbonat of ammonia; and laltlv, in not beifig
precipitated from its folutions by oxalat, tartrat, or pruffiat
of potafh. It is to be diftingaithed from yttria, bv its
greater folubility in carbonat of ammonia, the latter requir-
ing for its folution five times as much carbonated alkali as
gl) cine, by its fait.'; occafioning a precipitate, when added
to any of the fuccinats, by the infolubility of yttria in
fixed alkaline folutions, and by the precipitate which the
falts of yttria afford witli pruffiat of pot-afh.

Glycine was confidered as a fimple body till the import-
ant difcoveries of Mr. Davy gave rife to new analogies ; and
though the compound nature of tliis earth is not yet fully
demonrtrated, yet there is every reafon to believe that gly-
cine, like the alkalies and alkaline earths, is a cictallic oxyd :
and the refults of the experiments which Mr. Davy made on
this body are explained belt on fuch a fuppofiti'on. This
gentleman negatively electrified glycine, fiightly moiftcnid
in contact witli an amalgam of potallium, under naphtha, by
a battery of 500 plates. After an hour the amalgam was
thrown into water, and an alkaline folution was produced,
which became cloudy when neutralized by acid, thus indi-
cating the prefence of the earth. Mr. Davy, following the
nomenclature which he has adopted in refpcdt to the new-
metals, has propofed glucium for the name of the metal
of glycine, when its exigence is no longer do-jbtful.

Carbonat of glycine, as well as all the other falts of this
earth, has not yet been difcovercd ready formed in nature.
It is procured by precipitating the fulphat, nitrat, or moriat
of glycine, by either of the carbonated fixed alkalies. The
preci[)itate, which is the fait fought after, being well waftied
and dried, appe.irs in the form of foft white powder, having
a grcafy feel and great light ncfs. Carbonat of glycine is
iuloluble in water, and it is unaltered by expofure to the air.
It is deconipoled by p.ll the acids; and by the action of a
red heat : moll probably all the alkaline earths deprive it of
carbonic acid in the moift way. According to Klaproth it
is compofcd of

Glycine - - - 53-
Carbonic acid and water - 47

ICO

PLofphat of Gljchu. — Phofphat of foda, added to a neu-
tral folution of nitrat of glycine, throws down this fait
either in a white pulverulent form, or in a mucilaginous
fiate. It is infoluble in water, infiptd and uncr)-llallizable.

It is not decompofed by a violent heat, but it fufcs into
a wlilte tranfparent glafs, that docs net become opaque on
coohng. Phofphat of glycine is foluble in phofphoric
acid. The fulphuric and nitric acids firft diffoU-e this fait,

and.

G L Y

aad afterwards decompofe it. Muriatic acid produces a
fimilar cfFe6\, but in a Icfs degree. It is likewife readily
decompofed by the carbonated alkalies and by all the car-
bonated earths, except carbonat of magneiia. With the ful-
phat, iiitrat, and muriat of alumine, it fuffcrs decompofi-
tion, a mutual exchange of acids taking place between the
two earths.

SulphtU of Glycine. — Glycine, both in its pure and car-
bonated ftate, diflblves very readily in dilute fulphuric acid.
The i'olutiou by fpontaneous evaporation affords oftahedral
cryftals, compofcd of two oblique four-fided pyramids
joined bafe to bafe, with their edges and folid angles trun-
cated. It alfo, but with difficulty, yields when evaporated
on a fand bath fmall needle-form cryllals. The folution,
when evaporated nearly to drynefs, alTumes a fyrupy con-
fiftcnce. Sulphat of glycine, has a remarkable fweet
and ailringent talle. It is very foluble in water. Heated,
it intumefces, fuffers the watery fufion, and becomes pul-
verulent from the diffipation of its water. It is completely
decompofed by a ftrong red heat, the acid being expelled
and the earth left in its pure ftate. It has been already ob-
ferved that fulphat of glycine is converted, when heated
•with charcoalj into a fulphuret : but this fulphuret, according
to Fourcroy, does not become a pyrophorus, like alum
thus treated, though fulphat of potafli be prefent. A folu-
tion of nut-galls, added to this fait difTolved in water, pro-
duces immediately a white precipitate. Previous to the
knowledge of this fail, fuch a property was cenceived to
be peculiar to metallic falts,

Sulphat of glycine, (lowly evaporated with a fmall
quantity of fulphat of potafh, forms minute cryftalhne
grains, which difiblve with eafe in feven or eight times
their weight of cold water. Glycine, added to a folution
of alum, precipitates tlie alumine, and moft probably pro-
duces a compound, fimilar to the preceding one. Sulphat of
glycine is decompofed by all the alkalies and earths, ex-
cepting alumine, yttria, zircon, and filex.

Nitrat of glycine is procured by faturating nitric acid
with glycine. The folution of this fait does not afford
cryftals by evaporation, but produces a duftile and adhefive
mafs, which, when further dried, falls into powder. It is
very foluble in water and deliquefcent in the air. It attrafts
moifture fo ftrongly, that it might, if eaiily procured, be ad-
vantageoully employed for abforbing the hygrometrical
water of gafes. Its tafte is faccharine and aftringent.
Tindlure of galls dropt into a folution of this fait pro-
duces a yellowifh brown precipitate. Nitrat of glycine
fufes at a low heat, but if the heat is increafed, the acid is
expelled. It is decompofed in the moift way by fulphuric
acid, and by the fame alkalies and earths as the fulphat.
The proportions of its component parts are not known ; but
Vauquelin has obferved that a given quantity of nitric acid
requires rather more glycine than alumine for its complete
faturation ; yet the former earth, thougli in combination with
nitric acid more foluble th^n the latter, decompofes, with
the afTillance of heat, nitrat of alumine, precipitating the
alumine, and forming nitrat of glycine.

jMuriat of glycine is procured by diffolving glycine in
muriatic acid. It is in fome refpeCfs fimilar to the nitrat,
but differs in its folution, afi'ording by tsrefiil Kiamigemfnt
fmall crylla'.s, the form of which, on account of their iize,
have not yet been determined ; and in not being fubject to
deliquef';e on expofure to the atinofpherc. Its tafte is
fimilar. A folution of this ialt in dilute alc.ohol is faid to
be an agreeable fweet liquid. When dilUFed per fe, the
acid flies off, and leaves the earth in a ftate of purity. It is
{ilfo decompofed when heated with pholphoric acid. The

G L Y

fame effeft is produced by fulphuric and nitric acids, and
by the alkalies, and all the earths that decompofe the nitrat.
Acetat of glycine, which is prepared by diffolving the
earth in acetic acid, has not yet boen procured in a cryflalline
form. Its folution, when evaporated, acquires a glutinous
confiftence, and the fait becomes brittle as it flowly
dries.

Succinat of Glycine. — Any of the fuccinats added to
the nitrat, muriat, or fulphat of glycine, precipitate the
fait in queftion. Its properties have not yet been enquired
into.

We are indebted for the impcrfeft knowledge wc have of the
combinations of glycine, with the feveral acids above-men-
tioned, principally to the celebrated difcoverer of this earth.
Glycine, in no form as yet, has been ufefully employed; yet
Vauquelin conceives that the earth itfelf and fome of its
falts, when they can be procured with facility, may admit
of fuch an application in chemiftry, in medicine, and the
arts. Its marked attraftion for animal and vegetable co-
louring fubftances induced him to think that there was
a probability of its being ferviceable as a mordant ; and
the peculiar tafte of fome of its falts gave rife to the hope
that thefe combinations might produce falutary cffedls on
the animal fyfteni. If his expcftations fhould be realized, we
muft agree with Vauquelin, tliat thefe falts will be fome of
the mofl agreeable medicines that exift. Ann. de Chem.
vol. xxvi. ijj. xlii. 277. Fourcroy Connaifiance Chem.
vols, ii.iii. Aikin's Chem. Dift. vol. ii. Philofoph. Tranf.
part. ii. 1808. p. ^52.

GLYCONIAN, Glycomus. in t!ie Creek and Latin
poetry.

A Glyconian verfe is that confifting of two feet and a
fyllablc ; at leaft this is Scaliger's opinion : who adds, that
the Glyconian verfe was alio called the Euripidean verfe.
See VtnsiE.

Others hold, that the Glyconian verfe confifted of three
feet, a fpondee and two dadtyls ; or rather a fpondee, cho-
riambus, and an iambus or a pyrrhic : which opinion is the
moft followed.

" Sic te diva potens Cypri," is a Glyconian verfe.

GLYCYRRHIZA, in Botany, Liquorice, yXuxiffi^a
of Diofcorides, who dcfcribes the plant very faithfully and
accurately ; but it is remarkable that he fays the flower is
like a hyacinth, which can allude to the colour only, whether
his v^y.L.^oi be the Delphinium or Hyacinthus of modern bo-
tanifts. The word is compofcd of y'kiiKV!, fiveet, and f'l^a,
a root ; and the name in apothecaries' Latin, liquirit'm, as
well as the Englifh one, liquorice, the French re^!i/fe, the
Itahan regalizza, &c. with all their corruptions, originate
from it. — Linn. Gen. 380. Schreb. 502. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 3. 1 143 Mart. Mill. Did. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Ke\r.
V. 3. 56. Juff. 359. Tourn. t. 210. Lamarck. lUuftr.
t. 625. Gaertn. t. 148 — Clafs and order, Diiulelphia Decan-
Jria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacca, Linn. I.eguyninofa; Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ciil. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
two-lipped, permanent ; upper lip in three deep fegments,
of which the lateral one? are linear, the central one broadeft
and cloven ; lower perfectly finiple, linear. Cor. papiliona-
ceous. Standard ovato-lauceolate, ftraight, longell. livings
oblong, very like the keel, but rather larger. Keel of two
petal,";, acute, its claw the length of the calyx. Siam. Fila-
ments in two fets, (one limple, the other in nine divifions,)
ftraight; anthers fimple, roandifli. Pi/l. Germeii fhortcr
tliiui the calyx ; ftyle awl-fliayed, as long as the ft.amens ;
ftigma obtufe, afcending. Peric, Legume ovate or oblong,
conqireffed, acute, of one cell.. Seeds very few, kidney-
fliaped. Eft".

GLYCYRRIIIZA.

TifT. Ch. Calyx with two lips ; the upper three-cleft ;
luwer iimpk'. Stamens in dilliiicl fets. Lcgr.tne ovate,
comprefTed, of one cell. Seeds one or two.

1. G. cchtnata. Linn. Sp. PI. 1046. Jatq. Ilort. Vind.
V. i.t. 95. (Dulcis radix ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 16. Camcr.
Epit. 423.) — " Legunu'ii prickly. Flowers capitate. Sti-
piiias lanceolate. Leaflets fniooth ; the terminal one nearly
lelhle.'' — Native of Italy, as well as of Tarlary and tlic
confines of China ; alfo ahnnJaiitly, according to Dr. Sib-
tliorp, on the fandy fnorcs of Crete, Samos, and iillier
Greek idands, where it Kill retains its ancient nr.me un-
clianged. The long phant perennial roots, dee])ly defcend-
ing into the ground in a favoural^le foil, are cultivated, for
their Iweet taile and pectoral virtues, ;md are fufficiently
well known. The Jiims are two or three feet higii, nearly
fi:nple, leaty, round and ftriated. Leaves of fcvcral pair
of equal, elliptical, entire,, acute lea.lets, the odd one or. a
little llalk only like the reft, not on an elongation of the
main footflalk. S.'ipulas lanceolate, acute. Ficunrs feve-
r;il, in axillary, folitary, ftalked heads ; their colour a dull
purple. Legumes clotiied, in tiicir upper part efpecially,
with numerous long rigid prickles, rcfembliv.g the fruit of
Xant/jium Jlrumarhiri. Diolcorides compares them to that
of the Plane-tree. The whole herb is deftitute of pubef-
cence, but fomewhat clammy to the touch.

2. G. f^t'idtt. Destont. Atlant. v. 2. 170. t. 199. —
Legumes prickly. Flowers fpiked. Stipulas lanceolate.
Leaflets fcaly beneath ; the terminal one nearly ftfiik. —
Found by Deffontaiues on mount Atlas, and in cultivated
fields near iMayane in Atrica. A\'e have it from AicsfTar.
Whole plant extremely foetid. Leaves much like the lad
in iize and {liapc, but the Jloiuers are pale yellow, in
long fpike.«. I^egumes crowned with tl;e permanent fljle,
which is longer in this than in the former. The Jliru
as v^-ell a:; both fides of the leaves, is bcfprinkled with mi-
nute fcales.

3. G. glanduTifira . Waldfl. and Kitaib. Hur.gr.r. v. I.
30. t. 21. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 1144. — Legumes clothed
with glandular briiiles. Flowers fpiked. Stipulas obfclete.
I^caflets cmarginate, glutinous and downy beneath. — Native
of Hungary. Floiucrs violet-ccloured.

4. G. g/iiira. Linn. Sp. PI. 1046. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 167. (6. vulgaris ; Dod. Pcmpt. 341. Gcr. em. 1302.) —
Legumes fmouth. Flowers fpiked. Stipulas fcarcely dif-
cernible. Leaflets blunt ; the terminal one on a long llalk.
.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Moll commonly cul-
tivated with us. The leujleli are large, glutinous beneath.
Floiixrj pale purple, in long-ftalked axillary fpikes. Le-

_gumes oblong, hr.ooth. We have a fpccimen of this fpecies
gathered in Circafiia, by the celebrated traveller Dr. Clarke
of Cambridge.

5. G. aj'peirltrM. Linn. Snppl. 330. Pallas. Reis. v. 3.
t. G, g. t. I, 2. fG. hifpida ; ibid. 754.) — Legumes
fmuoth, beaded. Flowers fpiked. Stijiulas lanceolate.
.Ltafictb rouTidifli, prickly beneath. Sti m and footilalks
prickly. — Found by profefTor Pall, is " ;r. fandy ground bc-
•twcen the river V/olga and the Tanais.'' Pallas ]\LSS.
The root is extremely fweet, elpecially in the fj.ring. Slans
uf'iaily two, rarely three, aiceuding, a fpi'.n high, nearly
fin^;!e, leafy, rough with mmieroiis little rigid prominent
.prickles, as are the footfuiU.s, ar.d backs of the leaf.els.
The hitter ate roundilh or obovate, obtufc with a little
point, fmooth and veiny above. Flo'-^ers loiigifli, pale vio-
let, with whitiih wings aiid keel, in one or two thick fpikes
abo'.it the top of each flem. The legumes are drawn by
Pallas above uii inch long, recurved, of a necklace-hkc

:forin, and fmooth, containing many feeds. The calyx is
. Vol. XVL

Obli

blong, purpliHi, rather hairy. It has the habit of a Gly.
<n-h:za, fl<,v.crs of an /Ijlragolus, and fruit apparently of
a Coronilla ; nor does th.e calyx anfwcr to the generic cha-
racter, being five-cleft.

6. G. h'irfuta. Linn. Sp. PI. 1046. (G. oriental's, fili-
qu!3 Inrfutiihmis ; Tourii. Cor. 26 )— " Legumes h.iiry.
Leaflets oblc.n,fr.lanceolate, t!:c terminal one on a Ic.-.g flalk.
Flowers fpiked."- Four.d by Tournefort in the Levant!
Hoot perennial. Of tiiis we iiave fcen neither a fpccimtr,
figure, nor any further dcfcription.

GLYfYRiduzA, in Gen-Anirg, furnifii»s a plant of the
herbaceous perennial kind, the comir.on liquorice (G.
glabra}.

It is a plant wliich has the roots nmning very deep into
the ground, and creeping to a cocfiderable diftance, efpe-
cialiy where they {land long- unremoved.

Method 'if Culture — A ligl;t fandy foil is the mod adapted
to the growth of this fort of crop, as its goodnefs confifit
i:i the knglh of llie rcofs. The ground in which it u
intended to be planted fliould be wcI! dug and dv.nged the year
before planting, that it may li.cve become pcrfedtly mellow,
and the dung v/ell rotted and mixed with the earth, other-
wife it will be apt to ftop the roots from running down and
bemg properly .'"upported ; and immediately before planting
it fiiould be well dug again to ih.e depth of three fpadcs,
and be laid very light and open.

When the land is thus prepared, fre^i plants taken from
the iides or heads of the old roots ftocld be provided,
care being taken that ihey ha;e each a good bud or eve, be-
ing about ten inches long and perfectly found.

The operation of planting them ft-.ould be performed
about the middle of March, winch is done in this manner :
a line is firll fet acrofs tl;e ground, then, n-ith a long dibbl.-
rriade en purpofr, the fiioots or cuttirgs are put in, fo that
tie whole plants may be fet into the ground, with the
heads about an inci; under the fur.'i'.ce, in a ilr.iight line
about a foot af.mtijr in the rov.;,, and a foot and a half
or two feet row fi-om row.

When the whole fpt^t of ground has been tTius planted,
a thin crop of onions may be fown ovtr the land. Thcfc
muft be kept pcrfeftly clean by the hoe, care beilig taken
not to cut off the top nioe>ts of the liquorice plants, as it
woidd greatly injure them. All the onions which grow
near the headr of the liquorice fliould alfo be removed. In
Oclober, the fiioots of the liqu.orice Ihould be removed,
and a little very rotten dung fpread upon the furfacc.

In the following fpring, about March, the ground fliould
be fiightly dug between the rows of liquorice, burying the
remaining pai t of the dung, being very careful not to ctlT.
the roots.

During the fumnier they nnift be kept quite clean by
occafional hoeing. The fame operations mull be annually
performed, fo as to kee'j) the ground and plants in perfect
order.

Tlicfe plants n-.uft remain three years from the time of
plaming, v.htn they will be fit to lake uj) for life, which
mould be doi.e when the (l^lks are |>cifecilv lU-cayed ; as,
when taken 'ip too fooi), the roots fl-.rink greatly, and loft-
in weiglit.

In taking up the roots tlic ground is trenched over, row
after row, to tlie f.:!l depth, and the young (hoots taken
from the old roots cut into fets for new plantations ; which
ihould be made annually, in order to ke'cp a conllant fuc-
cefTion of roots fit for {jeing taken up.

Tlie great art in this culture is to have the earth well

trenched to a proper de'jith, to have good fet?, and to ketp

5 C li^

G L Y

G M E

ttie ground afterwards quite clean by hoeing and otlier pro-
per means.

The liquorice is a native of the fouth of Europe, but
it has been cultivated in Britain ever fince the time of
Turner. (Sec Tourn. Herb. p'. 2. fol. 12. publillied in
1562.) The chief places in which it has been loiijj propa-
gated for fale are, Pontefract, in Yorkfhire : Workfop, in
Nottingliamfli'ire ; and Godalming, in Surry.; but it is now-
planted by many gardeners in tlie vicinity of London, wlio
fupply the metropolis with the roots.

Glycyrrhiza, in the Materia Mcdua. The root of
the common liquorice, boiled (lightly in a little water,
gives out nearly all its fwcetnefs. The decoction, preffed
through a ftrainer, and infpiflated with a gentle heat, till it
will no longer (lick to the (ingers, affords a bettc:;- extradl
than that brouii-ht from abroad,, and particularly from Spain,
whence our (hops are chiefly fupplied with it, and its
ijuantity amounts to near lialf the weight of the root. The
oxtraft that is prepared here, is made by macerating, for
four hours, liquorice root diced, a pound, in a gallon of
boiling water ; then boiling down to four pints, draining
the hot liquor, and evaporating it to a proper coniillencc.
A purer extraft may be made by a repetition of the pro-
ceiTes of folution and evaporation ; and it is kept in the (hops
inidcr the name of " refined liquorice." Reftilied fpirit
takes up tl)e fweet matter of the liquorice equally with water;
and as it diffolves much lefs of the indpid mucilaginous fub-
llance of the root, the fpirituous tinftures and extrafts are
proportionably fweeter than the watery. This root con-
tains a great quantity of faccharine matter, lefs difpofed to
run into fermentation than that of other vegetables, which
is joined with fome proportion of mucilage, and hence has a
vifcid fweet tafte. From the time of Theophraftus it has
been a received opinion that it very powerfully extinguilhes
thirit ; accordingly it was named cltlcv, and the root di-
refled to be chewed in dropfies and other diforders where
great thirft prevailed. If this faft be true, it is the more
remarkable, as fweet fubftances in general have a contrary
effcdt. Accordingly Dr. Cullen obferves, that the fweet
of liquorice, feparated from the root, docs not quench
third more than other fweets : and he afcribcs the error
vcfpefting it to this circumftance, that if a piece of the
root is chewed till the whole of the tweelneis is cxt rafted,
farther chexving brings out the acrid and bitterilh matter,
which ftimulates the mouth and fauces, fo as to produce an
excretion of fluid, and thereby takes off tl-.e thiril which
the fweetnefs had produced. Liquorice is in common ufe
as a peftoral or emol'ient in catarrhal defluxious on the
.breaft, coughs, hoarfenelTcs, &c. Infufions or extrads
from it afford likewife very commodious vehicles for the
exhibition of other medicines. Lewis's M.M. Cvdlen M.M.
Woodv. Med. Bot.

GLYN, in Geography, a county in the lower dillrift of
Georgia, in the United States, bounded E. by the ocean,
•N. by- Alatamaha river, which fcparates it from Liberty
county, and S. by Camden county. It contains 1374 inha-
bitants, including 1092 flaves. Its chief town is Bruns-
wick.

GLYPH, in Arch'i'.eSurs or Sculpture, is any canal or
cavity ufed as an ornament.

The Greek word is y\\i-^r,, v/hich literally fignilies grav-
ing, nilchmg.

X'AMtts is properly a nitch or indenture made in graving ;
or, more properly, it is the notch in the end of an arrov.-,
in which the ftring goes.

GLYPTIC AkTj the art of engraving precious Hones.
See Gem.s.

CLYSTER. SceCLysTErt.

GMELIN, John Gkorge, in Biography, a phyfxian-
and eminent botanid, was born at Tubingen on the 12th
of Augufl, 1709. He was diftinguifhed by his diligence
and early attainments at fchool, and at the age of fourteen
was deemed ready for entrance upon the academical ftudics
of his native place. In 1727, he took the degree of doc-
tor of phyfic, and went to Peterfburgh, whither fome of
his teachers had been invited. Here he gained many fa-
vours from Blumentooft, the direftor of the academy,
and was fo highly efteemed, that, in 1729, he was clefted
one of the members of the academy, and in 1731 w-as ap-
pointed profe-Ior of chemiftry and natural hiftory. In 1733,
he was felecled for the department of natural hiftory, in a
commiihon formed by the RuiHan government, for the pur-
pofe of exploring the Iicundaries of Siberia ; and fet out
on the I9lh of Augufl, with G. P. Muller, and Louis de
I'liie de la Croyere, a;id a party of twenty-eight perfons,
confifting of draughtfmen, miners, hunters, land furveyors,
and twelve foldiers, with a ferjeant and drummer. In the
mouth of February, 1743, Gmelin returned fafe-to-Peterf-
burgh, after having employed nine years a!id a half in this
lofig and dangerous journey, vi'hich proved liighlv interefting
to the feiences, and he refumed the olfices which he had be-
fore filled. In the year 1749, ''^ entered upon a new pro-
fefforfliip, to which he had been appointed, on the death
of Bachmeifter, while on a vifit to Tubingen. He died of
a fever in May, 1 755, in the forty-fixth year of his age.
The works, v.-hich were the refult of his travels through
Siberia, obtained for him a confiderable celebrity, efpecially
his " Flora Siberica, feu Hiftoria Plantarum Siberia?,"
Peterfburgh, 1747, 1749, in two parts, large 410. with
one hundred plates : the third and fourth parts were pub-
lilhed by S. G. Gmelin. He alfo publilhed his " Reife
durch Sibirien," &c. ; or Travels through Siberia between
the Years 1733 and 1743, Gottingcn, 1751, 1752, in four
parts, Svo. with plates. Gen. Biog.

G-MELiN, SAMLiX GoTTLiEB, fon of Philip Frederick
Gmelin, was born at Tubingen in i 743 ; where he obtained'
both his icholaftic and academical education, and graduated
M. D. in 1763. He gave early proo('s of genius, and
during his travels in France and Holland diftinguiflied him-
felt fo much by his knowledge of natural hiilory, that he
was appointed profclfor in the Academy of Sciences at
Peterihurgh. Like the fubjecl of the preceding article, he
fpent feveral years in travelling through the diftant pro-
vinces of the Rulhan empire, for the purpofes of fcientinc
inveiligation ; but ultimately with a lefs fortunate refult.
He was appointed, together with profeflbr Guldenlladt,
to explore the province of Aftracan, at the rin.e that the
tranfit of Venus over the fun's difli. was expeftcd, and fet
out in June, 1768. Having examined the countries on th.e
weftern fide of the Don, the Perfian provinces on the fouth
and fouth-wefl fide of the Cafpian fea, the banks of the
Wolga, and, lallly, the eaftern fide of the Cafpian, fo dan-
gerous to travellers, he was recalled to Peterfburgh. But
when he had arrived within three days journey of Kidar, a
fortrefs on the RulTian borders, he was feized by the chan
of Chaitaks ; who plundered him of all his property,
treated him with great barbarity, and imprifoned him. The
health of Gmelin fuffered confiderably at this time, and he
laboured under a flux, brought on by improper food and
the effefts of climate ; yet the barbarian chief intercepted
the provifions fent to him from Kiflar. The emprefs gave
orders that he (hould be fefcued by force; but this was
rendered impoihble at that time by the rebellion of Pu-
gatchef ; and Gmelin died in. confinement, on the 27th of

July,

I

G M E

Inly, 1774. His death was much regretted by Catherine
II. I who made a liberal provifioii for his widow.
• His works are; " Hiltoria Fucorum,'' printed at Peterf-
burgh in 176S, 410.; a fubjctl to which botanifts liad
paid little attention before him. " Reifen durch Riifsland,
&:c. ;■' or. Travels through RulTia, for the purpofe of ex-
ploring the three kingdoms of nature. This work was
pubhfhed in feparate parts, as follows : — Part I. Journey
from St. Pcterlburgh to Tfchcrkaflc, in the years 1768 and
1769. Peterfburgh 1 77 1 with thirty-two plates. Part II.
Journey from Tfcherkafk to Ailracan, from Augull 1769
to June 1770; ibid. 1774, with forty plates. Part III.
Journey through the northern diftrifls of Periia, from that
period to April 1772 ; ibid. 1774, with fifty-one plates. —
Part IV. edited after the author's death, by profeiTor Pallas,
Journey from Allracan to Czarizyn ; and alfo a fecond
Perfian Journey, 1772-74; ibid. 1786, with eighteen
plates. The various and important information, contained
m thefe publications, renders the imperfeftions of the
llyle of this author of little moment. Gen. Biog.

GMELINA, in Botany, received its name trom Lin-
ukus, in honour of Jphn George Gmelin, a native of Tu-
bingen, profeflbr of chemiftry and natural hidory at Pe-
terlburg, who fpent ten years in travelling through Siberia,
at the expence of the Ruffian government, and v/liofe Flora
Sibirka, in four vols, quarto, with plates, is a book of great
reputation and merit. The firll and fecond volumes were
publifhed in his lifetime ; the third and fourth long after his
death, which happened in 1755, at the age of 46. He
took his arrangement from Van Royen. Haller fays the
plates are unworthy of the beautiful drawings, which he
himfelf had feen. — This genus alfo ferves to commemorate
four or five more botanifts of the fame family, efpecially
Samuel Theophilus Gmelin, nephew of the fonner, and his
fucceflbr in" the profelTorrtiip, who publiilied a H'ljlonci Fu-
corum, with plates, in 1768, one of the moil popular books
on fubrharine botany, and who died in 1774, aged 31. —
Linn. Gen. 315. Schrcb. 412. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 313.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. JufT. 108. Lamarck. 'llluftr.
tr; 542. Goertn. t. 56.' (Michelia; Amman, in Atl. Pe-
trop. V. 8. 218. t. 18.) — Clafs and orAcr, Didynamia Angi-
ojpcrm'ia. Nat. Ord. Perfonattt, Linn. Vh'ices, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cell. Perianth Verv fmall, inferior, of one leaf,
nearly globular, with four imall unequal teeth, permanent.
Cor. of one petal, ringcnt, inflated ; its limb four-cleft ;
the upper fegmcnt large and vaulted ; lower, and lateral
ones, fmaller, obtufe, rounded, fpreading. Stam. Filaments
four ; the two iippermoft thicker and ihorter ; two lower-
moil curved upwards ; anthers two-lobed ; two of them
fometimes fmaller and fimple. P^i. Germen fuperior,
roundifli or obovate ; ilyle as long as the longer ilamens,
afcending ; ftigma acute. Pf/vr. IJrupa ovate, of one cell.
Nut obovate, fmooth, of three cells, the lowermoft abortive.
Seuh folitarj'.

EiT. Ch. Calyx v.-ith four (light teeth. Corolla four-
cleft, ringent, bell-fiiaped. Anthers cloven. Driipa (ui)e-
rior. Nut of two fertile cells.

I. G. nf.atica. Linn. Sp. PI. 873. Durm. InJ. 132.
(Jambufa fylveftris parvifolia ; Rimiph. Amb. v. 1. 129.
t. 40.' — Leaves roundifh, fomewhat three-lobed, acute,
downy beneath. — Native of Java, Amboina', and other parts
of the Eail Indies. A tree, with ftraight, roundifli, flightly
<lowny branches. Leaves oppofite, fcarccly t«o inclies
long, of a roundilh or elliptical form, aonle, moll gene-
rally furnifhed with a flioit broad lobf at each l;de, entire ;
fmooth above ; pale and downy beneath ; the midrib lending
^ tivo principal lateral ones, u-!iltlc above its bafe, and !<■-

C M E

veral fmaller ones higher up, all which are branched, yoo/.
Jlalks downy, various in length, often nearly equal to the leaf,
each with a fmall hairy bud above its inierlion, and above
that ufually a llraight, downy, iiorizontal fpine. Flo-wert
in a (hort, fimple, downy, terminal racemuj. Ca/jx downy,
beiprinkled with fcveral large, fliield-Uke, Ijnooth glands. Co'
rolla large, yellow.

Rumpiilus's figure unqueflionably belongs to this plant,
but his defcription feems that of an Eugenia. Plukenet'f
t. 305. f. 3. is certainly GarJema dumetorum, and refembles
our Gmelina only in being thorny ; his t. 97. f. 2. may pcif-
fibly be intended for Gmelina parvifolia, but is of no ufe at
to determining it.

2. G. elliptica Leaves elliptical, undivided, obtufe,

downy beneath. Thorns none. — Native, we prefume, of
the Eail Indies, confounded in the Linnxan lierbanum with
the foregoing, from which it difl'ers in having rather larger
leaves, which are exactly elliptical and blunt, more dcnleljr
downy beneath, and not lobed. Tiierc are no traces of
thorn.i. The irjlorefcence is rather more compound, but the
remarkable glandular calyx is the fame. If a variety it m a
very extraordinary one.

3. G. parvifolia. Roxb. Corom. v. 2. 31. t. 162. (G.
coroinandelica ; Burm. liid. 132.) — Leaves obovate, undi-
vided or tlu-ee-lobed, fmooth on both iides.— Common la
every forelt and uncultivated place on the coall of Cororaan-
del, flowering in Oclober and November. Rcxburgh. It is
often intermixed with G- ajiatica, from which it differs ia it»
more humble fize, larger and conllant thorns, and efpecially
in its fmaller leaves, which arc fmooth on both fides. Their
fiotvers and fruits are alike, the latter being yellow, obovate,
the fize of a fmall cherry. We perceive on one calvx id
our fpccimen a folitary gland, like thofe defcribtd in the
two former. — Ur. Roxburgh mentions that cold water,
ftirred with a leafy branch of this flirub, becomes thick,
from the abundant mucilage of the leaves, and is ufed ip
that flate as a remedy for the heat of urine which accompa-
nies gonorrhcca. Water llirred with branches and leaves of
Pedalium Murex becomes in like manner mucilaginous, an^
is ufed for the fame purpofe, but foon lofes its confiftency^
which is not the cafe with fuch as is prepared with this Gtre-
lina. Tiie Telingas call the plant Shieri goomoodoo. It may
poiTibly be Plukenet's Lycium Maderafpatjr.um, t. 97. f. j,
as Burmann takes it to be, but Sloane's Rhamnus, Hill, of
Jamaica, v. 2. t. 207. f. I, cannot be the fame, though
his vile figure affords no dillind indication of what V%
means. ' ■

4. G. arborea. Roxb. MSS. (Cumbulu ; Rheede Kort.
Mai. V. I. 75. t. 41.) — Leaves heart -Ihaped, lindtvidedi
pointed, downy beneath ; their lateral ribs cloven^ .Thorns-
none. — Sent from the coall of Coromandel by the Rev,
Dr. Rottler, with the above name of Dr. "Roxburglu
GxTtner has molt iulUy pointed out the Cumbulu of Rlieedf^
as A Gmelina, though quoted by Liimxiis, doubt'.ngly in-
deed, for his Bignonia Catalpa. Tliis is a tall and uprigljj,
tree, growing in faiidy ground, with downy branches, and
large," oppofite, ilalked,"heart-lhaped, entire leaves, dowTiy
and veiny beneath. Thoriis none, as far as we, can le3ni,_
The Jlowers are numerous and handfome, jtUow, growing
in compound, hairy, terminal cluilers. Fruit yellow, obo-
vate, rather imall.

y. G ? iridica. Bur.n. Iiid. 132. t. 39. f. 5. {Dory Zctr
Lu, of the Malays. ) Leaves alternate,. heart-lhapcd, cicnate ,.
fmooth on both lides. — Native of Java. Herb. L'um. A
Ihruh o\- tree, with round, fomewhat zig-zag, flight ly do wnj.
'branches. Leaves fnim half au inch to an inch biig, altcr-
jiate. on fluirt Iv.iirv lUilk;:, veinv, bluntly ^axnalc. I'uertu
3 C J llraight.

G N A

G N A

/?raiglit, nen(?cr, acute, moiUy longer than the leaves.
Thejloivers and fnii/ feeni to bo unknown. We liavo only
Burniann's veryVceblc authority fur making this a Gmelina,
which its alternate crenatc loaves llrongly difcouiiteiiante,
lior did Linnxus ever venture to adopt it. S.

GMUND, in Geography. See Gf.mun-de-V.

GNAA, a town of tlie duchy of Stiria ; 24 railes S.E.
of Gratz.

GNADENHUETTEN, a fettlomont of the Moravi-
ans in America, litnated on Mnflnr.gum river, oppoiitc to
Sideni, in the lands which belonged to the Mahikan Indi.ins.
— Alfo, the name of a Moravian fettlement, on the S.W.
bank of Lehigh rivt;r, in Pennfylvania, about 29 miles N.W.
of Bethlehem. — Alfo, a Moravian fettlement, called K^iu
Cn.itlenbiieltcn, on Huron river, about 22 miles from lake St.
Clair, in the county of Wayne, and 2S N.W. of De-
troit.

GNAPEEZEIK, a town of Birmah, on the Irawaddy ;
fo called from Gnapee, or Napee, a fort of fprat, lialf
pickled and half putrid, ufed as a fauce by the Birmans,
and forming an cxteiifive branch of trade : 1 10 miles N.N.W.
©f Rangoon. •

GNAPHALIUM, in Bolany, yva^xXi-v, an ancient Greek
name, from y:aif-j.\',;, foft down or wool, fuch as is plucked
from cloth in drefling it, alluding to the woollinefs of tl-.e
licrbage. Many writers have contended that Sautolina man-
timaoi Linnxus, and Sm. Fl. Brit. 860, is the true yv^-ja-
>r.v of Diofcorides, an opinion extremely difficult to efta-
blifii or to contrndift, as all he fays of it is, that " its leaves
are white and foft, ufeful for Huffing.'' However this may
be, Tournefort, and lately Gitrtner, have retained that
plant, as the true and only fpecies of Giinpbal'ium. The
Gnaphalhim of Linnxus however is a very extenfive and
com prehen live genus, from v.-hich fome fpecies have of
late been feparated. See Ei.iriiRY.suM. — Cnd-weed. — I.,inn.
trcn. 419. Schreb. 550. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1849.
Mart. Mdl. Dicl. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kev.-. v. 3. 173. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 867. Juff. 179. (Elichryfiim; Gccrtn. t. \6r->.
Antennaria ; G^rtn t. 167. Anaxeton ; G:ertn. t. 166?
Filago ; Giertn. t. 166. SeeFlLAGO. ) Clafs and order,
Syngenefia Polygami^i-Jiipcrflua. Nat. Ord. Compqfix Nttca-
mfritacca, Linn. Crjry/nl'ifera, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cominon calyx imbricated, rounded ; fcales
numerous, the marginal ones ^)aTKled, fcariofe, coloured.
Cor. com^'.'ound ; florets of the dilk perfect, t\ibular, funnel-
fliaped, in live equul retlexcd marginal legments ; fome
female one?, without a corol'a, are often intermixed towards
the margin. Stam. (in the perfetl florets) Filaments five.
Very (hart, capillary ; anthers forming a cylinder. P'lf}. (in
the fame florets) Germen ovate ; Ityle thread-dmp -d, the
length of tlie itamcns ; lligma cloven. In the female ones
the fame. Perk, none, except the permanent (hining c.ilyx.
Sreds in both kinds of florets alike, folitary, oblong, fniall,
crowned with capillary or feathery down. Reccpt. naked,

ElT. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down capillary or fea-
thery. Calyx imbricated, its inaer fcales rounded, fcariofe,
coloured.

WiUdenow reckons 146 fpeci-js of Gnaphnlium, of which
■^2 are flir.b'iv, with filv.'ry, wliiteor criir.fon fiov/ers, or
rather without any golden tinge; 12 are of a yellow or
golden coloiM", likovifc fhrabby ; 19 are herbaceous, with
ycUivvifh flo.vers; 28 herbaoioijs, v.-ilh v.hite or reddidi
oues ; and 29 have the inconfpicuaus whitifh blodbms of
the Fibga family. Tiie remaining 26 are fpecies defi.ied
l)y Thunbcrg, witho-.it any attention to thefe leading fec-
tjoosvif the genus, fo that it is impoffible to fay to which

they belong. Ten fpecies, all herbaceous, are defcribed as
natives of Britain.

1 n this large gei?us it is by no means certain that all the
fjHcies correftly anfwer to the generic character, particu-
larly in the receptacle,' which is not always Itriftly Kaked,
but bears a few bridles towards the margin, thus becoming
an ylna.viicn of Gartner.

The marginal fcales alio, being fometimcs a httle pointed
and reflexed, intrench upor: the proper chai-acler of Elkhry'
fii:ii ; fee that article, lu faft thefe genera are naturally
one and the fame, but, on account of their great extent,
are conveniently feparated by the charafter, though an
imperfeift one, of the more radiating calyx of Elichryfiim.
I.,ii)nx-us's error confided in refernng the latter to Xe'
rini'hemiim, which has a dili'erent habit and a chaffy re-
ceptacle.

The firft fpecies in Willdcnow, G. exhmum, Linn. Mant.
573. Curt. Mag. t. 300, is one of the moil fpleudid.
The lea-v!s are clothed with very thick white wool, and
the ftirubby flem is terminated by a large coryinbus of
Jioiu.rs, whofe calyx is the fizc and (hape of a raipbcrry-
truit, of a rich fliining crimfon. The Jloreis are orange-
£olourcd. It grows about 500 miles up the country above
the Cape of Good Hope, and was for a long time known
to European botaniils merely by dried fpecimens, (one
of which is figured by Edwards in his Hillory of Birds,
t. 183), brought occafionally to the Cape by the didant
fettlers.

Several other.-i of the flirubby kinds are ver)- ornamental
to our green-houfes.

Of the herbaceous forts G. fal'idum, whofe flowers,
ufually yellow, are occafionally white or filvery, always
very fplendid, is one of the moll remarkable, but the ftrong
fmell of its vifcid herbage wlien touched is offcnfive to molt
people. G. orientale is fomewhat (hrubby, though ranged
with the herbaceous one.^. Its fliining lemon-coloured
ilowers frequently ferve for ornamental purpcfes, and are
known by the name of Eierltijlhig, a name appropriate to
the whole genus.

G. margr.riuicciim, Engl. Bot. t. 201S, ferves in Wales,
where it grov.s wild, to adorn the graves of the depai'tcd,
elegantly alluding to immortality by the unfadmg nature
of its flowers, and to Ipotlefs purity oy tl.cir fnowy white-
jiefs. Tliis plant is often cultivated in cottage gardens.

G. dioictim, Engl. Bot. t. 267, the Anltnimria of Gart-
ner, fo called from its plumy crown to the feed, is one
of our mod elegant fpecies, found on dry rather moun-
tainous heaths. The Jloiuc-rs are of a beautiful rofe-
colour.

The Cape of Good Hope is mod fertile in this ger.us,
but feveral fine fpecies grow in South America, and there
are loine from New Holland to be added to what are eiui-
meratedin Vv''il!denow. The mountains and fields of difier-
ent parts of Europe produce various fpecies, but few o-f
the more handfome, except G. archarmm, Fl. Dan. t. 641,
and its near relation G olympkum of our gardens, gatl-.rred
about the Bithynlan Olympus by Dr. Sibthorp ; both v.-liich
vie with G. orkntale in their Ihining g.jlden or lemon colour,
and the olympkum at lead is a hardy perennial, of eafy
culture.

Gnapii.vlium, in Gardening, affords plants of the herba-
ceous and under flirubby kinds : of which tlie fpicies n.ofily
cultivated are, the tree eV'^rLiding (G. arboreum); the
red-flowered everlading (G. ignefcens) ; the eadern ever-
laii ing, or immortal flower (G. orientale); the fwcet-
fceiited everlading, or eternal flower (G. odoratiffim.um) ;
the American everlading, ax eternal ilower (G. margari-

toceuiu);

G N A

G N A

taceufn); the plantain-leaved everlailinir fG. planfa^'flcuml;
t)io common llirubby everlrifting, or itxchas (G. uxchasi.
Many of tliefe are curious plants.

TiLthod of C Aturc. — Tlia iirfl; four forts mav be increafed
bv flips from the heads or cuttings ; by planting them in
pots of light earth in the fprinr; or fumnier months, and
plunging tii^m in a mtuLTate hot bed, rcfre(hing them often
with water. When they have taken fall root, they may be
removed into feparate pols, and be phiccd among other
plants of the hardy exotic fort. They require the pro-
tection of a frame in the winter feafon.

The feventh fpecies may be increafed in the fame manner,
being placed at once wlierc it is to remain, in a (hady (hel-
tered border, or other place that ii proper.

The fifth and ilxth forts may be eafily raifed by dividing
and planting their creeping roots where they are to grow,
either in the autumn or fpring mmiths.

Tiiefe tliree lall are fufliciently hardy to fland the open
air in warm fituations.

Tiiey are all ornamental plants, the former in the green-
Loufe co'lection, and the latter in the open ground.

GNAPHEUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Athe-
njEUs and other of the Greek writers to the tench.

GNARP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of HeliingUnd ; 20 miles N. of Hud'.vickfwal.

GNAT, in Entomology. See Cllkx.

Tiiere is no fpecies of infeft that we have fo much reafon
to difiike in regard to the injury it docs us as the gnat.
Others indeed give us more pain -with their ftings, but it is
bat by accident that we are ilruck by them; the gnats
thiril for our blood, and follow us about in whole com-
panies for it. There are many mardiy places where the
legs and arms are all the fummer fuelled to an enormous
fi^ie by the repeated bitings of thete infefts, and in many
Other countries they are much more troublefome than
with us.

But as troublefome enemies as thefe little creatures are
to us, tl'.ere is that about them wliich is extrem.ely worthy
our admiration ; nor can we indeed fail greatly to admire
even the very inftrumcnt of the mifchief they do. They
have befide this many very obfervable particulars in the
coiirfe of their lives.

AH the naturaliils of late years have applied the micro-
fcope to the examination of the parts of this little animal,
and Swammerdam, Hook, Bonanni, Leeuwenhoeck, &c. have
given very good accoirnts, and very valuable drawings of
the creature.

There is a great number of very fmall fpecies of gnats,
and though lome are confiderably large, yet none e\en »1
thefe approaches to the fize of the tipula, or father long-
legs, as commonly called. The larger tipula? are therefore
fafily diiUnsjuifhed from the gnats ; but Swammerdam,
Goedart, L.:'.ler, and others, lu-.ve very often given us the
fmaller tiuul:e among the fpecies of gnats. Both have long
llender bodies, and both ^»fk>minent corcelcts, which make
them look hump-backed ; but when either of thcf' infefts
is taken into the hand it is very eafily known, the gnat having
a very long trunk, and the tipula no trunk at all.

There is a prodigious number of fptcies oi the gnat kind,
comprehendin » the fmal'er ones : Dr. Derham obfcrvcd
near forty d.nerent fpecies about Upminiler in EfTex ; but
of thofe of a fi/.e to be remarked wi:h ee.fe, and without the
help of ghiTcs, there are three principal kinds : the one has
its body variegat-cd with while and bl.ick ; this is the larger
kind, and its corcelet is ilrtaked v.ith black or deep brown,
and white lines or greyifh ones ; thefe liave brown eyes ; an-
other is fmaller than this fpecies, and has a plain brown body,

the colour of -the corce'ct, and that of the eye* is fht fame
as in the larger er firil fpecies ; the third kind is the friail? !b
of tlie three and the iniilt common, hai its corcelet redd 'I1,
or of a faded reddifh yellow, and the body whitifn, .md 011
the under part of the belly every ring ha^ one finglc bro.%n
fpot ; the red is grey : the eyes of this ipecica are of a »try
pleafunl green.

All the gnats have a long cylindric body compofcd of eignt
rings ; their corcelet is fliort but large, in proportion to the
fi/.eof the fly, and to this arc fixed the fix legs, which arc
hairy, with fix joints to taeh, and at the end tivo little claws,
the wings, and the balancers : four ftigmata are alfo found
here, as is the cafe in other flics : the two lirft of thcfr
are placed near the head, and have been midaken for
ears.

The antenna: of gnats are extremely worih cbfer\ation,
and differ much from one another. Some of them arc ele-
gantly feathered ; thefe belong to the males of certain Ipe-
cies, for the antennx of tlie females are not fo btuutiful.
The brufh-horned or male gnat has two pair, one of which
is furrounded, at fmall dillaii^es, wit ii lowg hair, iffiuTig out
circularly, each circle hfi'enii g as it approaches the extremity
of the antenna ; the otiier pair are longer and much thicker,
and hairy from cndtociid. In the great bellied or female
gnat, the firfl pair of antcnni, though of the fame llgur»
as the male's, has hairs not near fo long, and the fecond pai
is fhorter than the firit by at lead three parts in four.
Reaumur, Hid. Inf. vol. iv. p. 574, &c. B:iker'b Micrcf.
1743. p. 203, &c. For the trunk and wings of the gnat,
fee TiiuxK and Wings.

GxATs, Eggs of. See Ecos.
Tor the Eya of Gx -.T.--, fee Y-WS of Flics.
GsAT-xvoim, in Njlunil li'ijlory, a fmall water infeft, pro-
duced of a gnat, and ,\ hicli is, after its fevcral changes, tranf-
formedinto a gnr.t again.

Fro.n the c_.;gs, depo/ited by the gnat on the furface of
the water, proceed a number of minute worms, which fink-
ing to the bottom of the water, form for thenifclvcs cover-
ings of fine fand or earth, cemented togetlvcr with a fort of
glue, but open at both ends, that they may corae out and
enter as occafion requires.

Tiicfe worms do rot frequent rivers ; but ditches, ponds,
and other ftanding waters, afTord them in vad abundance,
from the middle of May till toward the beginning of winttr.
This is the reafon why watery and marihy ]>lacts arc found
moil to abound with gnats., and why the wet tummers are
found to produce the greated numbers of them ; becaufe in
dry feafons, the ponds and ditches, where they are to pafs
their worm-date, are dried up,-and the worms killed. Thele
are creatures, however, that one need not go far to feck,
fince a veffel of water, expof(.d in any open place in the fum-
mer months, will not fail to afford plenty of thefe worms in
a little time.

Before thefe worms are arrived at thi.ir full growth,
though they are then but fmall, they arc ea'".ly found,
becaufe they are under a necfTity of coming frequently to the
top of the water, by having occafion for frequent refpiration ;
i.i.d to do this, they arc obliged to keep the end of .-. fmail
pipe they are furnilhed with, from the lai'i rirg of ibeirlwdy.
ai.ove water. The end uf this pipe is hollow and indented,
and forms a fort of funnel on the furface of tl.e water :
it is of the length of about tlirce rirgs of the body,
and is foraewhat thicker at its inferticn than at its ex-
tremity.

As there is a vad number of fpecies of gnats, there is no
lefsof the worms from whence they .ire produced : and to
this is in a great meafure owing the variety iu tlic figures gi>en

G N E

G N E

of the worms bv the authors who have trcaU-d of Uu-m ;
which may ah'o be not a httle added to by the particular
views in which thofe dn.ughts have been taken. ^ Notwith-
ftanding al! the variations of thcfe figures, the general form
of the animal is however the fame in all, and the fpecies can-
not but be known from any of them. ^V'ilik■ the v.orm is
vDung, the body is whilidi or grecnilh ; but when it is at its
full growth, and draws near the time of its changes, it be-
comes greyifh. The great tranfparence of the body of this
worm gives a fine view of what paffes within it ;'it is at any
time eafy to fee into the motion of the intellines, by wliich
the food is puflied on towards the anus. The two princi-
pal trachea; are alfo fccn very dilliiicily in this creature ; they
arc two white tidies jdaced in a parallel direftion one to
another, and run from the firft ring to the tube of refpiration.
The (;reat worm feveral times ciiangcs its flcin in the courle
of its life. After three changes of tliis kind, which ufualiy
happen in tlie fpace of three weeks, or thereabout, it under-
goes a fourth, wliere the old {Icin is as eafdy thrown off as
in the reft, but. the animal now appears in anew form, that
of a nymph ; it is now fliorter and rounder than before, and
the botly. is fo bent that the tail is applied to the under part
of the head ; this, however, is only its form in a voluntary
ftate of reft, for it can yet move, and when it pleafe-s extends
its tail, arid fwinis abot;t as fwiflly as when in its other itate.
When the creatures have quitted tiieir firtl habitations and
the figure of worms, they re-afcend to the top of the water,
inclofed in a kind of ftiell, witli a large head and moulli, two
black eyes, two horns, feveral tufts ot hairs on .ditierent
parts of the body, and a tail with a brulh of Irair at the end
of it, which, being fmeared over with an oily fluid, ferves
to keep them above water ; their heads benig fometinies
lifted in the air, and fometimes plunged into the water, while
the tail Hides along the furface : and when the oil on the tail
begins to dry, they fhed from their mouth a frefli fupply,
vvliich renders it capable of fteering where they pleale, with-
out being wetted and damaged by the water.

All the parts of the futm-e gnat may be feen in this
nymph; the (Icinof it is extremely thin and Iranfparent, yet
fufficiently tough and firm for the ufe it is intended for. It
is uncertain how long exaftly the animal lives in this
nymph ftate ; but after the time is accompliflied, its
change into a gnat is very quick, and is attended with
great danger to the animal, iince multitudes are drowned
in the aiil of getting out and fpringing into the air.
Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol, iv. Baker's Microf. 1743. p. 88.
Gn"AT, in Ruriil Economy., a fmall well-known infeft,
■which is faid to deftroy the leaves of fome tender vegetables
as foon as they appear, fuch as the turnip, &c.

GNEISS, in Min.ral'.gy, a primitive rock, compofed of
fe'dfpar, quartz, and mica; incredients'whichare likewifethofe
of granite, from which it diitcrs in the arrangement of thofe
parts ; for while in the latter rock they ufualiy appear as gra-
nular aggregations, thofe of gneifs arc difpofedin luch a man-
ner as to exhibit a more or lels flaty ttructure. This ftrudlure
paffes through various degrees of diftinftnefs ; on one hand
it approaches fo near to the granular texture, that the diilinc-
-tion between gneifs and granite ceafes to exift, while, on the
other hand, when its peculiar texture is very obvious, and
becomes what is termed thlnjlaty, a paftage is formed into
tite primitive rock, next to it in antiquity, called mica-flate.
In its progrefs towards the nature of granite, the feldfpar
is generally predominant with regard to the mica ; while
thofe vai^ieties approaching mica-flate gradually exhibit a
fmaller proportion of feldfpar and much mica. Sometimes,
however, the mica is only apparently predominating, owing
to the circumftance, that on breaking a mafs of gneifs, the

i

line of feparalion will more frequently pafs through the
mica than through the other layers, and difplay a whole fur-
face of that fubftance ; but anotlier frafture, perpendicidar to
the firl't, will, in this cafe, foon undeceive the obferver.
Though feldfpar is, generally fpeaking, the predominant
ingredient of gneifs, yet the proportion of mica in this rock
is, upon the whole, greater than what we fee it in granite :
and tl;e lefs this is the cafe, the more the mafs appears granu-
lar, and the more it approaches to granite. It is often a
matter of diiliculty, in viewing fmall ipccimens only, to dif-
tinguilli fome kinds of gneifs from the laft-mentioned primi-
tive rock ; when the infiieftion of tlie former in their natural
fituation, and en a large Icale, would have left but little
doubt in the mind of the examiner. ' -

Gneifs, viewed in the large, as a mountain mafs, always
exhibits thick and diftiiK-i ft rata, whofe outgoings, or upper
terminations, are generally lower than the fubjacent granite,
and higher than thofe of the lupcrincumbent mica-flate.

Werner (to whom we ewe more correct ideas refpeftingthis
rock,) diftinguiflies four kindsof gneifs, -viz. that approaching
the granular ftruiture, the waved or undulated, the common,
and the thin ilaty gneifs. As particular varieties of thefe, we
have I. The ftriped gneifs, in which the quai-tz is difpofed in
narrow bars, furroimded by feldfpar, producing, on its longi-
tudinal fracture, a ftriped appearance, not unlike that of lome
kinds of petrified wood ; wla'e its tranfverfal fratlure exhibits
a granular difpofition of the parts. This ftriped variety gene-
rally occurs together with the waved ; fuch as at Ober-New-
flionberg, Reifland and Hartmanfdorf, near the BchemiaiJ
frontiers. 2. The fprinkled, or that kind of gneifs in which
the feldfpar and mica exhibit themfelves in the form of fmall
nefts : fuch as that found at Hartmanfdorf and Bobritfch,
near Freiberg, and at Kuffenberg in Bohemia. 3. The
fiiort lamellar or flaky variety, fuch as it is found at Marien-

berg

'V\\s colour of the ingredients of gneifs is not fubjeft to
great variation. The feldfpar. is generally of a greyiih, yel-
lowifti, and reddifh-white colour, feldom yellowifti-grey, or
deep fiefli-red, as it appears in many varieties of granite ;
upon the whole, its tint rcfembles that of the quartz with
which it is accompanied, and which feldom appears fmoke-
grey or brown. The colour of the mica is generally black
or brownifli-black, fometimes browniih, yellowilh, and alh-
grey, and rarely iilver-white or of a golden hue.

Thefe component parts are found to vary alfo in regard
to their frc/l.'ncfs ; in general the feldlpar is perfeiJtly fo-
liated and ftiining ; but iometimes it appears in incipient de-
compofition, or even converted into petunze ; in the fame
manner as the mica is now and then feen paffing into a grecnift
fubftance rcfembling fteatite. Dr. Reufs found that the'
porcelain earth dug at the Galgenberg, near Pufchwitz,'in
the Saatz diftrift of Bohemia, v.here it is ufed for white-
wafliing walls, is tlie refult of the higheft ftage of decompo-
fition of gneifs ; it forms thick ftrata, and contains a great
quantity of fmall grej-ifti white, light grey, and pale clove-
brown grains of quartz. In the lame manner this minera-
logift obfervcd in that country frequent preofs of the con-
verfion of the feldfpar of gneifs into a ferruginous clayey
mafs. Near Klofterly it is feen converted into bunt-tlioo
or variegated clay.

Befides the more effintial feldfpar, quartz, and mica, the
following accidental ingirjirnts are now and then met witli in
gneifs. i.Shorl: both the common and black tourmaline
(horl, fometimes occur in the gneifs of I'reiberg, and parti-
cularly of Spain. 2. Garnet; rarely, but much more frequently
than in granite; it occurs at Wiefenthal- in Saxony, in Nori.
way, in the illand of Zealand, in Moravia, im. 3. •Horn-
blende

G N E

G N E

'>lenJc : is but ieldora found, and only in the thin flaty variety
of gneifs, which padts into mica and hornblende flatc.
4 Steatite : occui-s principally in the gneifs forming the walls
of the metalliferous veins in tiie Freiberg diilrift ; it is con-
sidered by fome as mica thus transformed by fulphuric acid.
5. Aftinote : is faid fometimes to conllitute an ingredient of
tfneifs in Switzerland and Hungary. Metallic iub.'lances
that are fometimes found dilTeminated in gneiis, in the vici-
nity of veins, cannot properly be enumerated even as acci-
dental component parts of this rock.

Gneifs abounds in metals moret'iiin any other rock, as may
be feen from the richncfs of thi Saxon and Bohemian mines,
thofe of Salzburg, Sec. There are but f;w among the
known melals that arc not found in it, either in veins or beds.
"■The oldcft gr.eifs in the Saxon Ertzgebirge," fays Mr.
Jnmefon, " that with reddilli-coloured feldfpar, is the leafl
produftive in ores ; but the newer, with white coloured
feldfpar, is the moft produftive ; and the veins, tlioiigh
fmall, are numerous. Tiie oldell venigenous formation ap-
pears to be that which contains tin-Hone. Tlie tin-ore is
accompanied with wolfram, molybdena, arfenic-pyrites,
fluor-lpar, chlorite, topaze, and opi'.l. The iecond venigenous
formation appears to be a le.id-glance formation. The third
formation coniilb- principally of copper, and the ores are
grey copper-ore, copper -glance, copper-pyrites, and va-
ne? '.fed copper-ore. The fourth formation, v.-hich is very
excenfive, contains ores of cobalt. The newefl: formation is
that which contains ores of filver. Veins containing an'-i-
mony_, and red iron-llone occur in gneifs, and tliefe are fup-
pofed to be newer than any of the preceding. The metaili-

ferous beds that occur in tins

contain argentiferous

leaJ-glance, blende, copper and iron-pyrites. It fometimes
alfo contains formations of gold.''

There are three confiderable beds oi rocks fuberdir.ate to, and
fy nchronic with, gneifs, and which are therefore not feen in gra-
nite, wz. granular limcltone, as it is oblerved, for inftancc, near
Freiberg; primitive trap, fuch ashornblende-flate, at Kutlen-
berg in Bohemia, at Kongfberg in Norway, &c ; and the
older porphyry. (See Limestose, Trap, and Porphyry.)
Alfo fmall beds of common garnets, aftinole, with magnetic
iron-done, iron-pyrites, galena, &c. now and then occur
in gneifs.

Gneifs 'being generally fuperincumbent on granite, is
hence confidered as next to this primitive reck in point of
age : there is, however, alfo a difference in the relative an-
tiquity of the different kinds of gneifs, and on the whole it
may be faid that the nearer it approaches in its texture to
M'ica-Jlaie, (fee that article,) the more recent is its origi:?.
From this it docs not, hov.ever, follow that there fhould
not be found kinds of gneifs which furpafs in antiquity even
fome kinds of real gi..mte. (See Gr.\mte.) The very
thick flaky varieties cif gneifs, with black mica and a fmall
proportion of mica, may, in general, be faid to be of more
ancient formation.

Gneifs, though far lefs widely didributed than granite, has
ftlll a confiderable range ; it extends over the greatelt part
of the Saxon Ertzgebirge: the country about Freiberg,
GlaHiLitte, Marienberg, Ehrenfriederfdorf, conlifting almoib
entirely of it. In t!ie fame manner it is the characterizing
rock of the Bohemian mountainous mining diltiitt. It is
alfo found in Silefia, Carinthia, in fome parts of the Black
Foreft in Suabia ; nor is it wanting in the Tauriflcian moun-
tains, in Salzburg, in the Swifs Alps, the Pyrenees and
Vofges, in Scandinavia, Greece, &c. In Great Britain it
has been obfer-.-ed particularly m Scotland, in tlie iflands of
Coll, Tiree, Rona, and in the Slietland iflands It (houlU

however be obfei-ved, that frequently other rocks have been
defcribcd as gneifs by topographical writers.

The eeonmnkal life made of gucifs is that for paving, and
for the conilniction of walls ; for both wiiich purpoles it i^
extremely well calculated, by reafon of the facility with
which it is wrouglit hy tlie mafon. Hence in the' Saxon
mining diftriit not only almoll a!! buildings arr- coi,ftru<Jted
of gneifs, but alfo the wallin;; of the fliafts and levels is moft
advantngcoufly executed in tiiistifeful nek.

^ GNEMON, in Bolriiy, :i tree fo called in the ifland of
Tornate and otiicrs of the Moluccas, which is named in tlit-
Malay language Meiwijc, or Aleii'wgo, a word apparently of
the fame derivation, whatever that may be. See Gne-

TL'.M.

GNERDEN. in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Irak; 150 miles E. of Ifpaiian. N. lat. 32^
20'. E. long. 55 \

GNEKROUTOOH, a town of Birmah, on the Ira-
waddy ; 10 miles N. E. of Pagham.

GNESEN, or Gnksn-.a, a city of Poland, in the
duchy of Warfaw, built, as it is faid, by king Lechus I.,
founder of the monarchy, and called Cntfna, from an eagle's
nefl found there, denominated in the Pohlli language Gn.fiaii.
The kings of Poland were crov.ned in this city, and the
regalia were kept here till, in the year 1320, they were
removed to Cracow. During the independent cxiftence
of Poland, it was famous as the fee cf an archbi(hop, who
was primate of Polr.nd, and who aftcd as interrex i r regent
upon the king's deniife ; and wlio alio announced the
event, convoked the di^-ls and dictines of convocation, and
performed the funiStions of royalty. Gnefna is 100 milus
N. E from Brellaw, and 130 W. from Warfaw. N. lat.
52° 26' E. long. 17-42'.

GNETUM, a name contrived by Linna-us, as we prc-
fume from )»r,;is-;»i-, brotkerhooil, alluding to the fituatioh
of the numerous male and female flowers, feveral of each
together in e.ich whorl. Eiiui. Mant. 18. Schreb. fij*).
Wllld. Sp. PI. V. 4. 591. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 2. Jufl".4c6.
(Thoa; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 874. Schreb. 650 .luff. 406.
Lamarck Illullr t. 784.) Clals and ord>.r, Mor.ttcia fiio-
nu'Je'phia. Nat. Or<l. Urtic'is ojfme, .luff, or rather, as he him-
felf hints, to be referred to a new order, which he propofcs
to term P\ feres.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Catkin compofed of feveral remote, cal-
lous, thickened v.horls, each fubtcnded by a fmall partial
cnlyx, which is peltate, orbicul.ir, flat, entire, containing
feveral feffile florets, the male ones inftrior, the females
fnj)erior, in the fame whorl. Perianth of the male a minute,
ovate, coloured fealc. Cor. none. Slam. Filament one,
thread-fliaped, longer than the Icale; anthers in pairs, con-
nected.

Perianth of the female a rude, lacerated fcale. Cer. none.
Pyi- Germcn ovate, fuperior, immcrled in the receptacle
of its own whorl, the length of the flairens; llyle conical,
iliurt; fligm.a three-deft, acute. Peric. Drupa ovate, of
one cell. Seed. Nut folitary, oblong, llriated, of one cell.

Efl' Ch. Male, Calyx an nndivitled fealc of a whorled
catkin. Corolla none. Filament one, with a pair of anthers.
Female, Calyx a torn fcale of the fame whorl. Corolla none.
Stigma three-cleft. Drupa with one feed.

Obf. Linncus obferves t4int Rnmphius makes his plant
diacious, but he found it monoecious, ar.d even faw one
catkin entirely male, flanding on its own footilalk, near a
female llorct. The /'/.^oa of Aublet, though fomewhat dif-
ferently deferibcd, is undoubtedly the fame genu.', and in-
deed fo like the original Gnelum in foliage, that it is not
very eafy to dittinguiih them.

I. G. Cn.'mcn.

G N I

1. G. Gnemon. Linn. Mant. 125. (Gnemon domeftica;
Rumpl). Amboin. v. i. i8i. t. 71, 72. Beietinus IVudlus;
Ciuf. Exot. 55 ) — Lateral veins of the leaves iiromiiicnt,
inter-brancliing nrchwife half way towards tlie margin. Cat-
kins oppofite, axillary, on fimple Ihilks — Native of the
Molucca iflands, and other parts of the Eall Indies. We
have it from Java. A tree, with llraight, round, flender,
fmooth branches, fwelling at each joint, under the infertion
of tlie leaves, and fomewhat forked at the ends, heaves
oppolite, Ihilked, ovate, inclining to lanceoLue, ponited,
entire, fmooth and (iiining, three or four inches long, fur-
iiilhed with a midrib, chanm Ued above, prominent beneath,
fending off fcveral alternate, ipreading, prominent though
ilender veias, which meet rather more tlian half way towards
the margin in one common arching vein, whence numerous
reticulations originate. Stipiilas none. Fo'jlJ}all:sh-Ai im inch
long, channelled and keeled. Caliiiis axillary, fliorter than
the leaves, two together from each oppolite leaf, on fnnple
ilalks, their whorls when young crowded, but foon becom-
ing dillant and bead-like, every whorl bearing numerous
female as well as male flowers. 'What Linnxus deferibes
as a torn fcale in the former, feems rather a very denfe
:i(ii;mblage of (hort tiiftcd libres. Fruit the fi/.e of an
ordinary acorn or filberd, its coat thin, fweetifii according
to Rumpluus, but x\ith too much acrimony to be catm
raw; as is alfo the cafe with the leaves, which, when dreffed,
are in almoll daily ufe among the natives of Amboyna,
though thought mawkilh and inlipid by Europeans.

2. G. Thoa. (Thoa urens ; Aubl, Guian. v. 2. 874.
t. 336.) — Lateral veins of the leaves obfulete, inter-branch-
ing archwifc. Catkins on limpla ihilks, from the repeated
forks of the branches. — Gathered by Aublet in ihe woods
of Guiana, where the natives call it Thcs. His own fpe-
cinicn in our pofTefTion has no fruAitication nor inflorefcence,
fo that wc have been obliged to take part of our character
from his iigiu-e. The hnvcs feem in general to be rather
ihorter and broader than in the former, but the chief diftinc-
tion is obfervable in their lateral veins, which though they
do in a fmiilar manner run into one common arching vein,
above half way to\vards the margin, are all together far
m<ire flight and lefs prominent than in the firlt fpecies.
T\\e fruit is like the former, reddifli, and elliptical Aublet
fays that when its outer llcin is taken off, a dry fubilance is
found underneath, compofed of llifF depreded hairs, which
eafdy feparate from each other, and if any of tliem fall upon
the human (kin,, they caufe a great itching. The kernel of
the nut, boiled or toatled, is good to eat. Birds of the
fowl or pheafant tribe feed in the woods upon this fruit,
which they fwallow whole. The fame author affures us
that a clear gum iifues from the bark and branches, but that
when the main trunk or great brandies are cut, a clear
tailelefs vaterv liquor runs out, which may be drank by
thofe who are diitreffed fen" water. Tliis tree is almoft
always in flower and fruit. Aublet deftribes the catkins as
ijiale, with two female flowers ai their bafe. This is fo
different from om- fjjecimens of G. Gmmon, that it might
almofl afford a fpecilic character, but Rurapliius deloribes
tlie fame circi'nnltance in what he terms his male Gnemon,
ajid Linnsus adverts to fomething like it. It Ihould ieem
therefore that in the iirlc, if not in everv fpecies, the genus
is imperfectly dioecious, one tree bearing catkins with
female flowers, witli perhaps lefs perfect males, in every
whorl, while on another are found more efncient males in
every whorl, wiih females at the bafe only, as in Aublet's
'J.'haa. Such examples throw great light on the phyliology
of vegetable generation., and confinn the Linnsan theory.

3. G. fuiiiculare. Buchanan M6S. (Gnemon funicukiris ;

G N O

Rumph. Amboin. t. J. 12. t. 8. Ula ; Rhced. Hort. Mai.
v. 7. 41. t. 22.) — Lateral veins of the leaves feparate to the
margin. Catkins oppofi'.e, axillary, on branclicd ilalks. —
Native of Amboyna and other places in the Eall Indies.
This is a long trailing branched {moolhjhrub, turning black
in dryii g, which the two former do not. The leaves are
four or five inches long, various in breadth, pointed, firm,
fliining, diflinguiflied by their veins continuing diHinft to
the edge of the leaf. The JJonver-Jlalis are axillary, in pair.f,
more or lefs branched and forked ; each catkin being about
an inch long, compofed of numerous orbicular imbricated
fcales concealing the flowers, and not unaptly compared in
the Hortus Malabaricus to Long Pepper. Each Hands on
a partial ilalk, of about its own length. T\k fruit refembles
that of the foregoing, and is roailed over the fire, which
renders the kernel eatable. The tender leaves ferve for a
pot-herb, like thofe of G. Gnemon. The bark of the young
twigs, fplit into thread, ferves to make nets.

Rumphius's vol. 5. t. 7, which he calls Funis Gnemon:-
formis, but of which he feems not to have known the ilower.s,
may pofTibly be the male plant of our lall-defcribed fpecicE,
beaiing only one or two female flowers at the bottom of the
flalks of the male catkins, according to the analogy obferved
in the forecfoinj; ones. S.

GNIAFDA, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 7
miles W.S.W. of Palotza,

GNIDIA, in Botnnf, from Gnidus, where Venus had her
temple. A feed, reported to be brought from thence, had
been called Coccog^nitlium, and there is a yntiv., or KnJidi,
fuppofed to be a kind of Orache ; but Linns;us probably had
not thefe fo much in view as the affinity of this genus to
Pii/prina, named after a favourite bird of the goddefs, in
allulion to which inch'ed it was iiril named Struthia by Vati
Royen. It is moreover akin to Daphne, one fpecies of
which. Daphne Gnidium, has been taken for the ancient 7»idiov.
— Linn. Gen. 193. Schreb. 260. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.
424. Mart. Mill Ditl. V. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 27.
Juff. 77. Lamarck llluflr. t. 291 — Clafs and order, Offar.-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. FejtreciiU, Linn. 'Fhymehit,
.Tufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, funnel-
fhaped, coloured ; its tube thread-fhaped, very long ; limb
flat, in four deep fegments. Cor. Petals four, fcflile, flat,
inferted into the edge of the tube of the calyx, and fliorter
than its limb. Stam. Filaments eight, briille-fliaped, eredt,
inferted into the tube in two rows, the uppermoll reaching
nearly to the top ; anthers roundifh, ereft, fimple, of two
cells. Pifl. Germen ovate, fuperior ; flyle thread-fliaped,
as long as the tube, inferted laterally into the germen ; flignia
capitate, liifpid. Pcric. a dry berry, with a thin coat. Heed
folitary, ovate, obUquely pointed.

EfT. Ch. Calyx fnnnel-lhaped, for.r-cleft, withering, in-
cluding the ftamens. Petals four, inferted into the calyx.
Style lateral. Seed coated.

Obf. It differs from Pafferina only in having petals ;
which are often rather of a glandular appearance. The
habit is altogether that of Daphne and Pajjirina. Willdenow
enumerates lixteen fpecies, but of thefe G. pir.ifoUk and ra-
diata are one and tlie fame, and G. daphuiefoUa, Linn. Supjil.
22J, feems rather to belong to Dais.

All the genuine fpecies are natives of the Cape of Good
Hope, of a humble Ihrubby growth, with white or yellowifh
fweet-lcented flowers.

GNIEWE, or Mi;VE, in Geography, a town of Pruflia,
in the province of Pomcrclia, on tlie Viflula ; 30 miles
S.S.E. of Dantzic.

CNOIEN,

G N O

GNOIEN, a town of l!ie diicliy of Mccklonliurg ; 21
miles E.S.E. of Rottock. N. lat. 53-^ 59'. E. loinr. 12'
52'.

GNOLL Raii.-Way. This is an eRabliflimcnt in Ola-
!n>.i-ganlliire, in South Wales, which we had not heard of at
the time of coinpiUng our article Canai, ; it is called an
iron 'U'ai^go/i-'way, the fl.inch being on the wheels of the
wai^t^oas; ;;;!k-iid of being on the tram-plates, as is more
■commuii in that diilritt. It commences at the Ihipping-
place 200 y;u-ds below Neath bridge, on the Neath river;
jrofies the Neath canal on a wooden bridge, and proceeds
about E. half a --mile to the late fir Herbert Mackworth's
(rnoll collieries, of run coals, which are drawn up forty
r;ith;>m, to be loaded into the waggons on this waggon-wav,
svhich has fo regular a defcent, as to require no inclined
planes, or other confidenible works.

GNOMES, Gnomi, a name which the Cabbalills give to
certain invillble people, whom they fuppofe to inhabit the
■inner parts of the earth, and to lill it to the centre.

They are reprcfented as very fmall of llature, traftable,
and friendly to men ; and are made the guardians of mines,
quarries, hidden treafures, &c. Vigcnere calls them
Gnomons : the females of this fpecies are -called Gno-
niides.

Vigneiil de Marville, in his Melange de Hiftoire ct de
Literature, tome i. p. 100, gives a relation of a conferenc*
with a pliilofopher of this clafs, who held, that an infinity
of fpirits inhabited each of the four elements, fire, air,
-water, and earth, under the denomination of SalamanJirs,
Sylpks, Oudins, and Gnomes ; that the Gnomes are employed
in working or aftuating the machines of brutes upon
earth.

He added, that fomo philofophers of that feft held that
thefe fpirits were of two fexes, for the two fexes of bealls
or moving machines ; that tliey were more or lefs perfect as
the brutes were ; and that there was an inlinite number of
exceedingly fmall ones, to actuate the infinite number of
infefts and animalcula, both thofe that are vifible, and thofe
which are too fmall to come under our fenfes ; that all
thefe fpirits, in general, govern their refpeitive machines
according 10 the difpofition of the parts or organs, the
humours, temperaments, &c that they do not la\ hold of
all machines indifferently, but of thofe fuited to their own
cliafafler, clement, &c. that a haughty one, for inlhnice,
feizes a Spanilli gennet ; a cruel one a tyger, &c.

Gvo.ME, Tvi'^r, or chna, is alio ufed lor a Ihort, pithy,
and fententious obfervation, reflection, or tlie like, which
is worthy to be treafured up and remembered.

Such is that of Juvenal, " Orandum ell, ut fit men"; far.a
in corpore fano." The writers of rhetoric dillinguifli fevcral
kinds of gnomes, according as they turn on words, on
aftions, or both ; denom.inating them -verbal, aSive, and
i«/.vft.' gnomes or chrtJ. See Apophthegm.

GNOMON, in Dialliiig, is the llyle, pin, or cock of a
dial, the fiiadovv whereof pointcth out the hours.

The word is Greek, 'yi^u^-, which literally miports foir.e-
what that makes a thing known ; becaufe the Ityle or pin
indicates or makes the hour, &c. known.

The gnomon of every dial is fiippofed to rcprefent the
axis of the world ; and therefore the two ends or extremi-
ties theivilf mull direftly anfwer to the north and fouth poles.
See Dial and Dialling.

Gno.mon, in Geometry. If a parallelogram be divided
into four lelfer ones,, by two lines interfeetmg each other,
and one of thefe parallelograms be retrenched or taken
away, the other three will make a gnomon, orduiarily called
a ftjiiare.

Vol. XVI.

G N O

Or, a gnomon, in a parallelogram, may be faid to be a
figme formed of the two complements, together with
either of the parallelograms about the diameter. Thus, in
the parallelogram A C, PlaleVlll. Geometry, f^. 96, the
gnomon is M -|- .v + c -f N; or M + N -i- X -r Z.

Gno.MON', in yljlronomy, the name given to any upright
pillar, when ufed for the i)urpofe of determining the alti-
tude of a celedial objeft, but particularly the fun.

The extreme fimplicity of this inilrument renders it very
probable, that it was the tirft ever ufed for aflronomical
purpofes. It fortunati'ly happened for the fcience, that it
was capable likewife of being a very exaft one ; and all the
knowledge the ancients had of the folar theory feems to
have been derived from this inilrument. The principle of
it is fo iimple, as hardly to require explanation. If the height
of a vertical pillar be compared with its (liadow on a hori-
zontal plane, the altitude of the fun may be deduced by
trigonometrical calculation, fince thefe two quantities are to
each other, as the tangent to the radius, or as the fine to the
cofiiie of the altitude required. The ancient obelifks found in
Egypt and the Eall were probably inllruments of tliis
kind : it woidd be too much to conclude that every one was
eretled for allronomical purpofes, but tliis was probably
their original dtllination ; and the figure of an obelilk being
rather pleafing to the imagination, it was adojXed as an
ornament to public fquares and buildings. As practical
allronomy advanced to accuracy and perfeAion, ho\vev«r,
the gnomon appeared to be fubjeft to confiderable defects.
The ihadow is found to be generally ill defined, fo that its
length cannot be very accurately meafured ; and to obviate
this, the gnomon muil be of greater height than is eaCly
praclicable. In modern Europe, therefore, the original
gnomon hat been almoll entirely abandoned, and a new one
tubilituted upon principles nearly fimilar, but of a fomc-
what different conilruftion.

The gnomons of modern Italy are ufually conftrufted
in very large edifices ; a fmall aperture is made in the upper
part ot the building, which permits a luminous circular
image of the fun to be formed on the pavement, en which
a meridian hue is accurately traced : a plumb line is iufpendcd
from the aperture to the lloor, and thus both the height of
the aperture, and the diihuice of the folar image frJm the
point immediately beneath it, is very accurately afcer-
tained.

There are upon record fome very ancient obfervations
made with inltruments of thi.'i kind, particularly of Pythias,
who obferved the foldices at Marfcillcs above three centu-
ries before the ChriiUan era. Pliny mentions an obelilk
erected by Augullus : this obelilk was brought from Eg)-pt,
and was faid to have been made by Sefolkris, near a thoufand
years before Chrift. It was ufed by Manlius for the func
purpo'e for which it was originally dellincd, namely, to
meafiire the height of the lun.

The Chinefc have from the carlieft time been in the con-
ftant praftice of making ufc of a gnomon.

In the year 1278, a gnomon 40 feel high was erefted at
Pekin, by the Chinefe emperor Co-eheou King.

Ulugh Beigh, in the )ea^ H37> obferved the folilices at
Samarcand by the (luidow of a gnomon l6j tect high : ^nd
finiihu- indruments are even f;ud to have been ufed by the
ancient inhabitants of Peru.

The gnomons to which modern allronomy is the raoft in-
debted, are chiefly thofe of France and Italy.
. Paul Tofcanelli conftrufted a gnomon in the cathedral of
Florence, whofe height was 280 feet. Ximencs repaired
this, and publilhcd an account of it in 1757.

3 D Gaifeadi

G N O

OnfT-mVi conftrufted a gnomon of 50 feet in the " College
■d>- rOr-atoirs" at Marfeilles, and obferved the folftices with
it in 1636.

Ignatius Dante, in 157;. a Dominican friar, and after-
wards bilhop of Alatri, tirll conllrucled the celebrated
gnomon in the church of St. Petronius, at Bologna : it was
originally only about 70 feet high, but was raifed by
Caifini, in 16;^, to the height of 90 feet, and it was with
this that his valuable folar obforvations were made.

Mofl of thefe gnomons are accompanied by a meridian
line, often liighly ornamented with the names of tlie months
and ligns of the 7.odiac, fo as to ferve the purpofe of a calen-
dar. One of the finell in Italy is in the Carthulian convent
at Rome, budt on the ancient TherniE of Diocletian.
I'here are two, one to the north 62 feet, another on the
fouth 75 feet high : they were conltructed by Bianchini in

1701.

Picard crefted a gnomon in the royal obfervatory at
Paris, which flill exifts.

The meridian hue in St. Snlpice, at Paris, was begun in
1727 by Sully, a watchmaker, and has iince been much
improved and highly ornamented : its height is 80 French
feet.

M- de Cefaris and Reggio in 1786, conftrufted a gnomon
and meridian line in the cathedral at Milan : its height is 73
feet.

The reafon why none of thefe gnomons are to be found in
England, is that' we do not regulate our clocks by folar,
but by mean time : to this may be added our unfavourable
climate, which would very much diminifh the interell which
they obtain in other countries, where they are made to ferve
the ufeful purpofes of civil life.

NotwithftandLiig the great attention that has been paid
to the conftruftion of thefe gnomons, their ufe has been
entirely fuperfeded by modern inflruments of fmall dimen-
fions, fo that to the allronomer they are now become merely
objefts of curiofity : yet to no inftrument has aftronomy
greater obligation. The folar theory was firft brought to a
very improved ftate by the ufe of this funple inlirument
alone. The length of the year, and the obliquity of the
ecliptic, were determined by it with very great exaftnefs.
The ancient method of deducing the folar theory was nearly
as follows.

To determine the obliquity of the ecliptic, the length of
the {hadows were obferved at the period of the follHces, and
the extreme points to which the longell and Ihortell Ihadows
extended at the moment of noon were carefully obferved,
and the altitudes of the fun deduced at e;ich of thefe periods :
half the difference of the greatelt and leall altitudes would
be the obliquity of the ecliptic, fubjeft to a fmall error
arifino- from refraftion, the effefts of which were not known
at that early period, nor were they very confiderable in thofe
fonthern portions of the globe in which allronomy had its
origin. But thougli it was not difficult to deduce the
length of the folftitial (hadows, it was by no means eafy to
determine the day on whieh either of the folilices actually
Jiappened, becaufe the length of the (liadow v/ould appear
to be the fame at thofe feafons for feveral fucceffive days.
It appears, by fome very ancient Chinele oblcrvations ilili
on record, that this inconvenience was remedied by obfervir.g
the length of the fhadow, ten or tv.-enty days before tl/e
foIlHce ; then waiting till they found the meridian ihadow
again of the fame length, they concluded that the moment
of the foUlice happened on the intermediate day between
thefe correfponding obfervations.

The leno-th of the year was determined from obfervations
of the equinoxes, which could be niucli more cxaftly ob-

G N O

ferved ; for the obliquity of the ecliptic being determined
by the method above defcribed, tlie length of the equinoc-
tial was known, and the day on which the fliadow corre-
fponded to the computed (liadow was evidently the day of
the equinox.

It was by examining a fucceflion of thefe fimple obferva-
tions, that Hipparchus fird difcovered the great inequality
in tlie length of the four feafons, arhing from what is now
called the equation of the orbit: and from the difcover>- of
this important faft, we may date the origin oi phyllcal
ailronomy.

GNOMONIC Column. See Column".

Gno.monic, Polyhedron. See Polyheduo.v.

Gnomonic, or Gnomor.kal projccfiov., that which reprefents
the circles of a hemifphere, upon a plain touching it in the
vertex, by lines or rays from the centre of the hemifphere to
all the points of the circles to be projefted.

In this proje&ion, all the great circles of the fphere are
projefted into right lines. Any letter circle parallel to the
plane of projcftlon is projected into a circle. And any leffer
circle not parallel to the plane of proje£lion, is projefted into
a conic feCtion.

The gnomonic projeftion is alfo called the " horologiogra-
phic projeftion/' becaufe it is the foundation of dialling. In
other refpefts it is not much ufed, becaufe the circles of the
fphere are projefted into conic feftions, which are diflicult to
be defcribed. However, this projeAion has its conveniences in
tlie-folution of fome problems of the fphere, on account of
the great circles being all projefted into right lines.

Mr. Eroerfon, known by an ingenious Treatife upon Flux-
ions, and a variety of other publications, has given the theory
and praftice of the gnomonic projeftion, iu his Treatife on
the Projection of the Sphere, Lond. 1749, 8vo. See Pi;o-

JECTION.

GNOMONICA, riiMiovixy, or Gnomomcs, the art of dial-
ing, or of drawing fun and moon-dials, &e. on any given
plane.

It is thus called, as it fhews how to find the hour of the
day, &c. by the fhadow of a gnomon or llyle.

GNOSIMACHI, \n Ecchfiajlkal H'ljhry, an ancient fcA
in religion, whofe diftinguidiing eharatter was, that they
were profeffed enemies of all ftudied knowledge in divinity.

The word is •) va3-i/iK%0:-, q, d. an enemy of wifdom or
knowledge.

Damafcenus fays, that they were perfectly averfe from all
the gnofes of Chrillianity, i. e. all the fcience or technical
knowledge thereof. They held it an ufelefs labour to feek
for gnolts in the holy fcriptures ; and faid, that God requires
nothing of men but good works ; that it were, therefore,
I .uch better to walk with more (Implicity, and not to be fo
folicitous about the dogmata of the gnoftic hfe.

GNOSSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland of
Crete, more anciently called " Cccratus," from the name of
the river which watered it. It was the fixed refidence of
Mir.os, once the capital of the iiland, and, according to
Strabo, 2 wealthy and populous place, being 30 furlongs in
c-ompafs, and full of inhabitants. This writer places it 20
furlongs from the .(Egean or Archipelago, and 90 from the
Atncan fea. Its port, called Heracltum, was at a confider-
able dulance, according to Olivier about four or five leagues
to the eallward. Paiifinias (Attic.) fays, that it had a la-
byrinth. From this town Ariadne, fo much celebrated by the
poets, derived the name of Gnodis. When the ifland was
reduced by the Romans, GnolTus was humbled, and Gortyna,
her rival, raifed upon her ruins. Sonnini fays, that a fmall
village, Cnodbn, near Candia, would rccal to mind the fcite
of the ancient town, were it not difcovernble, in a manner no

lefs

G N O

Icfs certaia than affliAinjr, from tin: rulihilli wLicli covers it,
and a great part of which has ferved for the buildings of
modern CaniTuu \\\i\<:\\ fee. See aifo Cih;te.

GNOSTICS, ill Ecdrfi.tflical Hiflory, aucifiit heretics,
famous from the firll rife of Chridiaiiitv, principally in the
Eall.

It appears from feveral jjafTages ot the facrcd writings,
partieularly i John ii. l8. i Tim. vi. 20. and Col.-ii. 8. that
nany perforis were iiifecled with the Onottic hercfy in the
'irft century ; though the left did not render itfeif confpi-
;iiou», either for number or reputation, before the time of
Adrian, wh?n fonie writers erroneoufly date its rife

The word is formed of the Latin gnofiirus, and that of the
Greek %>*-*>'-'>", Ltioivirtg, ot ^ivi^rxv, 1 knn-iv.

The name Gnolbc was adopted bv thofe of this fecf , as
if they were the only perfons who had the true knowledge of
Chrillianity. Accordingly they looked on all the Chrillians
v< fimple, ignorant, and barbarous perfons, who explained
a;id irtci"p;-eted the ficrcd writings, in a too low, hteral, and
unedifying fignification.

At firlt, tlie Gnoltics were only the philofisphers and wits
of thofe times, who formed for themfelve^ a peculiar fyllem
if tlieology, agreeable to the philolophy of Pythagoras
md Plato ; to which they accommodated all their interpre-
tations of fcripture. Thefe enthufiailic and felf-fufficient
philofophcrs boafted of their being able to retlore mankind
to the knowledge igno/ir) of the tnie and Supreme Being
which had been loft in the world. They alfo foretold the ap-
proaching defeat of the evi! /'rinr:p!f, to whom they attributed
the creation of this globe, and declarei.'., in the moll pompous
terms, the dellructioa of his aifociates, aud the ruin of his
empire. But

Gnostics afterwards became a gcnerical name, compre-
hending divers fefts and parties, of heretics, who rofe in the
firft centuries, and \vho, though they differed among them-
felvcs as to circumftances, yet all agreed in fome common
principhs. They were fuch as corrupted the doclrine of the
gofpel by a profane mixture of the tenets of the oriental
philofophy, concerning the origin of evil and the creation of
the world, with its divine truths.

It was one of the chief tenets of the philofophy of the
Chriftian Gnollics, that rational louls were imprifoned in cor-
rupt matter, contrary to the will of the Supreme Deity. In
conformity to the opinion of the oriental fages, who expected an
extraordinary mefienger from the Mod High, endowed with
wifdom and invefted with authority to communicate to ir.iie-
rable mortals juft noti jns of the Supreme Being, and to deh-
ver them from the chains of the tyrants and ufurpers of this
world, they believed, when Chrift appeared and wrought
miracles of the moll aftonilTiing and falutary kind, that he
was the expecled and wi(hed-for mefienger. Accordingly
they imagined that he would refcue men from the po«-er of
the malignant genii, or fpirits, to which, agreeably to their doc-
trine, the world was fubjefted, and fo free their fouls from the
dominion of corrupt matter. Having admitted this fuppo-
lition, they interpreted, or rather corrupted, all the precepts
and dodlrines of Chrill and his apcllles, in fuch a manner as
to reconcile them with their own erroneous tenets.

Such were the Valentinians, Simonians, Carpocrivjians,
Nicolaitans, &c.

GxosTKs, a denomination fometim.es alfo more particular-
ly attributed to the fuccefibrs of the iiril Nicoluitans and
Carpocratians, in the fecond century, upon their laying afide
the names of the firft authors. Such as would be thorough-
ly acquainted with all their doctrines, reveries, and vifions,
may confult St. Iren.-sus, Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus,
Origen, and St. Epipluuiius ; particularly the firft of thefe

G N O

writers, who relates their fentiments at lyge, and confafe*
them at the fame lime : indeed, he dwells more exprefslv on
the Valentinians than any other fort of Gnollics; but he
fiiews the general principles whereon all their ir.i.lalctn opi-
nions \yere founded, and the method they followed in explain-
ing fcripture. lie accufes them with introducing into reli-
gion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies, i. e. a kind ef
divine procelTions or emanations, which had no other founda-
tion but in their own wild imagination.

In elTccl, the Gnollics confelfed, that thefe scons or ema-
nations « ere no where exprefsly delivered in the facrcd writ-
ings ; but infifted, at the fame time, that Jcfus Ciirill had inti-
mated them in parables to fuch as could underlland him.
They built their theology not only on the gofpels and the
epilUes of St. Paul, but'alfoon the kw of Moles and the
prophets.

Thefe laft laws were peculiarly ferviceable to them, on ac-
count of the allegories and allufions with which they abound j
which are capable of different interpretations.

However, their doclrine, concerning the creation of the
world by one or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfect
nature, led them to deny the divine authority of the books of
the Old Teftament, which contradifted this idle fiction, acd
liUed them with an abhorrence of Mofes and the religion he
taught ; alleging, that he was afluated by the malignant
author of this world, who confulted his own glor}- and au-
thority, and not the real advantage of men. Their perfua-
fion that evil refided in matter, as its centre and fource, made
them treat the body with contempt, difcourage marriage,
and reject llie dcclrineof the refurrection of the bodv and its
re-union with the immortal fpirit. Their notion, that male-
volent genii prelided in nature, and occafioued difeafes and
calamities, wars and defolations, induced them to apply
thcmfelves to the fludy of magic, in order to weaken thi"
powers or fufpend the influence of thefe mahgnant agents.

The Gnollics confidered Jefus Chrill as the Son of God,
and, confequently, inferior to the Father, who came into the
world for the refeue and happinefs of mifcrable mortals, op-
preffed by matter and evil (jcings : but they rejected our
Lord's humanity, on the principle that ever)- thing corporeal
is effentially and intrinfically evil ; and, therefore, the great-
eft part of them denied the reality of his fufferings. They
fet a great value on the beginning of the gofpel of St. John,
where they fancied they law a great deal of their scons or
emanations under the //'on/, ihe L if ^, the Lig/jf, $ic. Thcv
divided all nature into three kinds of beings, viz. ir/if, or
material ; pfychic, or animal ; and pneumatic, or fpiritual.

On the like principle they alfo dillinguifhed three forts
of men ; material, animal, andjpirilu.il. The firft, who were
material, and incapable of knowledge, inevitably periihed,
both foul and body ; the third, fuch as the Gno'ftics thcm-
felves pretended to be, were all ccrt.iinly faved ; the pfychic^
or animal, \\ho were the middle between the other two»
were capable either of being faved or damned, according
to their good or evil actions.

With regard to their moral dbftrines and condiift, they
were much divided. 'Hie greateft part of this feft adopted
very auftere rules of life, .-ecoinmended rigorous abllinence,
and prelcribed fevere bodily mortifications, with a view of
puriiying and exalting the mind. However, fome main*.
taiiied, that there was no moral difference in human actions j
and thus, confounding right with wrong, thev gave a loofe
rein to all the palfions, and affcrted the innocence of follow-
ing bhndly all their motions, and of Kving by their tumul«
tuous diftates. They fupportcd their opinions and practice
by various authorities : fome referred to fictitious and apo-
cryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroafter, Chrill,
3 D 2 aad

G O A

G O A

tiigucft;, one of the bell in India ; it is fortified with many
caltlcs and towers, and furniihed with abundance of good
cannon. Beyond thefe cailles the channel becomes narrow,
ilraitening lometimes to one, fometimes to two miles, and
its banks are planted with the belt fruits and fined trees
which India affords. Eight miles up the channel is the
town of Goa. About the middle of this diftance is a palace.

and his'apoftles • others boafted that tln^- had deduced navigation. In the months of April and May the weather
their fentmients horn iecret dodlrines of Chrill, concealed is fultry, but from Oclober to March it is very n.u-
from th.- vulgar ; others aftrmcd, that they arrived at fupe- derate. _ , . , r , ,. r r ,

rior degrees of- wifdom by an innate vigour of ranid ; and Goa, a city and capital of the Portuguefe fettlements in

others afferted, that they were indruftcd iu thefem.yllerious India, the feat of a viceroy, and fee of an archbifliop,
parts of theological fcience by Theudas, a difciple of St. taken by the Portuguefe general Albuberque in ^151-)
Paul and bv Matthias, one of the friends of our Lord, from a prince of Saracen extrailion. The port of Goa is
The 'tenets of the ancient Giioftics were revived in Spain, naturally, and ilill more by the improvements of the Por-
in the fourth century, by a feci called the PnfcUlianiJls.
( See Molheim's Eccl.' Hift. vol. i.)

The appellation Gnoftic fometimes alio occurs in a
good fenfe, in the ancient ecclefiartical writers, and
particularlv in Clemens Alexandrinu3, who, ;n the per-
fon of his Gnoftic, defcribcs the charatlers and qua-
lities of a perfeA Chriilian. This point he l.ibours in _
tlie feventh book of his Stromata, where he fliews, that now ferving as a barrack lor the garnlon ; and here begins
none but tlie Gnoftic, or learned perlon, has any true reli- a ftrong broad v.all, two miles in length, which is a foot-
cion He affirms, that were it poffible for a knowledge of walk wiien the country is overflowed, and in the vicinity of
God to be feparated from eternal falvation, the Gnollic it a great quantity of fait is colledled. This channel, which
would make no fcruple to choofe the knowledge ; and that forms fo excellent a port, runs many miles into the country,,
if God would promife him impunity in doing of any thing dividing it into feveral fruitful illaiids and peninfulas, which
he has once fpoken an-ainft, or offer him heaven on thoie plentifully furnilh the city with ncceiTaries. Adjoining to
terms he would never alter a whit of his meafures. this port is tlie haven of Murmugon, fbrmed by the other
In this fenfe the father ufes Gnollics, in oppofition to the channel, that runs between the ifland of Goa and pcninfula of
heretics of the fame name ; affirming, that the true Gnoftic Salfete, and affords a fafe retreat to the Portuguefe and
is grown old in the ftudy of the holy feripture ; and that other fhips, when they are (liut out of the port by the fands
he preferves the orthodox doftrine of the apoftles, and of which are brought down by the river Mandova, in confe-
the church ; whereas the falfe Gnoftic ab.mdons all th.e quence of the firll rains of June, and till the paffage is
apoftolical traditions, as imagining hiinfelf wifer than the opened in Oftober. ^ This port of Murmugon is defended
apoftles. ^y * caftle on the ifland of Salfete, and a good garrifon.
At length the name Gnoftic, which originally was the At the fouth entrance into the channel are the ruins of Old
moft glorious, became infamous, by the idle opinions and Goa ; and from thence to the new city is a commodious
diffolute lives of the perlbns who bore it ; much as, in the road, elegantly adorned with trees for fruit and (hade,
prefent age, it has fared with the name quK'i''Jl, pidij}, S:c. Tiie walls of the new^ city, which is decaying, include a
GNU.^in Zoology, a Ipecies of Antelope, having horns fpace of 12 miles in circuit; and the pubHc ftruftures that

great JNamaquas. .- . , - _ -

Hope. It feeds in large flocks in the plains : is exceedingly fine features ; here are alfo many negro flaves, and Pagans

fierce, very fwift, and fights with its horns ; it frequently drops of different nations. As to the character of the inhabitants,

on its knees, runs quickly in that pofture, furrowing the the men are faid to be, for the moft part, proud, indolent,

grouad with its horns and legs. It is a fingular animal, having jealous, revengeful, and indigent ; the women lazy, lafcivious,

the body hke a horfe, with a thick bull-like head, elegant and as well ikilled in poiioning as any in the world ; —

taper legs hke a deer, and the lachrymal furrows of the .-\n- 215 miles S.S.E. from Bombay. The inquifition, formerly

telope tribe. It is about 61- feet long, and 3^ high at the exifting in this place, is now abohflied. N. lat. 15° 28 2c".

fhoulders ; of a rufty brown colour, having its hair tipt with E. long. 73' 45' 45".

white, but on the breaft and fore-legs long and black ; the GoA, or Gocch, a kingdom on the weft and fouth-wefl

head is laro-e and clumfy, with a fquare mouth and broad coaft of the ifland_ of Celebes, which, after various conflicts

flaps over its noftrils ; on the chin and gullet is a long hang- and revolutions, is now dependent on the kingdom of Boni.

ing beard, or bunch of white liairs ; the neck is fliort, tliick, The capital of the fame name fta.ids on a little ifland, on the

and fomeuhat arched, with an ere£t afli-coloured mane ; the banks of a river, whence the kingdom derives its denomina-

tail is lonn-, white, and flowing like that of a horfe ; the feet tion. It was built about the fame period as Samboupo

have only one fpurious hoof on each. The flefh is reckoned and Tello ; and was taken by the Dutch in 1778. S. lat.

very good. ... 5 '^2'. E. long. 1 19 51'.

GO s fometimes iifed in La'W, in a fpecial fignification. GOACHO, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Lima, near

Thus, lo TO without day, m\d io ^0 to GoJ, denote as much the Pacific ocean; 65 miles N.N.W. of Lima. S. lat.

as to be dilmifted the court, and to be acquitted. 11.

GOA, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, GOAD, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a pointed

near the weft coaft of Hindooftan, ieparated from the con- inftrument, by which oxen are driven when employed in team-

tinent bv a river called " Mandova ;" about eight leagues labour. It has frequently,, likewife, a leather thong at-

in circumference. The foil, efpecially in the vallies, is fer- tachcd to the contrary end of it, fo as to form a fort of

tile ; the trees are always covered with leaves, flowers, and whip.

fruit; and fprings in abundance ilTue from the mountains. GOAFFI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-

The rainy feafon continues here from .tune till September dom of Mandinga, on the Senegal.

or OAober ; and the land-floods bring down fuch quantities _GOAHIROS, a nation of South America, fituated be-

6f mud and fand as ftop up the haven and impede the twecji the jurifdiction of Maracaibo and the Rio, or river

3 i-e

G O A

de la Hache : they occupy the coafl for more than 30
leagues, and extend equally far into the interior part of the
tountry. They have at all times been coiifidered as the
moft ferocious of the maritime Indians. The Spaniards
never even attempted to conquer theiu. Some miflionaries
have made efforts for indrucling and profelyting them to
the Cluilllan faith, but without any permanent eifedl.
Their number amounts to 30,000. They are governed by
a cazique, for whom they have erec\ed a citadel upon a
fmall eminence, called " La Tela," the Pap ; at the
dillance of fome leagues from the fea. They breed horfcs
upon which they ride with incredible rapidity. Their
troops are all mounted, each foldier carryinj^ a carabine,
cartridge-box, bow and quiver. They experience much
• frienddiip from the Engliih of Jamaica. They alTift tliem
^vith advice, and fupply them with arms. Thtfe marauders
have rarely any communication with Maracaibo, becaufe,
as its jurifdicl;ion is the principal fcene of their robberies ,
and atrocities, the inhabitants are obliged to be continually
on their guard, fo as to be always ready to repel the aggref-
iions of fuch troublefome neighbours. The Spanilli city
to which they chiefly refort is Rio-de-la-Hache, depending
upon the vice-royalty of Santa Fe, where they barter their
commodities. They fet out in bands, moft commonly pre-
ceded by their wives, who carry their children upon their
backs, befides other loads, too heavy even for beafts of
burden. Dreading impofition, they have never adopted
the ufe of fpecie, but barter their horfes and oxen chiefly
for fpirituous liquors, to the ufe of which they are much
addicted. Urged by their neccdities they recur to arms,
and threaten the ncareft city or village. After fome hofti-
lities, the Spaniards fue for peace, and obtain it in confide-
ration of fome pipes of brandy and other fmaller articles.
Although thefe Indians arc well received in the Spanifli
cities, they will not admit any Spaniard into their country ;
and yet fome Spanifli fmugglers contrive, for pecuniary con-
fiderations, to obtain a paflport and efcort for traverling
the country of the Goahiros, and they have thus acquired
many partizans among the Spaniards themfelves ; but their
principal and moft ufeful connection is formed with theEnglifli
of Jamaica. By them they are fupplied, not only with arms
and ammunition, but with the ftuffs that clothe them.
Their drefs is ornamented by a great variety of feathers,
fragments of fliining metals, and gold ridiculoufly fixed to
their ears, nofe, and arms. The articles with which they
furnifli the Engllfli in exchange for the merchandize they
receive are pearls, which they fifli in their own ports,
and horfes, mules, and oxen. Their ferocity is fuch, that
even the EnghlTi will feldom fo far confide in them as to ven-
ture on fliore, but the bufinefs of bartering is tranfacled on
board, and the fliips haften to depart. The ftiips that are
accidentally caft upon the coaft, imir.ediately become the
prey of thefe cannibals, who maftacre t'r.e crew and devour
their flefli ; dividing the cargo among thole who are prefent
on the occafion. The Goahiros arc faid to be a formidable
nation, well mounted, armed, and difciplined; and able to
bring into the field 40,000 efiective men.

On the eaftern part of the territory of the Goahiros arc
the " Cocinas'' Indians, who live like favages, but are fo
cowardly and pufillanimous as to allow the Goahiros tu
e-tercife an authority, which the bold always acquire over
■t!ie timid. Thefe favages are, in fafl, merely the ilaves of
other favages. Depor.s's travels, vol. i.

GOAL. See G.A.OL.

GOAL-PARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bengal, fituated on the Burhampooter, and on the bor-
A;rs of A (Tarn ; where the Europeans have faftors, who carry

G O A

on a confiderablc trade with Aflam, Bootan, Tliibct, Stc. ;
32 miles E. of Rangamatty.

GOAN, the name of a Perfian tree, of the aflies of which
they make a fort of antifpodpn, or nicdicinal powder, for
difeafes of the eyes.

GO ANAGOODY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftaa,
iii Marawar ; 8 miles E. of Tripalore.

GOANDA, a naked, favage and ferocious race, who in-
habited the extenfive and unexplored wildernefs, E. of Nag-
pour, in Hindooftan, which is pervaded by the great river
Bam, or Baun Gonga, and terminates in the mountains
boundi:;g the EngUfii circars.

GOAR, St. a town of France, in the department of the
Rhine and Mofeile, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tricl of Simmern, lituated on the weft fide of the Rhine, in
whicii there is, near this place, a water-fall ; 16 mile* S. of
Coblentz. N. lat. 50' 8'. E. long. 7' 43'.

GoAR-Fetch, a name fomctiracs applied to the furoiccr
vetch. See T \re and Vetch.

GOARING, on Ship-boarJ. The feamen fay a fail is
cut goar}ng, wlien it is cut Hoping by degrees, and is broader
at the clew than at the ear-ring, as all top-fails and top-
gallant-fails are.

GO AS, in Geography, a town of Bengal; ii miles E. of
Moorfliedabad.

GOAT, m Zoology. See C.\pba.

Goat, in Rural Economy, is an animal, that in particular
fituations may be kept with advantage by the farmer, as
where the country is rocky and barren, and there is bat
little keep for any other fort of aniniid. The goat is ca-
pable of climbing the lleepeft rocks, and of browfing upon
the briers, heath, and fhrubs of feveral different kinds, which
are rejefted by other forts of animals. When turned into paf-
ture grounds they fhould confequcntlybe prevented from nip-
ping the young fhoots of trees and other woods, as they
prefer them to the grafs.

They are beneficial in feveral different points of view, as
in their milk, which they afford plentifully, and which is of
a very excellent quality. In fome cafes, this and cow's
milk are mixed together, and a highly valuable cheefe pre-
pared from them.

The young kids are likewife very excellent food, and two
or three are frequently brought forth at a time, often twice
in the courfe of the year.

The hair of the goat is alfo very valuable for diflFerent
purpofes, as the making of ropes to be ufed in the water,
which are extremely durable. A fort of fluff is alfo formed
from it in fome places. It may be fhearcd in the fame
maimer as wool from the fheep.

The fuet of the goat is excellent, the animals being in
fome places, as in Caernarvonlhire, killed merely for the
objecl of their fuet ; which is capable of being made into
candles of a fuperior quality to thole of the common
kind.

Th.eir horns conftitute valuable handles for tucks and
pen-knives. The Ikin of the young kid is well fuitcd to
ihe glove manufaftory, from its taking on a dye better than
any other fort of Ikin. The old ikin is hijrhiy ufe-
ful alfo, being in many cafes pi-efcrred to that of llie fheep ;
befides, tlie fielh affords a cheap and abund.int food for the
winter months, efpecially when the kids have been fcnt
early to market. The haunches of the goat aJ-e often fail-
ed and dried, and fupply all the ufes of bacon; and are
known by the Welch under the name each yr •xden, or hung
venifon.

In chooiing goats for keeping, the following direftions

Ihould

G O A

(Kould be attended to. The male (liould have a Urge body,
with long hair, and ftraight lliff legs, the neck (honld be
plain and fliort, the head taall and (lender, the horns large,
the eyes prominen,t, and the beard long.

The female ought to haw a large udder with well
fized teats, and witli none or very fmall horns.

Goats are bed kept in flocks, in order that they may
have tiie lefs difpol'ition to ilragglt ; and they fliould have
-rood (lielter both for fiiiimier and winter, great hc«t and
i-iold being equally injuuloi'.s to them.

The period of coupling them is about December.

'J'liey art- moilly kept without litter in the winter feafon,
In clean paved yards or other places.

The kids may be prepared for the tabic in a
nianner fimilar in iome degree to that of the lamb.
" They have been vulgarly fiippofed ufeful in ilables from
the difagrceable odour that iffues from the males at parti-
cular feafons, but there are probably no real grounds for
fuch a conclufion.

Go\T-J!jh. Cnpnfcus, in Ichthyography, the name of a
fidi. called" alfo by fou>p caper. It" is a fpecics of Ballistes.
In the middle of its back it has three very ilrong and
large prickles, the firft of which is three times as large
as any of the others, and all are connertcd by a mem-
brane.

The whole filli is covered with a fcaly_ (l<in ; but the
fcales have more the appearance of thofe of a ferpent than
thofe of the fifh ; for they are placed in cancellated lines in-
terfefting one another, and are fo well lixed, that they
with difficulty come off ; and wood or ivory may be polifli-
ed with the flvin, as with the common fith-lkin ufed by
the turners, &c. It is of a blueilh-green colo'jr, fpotted
with a fine blue, and the back and belly fins are black, with
fome blue and red fpots. Its whole figure is very broad
and flat, as well as thort, fo that it approaches to a round
form. It feldom exceeds two pounds in weight. It is
caun-ht in the Mediterranean, but not commonly. The
fkin of it is frequently found in the cabinets of the cu-
riqus.

Goat IJlands, in Geography, two fmall iflands near the
S. coall of Jamaica, they are "denominated Grco/ and Little ;
the former is fituated in N. lat. 17- 53'. E. long. 76° 51';
and the latter about a mile N. W. from it.

Goat IJlarJ, the fouthernmoft of the Bafhee iflands, in

the Eaft Indian fca. N. lat. 20' 6'. E. long. 121 Alfo,

a fmall illand among the Philippines, near the S. W. coall
of Lui;on. N. lat. 13^ 52'. E. long. I20- 13'. — Alfo, a
firall illot of America, in the tiate of Rhode illand, op-
pofite to the town of Newport, and on which is Fort
Wafhington.

Goat's Beard, in Botany. See Tragopocon.

Goat'.s Eye, in Surgery. Sec Eye.

Goat'.s Horns, pelr'ifiid. In Dr. Grew's " Rarities of Gre-
fham College," p. 257, aTephrite.s boctii, or goat's horn, in
that colle^flion, is defcribed as broken at both ends, about
fw inches long, and 2 4 inches acrofs at the broadell part,
tlie beUy an inch over and furrowed, the back fomewhat
edged, of an afhen colour, inwardly blueifh grey, outwardly
mixed with oblique and white itreaks, bended, one end
t flicker than the other : it is added, that fuch are found in
Germany, Moravia, Silefia and other parts, and cfFervefce
with nitric acid.

In the Analyfis of the Labours of the French national In-
ftitute for 1809, it is mentioned that M. Cuvier in the
alluvial foils near Etampes had difcovered horns, fome of
which do not feem to differ efTentially from the horns of
<he exifting fpecies of goats. The evidence in neither of

GOB

the above cafes, or any other which we have feen, is fufH-
ciently ilrong to prove the foffil horns of this clafs to have
really belonged to goats : and analogy would juflify us
rather, in referring them to the extintl race of animals,
fifh, and vegetables with which llie flrata are fo abundantly
ftored, in fome parts of the fcrics.

Goat's /?«f. SeeG\Li:ci.\.

Go.\T, Scape. Sec Sf\PE-GoAT.

Go.vt's Sucicr. Sec Capiu.mui.gus.

Go.\t'.s Stones, greater. See S.\TYniVM.

Goat's Stones, lejfer. See Oiunis.

Goat's Thorn. See Astiiagalus.

GOATI'TELD, in Geography, a mountain of Scotland,
in tlie idand of Arran ; the fummit of which is 2840 feet
above the level of the fca.

GOAVE, GiiAXD, a town of the illaiid of Hifpaniola j
10 miles S.W. of Leogane.

Go.WK, Petit, a lea-port town of the ifland c>f Hifpa-
niola, with a harbour capable of receiving velfelo of the
largeft fize fiife from winds ; in its environs are plantations
of fugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton. The town is tlie
emporium to which the inhabitants of Grand Goave, and
other places, fend their commodities ; 20 miles W.^.W. of
Leogane. N. lat'. 18° 26'. W. long. 73"" 37'.

GO BAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chufiftan ;
75 miles S. of Suiter.

GoD.VN', or Gel/an, a fmall ifland in the moutii of the
Euphrates, or Shat el Arab, at tlie entrance into the gulf
of Perfia, with a town upon it; 50 miles E.S.E. of
Bafibra. N. lat. 30° 10'. E. long. 4S 25 .

GOBANNIUM, in J.icient Geography, a town of Bri-
tain, placed in Antonine's Itinerary between Btirrium or
Ullc, and Magnis or KencheCer, 12 miles from the former
and 22 from the latter, and fiippofcd to be Abergavenny,
which fee.

GOBBI, in GeograpJ.y, a country of Africa, between
that of Camma, and cape Lopez Gonfalvo ; the chief
trade of which confifts in elephants and ivory. The chief
town is about a day's journey diftant from the Atlantic.
N. lat. r 30'. See Camma.

GOBBINS, in Mining, is a name with the colliers of
feveral dillritts for the hole-ing fluff and other refufe of
their works; ?s alfo for the hollows or Ipaces behind them,
into which they throw the refufe coal, earth, and flones ;
which hift are alfo called wafles and old-hollows.

In the coal-pits about Wedncfbury in Staffordfhire, and
at Doniilhorp, Danby-Hall, &c. in Derbylhire, the gob-
bins take fire fpoiitaneoufly after fome time, unlefs the air
is excluded from them, owing to duns, tow, tawe or cat-
dirt, a thin ftratum found near the coal, which heats, fwells,
and fpoiitaneoufly inflames, by the contaft of air and moif-
ture. At Doniilhorp they encafc their gobbins in walls of
tempered clay at certain dift.mces, for excluding the air.

GOBBS, otherwife Collies, are pieces of coal from the
fize of walnuts to that of a man's fill or larger, which are
occafionally picked or raked out of the fleck or refufe
fmall coals at the collieries, either by ;/0or perfons, who are
allowed to do fo, or for fale. Thefe are what in London,
and many places in the eaff and fouth of England, would
be called round-coals and highly valued, on account of the
abfence of very fmall or dufl coals among them. Where
the rage among the buyers and dealers is for large coals,
as about Wednefbury in Staffordfhire, and the Erevvafh vale
in Derbyfhire and Nottingliamfliire, an inconceivable w-afle
is made of cobbles and fleck ; in working the thick coal
about Wednefoury aheap of fuch, fix or feven yards tkick,
is faid to be left and walled on the floor of their works :

and

GOB

GOB

•iiid to occafion a further wafte of a rib or wall of folid
c-oal, round each ftall or chamber, for excluding the
.lir, which would otherwife lire thefe wafle heaps. See

GOBBINS.

GOBELINS, a celebrated manufaftory, eftabllflu-d at
Paris, in the Fauxbourg St. Marcel, for the making of ta-
peftry, and other furniture for the ufe of the crown. The
lioufe where this manufactory is carried on was built by two
brothers, Giles and John Gobelins, both excellent dyers;
and the firfl that brought to Paris, in the reign of Francis I.
the fecretof dyeing that beautiful fcarlet colour ftill known
liy their name ; as well as the little river Bievre, on whofe
lidnks they fixed their dye-houfe ; and which is now known
by no other name than that of the river of the Gobe-
hns.

It was in the year 1667 that this place, till then called
" Gobelins' Folly," changed its name into that of " Hotel
Royal des Gobelina,'' in confequence of an edift of Louis
X [V. Monf. Colbert having re-eftabliflied, and with new
magnificence enriched and completed the king's palaces,
particul.irly the Louvre and Thuilleries, began to think of
making furniture fuitable to the grandeur of thofe build-
i. gs: with this view he called together all the ablefl work-
men in the divers arts and manufaftures throughout the
kingdom ; particularly painters, tapeilry-makers, fculp-
»i>r.-, goldfn-.iths, ebonifts, &:c. and by fplendid offers,
;v.-nlions, privileges, &c. called others from foreign na-

;'JI.ci.

And to render the intended eftabHtliment firm and lafting,
I,- brought the king to purchafe the Gobelins, for them to
^^ork in, and draw up a fytlem of laws, or policy, in feven-
te.'n articles.

By thefe it is provided, that the new manufaftory fliall
he under the adminitlration of the fuperintendant of the
k'lig's buildings, arts, &c. that the ordinary mailers there-
'f Ihall take cognizance of all adlions and proceflTes
brought againft any of the perfons in the faid manufac-
' ory, their fervants and dependants ; that no other ta-
T^jltry work fiiall be imported from any other country,
■• c.

The Gobelins has ever fince remained the firft manufactory
?f this kind in the world. The quantity of the fined and
1 iblell works that have been produced by it, and the number
of the beft workmen bred up therein, are incredible ; and
the prefent fiourifhing condition of the arts and nia-
utaftures of France is, in a great meafure, owing tliere-

Tapeftry work, in particular, is their glory. During the
laperintendance of M. Colbert, and his fuccefibr hi. de
Louvois, the making of tapellry is faid to have been prac-
^' ''1 "o a degree of perfettion, fcarce inferior to what v.as
done by the Englifli and French.
1 i\c battles of Alexander, the four feafons, four elements,
t'le king's palaces, and a ferics of the principal actions of the
;:fe of Louis XIV. from the time of his marriage to the lirlt

inqueft of Franche Comte, done from the deligns of M.
l.e Brun, director of the manufaQory of the Gobelins, are
1 ..iiler-pieces in their kind.

GOBEMOUCH, the fy-cauher lizard, a fpecies of Ame
1 ;-an lizard that is always employed in catching of (lies. It

die fmalleil of all the lizard kind, and is very beautiful,
Kj Ikin often appearing as if covered with leaf-gold, or leaf-
ijiver, and in fome otliers of a green, or red and gold, won-
(ieifuUy bright and beautiful. Tliey are not at all ihy or
trartnl of men, but as they do not hurt, fo liiey Item to
liread none ; they enter chambers and clofct.-., aiid do no fort
of damage, but dellroy the flies and other troublefome vcr-

min ihcy find tliere. Their whole lives fecm fpent in the
chace of thefe inftfts, and it is a very pleaCng thing to ob-
ferve the various ways they have of catching them. They
are very cleanly crcntures, and may be fnffered to run over
the table at meal time ; where, if they fee a fly, they will
pnrfue it over the very hands or cloatli^ oF people, or Over
the diflies, without doing the leaft hurt.

Notwithftanding their great beauty while alive, they are
only of a dufky grey when dead, all their other colour* im-
mediately vanifhing.

GOBE-MOUCHE, in OrnilMo^, ?. name given bf
BuiTon to feveral fpecies of /.aniiis, Todas, 'I'urdui, Mufct-
ciipn, and Motadlla, which fee refpetlively.

GOBIN, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aifiie ; celebrated for its maiiufaflure of
plate-glafs ; 4 miles S. of la Fere. See Gla.ss.

GO BIO, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Cotivs ; and al fo of
Cypr'niiis; which fee refpeclively.

GOBIUS, a genus of the thoracic order, pofieffing,
according to Linnxus, the following cfTential charadVer.
Head fmall, eyes ;ipproximated, with two punfturcs be-
tween ; gill-membrane four-rayed ; body fir.all, comprelfed
on each tide, covered with fmall fcale , and fi nifhed with
a fmall tubercle behind the vent ; the ventral fins unite>l
into an oval or funnel fhape ; and the dorfal tins two i:f num-
ber.

At the time Linnaeus wTote his Syflen-.a Natnrae, tlie above
charaifter was probably found fiifliciently explicit to embrace,
in a correct and lucid order, all the fpecies of this mtural
tribe of fifhes at that period k«iowii. This, however, it mufi
be confefTed, is not precifely the cafe at prefent. The num-
ber of fpecies has been materially augmented by the recent
difcoveries of nattiraliils, and among thefe are certain kinds
which exhibit differences efTentially dilTimilar from each other;
though flill, in the idea of the Liiinxan fludent, they can be
only referable to the genus G )bius ; while others, no lef*
intimately allied, cannot, without a palpable innovation on
tlie order of nature, be configned to that genus. The later
French writers, as Latrcille, Bofc and others, after the ex-
ample of Laccpede, divide the Linnian Gobii. an^ their
natural affinities, into four dillincl genera, namely, GoBIfy,
GoBioiDEs, GoBio.MOKUS, and GoBiOMOROii'Vs, an exten-
fion perhaps requillte, or at leafl admilTible. This extcnfion
is indeed, in our own opinion, rather defirable, and we refrain
from adopting it only to avoid that degree of perplexity
which might probably i-efult from the difperfion of t!ie fpe-
cies into the feveral dillinft articles, which would then be-
come neceffary. For this reafon, we propofe to concentrate
the whole in one point of view, obferving only to refer the
fpecies refpt-iJtiNcly to their different genera as we proceed,
and by this means leave it to the judgment of the reader, whc-
tlier thofe recently eftaMiihed genera ought to be in reality
conlidered cflential'ly diilinc\, or as only conftitutisg the na-
tural fubdivifions of the Linnnin genus Gobius.

The habits of thefe tilhcs in general appear to correfpond;
they are chiefly inhabitants of waters contiguous to the
(liores, and lie concealed among the rocks, under itone.s ot
in the land and mud of feas and rivers : they feed on worms,
infects, and the fpann and fry of filhes ; and adhere linnly
to the rocks or oihcr hard fubHaiices by means oi their veo-
tr.d tins.

Species.

Genus Collus — I'entral fr.s un'tttd ; dirfjjins t-.y3.
f Section. Ptaurnlfus .itu.hrd cbjf to the body.
BoDO.AFiiTr. Rays of the iiiteror dorfa! Hn cirritoir.
the tliirJ verv long. Pallas.

A nV:v«;

G O B I U S.

A native of the Indian fcas, in common about fix inches
in length, and never exceeding eleven or twelve inches. The
head thick, blunt, and fomeu-hat convex, with fpots of brown
and white ; crown convex, and gradually Hoping down ;
iaws of nearly equal length ; lips thick and flefliy ; eyes ver-
tical and oblong ; gill-membrane livid. The body is rather
convex, tapering (lightly towards the tail, and covered with
fmall and foft fcales ; the colour blueifli brown above, be-
neath pale yellow, inclining to whitith ; the back marked with
a longitudinal leries of ieven brown fpots, beiieath which, on
the fides, are fvven other fpots of the fame colour, but thefe
latter are fpeckled with white ; the vent, which is iituated
rather nearer the head, is furrounded by a black circle, be-
hind which is a conic peduncle. The dorfal fins are blueifh
black, the tirll including five rays, has the membrane fpotted
with white ; the membrane of the fecond is remarkable in
having fix white lines between each ray, thefe rays are feta-
ceous, and amount to twenty-five in number ; the pcdoral
fin is roundilTi, and includes twenty-one rays; ventral, thirty-
four ; anal, twenty-five ; and the tail, which is bhieilh white,
eighteen rays.

LAGOCEi'HAl.rs Upper jaw hemifpherical ; no tongue
and lateral line. Pallas.

The native place of this fpecies is uncertain ; it was firft
defcribed by K»lreuter, in the Tranfaftions of the Royal
Academy of Peterfburgh,. and afterwards by Pallas in his
" Spicilegia Zoologica.'' The head is (hort, thick, and
deftitute of fcales, the mouth tranfverfc ; eyes diftant, fmall,
and covered with a common ikin ; upper jaw very thick,
the lower with a few larger teeth, which are a little hooked ;
the lips cleft in the middle, doubled, the upper flediy and
very tliick, and alfo reaching much beyond the jaw ; palate
with numerous crowded teeth of fmall fize on the margin.
The body round, comprefTed towards the tail, of a grey or
brown colour, and covered with minute fcales ; vent in the
xniddle of the body. The firft dorfal fin contains fix rays of
a fipaple form, the rays in the fecond fin, like thofe of the tail,
are branched, and amount in number to eleven ; the peftoral
hn lanceolate oval, with fifteen rays ; ventral, with eight {hort
crowded rays ; anal, ten rays ; and caudal, twelve. The total
length of this filh about three or four inches.

Cypkinoides. Body covered with large fub-ciliated
fcales ; tail rounded ; the membrane conneftmg the rays tef-
fellate with brown, Pallas.

About the fize of a finger, the body of a comprefTed form,
thickiih, convex, grey brown above, beneath whitifli ; fkin
foft and cancellated with fine lines ; teeth minute and nearly
equal; tongue flat, foft, and obtufe ; eyes lateral and be-
tween them a blackifh femi-lanceolate crelt ; rays of the fins
moftly branched ; lateral line obfolete. The fpecies inhabits
Amboina.

Lanceolatus. Tail very long and acutely pointed.
Bloch. Gobhis oceamcu!, Pallas.

Inhabits the brooks and rivers of Martinico, where Phi-
mier favv it in great abundance. The body is oblong, and
covered with roiuid imbricated fcales, which are larger on the
pofterior part. The head is long and truncated ; the eyes
vertical with black pupil, and golden iris ; jaws equal ; tongue
loofe and acute ; cheeks blucilh edged with red ; lateral line
in the middle of the body, and the vent nearer the head ;
dorfal and auid fins with fimple, foft, dillant rays, connefted
by a thin membrane ; rays of the firll dorfal nu-mbrane ex-
tended far beyond the membrane ; between the dorfal fins on
each fjde a brown fpot ; peftoral fin yellow edged uith blue ;
«ail at the bafe greenilh yellow, the edge violet. The flefh
excellent.

MiNVTU.s. Whitifli, fpoUed with ferrugiuoii.; ; rarys of
the dori'al and caudal fins obfcurcly Itreaked with the latter.
Donov. Cob'iiis mhuitus ; albicans fcrrugireo-macvlnlus, raiHis
dorjaltbus, el caudiilibus fdrnig'ineo olj'oldcjlriatis, Pallas. Mi-
nute or fpotted goby. Pennant.

" The minute or fpotted goby is a pretty, delicate, little
creature, whofe ufual length very rarely exceeds two inches-
and a half, or at the utmoll three inches. Pallas, who de-
fcribes this fpecies, defines its charafter with much preci-
fion; he fpeaks efpecially of the obfolete ftreaks acrofs the
rays of the two dorfal i'.im .nim iaii, Which are fufficientJy
diltinft, except when the fins happen to be confiderably ex-
panded, at which time they indeed appear as fo many feries
of unconnected dots. Thefe ftreaks or dots are uniformly
conilant in all the fpecim.ens of the fifti that have fallen
under our obfervation, varying a trifle only in the tint or
denfity of colour.

" Bloch docs not include this fpecies in either of his works
on fifties. Pennant confiders it as the Gobius aphya of
I>inna:us, in v.hich particular later writers are miilakcn ;
it muft however be confefled, that there ftill remains fome
little doubt as to the precife diflercnce between the aphya
and minutus; Liiinccus tells us the former has the body and
fins barred with brown, and this will, in a certain degree,
apply to the charafters of minutus. That the fpotted goby
is the minutus of Pallas cannot admit of doubt.

" It has been imagined, on the authority of Mr. Pennant,
that the fpotted goby appeared on our coafts only during
the fummer months, and was befides extremely local. This
idea is certainly unfounded, for we have received them from
vprious parts of the fea-coaft in all feafons of the year In
the wide fweep of fands, called Traeth Levan, which extends
along the fouth-fide of Beaumaris bay; upon the fhores of
the Severn ; and alfo many other of our fandy coafts, this
diminutive fifli has attracted our remark fwimming or lurk-
ing among the flirimps in the fliallow pools left by the fea at
ebb-tide. The fame fpecies is likewife not unfrequcntly
captured with the fprats, at a fhort diftance from the ftiore.

" In the firft dorfal fin are fix rays, in the fecond eleven ;
the peftoral fin contains twenty rays; the ventral, ninetctn;
anal, eleven; and tail fixteen."

We have been the more explicit in detailing the charafter
and hiftory of the fpotted goby, in order to enable the
reader to comprehend the precife difFei-er.ce between this and
the following fpecies.

Aphya. Body and fins barred with brown. I..inn. Muf.
Ad. Fr. Coblus iincialis, pimia dorfi fccunda ojjuulorum 17,
Art

Defcribed as a very fmall fpecies found in the Nile and
fome parts of the Mediterranean ; the length about an inch.
The firft dorfal fin, as in minutus, contains fix rays, the
fecond fixteen or feventeen ; peftoral, according to Linnaeus,
eighteen, or one lefs, as Artedi mentions. Linnxus ftates
the number of rays in the ventral fin at twelve, Artedi at
only fix, and in dcfcrlbing thofe of the anal fm they differ
again, thefe being, as Artedi informs us, no more than eleven,
though LinncEus fays they amount in number to no lefs than
fourteen.

Jozo. Rays of the dorfal fin fetaceous, and extending
above the membrane. I^lnn. Ju'zo, Salv. Gobius a/bus, Ron-
del. Gobius tertius. Will.

This is an inhabitant of the European and Mediterranean
feas ; its length is from four to fix inches; the body above
brown, beneath whltKh, and the whole cowrcd with fcales.
The head is eompreftcd; puj>il of the eye black with the ^
iris white; the back (lightly arched; jaws of equal length,
and armed with numerous fmall teeth; the lateral hue

ilraigh^

G O B I U S.

flraight, blackirti, and placed in tlic middle of the body.
The colour of the fms, ^vhieh is bhie, couilitutcs, according
to Bloch, the charaftei-ilHc dilliiiftion of tliis particidar fpc-
cies. Its haunts are the fandy Ihores of the fea, and its food
teftaceous animals, crabs, and other marine creatures.
Though highly prolific, it is obferved not to multiply very
faft, its eggs being eagerly fought after by the larger Itiiids
of tilhes. The flelh is indifferent, being jlifd, and meagre.
Eleotris. Anal fin with nine rays; tail roundilh. La-
gefllroem. Gobius Ch'menfis^ Ofbeck.

Whitifh, covered with large, round, and fmooth fcales,
and marked on the back near the gill-covers with an ample
violet fpot ; both the dorfal fins of equal height, the firll
containing fix rays, the fecond eleven; pecloral fin twenty;
ventral, ten; anal, nine ; and tail ten. The Ipecics inhabits
China.

Pectinirostris. Teeth in tlie lower jaw horizontal.
Gmel. — Lagerilr. Apocryptes Chmenfs, Ofbeck.

A fi(h o£ fmall fize found in China: the firlt dorfal fin
contains five rays, the fecond twenty-fix ; pedoral, nineteen ;
central, twelve; anal, twenty-five ; and caudal, fifteen.

BicoLOtt. Fufcous; all the fins black. Linn. — Briinn
pile.

Length from three to four, or rarely exceeding i\f. inches,

and inhabits the Mediterannean fea. The rays of the fins

projeft very inconfiderably above the connefting membrane.

CilUEXTATUS. Mouth pullulate with red; rays of the

dorfal fins reaching above the membrane. Briinn.

About a fpan in length, the mouth, gill-covers, chin,
ind fins pullulate with fanguineous red fpots; beneath the
cVL*s a traiifverfe membranaceous line, and two others placed
longitudinally before the dorfal fin; fins generally brownifh,
with letaceous rays ; peftoral rounded ; ventral blueifh, with
;)ie ravs fplit at the end; tail pointed and fiightly banded
with black. Gmelin is inchnad to think this may be only a
variety of the fpecies .Tozo.

Paganlli.us. Tail and fecond dorfal fin purplifli at the
hafe; the firft dorfal fin edged with a yellowifli line. Linn.
Gobius paganellus, Haffelquiil.

Length three, four, or fix inches; the body fiightly
comprefTed and whitifh, with a green tinge, and marked
, vith blackifh dots or fmall fpots. Native of the Mediter-
ranean.

ArabICUS. Five pofterior rays of the firft dorfal fin ter-
minating in a red filament twice the length of the membrane.
Forik.

Native of Djidda in Arabia. The body is about the fize
of the little finger, and of a greeniih-brown coh)ur, with
numerous confluent violet fpots and ipecks ot blue ; fliin
foft and covered with minute firm fcales; fins ipotted; tail
cuneated.

Nkbulo.sus. Second ray of the firft dorfal fin ending in
a black filament twice as long as the body. lorlk.

Inhabits the fame fea as the former, and nearly the lame fize ;
body whitifb, with brown douded confluent fpots, beneath
white without fpots; fcales rhombic and rigid; perioral fins
glaucous, with obfolete brown fpots at the bafe; ventral
brownUb; dorfal fin and tail tranfparent, dotted with
brown; anal fin hyaline, with the outer edge black.
Plumieui. Upper jaw prominent. Bloch.
This, according to Plumier, inhabits the rivers ot the An-
tilles in great numbers, and is in much efteem lor the table,
its fiefh being of good flavour, and very wholelome. The
body is round, flelhy, above tawny, yellow on the fides and
white beneath ; the whole covered with fmall fcales ; head
large ; vent in the middle of the body ; lateral line llraight ;
Vol, XVI. .

fins yellow ; pecloral and caudal yellow at the edge, with
branched rays ; dorfal and anal with fimple rays.

OcEl.l.AKis. Up])cr jaw longer ; firtl dorfal fin fi x-raycJ,
with a i)lack occllatud fpot near the bale on the pofterior
part. Broufionct.

Found in the frefh wateis of Otaheitee. The licad is ra-
ther comprcfTijd, fub-conic, blackifh, above fiightly curved,
obtufely carinated in the middle ; tectli unequal, and miiuitc,
thofe of the lower jaw fmaller ; body comprefTed, lance-
olate, covered on the pofterior part witli imbricated, ciliated
fcales, and obfcurely clouded with olive and black ; beneutli
glaucous.

Nicer. Blackifli varird, fecond dorfal fin with about
fourteen rays. Artedi. Gobius itiger, Doiiov. Brit. Fifhes.
/tpocr\'plcs Caiilonenfis, Ofheck. Black goby .

Native of the Liiroiiean and Afiatic ieas. Length fix
inches; colour blueifh black, varied.

Bosch. Bodv and tail grey, fpeckled with brown : the
former marked \v ith fcven traiifverfe whitilh bands. Laccpcde.

Defcribed and figured in the work of Lacepede, on the
authority of Bofc, wiio obfcrved it on the coalls of North
Amerieii ; it grows to the lenglii of four inches ; the head
is bro:uler than the body ; tlu- lirft four rays of the anterior
dorfal fill terminate in a filament ; and the body, which is
fmooth, is apparently without fcales. Tlie flefh ii never
eaten.

C.'j;nL'i.EC.s. Body blue; caudal fin red, with bLck
border. Lacepede.

Inhabits the teas on the eaftern coafts of Africa, where it
was obferved by Commerfon, who defcrilies its appearance in
the water, when the fun fhines, as fplendid in tlie higheft de-
gree, though its i\Le is finall, the total length not exceeding
three inches. The firft doif.il is fomewhat triangular, with
the rays terminating in filaments, the fecond contains four-
teen ravs, the filamentous appendice of the laft ray in which
is thrice the length of the rell. Tlie flefli is not eaten by the
natives, but is uicdas bait in fiihing.

** Seftion. Petloralfns attached orphad on afejby prcceft
or elongation.

Sc ill-OssERf. Blackifli-brown, beneath whitifh ; rays of
the fii-ft dorfal fin fpinous. Pallas. Schlojerian goby.

Tdis is about a fp.in in length, the body, rather comprefT-
ed, dccreafiiig in an inconfiderable degree towards the tail, and
covered with large round coriaceous fcales ; the head long,
much thicker than the body, and fioping in front ; the mouth
tranfverfe ; lips thick, flefiiy, granulous within, and the upper
one folded ; teeth large, unequal, diftant, and irregularly
alternate ; palate flefhy ; tongue thick, foft, and flelhy ;
the eyes vertical and placed forward, protuberant, the pupils
turned to the fides witli a large lunate cavity beneath each ;
ffill-covers obk>ng and fcaly ; tail ovate-acute ; and the vent
m the middle of tlie body. In the firft dorfal fin are eight
rays, ni the fecond thirteen ; pedoral, fixteeii; ventral, twelve;
anal. t«el\e; and tail nineteen. The f|)eciL-!i inhabits the fiefh
waters in the ifiand of Aniboiiia, generally refiding in the
fofl nuid at the bottom, and fublifting on worms ; the
fleiii is excellent. Tlie fame filh occurs alfo in many parl»
of China. In the Gmelinian Syil. Nat. the fpecies is de-.
fcribed under two diftind names, fchlofll-ri and barbatus, the
latter of which Linnxus defines as having the pectoral fins
fan-fliaped, and the firll dorfal fin with twelve rays, the fe-
cond thirteen. Laccped.-, Bote, and other late writers agree
i,] confidering them the fame.

Genus Goiio'iJfj.
Ventral fins uuited ; dorfal fin one ; head fmall ; gil|-co.
vers clui^id nearly throughout their contour.

3 li MiL^-AStRUs.

GOB

.-MEl.AXTmus. Dorfal fin fingle ; tail black. Gincl. Lc
^ol'td'uk queue noire, BroufT. Black laded goby.

Dcfcribi-d by Gmelin on tbe authority of Broudonct's
Ichth. dec. I . ; it is mcntiom-d as a fniall fpecic;:, tli<- livibltat
of which is unknown. Bofc believes it was brought fioui the
Soutli fea.

Amguillaris. Dorfal fin fingle ; tail red. Gmel.

The general figure of this fpecies is fomewhat anguiUi-
form, or (liaped like an eel, and like that fiOi the body is fat
and flippery ; the teeth are finall, and projcA out of the
mouth ; tiie dorfal and anal fui are large, and extend to tlie
tail, with the fin of which they are united ; the colour of the
bodv is pale brown, of the fins red ; the firft dorfal fin includes
fifty-two rays; th'' pedoral, twelve ; ventral, ten ; anal, forty-
ihree ; and tail twelve. The fifh is a native of the coaft of
China and other parts of India.

S.MYRNEXSis. Edge of the jaws formed of a bony plate,
and deftituteof teeth. I.accpede.

Defcribed on the autli >ilty of the new memoirs of the
Tranfaftions of the Academy of Pcterflnirg. It is a native
of the Mediterranean ; the Hcin very vifcous, and the dorfal fin
furniflicd with forty-three rays.

Enoi"ssoNF.TTi. Body very long and coniprefled ; tail
elongated. Laccnede.

Suppofed to be a native of the Indian feas. The example
defcribed by Lacepode appertained to the lladtholder's mu-
feum. The dorfal fin contains thirty-three rays, and extends
nearly to the tail, as does likewife the anal fin ; the body
nearly tranfparent, and the jaws furnifhed with fmall teeth.

Genus Gohhmorus.

Head fmall ; eyes approximated ; gill-covers clofed nearly
throughout their contour ; dorfal fins two.

* Seftioii. PeBoralJins connet^cd clofe to the body.

SxKiGATiis. Ventral fin divided ; firft caudal fin fix-ray-
ed. BroufTonct.

Native of the Pacific ocean, near Otaheitee. The head
is comprefled, yellow, ftreaked and fpotted, and greenidi
yellow above; body comprelTed, lanceolate and covered with
imbricated, fnbquadrated, and (lightly crenated fcales ; co-
lour pale blueilh-grecn ; beneath whitifh, with brownifli
rtreaks behind the pedtoral fins ; beneath the lateral, on the
hind part, varied with obfolete rcddifli fpots ; firft dorfal fin
green, with red rays and four fillets of the latter colour ; the
lecond dorfal fin with nine red fillets ; peitoral fin pale green-
ifii, the marginal rays fhortcr and fimple ; ventral whitilh ;
anal long, greenilh-red ; tail round-oval, yellowidi-green,
the rays red and fimple, with a broad oblique, (lightly curv-
ed reddifh fillet each fide.

DoRMlTOR. Upper jaw longeft ; tail rounded. Lacc-
pede.

Defcribed from the drawing of Plumier, who faw it in the
frefh waters and rivers in the marfties of South America.
The fecond dorfal fin contains eleven rays, and each of the
pcftoral fins eight.

GroNovii. Ventral fins divided; firft dorfal fin ten-
rayed ; tail forked. Gmel. Cejleus argenteus, &c. Klein.
MagU AuKncanus, Ray. Harder, Marcgr.

Inhabits the feas of South America. The body is
filvcry above, black, and fpotted on the fides with black ;
fcales fmall and imbricated. The head of tliis fpccies is
naked ; eyes hirge and lateral ; mouth narrow ; teeth equal,
in the ja-.vs and palate ; tongue ro\inded, thin, fmooth ; gill-
covers fmooth and roundiih; back a little convex. ; lateral
line curved and paralkl to the back ; vent in the middle of
tfcc bbdv.

G O C

** Seiftiou. Peroral fins alt ached- or f laced on a fltfli
prnctfs or elongallon.

KoKLREUTEKl. Ventral fins divided; Ih-ft dorfal fin witii
eleven rays. Pallas.

Length about nine inches, the body foft, fat, and whitifh-
grey ; lieud long, thick, and convex in front : eyes on the
top of the h':ad; lipn doubled and flefliy ; teeth unequal,
conic, the anterior ones larger, and one larger on each fide
above ; aperture of the p;ills lunated ; lateral line imprcfied ;
vent about the middle of the body with a peduncle behind ;,
fins foft ; the firil on the back large and brown, with a
black terminal band, the rays fpinous ; the fecond narrower,
yellowidi, with a longitudinal deep brown band, and branched
rays ; pcftoral fan-faaped or oval, and placed on a broad
pedicle ; tail oval and lanceoliUe, wit!\ ramofe rays.

Genus Golioir.oroides.

Head fmall, with the eyes approximated ; gill-covers
clofed nearly throughout their contour ; dorfal fin one.

Piso.vi.s. Ventral fins divided; lower jaw longer. Gmel..
Amore p'lxuma, Pifo.

A fmall fpccies found in South America. The head is'
depreffed and covered with fcales in fize equal to thofe on
the back ; the mouth furnifhed with feveral rows of teeth ;
and the tail rounded.

GoBius Afper, a name given by Gefner and others
to a fpecies of perch called by many afper pifctculus, a
name confounding it with many other diflerent fifties, and
by LiimEus perca afper. It is diftinguiftied among the
perch tribe by Artedi under the name of the pearcli with
eight or nine black lines on each fide. See Pkkcv.

Gobi us Fhrciatlis, or Gudgeon. See Cyprixus Golio.

Goiiiu.s Mannus, or Goget. See GoBlUs Niger.

GOBLET, or Godelet, a kind of drinking cup, or
bowl ; ordinarily of a round figure, and without either foot
or handle.

The word is Vrcx\c\\, gobelet ; which Salmafius, and others,
derive from the barbarous Latin cupa. Bud.ci:s deduces it
from the Greek xvT£?J.(i;, a fort of cup.

Goblets, made of the wood tamarifiv, are ranked among,
medicinal drugs ; bccanfe the liquors infufed a while therein,
are fuppofed to acquire a quality which renders them good,
indifeafes of the fplecn.

GOBONE', or Gor.oNY, in Heraldry, the fame as com-
poni,

GOBYGANGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; eight:
miles S. E. of Goragot.

GOCEY, a town of HindooRan, in Allahabad ; 30 miles
N. of Gazypour.

GOCH, a town of France, in the department of the
Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of Clcves,
fituated on the Niers, furrounded with walls in 1 291, and'
containing three churches; fix miles S. of Clevet. The
place contains 2412, and t)ie canton 12,'; 28 inhabitants,
in 19 communes.

GOCHLENIUS, Ronoi.rlHT.S in Biography, a phyfi-
cian, was born at Wittemberg in 1572. His fattier was
profeftin- of logic at Marpnrg, where the fubjeft of this
article ftudied medicine, and obtained the degree of doftor
in May,' 1601 ; and was himfclf elected profeffor of philo-'
fophy in 160S, and alfo profeifor of mathematics in t6l2.
He died on the 2d of March 1621, at the age of .^9. Al-
though his life was not long, by extreme induftry he had
written a confiderable number of treatifcs, in wliich he
evinced much of the fjiirit of Paracelfu'^T of whom he wns a
zealous follower. It i". unneceflary to enumerate the long
lift of titles to his workr, which relate to philol'opliy, mag-'

iictifm.

GOD

uetifm, aftrology, chiromancy, &c. as well as ta medicine.
Eloy.

GOCIANO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sar-
dinia ; <;o miles E. of Algeri.

GOCKEL, or Gokiclius, Christian Louis, in Bio-
graphy, of Gotha in Thuringia, was born on tlie 31(1 of
December, 1662. In 16S5, he was appointed phyfician to
the city of Herfpriick, wliere lie acquired great reputation
by l"s practice, and obtained the confidence of feveral
German princes, efpecially of the duke of Wirtemberg.
His pubhcations likewife contributed to extend his fame,
confifting of a " Medical Surgery,'' in German, and of
forae papers in the Memoirs cf tlic German academy. He
died in Augull 1736, aged 74.

With the preceding phyllcian we mull not confound an-
other, called Everard Gokel'iiis, who was born at Ulm, in
1636, and praftifed phyfic at Giengen in Suabia. Befides
fome elTays in the German language, he publiflied, i. " En-
chiridion Medico-prafticum de Pelle," 1669. — 2. " Con-
liUorum et Obfervationum Medicinahum Decades VI."
1682. — 3. " Gallicinium Medico-prafticum, five, Confiho-
ruin, Obfervationum, et Curationum Medicinalium novarum
Centurix duse cum dimidia," Ulma; 1704- Eloy. Dicf.
Hill.

GOCULGUR, in Gtography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the fubah of Agra; 16 miles N. W. of Agra.

GOD, an immaterial, intelligent, and free being ; of per-
feft goodncls, wifdom, and power ; who made the unirerfc,
and continues to fupport it, as well as to govern and direct
it by his providence.

The Rabbins and Hebraifts, particularly St, Jcrom, and
the interpreters, reckon up ten different names of God in
Scripture; which are^}{. El, DVI^f^S Elohim, Tl'^N*.
Elohi, or in the fingular, hSnN Eloah, ni{<3V» Tfebaolh,
;vSy' ^''""'< n^HN. Ehjeh, 'J-nX; jidomi, n'> J^^h,
'1^', Shaddai, nin'» dehovah : but it is wrong to di-
vide '~\'75<> from rfKHV ; they fliould be but one name
r\ KSVn'^K. Elohetjeha.th, i.e. God of%p. Of thefe
aiames there are three which exprefs the eifence of God, and
are proper names ; r/s. ninS'i Ehjeh, ;-|', Jah, and niHS
Jehsvah: the others are only names of attributes. St.Jerom
gives a particular explanation of thefe ten names, in his
epiftle to Marcella ; and Buxtorfthe younger has an exprefs
differtation on the fame, " Differtatio de Nominibus Dei."
The Jefuit Souciet has three feveral dilcourfcs on tlie three
names. El, Shaddai, and Jehovah, printed at Paris, 17 15.
The Hebrews call the name of God nVmj< yilKp' ^'"^
the Greeks, after this example, Tn^y.y^t^ujM-v.t ; as confid-
ing of four letters, whicli it is oblerved to do in moil lan-
guages: thus, in the Hebrew God is called mn*, Jehovah;
in the Greek, W-o- ; in Latin, Dens ; in Spanilh, Dios ;
in Italian, Idio ; in French, Diet ; in the ancient Gaulifli,
Diex ; in ancient German, Die! ; in tlic Sclavonic, Biich ;
in Arabic, yJ/fa ; in the Polifli, Bung ; in the Pannonian,
Jjlit ; in the Egyptian, T,iiu ; in tlie Perfiini, Sire; in the
language of the iSIagi, Or/i. But a dillinc^ion ought here
to be made between the name God, and the name of God ;
it being the latter, not the former, that in the Hebrew
confifts of four letters. The name or word God, in tlie
Hebrev.-, is Pl^K) F-!"i-Th, which confills but of tliree letters;
or in the plural, D'H/Xj E/ohim, which eoniiils ot five.
The name of God is nTH** Jehovah ; which is tlie true
TSTfayfxufiaTov, or the name of four letters among the
Hebrews and Greeks. But it is not this name thafaniwers
to the Greek ©:->-, Latin Deur, Englilh Ccd, &c. In
reality, none of thefe languages have anv proper name ut
Gcd, as nin*' Jd'ovah, is in the Hebrew. ....

GOD

M. Hallenberg, a Swcdifli writer, in a work publiflied at
Stockholm in 1796, and entitled " Differtatio hiftorica ct
philologica de origine nominis Dei Gu^,' &c. fiiggefts that
the names given by different nations to the deity might
d-note unity ; as the word God itfelf, by whicli in all the
Teutonic diuledls the Supreme Being is denominated.

Philologiils have hitherto confidered the word God ai
being of t!ie fame fignification with Good; and this is not
denied by M. Hallenberg. But he thinks, that both word*
originally denoted unity ; and that the root is "inX -Jr^jt/,
unus ; v.'lience the Syr. Chad and Gada ; the Arab. Jhd
and Gahd; the V criic choda and chudtt ; the Greek ayaJio.
and 72.^1,; the Teutonic Cu.-/; the German Go*/: and our
Saxon God. The other names of God, this author think.-,
are referable to a fiaiilar origin.

l^y his immateriality, intelligence, and freedom, God
IS dillinguiflied from fate, ncture, drjiiny, nfcejfuy. chance,
anima murdi, and from all the other riftitious beings, ac-
knowledged by the Stoics, Pantheifts, Spinofifts, and other
forts of athcills.

Tiie knowledge of God, his nature, attributes, word
and works, with the relations between him and his crea-
tures, makes the fubjeft of the cxtenfive fcience called
theology. In fcripture God is delined by, " I am that 1
am ; Alpha and Omega ; the Beginning and End of all
things.''

Among philofophers, he is defined a being of infinite pcr-
feftion ; or in whom there is no defeft of any thing wliich
we conceive may raife, improve, or exalt his nature.

Among men, he is chiefly confidered as the firit caufe,
the firll being, who has exiftcd from the beginning, 'has
created the world, or who fulfills neceffarrly, or of him-
fell.

Sir Ifaac Newton choofes to confider and define God, not
as is ufually done, from his perfedlions, his nature, exig-
ence, or the like; but from his dominion. "The word
God, according to him, is a relative term, and has a re-
gard to fervants ; it is true, it denotes a being eternal, in-
finite, and abfolutely perfecl ; but a being however eternal,
infinite, and abfolutely perfect, without dominion, wotild
not be God.

"The word God,'' the fame author obferves, "frequently
fignifies Lord; but every lord is not God: it is the do-
minion of a fpiritual being or lord, that conftitutes God ;
true dominion, true God; fuprcme, the fupreme ; feigned,
the falfe god.

" From fuch true dominion it follows, that tlic true God
is liTing, intcHigent, and powerful ; and from liis other per-
fections, that he is fupreme, or lupremely pcrfeCl ; he is etcr-
nal, and iniinite ; omnipotent, and omnilcient ; that is, he
endures from eternity to eternity, and is prclent from infinity
to infinity.

" He governs all things tli.u e:;ill, and knows all thiiig>
that are to be known : he is not eternity, or infinity, but
eternal aad infinite : lie is not duration or fpace, but he
endures, and is prefent : he endures always, and is pre-
fent every where ; and by exiiling alv. ays, and every where,
he conffiuite.^ the very tiling, duration and fpace, eternity
and inlinity.

" Since every particle of fpace is always, and every
indivifible moment of duration every where, tlie Creator
and Lord of ;ill things can nevi-r be ■ttunquam, or nvj-
^uam .

" He is oniniprefent, not only virtually, but alfo fubftan-
tiallv : for power without lubflance cannot fubfift. All
things are contained, and move, in him ; but without any
mut'ial-paflion : he iiiirerMiothiitg froni the motions- of btN

«iJCSJ

E -'

GOD.

«15i-s; nor do tUey nnclergo any n-fillance from liis omniprc-

I'ence.

" It is confefTc-d, that Cod i-m(Is nccellarily ; and by tlie
lame necciruy he exills always, and every where. Hence,
alfo, he muil be perfedly (imilar ; all eye, all car, all brain,
all arm, all the power of perceiving, underftandnig, and
aifting ; but after a manner not at all corporeal, after a man-
ner not like that of men, after a manner wholly to us un-
known.

" He is deditutc of all body, and all bodily fliape ; and
-therefore cannot be feen, heard, or touched ; nor ought to
be worlhipped under the reprefentation of any thing corpo-
real.

" We have ideas of the attributes of God, but do not
know the fubllaiice even of any thing : we fee only the
fiTures and colours of bodies, hear only founds, touch only
tlie outward furfaces, fniell only odours, and talk taftes ; and
do not, cannot, by any fenfe,'or any reflex ac't, know their
inward fubftances '; and much lefs can we have any notion of
the fublhuicc of God.

" We know him by his properties and attributes ; by
the molt wife and excellent llructure of things, and by tinal
caufes ; but we adore and worihip him only on account of
his dominion : for God, felting aiide dominion, providence,
and final caufes, is notiiing elfe but fate and nature." Newt.
Philof. Nat. Princip. Math, in cake.

An ingenious divine has wrought thefe thoughts of that
admirable philofopher into form, and ripened them into a
more exprefs fyllem, in a difcourfe on this fubject. Max-
well's Difc. concerning God.

We Ihall her.: fnbjoin a compendious abftract of the prin-
cipal arguments that luwc been alleged in proof of tiie ex-
illence of God. The admirable metaphyfician and divine,
Dr. Clarke, has demon llrated this truth, with that clearnefs
and force of rcafoning, for wliich he it fo eminently dil-
tim^uillied, by a feries of propofitions, mutually connetted
and dependent, and forming a complete and uiianfwerable
ar<;umcnt in proof both of the being and attributes of the
"Deity. I. Something has exilled tnjm all eternity ; for,
iince foir-.-thing now is, fomething always was : otherwile the
things that now are mull have been produced out of nothing,
ubfoluttly and without caufe ; wliich U plain contradiction
in terms. 2. There has exilled from eternity fome one un-
changeable and independent being : or elfe, there lias been an
infinite fucceiiion of changeable and dependent beings pro-
duced one from another in an endlefs progreffion, without any
orio-iiial caufe at all. From without, this ieries of beings
can have no caufe of its cxiilenee, becaufe it includes all
things that arc or ever were in the univerie : nor is any one
bein"- in tliis infinite fucceiiion felf-exilleut or necelTary, and
therefore it can have no reafon of its cxillcnce witliin itfelt ;
and it was ciiually potfible, that from eternity, there fhould
never have exiileJ any thing at all, as that a fuccefiion of
fuch beings fhoukl have exilted from eternity. Confequent-
Iv, their exillence is determined by nothing ; neither by any
iiccefrity of tlijir own nature, becaufe none of them are ielt-
-txillent ; nor by any other being, becaufe no other is fup-
pofed to exill. 3. Th?.t unchangeable and independent be-
:ug, which has exilted from eternity, without any external
caufe of its exillenc; mull be feif-exillent, i. e. it mnll exill
,bv an abfolute necelTity originally in the nature of the thing
itfelf, and antecedent in the natural order of our ideas to our
fiippofition of its being. For whatever exills muit either
have come into being out of notiiing without caufe ; or it
inull have been produced by fome external caufe ; or it inn it
be fcH-exilteut : but tLe tiVo former hippofitions are contrary

to the two firft propofition.^. From tliis laft propolition it
follows, that the only true idea of a felf-cxiftent, or neCelTa-
rily txilliug being, is the idea of a being, the fuppolition <)f
whofe non-exiilence is au exprefs contradiction ; and this
idea is that of a moll fimple being, abfolutely eternal and in-
finite, original and independent. It follows alfo, that no-
thinn- is fo certain as the exiltence of a fupreme independent
cau£ ; and likewife that the' material world cannot poiTibly
be the firft and original being, iincreattd, independent, and of
itfelf eternal ; becaufe it does not exill by an abfolute ne-
cefPitv in its own nature, fo as that it mull be an exprels con-
tradiction to fuppufe it not to exift. With refpect both to
its form and matter, the material world may be conceived
not to be, or to be in any refpect different from what it is,
without a contradiftion. 4 and 5. The fubllaiicc or cffence
of the felf-exillent beiug is abfolutely incomprelienlible by
us ; neverthelefs, many of the eflential attributes of his na-
tiu-e are ilrictly demonftrabte, as well as his exiftence. The
felf-exillent being, having no caufe of its exiftence but the
abfolute neceffity of its own nature, mull of Becefilty have
exifted from everlafting, without beginning : and mull
of necefilty exift to everlafting, without end. 6. The felt-
exiltent beiug muft of neceffity be infinite and omriprefent.
Sach a being muft be everv where, as well as always, unal-
terablv the fame. It follows from hence, that the felf-ex-
illent iieing mull be a moft iimple, unciiangeable, incorrupt-
ible being ; without parts, figure, motion, divifibility, and
other properties of matter, which are utterly inconfillent
with complete infinity. 7. The felf-cxiftent being, muft of
necelfitv be but one ; becaufe in abfolute necefiity there can
be no difference or diverfity of exiftence ; and, tlieref ire, it
is abfolutely impolhble, that there flunild be two indepen-
dent felf-exifteut principles, fuch e. g. as God and matter.
8. Tlu' felf-exillent and original caufe of all things muft be
an intelligent being. This propofition cannot be demon-
ftiated ilrictly and properly t) piljri ; but a p'J}eriori, the
world ailords uiukniable argum.ents to prove that all things
;;re the effects of an intelligent and knowing caufe. The
caufe muft be always more excellent than the effect ; and,
therefore, from the various kinds of powers a!id degrees of
excellence and perfection, which vifiblc objefts polTefs ; from
the intelligence of created beings, which is a real diftinCt qua-
lity or perfeftion, and not a mere effect or compofition of un-
intelligent figure and motion ; from the variety, order, beau-
ty, wonderful contrivance, and fitnefs of all things to their
proper and refpeflive ends ; and from the original of inotionj
the felf-exillent creating being is demonftrated to be intelli-
ligent. 9. The felf-cxiftent and original caufe of all things
is not a neceflary agent, but a being endued with liberty and
choice. Liberty is a neceflary confequent of intelligence :
without libertv, no being can be faid to be an agent, or
caufe of any thing ; fince to afl neceffarily is really and pru-
perly not to aft at all, but to be ac\ed upon. Befides, it
the fupreme caufe be not endued with liberty, it will follow,
that nothing which is not could poffibly have been ; that
nothing which is could poiTibly not have been ; and that
no mode or circumltance of the exiftence of any thing could
poiTibly have been in any refpeft otherwife than it now actu-
ally is. Farther, if there be any fiiml caufe in the univerie,
the fupreme caule is a free agent ; and on tlie contrary fup-
poiltlon, it is impoifible that any efleft fliould be finite ;
and in everv effeft, there mull have been a progrellion of
caufes ;n irif.nltum, without any original caule at all IC. The
felf-exiiler.t being, the fupreme caufe of all things, muft of
necefiity have infinite power; fince all things were made
by him, and arc entirely dependent upon him ; and all the
p jwcrs of all things are lierived irom bini, and pcrfti^tly fub-
7 j'-'i^

G O I).

jt>rt to him ; notlii'.ipf ran refill tli^ expcutioii of his will.
II. The liiprcnic c;mfe and aiitlior of all things mutl of ne-
ceflity be i'lfinitcly wile. This follow:, from tho propofitions
already ell.iblilhed ; and the proof a pjjleriwi, of tli" infinite
wifdom of Gild, from the confideration of the exqinfilc per-
feftion and confuminate exepllency of his works, is no lefs
lining and undeniable. 12. The fupreme caiife and author
of all things niuft of nccrffity be a being of infinite good

motions, arc very different from tliofe wliich wer^ n^cef-
fary to have produced it from nothing, or to ha\. uifpofed
It in the admirable form in whieh it now proc-e''.^

of ' i- article,
our ov. n !■. bi-
tation, we were to enumerate only the principal ..aces of
defign and wifdom, as well as goodnefs, w hie'-, are dif-
cernible in its figure and conlUtueiit paru, in its diurnal

'"^ u^i.iiiiaun; lurin m winen it now proc

But wc fiiould far exceed the proper linils. (
if, confining our obfervation to the earth, o

n-fs, julHce, and truth, and all other moral perfeaions ; fuch and annual motion, in the po.fition of iis, axis with regard

as become the fupreme governor and judge of the world.
The will of a being, infinitely knowing :ind wife, iiidf;)en-
dent and all-powerful, can iiev-,-r be iufluc-nced bv anv wrong
affeiftion, and can never be milled or oppofjd froiii v.ithout ;
and, tlur.'fore, he muft do always what he knows llttell to
be done ; that is, he mull acl always according to the ftridleil
rales of infinite goodnels, jullice, cmd truth, tind all other

to its orbit, in the benefit which it derives from the light
and heat of the fun, and the alternate viciflituce of the
feafons ; in the atmofphere which furrounds it, and in the
diiferent fpecies and varieties of vegetables and aninials with
whichit is replenifiied. No one can furvey the vegetable
productions of the earth, f„ various, beautiful, and ufeful,
nor the various gradations of aiiim;.l life, in fuch a variety

moral perfecV.ons, and more particularly, being infinitely and of fp.-cies, all preferved dillincl, and' propagated bv a
n-c-etrarily happy and p.ll-fufficieiit, he mull be unalterably f ttled law, each fitted to its own element, pro%id.d with

!>'■"?'-''■ food, and with inilincls and organs fuitcd to it

diipofed to do and to communicate good oi happinefs. See
Clarke's Demonllration of tlie BL-iiig and Attributes of God,
paffim.

To this more abllrufe argument <i priori, for the exill-
ence of God, we mav add another, more generally obvious,
and carrying irrefillible conviction, which is deduced from
the frame of the uni'wrle, and from the traces of evident
contrivance and fitnefs of things for one another that
occur through all the parts of it. Tliefe confpire to
prove, that the material world, which in its nature is ori-
'^inatod and dependent, could not have been the efFeCl of
chance or necefiity, but of intelligence and defign. The

k and fituation, and efpecially with the powers of fen-
f.ition and Iclf-motion, and all more immediately or remotely
fublervieiit to the government and ufe of man^ without ad-
miring the llvill and defign of the original Former. But
thefe are more fignally manifeiled in the ftructure of the
human frame, and in the noble powers and capacities of the
human mind ; more efpecially in the moral principles and
faculties-, which are a diilrngui{hin<r part of our conditution,
and lead to the perception and acknov.ledgment of I'jc ex-
illence and government of God. In thofe i:»1tii

ances that
''a^'*^ no^v been recited, and a variety of limilar ii-,(lance»
beautiful, harmonious, and beneficial arrangement of the fuggelled by them, or naturally occurring to the notice
various bodies that compofe the material lyflem ; their of the curious and reflecting mind, contrivance i.-, inani-
mutual dependence and fubferviency ; the regularity of fell, and immediately, without aiiv nice or fubtle reafon-
their motions, and the aptitude of thefe motions for pro- ings, fuggefts a contriver. It ftrikes us like a fenfation ;
ducing the moll beneficial eftecls ; and many other pheno- and artful reafoninos ao-ainll it mav pi.z/le us, withoift
mena refulting from their relation, magnitude, fituation, fiiaking our belief. No perfoii, for' example, that knows
and ule, afford unquellionable evidences of the creating the principles of optics, and the flrucliu-e of the eve, can
power and wife difpofal of an intelligent and almighty believe that it was formed without IkiU in that fciriiie, and

agent. The power of gravity, by which the celellial
bodies pcrfevere in their revolutions, deierves our parti-
cular conlideration. This power penetrates to the centres
of the fun and planets, without any diminution of its vir-

therefore, LSturmius held that the examination of llie. «ye

was a cure foratheifm ; and another excellent writer, cited ■

below, obfervcs, that if there were no example in the

world of contrivance, except that of the eye. it would be

tuc, and is extended to immenie dillances, regularly de- alone fufticient to fupport the conclufion which wc draw

rrcafing, and producing the moil fenfible and important from it, as to the mcclFitv of en intelligent creator : nor can

effects. Its action is proportional to the quantity of folid it be fuppofed that the ear was formed without the knowledge

matter in bodies, and not to their furfaces, as is ufual ot iounds ; or that the male and female, created and pre-

in mechanical cauies ; and, therefore, feems to iurpafs mere ferved in due proportion, were not formed fur c.-ch other*

mechaiiifm. But however various the phenomena that de- and for continuing the fjKcies. AU tMir accounts cf nature

pend on this power, and mav be explained by it, no media- are full of inlhuiccs of this kind.. The admirahlc.aad

rical principles can account for its effects ; nuich lels could beautiful Ihucture of things for final caufcs exalt our idea

it have produced, at the beginning, tiie regular fituation of of the contriver; and the unitv of defign fliew^ him to. be

the orbs, and the prefcnt difpofitiin of things. Gravity one. The great motions in the fvftem, performed withthe

could not have determined the plaa.ts to move from well fame facility as the leall, fug^t ll hisiahiiiglity pov. er, wiicL

to call in orbits nearly circular, alniolt in tlie fame plane ; gave niotion to the earth and the celcilial bodies, with .equal

nor could this pov. er have pro'iected the comets with all the eafe as to the minutcll pjirticles ; the fubtihtv of the niotions

variety of their directions. If we fuppofe the matter of and actions in tiie inttru;il parts of bodiis, (hew-s that liis

the fyltem to be accumulated in the centre by its gravity,
no mtehanical principles, with the aifiilance of tliis power,
could feparate the huge and unwieldy mals into fuch parts
as t!ie fun and planets ; and, after carrying them to their
different diftances, project them in their fevcral diredlions,
preferving flill tlie equality of aftion and re-aftion, or the
flate of the centre of gravity of the fyllcm. Such an ex-
quifite llruclure of things cculd only arife from the con-
trivance and powerful inlluences of an intelli:.:ent, free, and

intluence peticlrates the inmoll receffi-s of things, r.'id. that
he is equally atJtivc and. pfefeiit every where. Tf:<» fiwpli-
city of the laws that prevail in the world, the cxsellrr.t dif-
pofition of things, in order to obtain the bed ec^ and the
beauty which adorns the worka of nature, far fujvcj>r to
any thing in art^ f>'ggell his conCumn\ate wuJdnm. Thif
ufefulnefs of the whole fchemc, fo well coiitrLvcd for the
intelligent beings who enjoy it, .with the internal difpoAtiou
and mor..l llructure of tiiofe beiiigs, (hews ULs unbounded

moll potent agent. The fame powers, therefore, which at goodnefs. Thefe are argymenti whiei. are fuffidcn'ly open
prefent govern t!ie lEatcnal univcrfe and co.ndtict its various to the views and cr.pacities of the . unleii ned, while at the

fame

GOD.

fame timo they acquire new rirength and luftrc from tlie dif-
coveri'?3 of tlic learnca. Tin- Deity's atting and interpofiiig
in the luiivcrfe (liew that he governs it as well as formed it ;
and the depth of his counfels, even in conducing the material
univerle, of wliich a gruat part furpades our knowledge,
tends to preferve an inward veneration and awe of this great
being, and diipolcs us to receive what may be otherwifc re-
veal'd to us concerning him. His effence, as well as that of
all other iubllanccs, is beyond the reach of all our difcoveries ;
but his attributes clearly appear in his admirable works. We
know that the higheft conceptions we are able to form of
them are ftill beneath his real perfedtior.s ; but his domi-
nion over us, and our duty towards him, are manifeft. See
Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Phil.Difc. book iv.
chap. 9.

Thofe who wifli to fee tlie argument, which has been now
fliclched out in fome of its leading outlines, more fully
illulh-atedand urged, may confult tlie works of Ray, Nieu-
weiilyt, Baxter in his Matho, Derham, De la Pluche in his
Nature diiplayed, &;c. ; and more cfpecially archdeacon
Pak-y in his " Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Ek-
illcncc and attribiites of the Deity, coUefted from the ap-
pearances ot Nature." This admirable work, if our limits
would allow it, would enable us very much to enrich this
article. One atheillic way, fays this much approved and
popular writer, of replying to our obfcrvations upon tiie
works of Nature, and to the proofs of a Deity wiiieh we
think that we perceive in them, is to tell us, that all which
we fee mull neceffarily have had fome form, and that it
might as well be i 1 its prefent form as any. Let us now

apply this anfwcr to the eye " Something or otl-.er muft

have occupied that place in the animal's head ; muft have
tilled up, we will fay, that focket ; we will fay alfo, that
it mud have been of that fort of fubftance, which we call
animal fubllance, as flefh, bone, membrane, cartilage, &c. ;
but that it Should have been an eye, knowing as we do
what an eye comprehends, I'k. that it fliould have confifted,
iirft, of a feries of tranfparent lenfes, (very different, by the
bye, even in their fubllances from the opaque materials of
which the reft of the body is, in general at leaft, com-
pofed ; and with which the whole of its furface, this fmgle
portion of it excepted, is covered) : fecondly, of a black
.loth or canvas (the only membrane of the body which is
black) Ipread out behind thefe lenfes, fo as to receive the
image formed by pencils of light tranfmitted through tliem ;
and placed at the precife geometrical diltance at which, and
at which alone, a diftinit image could be formed, namely,
at the coticourfe of the refraded rays ; thirdly, of a large
nerve communicating between this membrane and the brain ;
without which the aclion of light upon the membrane,
however modified by the organ, would be lolt to the pur-
poles of fenfation. That this fortunate conformation of the
parts fhould have been the lot, not of one individual out of
many ihouland individuals, like the great prize in a lottery,
or like fome Angularity in nature, but the happy chance of
a whole fpecies ; nor of one fpecics out of many thoufand
fpecies, with which we are acquainted ; but of by far the
greatelt number of all that exift, and that under varieties,
not cafual or capricious, but bearing marks of being fuited
to their refpeftive exigences ; that all this fhould have taken
place, merely bccaufe fomething muft have occupied thefe
poiiils in every animal's forehead ; or that, all this fhould be
thought to be accounted for by the (hort anfwcr, " that
whatever was there mufl have had fome form or other," is too

ablurd to be mademorefo by any argumentation." <■ Nor docs

it mend tiie anfwer to add, with refpeft to the fingularity of
the conformation, that, after the event, it is no longer to be

computed what the chances were againft it This is always
to be computed, when the queflion is, whether an ufeful or
imitative conformation be the produce of chance or not. I
defire no greater certainty in reafoning than that by which
chance is excluded from the prefent dilpoiition of the natural
world. Univerfal experience is againft it. What does
chance ever do for us ? In the hunian body, for initancc,
chance, /, e. the operation of caufes without delign, may
produce a wen, a wart, a mole, a pimple, but never an eye.
Among inanimate fubftances,a clod, a pebble, a liquid drop,
might be ; but never was a watch, a telefcope, or organized
body of any kind, aafwerir.g a valuable purpofe by a com-
phcnted mechanilm, tlie effedl ot chance. In no aflignable in-
ftance hath fuch a thing exilted, without intention, fomewhere." '
Some have faid " that the eye, ihe animal to which it belongs,
every otlier anin-.al, every plant, and every organized body
which we fee, are only fo many out of the polhble varieties
and combinationG of being, which the lapfe of inlinite ages
has brought into cxiftence ; and that the prefent world is the
relicl of that variety.'' — But "there is no foundation whatever
for this conjefture in any thing which we oblerve in the
works of nature : no fuch experiments are going on at pre-
fent ! No fuch energy operates as that which is here fup-
pofed, and which fliould be conflantly pulliing into exiftence
new varieties of beings ; nor are there any appeaiances to
fupport an opinion that every pofTible combination of vegeta-
ble or animal flrufture iias formerly been tried." Should it
be laid that the parts of animal bodies " were not intended
for the ufe, but that the ufe arofe out of the parts ; this
diftinftion is intelligible." — But " there is little place for it
in the works of nature. When roundly and generally affirm-
ed of them, as it has fometimes been, it amounts to fuch an-
other ftretch of alTertion, as it would be to fay, that all the
implements of the cabinet-maker's workftiop, as well as his
fifli-flvin, were fubllances accidentally coniiguiated, which
he had picked up and converted to his ufe ; that Jiis adzes,
faws, planes, and gimlets, were not made, as we fuppofe, to
hew, cut, fmooth, fhapc-out, or bore wood with ; but, that
thefe things being made, no matter with what defign, or
whether with any, the cabinet-maker perceived that they
were applicable to his purpofe, and turned them to account."
If this kind of folution " be applied to thofe parts of ani-
mals, the aftion of which does not depend upon the will of
the animal, it is fraught with ftill more evident abfurdity. Is
it poffible to believe that the eye was formed without any
regard to vifion, that it was the animal itfelf which found out,
that though formed with no fuch intention, it would lervc to
fee with; and that the ufe of the eye, as an organ of fight,
rcfulted from this difcovery, and the animal's application of
it ? The fame queftion may be aflvcd of the ear : the fame
of all the fenfes," none of which depend upon the elcftion of
the animal ; nor confequcntly upon his fagaeity or experience.
" Others have cholen to refer every thing to ?i principle of
order in nature. A principle of order is the word ; but
what is meant by a principle of order, as different from aii
intelligent creator, has not been explained either by defini-
tion or example ; and without fuch explanation, it fliould
fcem to be a mere fubilitution of words for realuns, names
for caufes." — " Was a watch ever produced by a principle
of order ; and why might not a watch be fo produced as well as
an eye ?" — " The confidence,'' continues the- author now
cited, '< which we place ia our obfcrvations upon the works
of nature, in the marks which we difcover of contrivance,
choice, and defign, and in our reafoning upon the proofs
afforded us, ought not to be fliaken, as it is fometimes at-
tempted to be done, ' y bringing forward to our view
our own ignorance, or rather the general imperfedlion of

ov:r

I

)

G O D.

our kuowledge of nature." — " True fortitiidL- of iinder-
Oniiding cpnfilts in not fuffcring what we know to be dif-
turb^'d by \vh:\t we do not know. If we perceive an ufc-
ful end, and means adapted to that end, we perceive enough
for our conchilion. If thefe tilings be clear, no matter what
is obfciire. Tl^e argument is finilhed." — " Our ignorance

rn many points need not fufpend our affurance of a few.''

«' Contrivance," fays our author, " if eitablifhed, appears
to me to prove every tiling which we wiih to prove.
Amongfl: other things, it proves the perfonalitf of the
Deity, as diftinguiilied from what is fometiniej called
riature, fometinies called a principle : wiiicli terms, in
the mouths of thole who ufe them philolophically, fcem
to be intended, to admit and exprefs an efficacy, but
to exclude and deny n perfonal agent. Now that wliich can
contrive, wliich can defign, mull be a perfon. Thefe capa-
cities conftitute perfo:iality, for they impl)- confcioufnefs and
thought. They require ihat which can perceive an end or
puipofo ; as well as the power of providing moans, and of di-
recting them to their end. They require a centre, in which
perfections unite, and from which volitions flow ; which is
mind. The afts of arriind prove the exigence of a mind ;"
and that, whatever it be, in which a mmd refides, is a perfon,
— " Whenever we fee marks of contrivance, we are led for its
caufe to an i/j/f/.'/f.-K? author. A-id this tranfition of the un-
derllanding is founded upon uniform experience." — " There
may be many fecond caufes, and many caufes of fecond
caufes, one behind anotiur, bet we;a whatweobferve of nature
and the Deity ; but there niufl be intelligence fomewhere ;
there mull be more in nature than what we fee ; and
amongfl the things unfeen, there mull be an intelligent de-
flgning author ;" — " after rJl the llruggles of a reluctant
philofophy, the neceffary refort is to a deity. The marks of
tl-fgn are too flrong to be got over. Delign muft have had a
deligner. The defigner mufl have been a perfon. Thai per-
fon is God." But we muft content ourfelves with earneftly
recommending the works from which thefe detached txtrafts
are made, to the perufal of our readers ; for we cannot do
juflice to the author's admirable reafoning

Another argument to prove the exiftence of God, as the
creator and governor of the univerfe, may be deduced
from the univerfal confent of mankind, and the uniform
tradition of this belief through every nation and every
age ; it is impolTible to conceive, that a fallacy fo per-
petual and univerfal, fhould be impofed on the united rea-
fon of mankind. No credible and fati-,;fa(ilory account can
be given of this univerfal confent, withoul afcribing it to the
original conllitution of the human mind, in confequence of
which it cannot fail to difcern the exiftence of a deity, and
to the undeniable traces of his being, which his works af-
ford. Fear, llate-po'icy, and the prejudices of education,
to which the concurrence of mankind in this principle has
been fomctimcs refolved, are founded on this univerfal princi-
ple, fuppofe its being and influence, and are j'.ttuatcd by it. It
is much more reafonable to imagine, that tiie belief of a
God was antecedent to their operation, than that it (liould
have been produced by them ; and that it "as didtated by
reafon and confcience, independent of the paffions and poli-
cy of men. The uniform and univerfal tradition of this be-
lief, and of the creation of the world by the divine power, af-
fords concurring evidence both of the principle and of the

faa.

The exiftence of God is alfo farther evinced by thofe ar-
guments which have been ufually alleged to prove, that the
world had a beginning, and, therefore, that it n.uft h.ive
been created by the em rgy of divine power. In proof ot
this, the hiftory of ^'«fes, confidered mertly as the moll

ancient hiftorian, defcrves particular regard. His tcftiraony
is confirmed by the mod ancient writers among the heathen:-,
both poets and hiftorians. It may be alfo fairly alleged,
tliat we have no hiltory or tradition more aricient than that
which agrees with the received opinion of the world's begin-
ning, and of the manner in which it was produced ; and thjit
the moft ancient hillories were written long after that time.
And this confidcration is urged by Lucretius, the famo';5
Epicurean, as a ftrong prefumption that the world had a be-
ginning.

-Si nulla fuit genitalis ori<'o

Terrarum et cali, fernperquc xtern.i fuerc :
Cur fupra belluni Thebanum, et funera Trojx,
Non alias ahi quoque res cecincrc poetE ?"

Befides, the origin and progrefs of learning, and the moft.
ufeful arts, confirm the notion of the worlds beginning,
and of the common era of its creation ; to which alfo may
be added, tliat tlie world itf If, being material and corrupti-
ble, muft have had a beginning ; and many phenomena occur
to the obfervation of tlie aftronomcr and iiatur.il hiftorian,
which, furnifti a ftrong prefumption that it could have had no
long duration, and that it gradually tends to diffolution. From
all thefe conllderations we may inter the exiftence, attributes,
and providence of God. If we admit n.Iraeles, as facts mi-
tlienticated by credible hiftory, thefe, conlidered as devia-
tions from the eilabhfhed courfe of nature, aflord indcpeud- -
ent evidence of the being of God. See MlR.ici.i;.

God is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the falfe deities of the hea-
thens, many of which were only creatures to which divine
honours and worfhip were fuperflitioufly paid.

The Greeks and Latins, it is obfervable, did not mean, by
the name God, an all-perfeCl being, whereof eternity, infi-
nity, oniniprefence, &c. were eTential attributes : witii them,
the word only implied an excellent and fuperior nature ; and,
accordingly, they give the appellation gods to all beings
of a rank, or clafs, Jiigher an;! more ]>erfeft than that of
men ; and efpecially to thofe who were inferior agents in the
divine adminiflration, all fubjecl to tiie one fupreine.

Thus men thcmfelves, according fo tlieir fyftem, -might
become gids, after death ; inafmuch ?.s their fouls might at-
tain to a degree of excellence fuperitn- to what they were ca-
pable of in life.

The firft divines, f iiher Boffu obferves, were the poets :
the two fundions, thougli now fe])ar..ted, were originally
combined ; or, rather, were one and the fan'.e thing. Now
the great variety of attributes in God, that is, the number of
relations, capacities, and circumllances, wherein thev had
occalion to confider him, put thef^ poets,' &c. under a ne-
cefHty of making a partition, and of feparating the divine
attributes i;ito feveral perfons : becaufe the wCaknefs of the
human mind could not conceive fo much power and aClion v.\
tlie fimplieity of one fingle divine nature. Thus the omni-
potence of God came to be reprefentc d under th'" perfon and
appellation of Jupiter ; the wifdom of God imder that of
Minerva ; the jufticeof God Under that of .luno.

I'ho firll idols, or falfe gods, that are faid to have- been
adored, were the liars, fun, moon, &c. on account of the
light, lieat, and otlier benefits which we derive from them.
(See Idcu ATRY.) Afterwards the cr.i-tli c.-'meto b? deified,
for furnifning fruits neceffary for the fubliite:;cc of men and
animals ; tlun tire and water became objCtls of divine wor-
fhip, for their ufefidnefs to human life. In protefs of lime,
and bv degrees, gods became multiplied to infinity ; and
there was Icarcc any thing but the \\ cakuefs, or caprice of
I Icxe

GOD

fome devotee or other, elevated into the rank of deity ; tilings
iifelofs, or even deftniftive not excepted.

The priiicip;il of tlie ancient gods, whom tlie Romans
called (I'ti iiia'jonim s;eiillum, and which Cicero calls cehjl'ial
gods, \-ii.xxafAtH gods, Ovid nrjl'ilcs dros, olhur?. confentes deos,
were Jupiter, Juno, Vefta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus,
Mars, Mercury, Neptune, Vulcan, and Apollo. Jupiter
is confidered as the god of heaven ; Neptune as god of the
fea ; Mars as the god of war ; Apollo of eloquence, poe-
try, and phyfic ; Mercury of thieves, Bacchus of wine, Cu-
pid of love, &c.

A fecond fort t)f gods, called dcmi-gods, femi-dU, dii wino-
riim gcul'nim, indigetes, or gods adopted, were men canonized
and deified. As the greater gods had polledion of heaven
by their own riglit ; thefe fecondary deities had it by right
and donation ; being trandated into heaven becaule they
had lived as gods upon earth.

The heathen gods may be all reduced to the following
claflcs :

1. Created fpirits, angels, or demons : whence good and
evil gods ; Genii, Lares, Lemures, Typhones, guardian
gods, infernal gods, &c.

2. Heavenly bodies ; as the fun, moon, and otlier plai\ets :
alfo the fixed itars, conllellations, S;c.

3. Elements ; as air, earth, ocean. Ops, Vella ; the ri-
vers, fountains, &c.

4 Meteors. Tims the Perfians adored the wind : thim-
der and lightning were honoured under the name of Gery-
on.; and feveral nations of India and America have made
themlelves gods of tlie fame. Cailor, Pollux, Helena, and
Iris, have alfo been preferred from meteors to be gods ; and
the like has been pradifed in regard to comets : witnefs that
which appeared at the murder ot C;tfar. Socrates deified
the clouds, if we may give credit to Arillophanes ; ain! tlie pri-
mitive Chriltians, TertuUian affures us, were reproached with
the fame thing.

5. They ere(;l;ed minerals, or folhls, into deities. Such was
the Ba;tyhi! ; the Finlanders adored Hones ; the Scytliians
iron ; and many nations lilver and gold.

6. Plants have been made gods. Tims leeks and onions
were deities in Egypt ; the Sclavi, Lithuanians, Celts,
Vandals, and Peruvians, adored trees and forells ; the ancient
Gauls, Britons, and Druids, paid a particular devotion to
the oak ; and it was no other than wheat, corn, feed, &c.
that the ancients adored under the names of Ceres and Pro-
ferpina.

7 . They took themfelves gods from among the waters.
The Syrians and Egyptians adored fiflies ; and the Tri-
tons, Nereids, Syrens, &c. what were they but fifhes ? Se-
veral nations have adorc-d ferpents ; particularly the Egyp-
tians, Pruffians, Litliuanians, Samogitians, &c.

8. Infe£ts, j'.s flies and ants, had their prieils and votaries:
thefe among the Tlieifalians, and thofe in Acarnania, where
bullocks were offered to them.

9. Among birds, the Hork, raven, the fparliav.'k, ibis,
eagle, griffon, and lapwing, have had divine honours ; the lall
in Mexico, the relt in Egypt, and at Thebes.

10. Four-footed bealls have liad their altars ; as the bull,
dog, cat, wolf, baboon, lion, and crocodile, in Egypt, and
elfewhere ; the hog in the ifland of Crete ; rats and mice
in the Troas, and at Tenedos ; weafels at Thebes, and tlie
porcupine throughout all Zoroaftcr's fchool.

1 1 . Nothing was more common than to place men among
.the number of deities ; and from Bel us or Baal, to the Roman
emperors before Conltantine, the inllances of this kind are
utiUFQcrable : frequently they did not wait fo long as their
deaths for the apothcoiis. Nebuchadnezzar procured his ilatue

GOD

to be wordiipped while living ; and Virgil fliews that Ailgu-
tns had altars and facrifices offered to him, Eclog. i 6, 7
As we learn, from other hands, that he had priefts called
Aug\ijlides ; and temples at Lyons, Narbona, and feveral
other places ; and he mull be allowed the firtl of the Romans,
in wliofe behalf idolatry was carried to fnch a pitch. The
Ethiopians deemed all their kings gods : the Velleda of the
Germans; the Janus of the Hungarians; and the Thaut,
Woden, and AfTa, of the northern nations, were, indifpu-
tably, men.

1 2. Not men only, but every thing that relates to man,
lias alfo been deified : as labour, reft, fleep, youth, age, death,
virtues, vices, occafion, time, place, numbers, among the
Pythagoreans ; the generative power, under tlie name of
Priapus. Infancy, alone, had a cloud of deities ; as Vage-
tanus, I..evana, Rumina, Edufa, Potina, Cuba, Cumina,
Carna, Offilago, Statulinus, Fabulinus, &c.

They alfo adored the gods health, fever, fear, love, pain,
indignation, Ihanie, impudence, opinion, renown, prudence,
fcience, art, fidelity, felicity, calumny, liberty, money, war,
peace, victory, triumph, &c.

Lailly, nature, the univerfe, or 70 it-j.:, was reputed a
great god.

Heilod has a poem under the title of 0=oyo»iK, i. e. the ge-
neration of the gods ; wherein he explains their genealogy' and
defcent ; fets forth who was the firll, and principal ; w!io
next delcended from liim, and what ifiiie each had: the whole
making a fort of fyllem of heathen theology.

Belide this popular theology, each pliilofopher had his
fyllem : as may be feen from the Tiinxvis of Plato, and Ci-
cero De Natura Deorum.

Jullin Martyr, TertuUian in his Apologetics, and in hii
book Contra Gentes ; Arnobius, Minutius Felix, LaCtaiitius,
Eufebiiis, Prnepar. Sc Demonft. Evangel. St. Augullinc D^
Civit. Dei, and Theodoret Adverf. Gentes, fhew the vanity
of the heathen gods.

It is very dithcnlt to difcover the real fentiments of the hea-
thens with refpect to their gods : they are exceedingly intri-
cate and confuied, and even frequently contradiiiforv. Tliev
admitted io many fuperior and inferior gods, who (harcd the
empire, that all was full of gods. Varro reckons up no lefs
than 30,000 adored within a fmall extent of ground, and ye-t
their number was every day growing. The way to hea-
ven wa,^ fo eafy for the great men of tlwfe days, that Juvenal
brings in Atlas complaining he was ready to fink under the
load of fuch a number of new gods as were daily placed in
the heavens : yet father Mourgnes feems to have proved that
all the philofophers of antiquity have acknowledged that,
there was but one God. Plan. Theol. des Setl. Scavans. de-
la Greece.

God, ylcl of. See Div.ABrLrrv.

God, Peace of. See Pkac e.

God, Son of. See Son.

God, I'ruce of. See TuucE.

God, IVorJlnp of. See Worship.

GODAGARY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 18
miles N. of Moorihedabad.

GODALMING, a market town and parifh in the
county of Surry, England, contains 474 houfes and 3405
inhabitants. TJie town is built in a valley, on the banks of
the river Wey, which is divided into fev<.r.il fmall llreams
here. The chief of thefe is navigable to Weybridge, where
it unites its watei-s with the Thames. In the vicinity of the
town are fome corn-mills, and paper-mills. Here are feveral
manufactories for weaving ftockings, patent fleecy holierv,
and coarfe woollen clotlis ; wool-combing and fpinning of
worfted alfo conlUtute part of the trade of the place. TJie

parilh

GOD

pariHi of Godalming is divided into nine tythings, .-tiid the
whole is governed by a warden, eight affiftants, and a baihff.
The church is dillingiiiihed by its haiidfonie fpirc. In the
town are a quakers' meeting-houfe, two chapels for diflui-
ters, a cliarity fchool, and in the immediate \icin.ty is an
liofpital for the accommodation of ten poor men. A fingn-
lar inipofition on public credulity and curiofity was prartifed
in this town abeut the year 1726. A female, named Mary
Tofts, circulated a report that fhe was pregnant witii rab-
bits, and alio excited a very general belitf tliat fte had ac-
tually been delivered of lome of tlicfe animals. The impo-
fition, like that of " the Cock-lane ghofl,'' was fupported
with fo much cunning and addrefs, that many perfons, among
whom were fome of the faculty, were deceived, and, for
fome time, credited the tale. Godalming has a weekly
market on Saturday, and two annual fairs. Manning's
Hiilorv and Antiquities of Surrey, folio.

GOD .A MA, GoDE.M.\, Cautlma, Golma, or Gcutam,
in Indian My:hology, different names iij'iilied in various parts
of India, and particularly in the Biiinan empire, to their
deity Budha, or Boudh. (See BOO0H ) Godama or Ko-
dama is the moll common appellation a.ronghis wcrfiiippcrs
in India beyond the Ganges ; it feems alfo to be common
among tlie Hindoos, who, according ;o the idiom of the
Sanfcrlt, write it Gotamas. This name, as fome fay, lite-
rally fignities cow-herd, but metaphorically king ; and, ac-
cording to othei-s, the meaning of Godama is eminently
iWfe, or a fage. Many other appellations are given to this
deitv derived from tlie pollures in which his various images
reprefent him. Godama was probably an Indian prince,
deified by iuperllition ; and in an ancient treatife, giving an
account of the religion of Godama, entitled " Zarado,."
Godama is faid to have attained divinity at the age of ^j
vears, to have preached his law for 45 years, and to have
brought falvation to all living beings. Dr. Buchanan, who
cites this treatife (Al". Rcf. vol. vi.) places the deatli ot
Godama 546 .years B. C. The doctrine and laws, laid in
this treatife to be delivered by Godama, confitl chiefly in
obferviiig the five coinmimdments, and in abftaining from the
ten fins. The five commandments arc as follow : I. From
the meanell infecl up to man, thou flialt kill no animal what-
ever. 2. Thou (halt not ileal. 3. Thou llialt not violate
the wife or concubine of another. 4. Thou (halt tell no-
thing falfe-. J. Thou flialt drink neither wine, nor any
tiling that will into.x.icate ; thou flialt not eat opium, or any
other inebriating drug. The perfon who keeps thefe iive
commandments ih;dl attain high rank, and fliall not be liable
to poverty, nor to o:her misfortunes and calamities. The
ten fins are the killing of animals - theft — adultery — falfliood
— dilcord — harfli and indignant language — idle and fuperflu-
ous talk — the coveting of your neighbour's goods — envy,
and the defire of your neighbour's death, or misfortune —
and the following of the doclrine of falfe gods. Every one
who ablhiins from tliefe fins, will fucceliively increafe in
virtue through all hi'; fucceffive tranfmigrations, till at length
he will become worthy of beholding a God, and of hearing
his great voice ; and he will be exempted from the four human
mifcries, t/'z. weight, old age, difeafe, and death. The
good works required are giving alms, and thoughtfully pro-
nouncing three words. Whoever dies v.ithout the abili-
nence and good work> h tc preicribed, will cerlainly pals
into one of the infernal Itates, and be doomed to certain
tranfmigrations.. Tiie priells of Godama are called Kalians
in the Burma language, and they have alfo bellowed upon
them the title of Somona or Sair.ana, which is likewile ap-
plied to the images of llie divinitv when he is reprcleiilcd,
Vol.. XVI,

GOD

as he commonly is, in the prieflly liabit. CSee Raiiavs. r
Godama commanded his images and relics to be worthippi-<j.
Tlie largeft and moll celebrated temples are generally m ili-
form of a pyramid ; and contain fome of thefe reUc», fuc h
as a tooth, a bone, a hair, or a garment. To thefe temple^
the prayers of the devout are addreded, and their offerni'/t
prelentcd. The images of tlie god are of very various ma-
terials ; clay, copper, filver, a:.d alabafler. ^lany cf theiu
are richly gilt, and adorned with paintings of ilowers ; tlu y
arc of diflerent fi/es, fome being not above fix iuciies high,
and others of a coloil'al ilatiire. Oilier objects of great \e.
ncration among the worfliippers of Godama are itoncs cl
large dimenlions, carved with various hieroglvpjiics, and
faid to reprefent, or to be the imprefiions of lii.i feet. The
principal difc-ples of Godama are by liis followers confldered
a> faints ; and many images of thefe, in a prielUy habit, ac-
company that of their mafter. Every true worlliipj>er t>i'
Godama prays before he goes to ileep, and before he rife*
. in the morning, which is generally at the dawn of day.

Belides their private devotions, which are numerous and
regularly performed, it is cullomary to make offerings at
the temple ; the feafons for which are thofc of the four
fihafes of the moon, cfjjecially tlie full and change, which
may be confidered as the Burma f.ibbalhs. Friday is with
tliem reckoned an unfortunate dav, and therefore on this
diiy they undertake no bufinefs ; but thev keep holy no par-
ticiJar day of the week. TJic fecl of Godama cfteem tii--
opinion of a divine being, who created the univerfe, to be
highly impious ; and accordingly the f./l!owers of Godan-.a
are, llrittly fpeaking, atheiils, as they fuppofe every tlai.g
to arile from fate ; and their gods are merely m.en, who bv
their virtue acquire fupreme hai)piuels, and by their wifdoro
become entitled to iinpofe a law on a'll living beings. See
BiiiM.VN Emfiri, and Boodh.

GODANA, in Gecgia^hfy a town of Perfia, in tlic pra-
vmce of Irak ; 105 miles E. of Upahan.

GODAVERY, or Gos(;.\ Goixiwnv, a river of Hin.
douilan, fometimes called the Gang in Feriflita's Hifiorv,
was, till very lately, confidered as the fame \>:th the Cat-
tack river, or Mahanuddy ; but it is now afcertained to be
a different river, wliich has its fource about 70 miles K.E
of Bombay ; on the wellern Gauts, more properly called
the Sukhien mountains ; and, in the upper part of it.s courfe,
at leall, is elleemed a lacr^-d river by the Hindoos ; that is,
ablutions performed in its llrcam have a religious efficacy fu-
perior to thofc perforn.ed in ordinary dreams. The Goda-
very, after traverfing the Dowlatabad foubah, and the coun-
try of Tellingana, from well t« call, turns to the fouth-caA ;
and receiving the Bain Gonga, about 90 miles above the
fea, befidcs many imaller rivers, feparates into two princi-
pal channels at Rajamundry ; and thence fubdividing again,
they form altogether feveral tide harbours, for vcflVls of
moderate burden. Iiigcram, Coringa, Yanani, Bandarma-
lanka, and Narfapour, are among the places fituatcd at the
mouth of this river ; which appears to be the moil confidiT-
able one between the Ganges and cape Comoriu. Extenfive
forefls of teak-trees border on its banks, within the moun-
tains, and fupply fliip-timber for the ufe of the ports above-
mentioned. The Killnah and Godavcry rivers, however re-
mote at their fountains, approadi witiiin 80 miles ot each
other in the lower parts of their courfe ; and forni an exten-
five tradt of country, compofed <>t rich vegetable mould,
fucli as is ufually found at the mouth, of large rivgrs. Ren-
nell. See D1.1.TA.

GOD-BOTE, in owr Anctrnt Saxon CvPoms, an ecdefi-
allical or church liuc, for crimes and oHencei committed

3t

ag»!ij

GOD

againft God. Ttiefe, according to Blackltone, are apojiacy
and herefy ; wliich fee.

GODDARD, Jonathan, in Biography, an eminent
phyfician and chcmift, was born at Greenwich in the year
1617. After ftudying for foiirycars at Oxford, he fet out
on his traveh, and on his return he fettled in praftice in
London, having taken his degree at Cambridge. He was
elei5>ed a RIIow of the College of Phyhcians in 1646, and ia
1647 was appointed lefturer on anatomy. In conjunction
with fome friendj, he formed a fociety for experimental
inquiry, which met at his lodgings in Wood-)lreet, and
in promoting the objcfts of which he was exti-cnicly
afiiduous. Having gained confiderable reputation, and
having, with tlie reil of his party, Tided with parliament, he
was appointed by Cromwell chief phyficisn to the army,
and in this capacity accompanied the ufurper to Ireland in
1649, *° Scotland in the following year, and thence re-
turned with his mafter, who, after the battle of Worcefter,
rode into London in trii-mph, September 12th, 1651. He
obtained many favours from Cromwell, who firil made him
warden of Morton college, Oy.ford, aft-rwards felc ropre-
fentative of that univerfity in the Short Parliament in 1653 ;
and in the fame year one of the council of il ate. Thefe
favours were fufiicient to procure for him the difpleafure of
Charles n.; and, being driven from Oxford, he removed t;o
Grelham college, where he had been chofen profefTor of phy-
fic in November 1655. Here he continued to frequent
thofe meetings, which gave birth to the Royal Society, and
%vas nominated one of the firft council of that inilitution in
the charter. Dr. Goddard was a confcientious and able
praftitioner. Partly from the love of experimental che-
miftry, principally from a diftruft in the knowledge of apo-
thecaries, he prepared his own medicines and recommended
the pradtice to be adopted by phyficians iji general. Finding
numerous obllaclrs, however, m his way, he pubHilied
" A Difcourfe, fetting forth the unhappy condition.of the
praftice of phyfic in London," 1669. But this was of no
"avail. He di'^d on the 24th of March, 1674, being feized
wi:li an apoplectic fit in Cheapfide, when returning from
one of the philofophic meetings. Two papers of his were
publilTiedin the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N' 137, 138;
and many othcrj in Birch's Hii'ory of the Royal Society.
' GODDESS, Dea, Diva, a heathen deity, to whom
they attributed the female fi-x.

The ancients had almoft as many goddefies as gods.
Such were .Tano, the gcddcfs of air; Diana, the goddefs
of woods and cliaftity ; Proferpina, the goddefs of hell ;
Venus, of beauty ; Thetis, of the fea : fuch alfo were
Victory, Fortune, &c.

Nay they were not contented to make women gods, and
admit both fexes into the roll ; but they had alio herma-
phrodite gods. Thus Minerva, according to feveral of the
learned, was both man and woman, and wordiipped both
under the appellation of Lunus and Luna. Mithras, the
Perfian deity, was both god and goddefs, and the fexes of
Venus and Vulcan are very dubious : v.'hence, in the invo-
cations of thofe deities, they ufed this formula ; " Be thou
god or goddefs ;" as we learn from A. Gellius. It was a
privilege peculiar to goddefies, that they might be reprc-
fented, on medals, naked. The imagination, it was fup-
pof.'d, mu.1 be awed, and kept from ta.king liberties, by
the confideration of the divine charafter.

GODEAU, A-rnroKY, in Biography, was born at the
city of Dreux in the year 1605. He was educated for
civil and active life, but having met with a difappointment
in the object of hi: affeftions, he repaired to Paris, where

GOD

he cultivated the (ociety of men of letters, and was one ot
the i'lrll of thofe who eftablifhed the French academy of
belles lettres. This fociety fuggclled to the cardinal
Richlicu the foundation of the French academy, of which
M. Godeau was an original member. He took orders in
the year 1735, and having enriched his own mind with the
moll pure maxims of ChrilHan morality, he taught them
from the pulpit with much eloquence, and he is faid to have
piaftifed them in all his aiftions. Jn the year 1 636 he was,
by the influence of cardinal Richlieu, nominated to the
bifiiopric of Grafle, and from this time he divided his time
between his ftudies, and the diligent difcharge of liis epif-
copal functions. He feuiid the Hate of ecclefiaftical difci-
pline exceedingly relaxed, and fet about its reformation ; he
perfonally examined the qualifications of the clergy, and
enquired in what manner they difcharged the important
duties of their office ; he frequently preached in different
parts of his diocefe, and exhibited in his own life an admi-
rable model of thofe virtues which he was anxious to re-
commend to the attention of his flock. He was in high
favour with pope Innocent X. who granted him bulls of
uiii m of the biibopric of Venice with that of Graffe, but
when he found that the people and clergy oppofed the mea-
fiire, he chofe rather to give up his preteniions, than break
in upon the peace of the church. He died in 1672, at the
age of fixty-feven years. He was a confiderable writer,
chiefly on fubjeC\s connet.'ted with his profefTion, but his
moll important work was " The Hiflory of the Church from
the commencem.ent of the World to the end of the Ninth
Century," in three volumes, folio. This is the firil eccle-
fialfical liiftory written in the Frencii language ; and though
compofed with lefs precifion than that of the abbe Fleury, it
pofTefles confiderable merit. It is charafterized by Dupin
as " exaft, faithful and agreeable :" he farther adds, that it
al.vays will have a merit, which neither time, nor any other
hiflorywillbe able to efface. Befides the hiilorv, we may
notice M. Godeau's " Paraphrales on the Epillles of St.
Paul:" "The New Teflament tninfiated and explained:"
"The lives of St. Paul, St. Augulline, and St. Charles
Borromeo, &c." Moreri.

GODEFROI, Denys, a very learned jurifl, was born
at Paris in 1549. He fludied at Louvain, Cologne, and
Heidelberg, and upon his return to France acquired a high
reputation in the parliament, in which he was nominated to a
counfellor's place. In 1580 his religious principles obliged
him to feek a refuge at Geneva, where he was admitted 3
burgher, and a profefTor of the law. In 1589 Henry IV.
created him bailiff of fome villages at the foot of mount
Jura, and a fupernumerary counfellor in the parliament of
Paris. After this he was deprived of his employment and
his valuable library by the invafion of the duke of Savoy,
and in 1594 he accepted the profeffordiip of the law in the
univerfity of Stralburg. In 1604, at the invitation of Frede-
rick, eleilor-palatine, he went to fettle at Heidelberg, and in
1618 that prince fent him on an embaffy to Lev.-is XIII.,
who received him with marks of high elleem. He died at
Strafburg in 1 622, leaving behind him many works that teilify
to his great learning. . The titles of thele are enumerated
by Moreri and others, and a few of the principal may be
mentioned here : " Corpus Juris civllis cum notis ;" this
treatife has been freq ently reprinted : the beil edition is faid
to be that from ihe Elzevir prefs in two volumes folio. .
" Notx in IV. Libros Inilitutionam :" " Praxis Civllis es
antiquis et recentioribus c>cri--tonb;.s."

GoDEFROi, TiiEODORF., the eldeil fon of the preceding, ,
was born at Geneva in 1580. He purfued his ftudies .Hrit

in

GOD

GOD

in that cily, then at Strafburg, and afterwards at Paris,
where he embraced the CathoUc religion. In 1643 he ob-
tained the ofRce of coiiiifellor of ftate, and afted during the
fix laft years of his hfe as counfellor and fccretary to the
French embafTv for the general peace at Miinfter. Here he
died in 1649. He was particularly vcrfed m the genealogical
and ceremonial hiftory of France, and publiflied feveral
learned works for its illuftration ; fuch are " Le Ceremonial
de France," 410. " Mem. concernant la PrefTeance des
Rois de France fur les Rois d'Efpagne :" " De la veritable
Origine de la Maifon d'Auftriche : ' " Trait e touchant les
Droits du Roi Tres-chretien fur philicurs Etats voilines,"
&c. Moreri.

GoDErROi, James, brother to Theodore, was born at
Geneva in 1587. He followed the fteps of his father by a
drift adherencr to the reformed rehgion, and by purfuing
the lludies of law, hiftory, and philofophv. In 1619 he was
created profefibr of the lav.- at Geneva, and was called to a
feat in the council in 1629. He filled with the greatvll zeal
and ability every public office with which he was entruiled.
He was five times elefted fyndic of the republic, and was
made fecretarv of ftate. He was chofen as a fit perfon
to conduft various negociations in France, Piedmont, Swit-
zerland, and Germany ; and, at the fame period, he devoted all
his leifure to public lectures in jurilprudence, and compofed a
variety of learned works. He maintained a correfpondence
with the moil learned men of the age, by whom he was
great! V refpeded. He died in 1652, and his works bear
teftimcny to his profound erudition, and to his great and un-
wearied induilry ; among them may be mentioned " Frag-
menta Ducdecini Tabularum ;" " Animadverfiones Juris
Civihs;" " De Jure Pr.-ecedentis ;" «^ Codex Theodo-
fianus," a pofthumous work, regarded as a moft valuable
monument of ancient jurifprudence. He edited the works
of Cicero, "cum notis Lambini et Gothofredi." He had
likewife made large collections for the hiftory of Geneva,
which were afterwards ufed by Spon. Moreri.

GoDEFROi, Denys, fon of Theodorc, born at Paris in
1 61 5, was an able French hiftorian. He was author of
«' Memoires et Inftructionspour fervir dans les Negociations
et les Affaires concernant les Droits du Roi," a work, which
has fometimes been attributed to the chancellor Seguier, by
whofe order it was compiled. He re-edited many of his
father's works, adding to them new illullrations with learned
notes. He continued to his ovra time Feron's "Hift. des
Officiers de la Couronne." As a pubhc man he wa? ap-
pointed in 16^8 the dircftor and keeper of the chamber of
accounts at Lille in Flanders, where he died in 168 r.
Moreri.

GoDEFROi, John-, fon of the preceding, fuccceded his
father in the direction of the chamber of accounts at Lille,
where he died, much advanced in years, in 1732. He pub-
lilhed an edition of the "Memoirs of Philip de Comincs,"
in five volumes 8vo. " The Journal of Henry III." " The
Memoirs of Queen Margaret." He is faid to have con-
tributed more than any other writer to the elucidation of the
affairs of the League. Moreri.

GODERVILLE, in Gvograpby, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of La Havre ; 9 miles N. E. of Mont-
villiers. The place contains 650, and the canton 12,539
inhabitants, on a territory of 150 kiliomctres, in 31 com-
munes.

GODESCHALC, in Biography, a Benedictine monk,
who fiourilhed in the ninth century, was born in Saxony,
and wiS brought -up, contraiy to l^s own i.iclination, to the

profcflio'i, in the convent of Fulda. He was ordained
pried when he was about forty years of af e, and in 846 we
find him at Rome vifiiing the holy pbces there; thence he
proceeded to Pannonia and Dalmacia, where he commenced
preaching the dotlrine of predeftination with much fcrvoor,
which it 13 fuppofed he imbibed from the works of St.Au-
guiline. Upon his return to his own country he had a ccn-
fcrcnce with Nothingus, biftiop of Verona, before whom he
maintained that God, from all eternity, had pre-ordained
fomc to cvcrlafling lite, and others to everlafting punifament
and mifery. Nothingus, aftonifhed and terrified at fo daring,
and, as he thought, impious a pofition, complained of it to
Rabanus, archbifliop of Mentz, who undertook to confute
his error, in writing. DifTatisfied, perhaps, with his own
argument";, Rabanus fummoncd a council to meet at Menti,
in the year 848, to which, however, Godefchalc prefentcd a
juftification of his opinions, and refolutely perfiftcd in main-
taining them to be confiiient with the fcriptures and the
fenfe of the orthodox fathers. The council padcd fentenoc
of condeninati'jn upon him, and fent him priloiier to Hinc-
mar, archbiftiop of Rheims, within whofe jurifditlion he
had received the priefthood. Hincmar, who was devoted
to the intt-rcll of Rabanus, affembled a council in 849, in
which the monk was a ftccnd time condemned, and render-
ed liable to a punifliment repugnant to all the principles of
religion and humanitv. Godefchalc, however erroneous his
f.-ntiments inight be, was not to be intimidated ; he believed
what he afferted, and he firmly adhered to the doctrine in
fpite of the higher powers. Hincmar accordingly proceeded
to put the fentence into execution, degraded the monk from
the priefthood, and ordered him to be fcourgcd with the
utmoft fevcrity. It appears that he was not prepared for
fo grievous a trial of his fortitude; the force of the paim
inflifted on him obliged him, in compliance with the dic-
tates of his profecutors, to tlirow into the fire the juftifica-
tion of his opinions which he had delivered into the council.
The infamous perfecutors were not contented with this
triumph ; they committed him clofe prifoner to the monaf-
tery of Hautvilliers, in the diocefe of Rheims. In this, as
in every other cafe of a fimilar kind, the fufterings of Go-
defchalc gamed him followers and adlierents, and many be-
came advocates for his caufe. A confiderable fchifm was
produced in the Latin church. Some confined themfelves
to the defence of his perfon and conduft, while others en»-
ployed all their zeal and talents iu the vindication of his
doftrine. The fpirit of the controverfy ran fo high be-
tween the contending parties, that Charles the Bald, in Sp5_,
fummoned the council to meet at Quiercy. Here the fu|-
ferin-T monk w.\s again condemned, but the decrees of th:«
council were declared null and void, and Godefchalc and
his doftrine vindicated and defended, in a council at V«-
hncc, in Dauphiny, in S55. the decrees of whitli were con-
firmed in the council of Langres, and iu that of Toufi.
Such was the origin of the difputes concerning the dfldrines
of predeftination and grace, which, from time to time, haw
divided the Catholic world into two parties, and whicli have,
fubiiftcd in full force among the Proteftants. The iinfortu-
nate Godefchalc died in prifon about tlie year 869. mam-
taining witli liis laft breath the doctrine for which he had
fuff.

inferted in archbifliop _

printed at Dublin in 1^41 ; an opiftle la Ratr^ufmus, piib-
IKhed in Cellot s " Hiftotia Godefcl..dci,»' ."it Paris iH .6|j,
and fome fragments of other piece.?, notiiied^y'Ckve. Go-
defchalc has immortalizwl his name by iv^ttmg on faot uie

:aining witli liis laft breath the Uoctrme tor »m«.ii ne i.aa
fuffercd. Tlie only writintrs of this monk that Iwvejpomc
down to the prefent times alv, two " ConfejUons of 1-aitli,.'
nferted in archbifliop Uflier'<; " HiKoria C*odefchalci,

controverfy

GOD

controverfy to wiiich we liavc referred, ar.d by his fuffefingb
in vindication of his favourite doftrine. In the year 1 650,
the celebrated Ma^'iiin pubhihed at Paris, in two volumes
4to. a collection of the early treatiies. produced on boih
liies of this controverfy, entitled " Veterum Auaorum qui
iiono fxculo de Prscdcllinatione ct Gratia fcripferunt, &c."
GOD-FAT HLRS, and God-Woiuers, perfons who
direft and attend at the baptifm of infants, or other per-
fons; who give the name, and who become furctics for the
faith and good conduft of the infant baptized. Hence they
are called Jiij'ccptnrs, or more commonly fpoiijors. To this
purpofe Dr. Nichols, (Def. part ii. p. 273.) fays, that
•' the fureties in baptifm religioully engage for the faitli of
the baptized ; that they fliall finccrcly believe all that is re-
vealed in the gofpel, and fliall direct the fiibfequent aftions
of their lives by the laws of Chrill." Againll this practice
Proteftant difTenters have alleged, that the parents, to whom
both God and nature have committed the education o£ their
child, are the proper perfons to Hand forth at its baptifm,
and take upon them this great and important truft ; and to
bind therafelves by a folemn vow faithfully to difcharge it.
They objeft to tlie order and praftice of the ellabhfhcd
church, that without fufficient authority from reafon, or
fcripture, or the ancient pratlice of the Chrillian churcli,
paretits are fet afide in this folemnity, and forbidden to
Hand forth, and take upon them this great charge to which
God hath called them. For the 29th canon exprefsly com-
mands, " that no parent fhall be urged to be prcfent at his
child's baptifm, nor be admitted to anfwer as god-father for
his own child.'' They alfo objeft, that the forms of the
church Ihould require other perlons to appear inllead of the
parents, and to take upon them this important trull, and
Cioil folemnly to promife before God and the church the
performance of that, which few of them ever do, or per-
haps ever intended to perform, or are capable of perform-
ing. It has been pleaded, and even generally allowed, that
fp jiifors in baptifm were not known or thought of in the
primitive apoilolic church. Tertulhau, who hved about
A.D. 200, feems to have been the lirft of all Chrillian wri-
ters w!io mentions perfons of this delcription : " What
neceffity is there,'' fays he, (De Baptilni.) "that fponfors
fhould expofe themfelves to danger, who, through death,
may fail of the performance of their promifes, or may be
deceived by the wicked difpoiilion of t'lofe for whom they
promife.'' " Wliether the ufe of fponfors was from the
apollles' days," (fays lord King, in his Enquiry into tlie
Conllitution, &c. of tlie Primitive Church,) " I cannot de-
termine, unlefs the negative may be conjedlured from .TuiUn
Martyr, TcrtuUian's fenior by 50 years, who, wlien he
Enumerates the method and form of baptilm, fays not one
word of fponfors or god-fathers, as may be feen in his fecond
apology, p. 93, 94.'' St.Aullin, one of the earliell of
Chrillian writers who mention fponfors, who lived about
.'V.D. 390, informs us when, and upon wliat occafion, thefe
fponfors were admitted: " A great many,"' fays he, " are
offtred to baptifm, not by their parents, but by others, as
intant-.laves are fometimes offered by their mailers; and
fomctiraes' when the parents otc dey.d, the infants are bap-
tized, being 'offei-cd by any wiio can afford to Ihew this coni-
piidioa to them. AikI fonietimes infants, whom their
-parents ha VT cruelly e.ypofed, to be brought up by thofe
who iigiit on tliem, 'arc now and then taken up by the holy
■virgin?, and offered to baptifm by tliem who liave no chil-
drea of their own, nor delign to have any." Upon thefe
words of A'-iilin, Dr. Wall ingenuoully confe}Tes, (Hiil.
ii:i'. B'?pt. yo\. I.) " Here w-c lee die ordmn/y ufe there was

GOD

iot pannts to anfwer for the cliildren ; but yet that thi,^ wa^
not counted fo nece/fary, as that a child could not be bap-
tized without it." Hence it has been inferred, tlial parenH
were never let afide, when they were capable and v.ilhng to
ofter their children; and that only in cafes of the incapacity
of parents, were fponfors admitted; and in all Inch cafes,
provided that the practice be not enforced as a Chrillian i]i-
llitution, and as abfolutely indifpenlable, the dilfenler,;, we
conceive, could nor rcalonably object to it. Mr.Wheatly,
a well-known writer on the Common Prayer, obferves, that
the god-fathers and god-mothers of perfon; baptized at
riper years " are only appointed as 'zvUtte^/is of the engagi--
ment, and undertake no more than to remind them hereafter
of the vow and profeflion, which they made in their pre-
fence." And yet our church catcchilm exprefaly alferts,
and repeats the affertion, tliat the Iponlors, engaging for
//^i;n/j, engage, that they fliall believe and repent; for the
infants are faid to promife both thefe things by their lure-
ties. Free and Candid Dilquilitions, p. 131.

The number of god-fathers and god-mothers is now re-
duced to tliree in the church ot England, and two in that of
Rome: anciently, they had as many as they picafed.

The Romanills have alfo god-fathers and god-mother9
at their conlirmation. They even give-god-fathers. Sec. to
bells, at their baptifm.

Among the ancients it was the cuftom for perfons of qua-
lity to have others of like quality cut their children's hair
the firft time; by whicli they became reputed a fort of god-
fathers: and the like was praclifed with regard to the hair
of tlie beard.

GoD-F.-^THEii wa.s alfo a name anciently given to a kind
of feconds, who attended and alfilled the knights in tourna-
ments, or lingle combats.

The god-fathers of duels were a kind of advocates, wlio
were chofen by the two parties, to reprelent the realons of
their combat to the judges.

Something of this kind was long retained at folemn
caroufals. There were two or more in each quadrill. Slc
Qu.^DniLL.

The inllitution of god-fathers and god-mothers, patrimi
and malrimi, is originally Roman. They are faid to have
been people who, in the games of the Circus, attended th^J
chariots, fliows, and images, of the gods. Cicero makes
mention of them, iu his oration De Harufpicum Refponfis.
Their office was much like that of the children in fome
Roniilh ceremonies, wlio are drefTed in the habit of angels,
to ilrew flowers, bear incenfe-pots, lights, &;c. and accom-
pany the relics and images ef faints.

GODFREY of Bouillon, in Biography, celebrated for
the part which he took in the lirll crulade, and king of
.lerufalem, was the fon of Eullace II., count of Boulogne.
The appellation of Bouillon was derived from his lordlhip of
that name in the Ardennes. In his youth he ferved in the armies
of Henry IV., wlio, as a reward of his valour and fidehiy,
conferred upon him tlie title of duke of Lorrain. V/hen
the religious enthufiafm of the times fet on foot an expedi-
tion for the recovery of tlie Holy Land from the pcflcflioa'
of the Saracens, Godfrey was one of the earliell and iroft
illuflrious of the princes who took the crofs. The corr-
mand of the principal army was cntrufted to his care,
and it is agreed that none among tlie leaders were ac-
tuated by purer motives than Godfrey. He gaye a diftin-
guilhing proof of the dilintereltednefs of his conduct, by
incriliciag almoll all his property to defray the ncceflary
cxpenccs of the evpedition. Godfrey fet out in the autumn
cf 1096;, and proceeded with his holl through Germany

and'

G O IT

and Bulgaria, taking care to abftain from tliofe aAs of liof-
tility and rapine which charafterized, and had c.uifod th.-
d -llruilion of the fanatics of Peter tht Hermit. It was not
till June IC99, that GodtVey was able to lav Cu-<rt^ to th-.?
renowned city, and though his army was greatly diniiiiilheii
in jioint of nuuibt-rs, li? was able to fucceed, and on Jnly
ijth Jerufalem wa> taken by Uorm. The fanaticilin
and madneis of the victors iudulgt'd thenifelvrs in u horrible
nialTacre of the vanqiiithed, which, it is believed, their ge-
neral and leader was nnubk- to prevent. Godfrey was alnioR
immediatelv proclaimed fovereign of the new acquifilion,
lull he refuted to atl'ame the title and enfigns of royaitv in
the place wliere C'Inill, in whole caufe he was acting, had
been crowned with thorns, and he governed under the
niodeft appellation of " Defender and Baron of the Holy
iSe]ud(hre." Hf was foon after attacked bv the fnltan of
Egypt, but the Clirillians foon jiut him and Ills numerous
forces to flight, and the whole of Paleftiiie was reduced
under the power o( (Godfrey. He eltabhfhed the feudal in-
itrtution in his kingdfiin ; and a code of jurif;)rudeiice,
under the title of " The Affizc of .lerulalem," gave a
model of the pure!! fornr of EuropeaTi !il)erty in the inidll
of Aiiatic dcfpotiini. He died, nfter he had fat on the
throne absut a year,, and was fucceeded bv his brother
Baldwin. The celebritr of Godfrev is iuunortalizcd as the
hero of TalTo's " Jcrui'alein Delivered," one of the nublell of
epic poems ; nor has the bard found it nccelTary to borrow
the colours of ficfion, in order to throw fplendour round
a character fo truly ellimable : " Godfrey," fays the hillo-
rian in del'criolng his character," was the tirll who afcended
the walls of Rome, and his ficknefs, his vow, perhaps his
remorfe for bearing arms again II the pope, confirmed an
earlv refolution of vHiting the holy fepulchre, not as a pil-
grim, but a deliverer. His valour was matured by prudence
and moderation ; his piety, though blind, was lincere, and
in the tumult of a camp he praCtifed the real and ficlitious
virtues of a convent Superior to the private faftions of
the chiefs, he referved his enmity for the enemies of Chrift ;
and though he gained a kingdom by the attempt, his
pure and difinterefted zeal was acknowledged by his
rivals." Gibbon Univer. Hift. See alfo the article
Ckois.ade.

GoDKKi'.Y of Viterbo, an Italian hillorian of the 12th
century, was chaplain and fecretary to the emperors Con-
rad HI., Frederick I., and Henry IV. According to liis
own account he was a great traveller for knowledge ; and
was converfant in feveral languages. His principal work
was a " Chronicle," entitled the " Pantheon," as treating
on the " Gods of Earth." is dedicated to pope Urban III,,
and is a general hillorical record from the creation of tire
woi-ld to the year n86. It is written in the Latin lan-
gnmge, and is deemed very worthv of credit for the events
of his own time. It was firil printed at Bafil in 1559 ; then
at Frankfort in I5?4, and aftvrwards at Hanover m 1613,
in the coUettion of German liillorians, edited bv Pillorius.
Godfrey was author of a work intitkd " Speculum Rcgiim,
five de Genealogia omnium Regum :" the MS. is preferved
ill the Imperial Hbrary of Vienna.

CrOD-GILD, in our Mncient Cu/loms, that which is
offered to God, or for his fervice.

GOD

GODllE.\H, or Good Hope, in Geography, a fettfe-
merit in Well Greenland. N. lat. 64.' 2C. W, Kjnir

50 10'. *■

GODIiV, I.ot IS, ill Biigraphy, was bom at Paris in
1704. He Uudied allionoiiiy under de I'Ifles, and in 172c
was made adjunct of the Academy of Sciences. To hini
was entruftcd the care of editing its n emoirs, and under
hir, direction the firfl eleven xoliimes were iijblilhed. In
1735 he was fcnt, \»ii.li other members of the academy, to--
nieaiure a degree of the meridian at Peru. He wasYomc
tune profellor of mathematics at Lima, and on his return
ill '75'' '"■ "^'^ appointed a colonel in the Sjianifli fervice,
and direefor of the naval acade;ny at Cadiz, where he died
in the year 1760. He v.a-^ author of feveral agronomical
papers in the memoi"; of the academy from 1726 to 1730:
and he publKhed " Machines et Iiiveiitious approvers par
rAcademie des Sciences," in 6 vols. 410. " Connoiffances
des Tenis," which he conducted fiv<; years. " Cours des
Mathematiques," 1756. Gen. liiog.

GODING, or HcTDONlNO, in Geography, a town of
Moravia, in the circle of Bninn ; 16 miles E.S.E. of
Aufpetz.

GODO, a town of Arabia, on the S. coaft of the Perfian
gulf; 140 miles W. of .Iiilfar.

GODOUA, a fmall town of Fezzan ; 30 miles N. of
Mourzouk, and about the fame diftancc from Sebbah,
which fee.

GODRA, a town of Hiiidoollan, and capital of a circar
of the fame name in Guzenit ; 55 miles E. of Amedabarf.
N. lat. 22" 5.0'. E. long. 73° 40'-

GOD'.s Hot SE, League nf, a territory of Switzerland,
formerly under the dominion of the bifhop of Coire, iinlil
the people, oppreffed by their rulers, threw off the yoke,
and, forming a general league, compelled the bilhop tt>
ratify their independence. The revolution, which finallv
e.xalted this league into its prefent Hate of freedom, probably
took place between 1424, the era of the formation of thi-
Grey league, and 1436, the year in which the ten jurifdic-
tions rofe into independence. This league is denominated
in Romaulh " La Ligta de la Chiada," in German " Gott-
fliaulband," whence is derived the appellation of the " lea-rue-
of the houfe of God," which it takes from the catliCdral
fituated in its capital, as well as becaufe it was once under
the jurifdic^ion of the bilhop of Coire. This league is
divided into eleven dillricls, each of which (Coire excepted)
is fiibdivided into two little republics, or communities, and
fends 22 deputies to the general diet. Formerlv the bur'^o-
maller of Coire was perpetual chief of the league without
election ; but in the latter end of the 1 7lh centur)- ihv
other communities claimed a po»ver of nominariag to this
office in their turn. At length, by the arbitration of Zuric,.
it was decided, that tlie 22 deputies Ihould chufe two can-
didates from tlie members of the fenate of Coire, who
ftiould draw lots for tiic ch;uge. The chief thus appointed
is called " Buiids-prehdent, ' has feveral privileges which
diihnguiih him from the chiefs of the two other leagues ;.
he receives all the letters addreffed to the republic of tin.'
Grilons from foreign powers, and is perpetual prclidcnt o£
the congrefs, bccauic that atfemblj- is always held at Coire.
See CoiBK.

XV

GOD

GOD

The league of God's houfe is divided into II high jurifdiftions, and comprehends 21 communes.

-a

I. Coire
II. Pregalia

III. Upper Engadina

IV. Lower Engadina

V. Bivio or Stalla

VI. Ortenftein

VII. Obervats
VIII. Oberhaftein

IX.

X.

Pufchiavo

Munfter

c
3

e
e

o

XI. Four vlHages

J

1 . Coire - . -

2. Sopra Porta

3. Sotto Porta

4. f Sopra Fontana Mcrla

5. (^ Sotto Fontana Merla

6. f Sopra Tafma

7. (^ Sotto Tafma

8. i Bivio and Marmorara
9..^ Avers

10. L Remus, Schlins, and Samun

1 1. f Ortenftcin

12. I Furftcnau

13. f Obervats

14. I Breguns

15. y Tinzen and Reamp

16. ) Tiefen Caften

17, 18. f Valley of Pufchiavo

19. {^Valley of Munfter

20. 1 Sitzcrs, Igis, Tremes

21. 1 Unter Vatz

!> O

1

I

2

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I
I
I
I
I
I
1
2
i
I
I

God's Mercy, Iflands of, thi-ee or four fmall iflands at the berland and Mercia, and being thereby fuperior to Godwin

N.W. extremity of Hudfou's ftraits. N. lat. 63' 45. W. and his fons, he marched to London and fummoned a great

lonp- 7*' council to pafs judgment upon the rebels. Godwin, with

q'qj)-(yjj>j^ Earl, in B'wraphy, a powerful Saxon three of his fons, took refuge with Baldwin earl of Flanders,

baron was the fon of Wolfnoth, governor of Suffex, and vhile Harold and another fled to Ireland. Godwin, after

he himfelf, at the acceflion of Caiuite, was earl of Kent, and many misfortunes, failed with a powerful force to London,

lord of very great poffeflions. When the Danifli poflellions and forced the king to an accommodation : Edward confented

of Canute were attacked by the king of Sweden, Canute to banifti his Norman favourites, who had been, in a great

took over as auxiUaries a body of Englifti commanded by the meafure, the caufe of the difcontents, and Godwin and his

rl of Godwin, who obtained a complete viflory, which fons were reflored to their ellates, and the high offices which

Godwin's death, which happened

fo dehghted the king, that he beftowed his daughter in they had formerly held. Godwin's death, which happ
marriage upon him, made him large grants of land, and foon after this, while he was fitting at table with

the

king, prevented him from making farther inroads on the
fovereign's autliority, or from reducing him to ftili greater

_ mage upon , ° ^' , r , j 1 r

admitted him to the clofeft confidence. After the dcatli ot
Canute, the fucceffion bjing difputcd between Harold ^

Harefoot and Hardicanute, Godwin efpoufed the part of fubieftion. He was fucceeded in the government of Weflex.
the latter and was inltrumental in preventing a civil war. Suffex, Kent, and EfTex, and in the office of fteward of
It is reported that he afterwards concurred with Harold, the houfhold, by his fon Flarold, who was actuated by an
in a plan for deflroying the two Englifti princes, fons ot ambition equal to that of his father, and was fuperior to
Ethelred II. and Emma, and the murder of one of them, him in addrefs, in iniinuation, and in virtue. With refpedl
vl%. Alfred, is imputed to the vaft'als of Godwin. In the to Godwin, his charafter is blackened by the monkiih
reign of Hardicanute the furviving prince Edward pre- hiftorians, who pretend that his fudden death was the effeft
ferred an accufation againll the earl for the murder of his of a miraculous interpofition from heaven. With great
brother and loudly demanded juilice for the crime ; God- abihties, Godwin poffefled an ambitious fpirit, which rcn-
win, to appeafe the kino-, made him a prefent of a galley dered him a fubje<S oi wavering fidelity, and made him but
finely ffilt and decorated, rowed by fourfcore men, each of little fcrupulous in means that tended to his aggrandizement,
whom wore on his arm agoldbracelet, weighing fixteen ounces, Hume's Hift. vol. i. Biog. Brit.

and they were all armed and clothed in the moil fumptuous Godwin, Tho.ma.?, was born at Oakingham, in Berkftiire,
manner. Hardicanute, delighted with the fpeftacle, forgot in 15 17, where he received at the free-fchool the elements
his brother's murder, and on Godwin's own teftimony he of a learned education. His rapid proficiency in grammar.
was allowed to be acquitted. In 1041, he was fo com- learning attracted the notice, and feeured to him the patron-
pletely reconciled to Edward, that on the death oi Hardi- age of Dr. Layton, archdeacon of Bucks, who received him
Canute he was the chief inftrument of promoting him to the into his houfe, and took care of jjis farther inllrudlion.
fucceffion of the crown : Jie now acquired much influence in In 1538, he was fent by his friend and patron to Magdalen
the ftate, and w;is created duke of Weflex, and the counties college, Oxford: here he purfued )iis ftudies, and in 1543
of Kent and Suffex were annexed to his government. The he took his degree of B. A. and in the fo!lo\i;'ing year he was
fricndftiip between Godwin and the king was not of long elefted fellow of his college, which rendered him inde-
continuance. Upon !iis refufal to act againft the inhabitants pendent of the pecuniary affiftance of his friends. His
of Dover, who had incurred Edward's dii'plcafure, he was Heady regard to the principles of the reformation rendered
threatened with the royal vengeance. The earl, feeling his his fituation at college in many refpefts very uneafy, and he
own power, adtually excited a rebellion againft his fovereign. gladly embraced the opportunity of a vacancy in the mafter-
Edward now fummoned to his aid the dukes of Korthum- ihip of the free-fchool of Brackley in Northamptonftiire,

6 which

GODWIN.

which was i:» the gift of the college, to refign his fellowfhip.
He retired to this litiiation in 1549, aiul having marrii-d,
continued there peaceable and happy du:.n^ the reign of
king ILdward, devoting what time he coul i fparo from the
duties of his ofGce to the lludy of theology and phyfic, and
on the acceffion of Mar)-, he became an objeft of Bonner's
fury, and was obliged to refign his fchool, andturnhis attention
t ) phyfic. By the practice of this, lie maintained his family
till Eliz-ibeth afcended the tlirone. He now refolved to
follow the bent of his inclination, devo^^d his whole time to
theological iludies, was admitted to holy orders, and ap-
pointed chaplain to the bifhop of Lincoln. He was fhortty
after introduced to the queen, who made him one of the
Lent preachers. This poft, u^luch was probably attended
with little emolument. In filled eighteen years, with very
high reputation, during which he received no preferment
in the church; but, in 1565, he was promoted to the deanery
of Chrift-church, Oxford, and in the fame year a prebend
was conferred on him. In 1566, he was advan.-ed to the
deanery of Canterbury, and attended jhe queen in her vifit
to the un V rlity of Oxford, on which occafion he took his
degree of D D. with great applaufe. In 1584, after
eighteen years refidence at Canterbury, he was nominated
by the queen to the vacant fee of Bath and Wells. This
honour did not augment the happinefs of Dr. Godwin : in
refilling the unjuil claims of one of Elizabeth's favourites,
he loft the favour of the queen herfe'f, which fo affcfted his
mind, as to render him incapable of performing his epifco-
pal functions. The affairs of his diocefe, being left to the
management of others, ftU into fiich diforder, that his me-
tropolitan, archbithop Whitgift, thought proper to vifit it
w the year 1587 At this time Dr. Godwin's health was
in a very bad itate, and he gradually became worfe lill he
funk under the eftttls of difeafe, in his feventy-third year.
He is highly fpok'n of for learning and unaffected piety,
and was beloved nnd refpefted for his cheerful hofpitahty,
benevolence, and charity Biog. Brit.

Godwin', FnA^cis, the ion of the preceding, was born
at Havington, in Northamptonfhire, in the year 1561, and
having been carefully educated in grammar learning, he was
fent to Chrift-church college, Oxford, when he was in his
fixteenth year, and in 1578 he was elefted a fcholar of that
inftitution. In 1580, he took his degree of B. A., and
three years after he proceeded to his degree of M.A.
About this time he wrote un entertaining philofophical
tiftion, which he did not at that period publiih, becaufe it
contained ideas at variance v.-ith the fyllems tlitn prevalent
in the fchools. It was given to the world five years after
his death, under the title of " The Man in the Moon, or a
Difcourfe of a Voyage thither bv Domingo Gonzales."
The hints, conjeclures, Sc: contained -n this piece, prove
that the author was no; ignorant of the writings of Coper-
nicus, and was probably a convert to his doftrines. In
IJ87, he was a canon in the cathedral church of WeFs, and
promoted to the fubdeanery of Exeter The h.iftory and
antiquities of his c untry became favourite fubjefts of his
enquiries, and in the year 1590 he accompanied the cele-
brated Camden into Wales, in fcarch of objefts to illuftrate
them. In 1595, he took the degree of doftor in divinity,
being in potTelfijn of very confiderable and lucrative prefer-
ment in the church He publifhed, in 1601, " A CatalogMC
of the Bifnops of England, fmce the firfl Planting of the
Chrii'ian Religion in this Idand, together with a brief
Hiftory of their Lives and memorable AAions, fo near as
can b^, gathered out of .\ntiquity " As a reward for
the grea: diligence ufed in the compofition of this cata-
logue, the queen promoted him, the fame year, to the

vacant fee of Landaff ; being allowed to retain, m conr,cc-
tion with the bilhopric, the fubdeanery of Ex-ter, and a
good reftory in the diocefe of Baih and Wells. He now
employed himfelf in improving his " Catalogue,'' and in
making coUeftions relative to civil and eccleliaftical hiftory.
In 1615 he publifhed a new edition of his " Catalogue," (O
which he prefixed a difcourfe " Concerning the firft Con-
verfion of our Britain unto the Chriftiaii Religion." It was
afterwards republiftied in Latin, under the title of " De Pn-
fulibu; Angliie Commentarius.'' In the fame year he pub-
liihed " Rerum Anglicarum Henrico Vlil., EJwardo VI ,
et Maria, regnantibus, Annales," which whs much admired
for the elegance of the ftyle. By king James he was tranf-
lated from Landaff to the bilhopric of Hereford in the year
1 61 7, and from this period, he devoted fuch time as the dif-
charge of his epifcopal functions woidd permit, chiefly to
the improvement of his former works ; but in 1629 he pub-
lifhed a difcourfe on the feveral methods of conveying fecret
and fpeedy intelhgence, with the title of " Nuncius loani-
matus, Utopia." It has been fuggcfted that this was writ-
ten in obfcure and enigmatical language, with a drfign of
conceali.-ig the author's fecret ; but from certain exprefiions,
it fhould feem, that the hints contained in it might have led
to an earlier cftablifliment of public telegraphs. Befides fe-
veral editions of the Annales, and a tranflation into EngUlh
of the fame work, we have a learned difTertation by the
bifhop, on the value of the Roman fcftcree and attic t^ent,
which was printed at the end of Hakewell's " Apology of
Divine Providence " This was his laft labour in the field of
literature. He died in 1633 in his fcventy-fecondyear. Of
his learning and claflical talle, his works bear moft decifive
evidence, and they exhibit him as a 2ealou8 friend to the
eftabhlhment, of which he was a member. According t* ■
Anthony Wood, "he was a good man, a grave divine, a Ikil-
ful mathemarician, an excellent philofopher, a good preacher,
and a ilrift liver ; but fo much employed in his ftudic«, and
matters of religion, that he was a ftranger to the world and
the things thereof." Biog. Brit.

Godwin, Tiiom.^s, a learned Englilh divine and wri-
ter on Jewilh antiquities, was bom in Somerfetfliire in the
year 1587. In his fifteenth year, he was fcnt from the
grammar-fchool to Magdalen-hall, in the univerfity of Ox-
ford, where he was entered a fcholar. Here, in due courfc,
he took his degrees, and foon after was chofen mafter of the
free-fchool at Abingdon, in BerkHiire. In this fituation he
diftinguilhed himfelf by his diligence and afliduity in forming
good fcholars, who afterwards becam.e eminent in various de-
partments of literature, and in ports of honour and emolu-
ment in the church and ftate. In 1 61 3 he publiihed " Ro-
mans Hiftoria; Anthologia/' — an Englilh cxpofition of the
Roman antiquities, which went through feveral editions.
Shortly after this, he entered into orders, and wasappoi-.tcd
chaplain to Dr. James Montague, bifhop of Bath and WeUt,
and in 161 6 he was admitted to the degree of bachelor of di-
vinitv, and publifhed a work, entitled " Synoplis Aiitiquita-
tum Hebraicarum ad Explicationcm utriufque Tetlamenti
valde ncccfTaria, kc." lib 3. 4to About this period he
refigned his fchool, upon obtaining a prcfentation to t^e fac-
tory of Brightwcll, near WaUinglord, in Berkfhire. In the
year 1625, he publifhed the work by which he is chiefly
known, tIz- " Mofcs and " aron ; ciWl and ecc'efiaftical
Rites, ufed by the ancient Hebrews, obfervrd, and at large
opened, for the clearing of many obfcure Tixts, throughout
the whole Scripture." This work was hnmediately reganl-
ed as a ftandard book in our places of academ'cal education,
and has been repeatedly printed. In 1 636, Mr Godwin
v.-as admitted to the degret: of doftor of divinity. He died

G O E

<} O E

in iGi^i. Tiefides the works already noticed, Dr. Godwin
vas the author of " Florilegiiim Plirallcon,'' — or A Survey
of the I-atin Tongue. And Three Arguments to prove
eleAion upon forefight of faith. Gen. Biog.

Gouwix, or Goodwin Sands, in Geography, a bank in the
fea, about five mik"s from Deal, near the coall of Kent,
England, were formerly part of theeftate of the celebrated
carl Godwin, but were feparatcd and overwhelmed by a
fuddon inundation of the fea, about the end of the eleventh
century. Tliefe fands are frequently fatal to mariners, but,
notwithtlanding, are of confiderable ufe, as it is by thern alone
that the Downs are conlHtuted a road or harbour for (hip-
ping. In all eaflerly winds tliey ferve as a pier, or break-
"M'ater, and greatly mitigate the force and immenfity of the
waves, which, in itormy v/eather, wonld otherwife roll upon
this (hore with unabated fui-)'. The fands extend in length
about ten miles ; tlie north fand-head being nearly oppoiite
to Ramfgate, and the fouth fand-head to Kingfdown. The
danger of llrikiiig upon them arifes from their nature, which
Mr. Sm.:aton defcribes as that of a quick-fand, clean and
unconnected, yet lying fo clofe, as to render it dilRcult to
work a pointed bar to tiie depth of more than fix or feven
feet. Their ingurgitating property is fo powerful, that
even the kwgeft veifel driven ujion them would, in a few days,
be fvvallowed up, aiid feen no more. At low-water they are
in many parts dry, and parties frequently land upon them ;
but when tlie tide begins to flow, the fand becomes foft, and
is moved to and fro by the waves. The largcit portion of
this bank which becomes dry, is known to feamen by the
name of the Jamaica illand. Some years ago, in order to
prevent the many accidents which occur to (hipping on thefe
(jnds, the Corporation of the Trinity-houle formed the de-
iign .of eretling a light -houfe on them ; but after the fand
had been penetrated by boring augers to a great depth, the
fcheme was given lip as impraiAicable, as no folid foundation
aouldbc obtained. Floatino; lijjhts have, however, been
placed off thelc fands, confiding of three dillintt lights in the
form of a triangle, of which the midcUcone is confiderably
the highell ; when they are obfcured in hazy-weather, a bell
is kept contlantly ringing.

GODWIT, in Ornitholegy. See ScoLorAx JEgoce-
phala.

GoDwiT, Great, or American. See ScoLOPAX Fedoa.
GoDWiT, T.ejfer. See Scoi.opax L:nwfa.
. GoDWry, Red. Seif ScoLOPAX Lttpponica.
GoDWiT, White. See Recurviuo.stra Alia.
GOEI^ANS,. Point au, in Geography, a promontory on
the N. iide of lake Ontario ; about 33 miles S. W. of fort
Frontinac.

GOELHEIM, a town of France, in the department of
Monte Xoiinvn e, and chief place of a canton, in the diilriif;
of Kaiferflautern. The place contains 860, and the canton
j^599 inhabitants, in 16 communes.

GOELICKE, Andkf.vs' Ojton, inBiography, a German
phyfician, who acquired conliderable reputation at the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, and taught tlie fcience of me-
dicine at Halle, in Saxony, and at Franckfort on the Oder,
with (liftinCtion- His writings were in higk etfiiiiation among
the followers of the doftriues of Stalil, of whom he was one
of the ableil defenders.. Nothing more is known refpefting his
life. He left feveral works, which relate principally to tlie
hiftory of anatomy, of ancient and modern furgerv, and
of medicine. His " Hiltoria Medicinse Univerfalis, qua
celebriorum quorumcunque Medicorum, qui a priinis Artis
natalibus ad nollra ufque tenipora inclaruerunt, vitic, noiuina,
dogmata fingularia, ratiocinia, hypothefes, lecta;, &c. accu-
rate pertraftantur,'' was printed in fix different portions or

epochs, between the years 17 17 and 1720. The firft folif
brouglit down the hiflcry to Hippocrates; the fifth tir.ited
of the Hippocralic medicine alone ; and the laft part includv-d
a iketch, of the defccndants of the father of medicine, until
the time when the art was divided into three profeirioivj.
Eloy. Dia. Hill.

GOELL, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, in Lym-
ford gulf, ab. ut 10 miles in circwniterence ; on wbicl: area
town and a \ illage or two ; 6 miles \V . of Aalborg. N. lat.

SI s- ^- i'"ig'- 9' 49'-

GOELMA, a port of Egypt, in the Red fea, capable
of accommodating only fmail vefleh.

GOELWAIlA, a circar of Hindoo(l:m, in Guzcrat.on
the W. coail of the gulf of Cambaye.

GOEREE, William, in Biography, who flouriflied in
the 17th centurv, was born at Middleburg,in Zealand, m the
year 1635. He had a decided turn for literature, but by
the death of his father wliilc very young, lie was conligncd
to the care of an illiterate llep-father, who would not permit
him to purine the bent of his mind. Being obliged taiix
upon a trade, inllead of fludying for one of the learned pro-
feilions, he iixed on that of a bookfeller, as that wliicli he
imagined bell adapted for the improvement of his leifure
hours in the acquifition of knowledge. His various worlcs
will fliew how well he filled his time, and to what advantage
he turned thole intervals from occupation, which are tou
frequently fpent in lilllefliiefs or deioted to pleafure. He
died at Ainllerd.im in 171 1, leaving his " Jewifli Antiqui-
ties,'' in two volumes, folio. " The Hillory of the Jewiflt
Church,'' in four volumes folio. " Hillory Sacred and Pro-
fane.'' " An Introduclion to Painting." " A Treatife
on Architecture ;" and fome other ufeful works. Moreri.

GOERZEOD GiiEZKKE, in Geography, a town of Afi-
atic Turkey, in Natolia ; 25 miles S. of Sinob.

GOES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira ;
9 miles E. of Coimbra. — Alio, a town of Holland, in Zea-
land, called " Ter-Goes," fituated on the N. coart of the
illand of South Bevelandt, on an arm of the Scheldt, with
wliich it is connefted by means of a canal. The grea^.
church is a handfome llruClurc ; and though the town is not
large, it carries on a confiderable trade, particularly in fait
and grain ; 10 miles E. of Flulhing. N. lat. 51" 33'. E.
long. 3^ 46'.

GOETIA, rt»;l6ix, a fpccies of magic, oppofed to Theur-
gia, the objetl of which was mifchief ; and accordingly it in-
voked only the malevolent genii.

GOEZ, Damiaxa, in Biography, a learned Portuguefc,
of the 16th century, was born at Alenquer, and educated
in the court of the king Emanuel, to whom his brother was
gentleman of the chamber. He was, as he advanced in life,
employed in various negociations from his court to the court
of France, Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries. In
1534, we find him at the univerfity of Padua, in wliich he
Itndied fome years under Buonamico, and contratted a friend-
Uiip in Italy with Bcmbo, Sadolet, and other great men. He
carried forward his Itudies at Louvain, where he .fixed his
relidence after his marriage, and was the principal means of
defending the city againlt the attack of Martin van RofTcm.
He was, however, Ici/.ed by the enemy, under the pretence
of a violation of the truce, and obliged to ranfom himlelf.
He was after this recalled by the king of Portugal, who
wilhed to employ him to write the hillory of that country.
The materials put into his hands were in fo confufed a ilate,
and fo fcaiity in regard to quantity, that he was able to per-
form but a fmall part of the talk. He was malignantly ac-
cufed, arrefted, and tlirown into prifon. At length, as tiiere
was nothing found againll him, he was liberated, and return-

ei

GOG

^d to Ills own Jwelling, where lie was (hortly after found
hnrnt to death, the confequeiice, probably, of an apopleflic
Ht. His works are, " Legatio magni Indorum Imjieratoris
ad Emanuolcm Luiitaniae Regcm." " Fides, Rehgio, Mo-
rcfque jEtliinpuni." " Hifpaiiia^ Laudatio."' " Urbis
Lovanienlis Obfidio.'' " Comment Reriim Geftarum in
ludin a Lufitanis.'' " Urbis Ulyfliponeiifis Defcrlptiu."
" Hifloria del rev Dom. Manuel." " Chronica de Principe
D. .Tviao II.'' Morcri.

GOEZE, John AucrsTUs Epiihaim, was born at Af-
chcrlen in the year 1 73 1, where he received the elements of a
learned education. He was afterwards fcnt to Helle to pnrfue
jiis ihidies pre[»ratory to the excrcife of the profeflion of
preacher. In I 75 1 he fettled in that capacity at Quedling-
burg, which he retained till the period of hi.s death. It was not
till he was about forty years of age that he turned his attention
to the niicrofcope and natural liillory, for his (Icill in which he
afterwards became fo famous. At hrll he made ufe of his
■ microicope only for amufement, but in a fliort time he pof-
felTcd himfelf of the very bell inllruments of the kind that
bad Heen raanufaclured, and his refearches led him to the
ftudy of the natural hillory of infects. Baker's defcription
of certain water infefts induced him to explore the
ditches, livulets, and ponds. He wrote down his obferva-
tions for his own private nfe, and caufed many of the ob-
jects which he favv to be delineated. The fafts thus col-
lected he publilhed in the Hanoverian magazine, which at-
trafted the notice of the learned, from whom he received
many flattering and highly complimentary letters on the
fubjeft. He tranflated Bonnet's treatife on infeftology,
which met with a very favourable reception from naturalilts.
He fet out without regard to fyilera or order, but foon found
LJiat. fyllematic knowledge was nccelTary in his pur-
fuits ; and completely acquainted himfelf with the
Linnxan arrangement ; and his " Entomological Col-
lections'' were intended as a fupplement to the works
of the Swedifli naturalift. The next conllderable work of
Goeze was on the natural hiftory of intel^inal worms,
which he publifhed in quarto in 17S2. This work contri-
buted greatlv to encreafe his reputation as a naturalift, and
entitles him to an honourable place among the dilcoverers of
modern times. The intcri-i); v.hich he took in the educa-
tion and improvement of his own children led him to pub-
lilh fome works on natural hillory, intended particularly for
young perfons in general, and being a very agreeable as well
as learned writer, his productions were all well received, and
to his honour it muft be fpoken that he never forgot to in-
culcate the duties of religion and morality while he was
defcanting on the wonders of the natural world. After he
liad communicated to the public the rcfult of his obferva-
tions on inteftinal worms, he fent his collection to Pavia,
v.here it was fold for a thoufand dollars. His fame,
however, had extended much beyond his own country, and
«illiin a very few weeks after he had parted or at leall
agreed to part with his curious collection for the above
named price, he received a letter from Dr. Hunter, offering
liim nearly double the fum for it. He died in June 17S6.
Gen. Biog.

GOFAB.AD, in Geography, a town of Per.la, in the pro-
vince of Irak : 55 miles E. of Ifpahan.

GOFFE. See Geoff.

GOFFSTOWN, a town of America, in HilKhorougU
rounty. New Hampfliire, fituatcd on the weftern bank of
Merrimack river, 3 miles from Amuflccag falls, or 60 miles
W. of Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1761, and con-
tains 16 1 2 inhabitants.

GOG and M.AGOG, in Senpture Hiforv, are ham.cs genc-
VoL. XVI.

GOG

rally connc£led in the facrod writings. (See Ezek. xxxviii.
2, 3, £fc. xxxix. I, 2, Rev. xx. iiA Mofej (Gen. x. 1 )'
fpeaks of Magog, the fon of Japlietli, but fays notlii.i^ of

igog as the lathor ot the Scytlu'aiij or Tartars ; and
traces have been found of the name in the provincck of Gnat
Tartary. Others fay that the Perfians are defccndaiits of
Magog ; and to this purpofc people have been found ihtre
called Magufians, and j.hilofophers called Magoi or Magi.
Some have imagined tinit the Goths were defccr.dLd from
Gog and Magog : and that the v.ars defcribcd by Eztkitl,
and undertaken by Gog againfl; tlie faints, are thofe which
th.c Goths carried on, in l!ie 5th century, againfl the Roman
empire. Bochart has placed Gog in the vicinity of Cauca-
fus ; and he derives the name of this celebrated mountain
from the Hebrew jQn Jl^. gog-c^.afan, the fortrefs of
Gog. He alfo fays, that Prometheus, faid to be chained
to Caucafus, is Gog ; and it may be obfcrvcd, that there
is a province in Iberia S. of Caucafus, called the Go<rarcne.
Molt perfons are of opinion, that Gog and Mago-r, in
Ezekiel and the Revelations, arc taken, allegoricall)^ for
fuch princes as were enemies to the cliurch. Accordingly-
many, by Gog in Ezekiel, underfland Antiochus Epiphanes,
the perfecutur of the Jews ; and Gog in Revelations, they
fuppofe to reprefent Antichrift. Calmct apprehends that
the Gog of Ezekiel and Cambyfes, king of Pcrfia, were th.-
fanie perfons. The Arabians are of opinion that the defcen-
dants of Gog and Magog inhabit the northern parts of Alia,
beyond the Tartars and Sciavonians : and hence it is pro-
bable that Gog and Magog, according to the notions of the
Arabians, formerly inhabited the mountains of the Hyper-
boreans, and tl-.at they were known to the ancients by tliis
name. This nation is unqueftionably fameus in antiquity, and
there is reafon for imagining, that they were fome of the
Scythians, and confounded among the Great and Lillie
Tartars, and perhaps among the Mufcovites, and otlier
northern people. Calmet.

Gog-Mac;og Hills, in Geography, hills fo callid, about
three miles from Cambridge, remarkable for tlic intrenc!i-
ments and other works found there, and fuppofed bv
fome to be a Roman camp, and by others, a work of tlie
Danes.

GOGA, a town of AbylTmia ; 30 miles S. of Gondar

Alfo, a fmall town of India, on tile wellern fide of the gulf
of Cambaya, about 28 or 30 leagues fi-oiu CaIllba^J,
abounding with banians and fea-men.

GOGARD, a town of Sweden, in Eail Golkland,
23 miles N.N.W. of Linkioping.

GOGA REN A, in yincieni Geography, a counlrr of
Alia, in Armenia. Strabo.

GOGARY, in Gecgr.ip/.y, a town of Bengal; 24 m:li-i^
N.W. of Buglipour. N. ht. 25' 26'. E. long. S6' 36* —
Alfo, ^ town of Hindooftan, in B-ihar ; 10 miles N. E, of
Ivlonghir.

GOGA'VINUS, A.vTO\n:.s GnAviEN.^sOr Antiioni
GoG.vvix DF. Gkavi*, in Blrgraphy, a I.tborious writer,
who, according to the infinuatigns of the famous Zarlino,
]iubli!lied in corpo all the ancient authors ou lUuGc, at
Venice, 1562, 410.

His compilation contains the books of Ariflo^>ent!s and
Ptolerav, and the fragment of Ariilotlc. witli the Com-
mentary of Porphyry, the wliole enriched with notes by
T3ottrigari. See Meiromivs, and BerTUiCAni.

GOGET, in Ichthydogy- ^•^^ Gobius Kiger.

GOGGLES, in Rural Economy, a motbid sffcftion in
3 G (hcep.

G O II

'fticep, which is fometimes extremely deflruftivo to them.
It is fiiggeftcd in the Bath papers as firil Ihewing ilielf, by
a dropping of the ears, and frequent rubhing of the tail ;
but not to liave any relation or affinity to giddincfs, as the
(lieep do not run round as in that difeafe. It appears to
have the greatcft refemblanee tn the diforder called the ftag-
gers in lambs ; but differs infomuch, as that the ilaggery
Iambs dilplay wcaknefs before, and of courfe fall in that
direction, wliilo the goggly Ihcep fliew weaknels behind,
and when forced to run fall backwards. Sheep under this
diforder conllantly get poorer and poorer, and become more
weak, until they are not able to drag their limbs after them,
and confeqiiently die. Some have contended that it is a
difeafe of tiic paralytic kind, and that the feat of the com-
plaint is in the fpinal marrow. It was formerly eitlier
wholly unknown, oi unattended to by llieep-farmers, as it is
never mentioned.

Hitherto no fatisfactory method of cure has been pointed
out for the difeafe, but warmth and frequent change of paf-
ture have been found beneficial in it.

Gog(;les, in Surgery, are inilrumcnts ufed for curing
fquinting, or that dillortion of the eyes whicii occafions
this diforder. They are ihort conical tubes, compoled of
ivory ftained black, with a thin plate of the fame ivory
fixed in the tubes near their anterior extremities. Through
the centre of each of thefe plates is a fmall circular hole,
about the fize of the pupil of the eye, for the tranfmiffion
of the rays of light. Tliefe goggles mull be continually
worn in the day-time, till the mufcles of the eye are brought
to aft regularly and uniformly, fo as to direct the pupil
ftraight forwards ; and by thefe means tlie cure will be fooner
cr later effefted. Warner on the Eye, p. 32.

GOGMOW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 35 miles N. of Maniakpour.

GOGO. See GoGA.

GOGODUNGA, a town of Bengal, on a fmall idand
formed by a branch of the Hoogly ; 45 miles S. of Cal-
cutta.

GOGOROMOW, a town of Guzcrat, on the coafl ;
50 miles W. S. W. of Noanagur.

GOGRA, alfo called Dewah and Soorjetu, a river of
Hindoollan, which proceeds from a lake named Lanke-
Dhe, having to the E. of it another larger lake, named
Manfawar, both fituated on the weftern fide of Thibet,
and forces its way through the vaft ridge called Himmaleh,
and afterwards joins the Ganges. See Dewah.

GOGUET, ANTONy-YvE.s, in Biography, was born
at Paris in 1 7 1 6, where his father was an advocate. He
himfelf became a counfellor to the parliament. By clofe
iludy and by gr< at affiduity in his purfuits, he produced in
the year 1758, a work that has obtained a high reputation,
and which has been tranllated into the Enghlh and other
languages. It is entitled " Origine des Loix, des Arts,
des Sciences, et de leur Progres chez les anciens Peuples,"
in three volumes 4to. It was printed in 177S, in fix vo-
lumes i2mo. This work treats of the origin and progreis
of human knowledge, from the creation to the age of
Cyrus, and difplays much erudition in hiltorical difculiions,
thou'i-li i,-fs of fcience and philofophy than might have been
•xpeited. He died of tiie fmall-pox almoll immediately
after the publication of this valuable work. He was a man
of much private worth, modell and unalfuming. He had
'begun another work on the Origin and Prugrefs of the
LawSj Arts, Sciences, &c. in France, from the com-
mencement of th- monarchy.

GOHANNA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
EallogiiUn ; 54 miles W.S.W" of UeUu.

G O I

GOHEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Baliar; 3J miles
W.N.W. of Saferam.

GOHUD, a circar of Hindooftan, in the foubah of
Agra, lying on the riglit iide of the river .Tumnah. It i^
bounded on the N. by the Chumbal, on the E. by Dooab
and Oude, on the S. by Bundelcund, and on the W. by
Rantampour and Cottah. — Alio, a town of this circar, the
revenues of which are eftimated at 20 or 30 lacks of rupees
per annum; 55 miles S. E. of Agra. N. lat. 26 24'. E<
long. 78 44'.

GOJAK, a town of Croatia, on the river Mrefnitza; iS
miles S. of Carllladt.

GOJAM, a province of AbyfTmia, about 80 miles in
length, and 40 in breadth. It is a very flat country, alto-
gether appropriated to pafture; it has few mountains, but
thefe are very high, and are chiefly on the banks of the
Nile, to the fout/i, which river furrounds the province.
Gojam is full of great herds of cattle, which are the largeft
in the high parts of Abyflinia. The country is populous,
but the men are in the loweit eftiniation as foldiers. The
Jefuits were fettled in many convents throughout the pro-
vince, and are held in the utmoll deteftation. The monks
are thofe of St. Eitftatius, which may be called the Low
Church of Abyflinia; they are faid to be much inclined to
turbulence in religious matters, and are, therefore, always
made tools by diicontented people who have no religion at
all. On the SE of Gojam is Damot; which fee. Bruce.

GO.IAS. See GoVA.s.

GOIAVA, a town of Africa, on the Grain coaft ; 25
miles S.E. of Grand Sefto.

GOJEIDA, or GoGiDA, a town of Algiers ; go miles
S.E. of Oran.

GOING, in the Manege, called in French a//iuri?, is the
pace or gait of a horfe.

GOlT, GuKT, Gorl, I. eat, &c. arc names for a dit^h
or trench for conveying water, uled by engineers and miners
of diflerent dillricfs.

GOITO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mincio, lituated on the river Mincio, between
the lake of Mantua and that of Garda; 9 miles N.N.W. of
Mantua.

GOITRE, or GouTiER, in Surgery, names fometimes
applied to a morbid enlargement of the thyroid gland. See
Bhonciiockle.

Perfons labouring under this complaint are found in various
mountainous diftrifts of Europe, in China, in Bootan, and
many other regions of the Eaft, in Sumatra, &c. (See
CiiETlNS.) Turner, in his " Account of an Embafl^- to
Tibet,'' fays, that in Bengal this unfightly tumour is
known by tlie name of " Ghcig," and " Aubi," and in
Bootan is called " Ba,'' or " Ke Ba," the neck-fwelling,
and that it form.s itfelf immediately belov,- the cLin, extend-
ing from ear to ear, and fometimes growing to fuch an enor-
mous fize, as to hang from the throat dow n upon the brcaft.
It is particularlv obleivable, he fays, among the inhabitants
of the hills of Bootan, immediately bordering upon Bengal,
and in the traft of low country watered by the rivers that
flow from them to the fouth, beyond the fpace of a degree
of latitude. The fame malady prevails among the people
inhabiting tlie Morung, Nipal, and Ahr.ora liills, which,
joined to thofe of Bootan, run in continuaticn, and bound,
to tlie northward, that cxtenlive traft of low land embraced
by the Ganges and tlie Berhampooter. The fame difeafe is
alfo more particuhu'ly met with in the low laids adjoining to
thefe hills. From the frimtier of Adam, N. lat. 27 . E,
long, gi ', it is to be traced through Bljnev, Gooch Bahar,
Rungpore, Dinagcpore, Purnca, Tirrooto, and Betlah,'
3 along

G O L

along tlie northern boundary of Oudc, in Gooracporc, Bar-
raitgh, Pillibeat, and on the coniines of Roliilcund, to Hur-
dewar, fitnated in N. lat. 30'. E. long-. 78 25'. It has
tjic eflVfl, he adds, or rather is accompanied witli the effect,
arifui"' from the fame caufe, of debilitating both tlie bodies
and til'- minds of thofe who are alTec^ed with it. Marfden, in
liis " Hillory of Sumatra,'' obferves, tliat it has been ufiial to
attribute tliis affection to the badnefs, thawed Hate, mineral
qualitv, or other peculiarity of the waters: " My expe-
rience,'' he adds. " enables me to pronounce without hefi-
tation, that the diforder, for fuch it is, though it appears
liere to mark a dillincl race of people, ( orang goonnuj^, ) is
immediately connected with the hillinels of the country,
and, of courfe, if the circumilances of the water they ufe
contribute thereto, it mull be only fo far as the natiu-e of
the water is affected by the inequality or height of the land.
But in Sumatra neither fnow nor other congelation is ever
produced, which militates againil the moit plaufiblc conjec-
ture that has been adopted concerning the alpine goitres.
From every refearch that I have been enabled to make, I
think I have reafon to conclude, that the complaint is
owincr, among the Sumatrans, to the fogginefs of the air
in the vallies, between the high mountains, where, and not
on the fummits, the natives of thete parts reilde. 1 before
remarked, that between the ranges of the hills, the " ca-
boot," or denfe miit, was \ifible for feveral hours every
morning; rifing in a thick, opaque, and well-defined body,
with the fun, and feldoin quite difperfed till afternoon.
This phenomenon, as well as that of tlie wens, being pecu-
liar to the regions of the hills, affords a prefumption that
they may be connefted; exclufive of the natural probabi-
lity that a cold vapour, grofs to an uncommon degree, and
continuallv enveh)ping the habitations, ffio\ild attecf with
tumours the throats of the inhabitants. I cannot pretend to
fay how far this folution may apply to the cafe of the goi-
tres, but I recollect it to have been mentioned, that the
onlv method of curing thefe people is by removing them
from the vallies to the clear and pure air on the tops of the
hills; which fecms to indicate a fimilar fource of the dif-
temper with what I have pointed out. The Sumatrans do
not appear to attempt any remedy for it, the wens being
confillent with the Iiigheft health in other refpecls.''

GOKAUP, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour; 16 miles S.S.E. of Raiboug.

GOKIA, a town of Turkilh Armenia; 30 miles E S.E.
of Akaizikc.

GOLABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
i<.j miles E. of Ifpahan.

GOLAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 10 miles
E. of Ramgur.

GOLAN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 10 miles
N.E- of Pofen.

GOI^APILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the clrcar of
Gi.iitoor; 10 miles W. of Innaconda.

GOLAWARRY, a town of Bengal; 48 miles N.W.
of Midnapour.

GOLCONDA, a province of Hindooftan, part of the
goffefiions of the Nizam, or Soubah of the Deccan, our
hrm ally, corrcfponds to the ancient province of Tellingana,
or Telling, fituated between the lower parts of the conrles
of tiie Kiitnah and Godavery rivers; and is bounded on the
N. by Berar, on the E. by the Circars, on the S. by the
Mvfore country and the Carnatic, and on the '\V. by Dow.
latabad and Viliapour. It takes its name from a famous
fortrei's. The kings of this country were, at a tormer time,
immenfely rich and powerful ; as they maintained in their
j).»y ^cOjQOO loldiers, and derived very large revenues irom

G O L

their lands, cuiloms of mcrcliandizes and provij'iont, hut
chiefly from the diamond mines, for which thi; country ha*
been fmgularly famous. The winter in Golconda begin*
in June with rain and thunder; the rain pouring down,
accompanied by violent ilorms of wind, till the middle of
.Tuly, with occalional intervals of line weather. In Augufl,
September, and October, the rains again fall, and very much
fwell the rivers. Thefe rains render the land exceedingly
fertile, particidarly in fruits. Vines are plentiful, and of
the grapes, which ripen m January, they make white wine.
I wo crops of rice are produced annually, and the country
affords other kinds of grain. The capital of Golconda i'»
Hydrabad.

GoLco.ND.v is alfo the name of a fortrefs, furroundcd by
ftone walls and deep ditches, which was formerly the refi-
dence of the kings of the country. This fortrefs, on ac-
count of its extent, might be denominated a city; a hill
rofe in the middle of it like a fugar-loaf, and the fide*
of it were encompaffed by the king's palace, which was
very large and well lltuated for air, and which had a good
view of Hydiabad. When Aurungzebe conquered llie
kingdom of Golconda in 1687, ''"» fortrefs was taken by
treachery; the king offered to pay a tribute of 3,700,000
rupees, and become the vaffal of the conqueror; but he re-
fufed, and entered the palace in triumph.

GOLD. Cuhl, Germ. ; Guld, Swcd. Dan. ; Or, Fr. ;
Armiy, Hung. ; Soloto, Ruff.

Mineralogiiiil Defcription. — This metal never ha\ing been
found in a mineralized Hate, we are acquainted with one fpe-
cies only, namely.

Native gold, which is fubdivided by Werner into three fub-
fpecies, I'/'z. gold-ytllozu, brnfs-yellov.; and greyjjb-yello'ji gold.
Though this lubdivilion may appear arbitrary, and not found-
ed on conftant charaders cxclulivcly belonging to each of
the above varieties or fub-fpecies, it is nevertliclefs entitled
to attention, fince colour, however unimportant it may be in
the claffitication of earthy foffds, conftitutes a character of
conliderable value in native metallic fubftances, the range of
whofe colours is confined to a narrow compafs. But
alio their geognollic relation appears to conllitute a dif.
tinftion, at leaft between the two firft of the Wemerian
lub-fjKcies ; for as to the third, or \.\\e griyyi-yeUotv gold, ill
claims to be kept feparate from the two others appear doubt-
ful : all we know of it is its being found in fmall flat parti-
cles, along with that mi.\turc of different metals called pla-
tina in grains, of whofe colour it partakes in general, and
with which it is fuppoled to Iwve occurred alio orignially
under the lame geognoftic relations.

1. I .ight or Briifs-coloured nalh'tOold. MeflTing-gelbcsg^Hlie-
gen gold of Werner. Its colour is pretty well mdicated by
its name ; but it varies in intenfitv from what may be called
pale-gold yellow to yellowilh-filver white. It is alfo fome-
limes found with deep-yellow, and with pavonine taniilh.

It occurs malTive, diffcminated in angular and amorphoui
particles, but more frequently in films, membranes, and plates
even and curled or twilled, and with Imooth or drufed fur-
face ; alfo capillary, tooth and wire-fhaped, (hrub and fern-
like, and as moniliform llrings ; often imitating retisulated
and filigree work ; all which forms are generally produo-d
bv the aggregation of minute imperfeA cryftals. Among
thefe, perfect cryftals are not imfrequently feen, fomclimrs
lin^le, oftener in groups, on the margin of the plates, S;c.
The following fecondary forms have been obtervcd : tiie
cube ; the oelahedron ; the garnet-dodecahedron ; the leucite-
dodecahtdronwith trapezoidal planes. Alfo mcditicatioas inter-
mediate between the cube and the octahedron occur, but they
3 G 2 * aic

GOLD.

are fcarce. The minute three-fided pyramids, wUiuli arc oflcu
feen to drufe the membrane, and the limidc triangular lUHrks
on the pktes of the Tranlylvanian native gold, are the re-
fnhs of hurried anddifturbed cryllallization ; the former of
them being the folid angles of the cubical, and the latter the
rudiments of the octahedral variety.

The cryllals are minute (thofe defcril.ed by Mr. Efmark
as oftohedra and cubes of two lines in diameter, have uc\cr
before been heard of); thi.-ir furfaee is always fmonth.

Luitre metallic : externally fplendent : while that of the
grains is fometimes gliilening, fometimes approaching to dull ;
internally it is glimmering and gliilening.

The fracture of gold Is fine huckly. Its fragments are
indeterminately angular.

It is foft, highly flexible, malleable, and duftile.
The fpccific gravity of pure gold is from 19.253 t"
19.640; but that of the brafs-yellow variety, owing to a
greater proportion of fdver witli which it is alloyed, is ge-
nerally confiderably lefs, though always above twelve.

The light, or brafs-yellow gold, occurs almofl always in
veins in greywackc, greywackc flate, and newer porphyry ;
feldom, as the following fub-fpecies, in primitive rocks, or
mider other circumltances that befpeak a hmilar remote
antiquity.

It occurs chiefly with quartz and iron pyrites, and not un-
frequently with grey antimony. Other concomitant fubllances
pre, among the earthy fofllls, calcareous fpar, brown
fpar, barytes, felenite, and feldom fmall quantities ot
bole, lithomarge, and common garnet ; of metallic fub-
llances, red and vitreous filver ores, (feldom native iilver,)
copper pyrites, grey copper ore, copper green, brown iron
ilone, galena, green lead ore, blende, with occafional traces
of white cobalt, copper nickel, red orpiment, native arfenic,
«nd arfenical pyrites.

2. Deep or C ohl-yelloii' Native Gc/i/.— Gold-gelbes ge-
<liegciT-gold of Werner.

Its colour is the highefl gold-colour, feldom verging on
brafs yellow.

It occurs maflive and in fmall roundifli and flattened pieces,
3S alfo in grains of vaiious dimcnhons, detached or difl'jmi-
nated; feldom in particular external forms, fuch as in leav.s
»nd laminae, fdiform and mofslike ; fcarcely ever cryllallized :
ahuoil all the cryfl;alhne forms defcribed by authors W -
longing to the light -coloured fub-fpecies.

E.xternal luiWe glifteniiig, fometimes (as in tie variety
called Spanifli fnufi') divelled of all lullre. Its fpecilic gra-
vity is rather greater than tliat of the light or brafs-coloured
gold, with which it agrees in the remaining eharatlers.

It occurs nioflly loofe, in alluvial fituations, and in the
fand of riv?rs, and, as fuch, appears to have been originally
flifleminated in rocks of ancient formation : it is, however,
alfo found in veins in Norway, Siberia, Bohemia, Hungary,
in the Eail Indies, &:c. almofl always difleminated in quart/,,
accompanied by iron-pyrites ; but nothing is as yet known
■ refpfiting the age of thefe veins. At Fatzebay it is found in
minutely mofslike external forms, often of a dull powdery
appearance, on common quart/ fometimes mixed with iron
pyrites ; in this fl;ate it is by the miner called Spauifli fnuff..
Geographical Jiiuatkjn. — The following loaaiities compre-
hend both the lub-fpecies into wliich native gold is divided
by Werner. By far the greater part of that ibund in Eu-
rope belo;igs to the brafs-yeUow lub-fpecies, except the gold
of rivers a.id alluvial foil, which is principally deep yellow,
and to which the immcufe quantities of tliis precious metal,
furniflied by the other parts of the world, appear Hkewife
Vc be refcriible.

£'hco^:? .'^Hungary, the Bannat, and principaliy Tratr-
fylvania. In Upper Hungary it occurs in gneifs : at Scliem-
nitz, in Lower Hungary, it is found accompanied v^itli
feveral filver ores, and v.ith galena j at Kreninitz, in and
on cellular and fluttered quart/., lamellar barytes, wltli vi-
treous filver and grey copper ore, copper pyrite.s, brown
fpar, &c. ; at Oravizza, in the Bannat, it occurs filiform
and diiTeminated in pale flefli-red and greenifli-white lime-
llone, with white cobalt ore and copper nickel. In Tranfv!-
v.mia, the richell country of Europe in this metal, it prin-
cipally occurs in a kind of clay-porphyry of different de-
grees of frelhnefs, wliich is the Saxum luctalliferum of
Born, in grauwacke and grauwa( ke flate: at Kapnik it is
fometimes found with red. orpiment : at Stanifha in calcare-
ous fpar, mixed with arfenical pyrites, &:c.: other places of
Tranfylvanla abounding in gold (which is for the greate:>
part brafs-yellow), are Vereflipatak, Abrudbanya, 15oiza,
Ofl'er.banya, Futzebay, Toplitza, Treflityan, &c. Alfo the
rivers, both of Hungary and Tranfylvanla, are richly auri-
fi-rous ; gold fand is found in the Nera, and underneath a
llratnm of chalk on the plain traverfcd by this river. Tiie-
richetl river of Tranfylvanla is the Araniofli, and tlie plain bor-
dering on the river Morolh, contams likewifegold in grains,be-
t\s-een a ftratum of mould, and another of ichillus, neither of
which llrata is in the leall auriferous. Alfo at Okipian, gold
is obtained by wafliing; it is there mixed with magnetic iron-
rtone, titanium, garnet, and cyanlte. The gold of the great
rivers of Tranlylvania is generally of 21 carats, tliat of
Olapian and Rolhinar is even of 23 carats, fix grains.

In Germany it is found in feveral places, at Joiiangeorgen-
ftadt in Saxony, in Carinthia, where it accompanies cojjpcr-
ores, in Tyrol and Saltzburg ; but it is only in the lall of
thefe diilricls, or rather in the chain of mountains, feparating
Tyrol from Carinthia, that gold-mines are \\ orked : in tlie
Zillerthalit is found in various external forms, and accompa-
nied with iron-pyrites, &c. in mica fl.lte. In Bohemia gold'
occurs in quartz.

Spain is probably very rich in gold ; certain it is that
confiderable gold mines were worked there in former tiines,
and, according to Diodorus Siculus, as far back as the time
of the Phccnicians, after whom the Romans undertook to
work them ; and Pliny informs us, that thofe nations dcrivrj'
great profit from them., Afturia v.-as the province which
furniflied moil of this metal. After the diicovery of Ame-
rica thefe mines were entirely given uj^and loft. The Ta-
gus and fome other rivers of Spain arelikewife auriferous.

France has no goldmine that is worthy to be worked ; the
firft difcovery of gold m that country was made in 1781, at
la Gardette,.in the vaUey of Oyfans, in the prefcnt depart-
ment of the Ifere : the mine was worked for fix years,
but the produce in gold aud accom.panying minerals was ton
fmall to compenfate for the expence of cbtaininij them, and,
indeedj the lofs amounted to upwards of 2i,oco livres.
It occurs there, with reck cryilals and iron pyrites, ill
gneifs. The fand of feveral rivers of France is auriferous,
fuch as that of the Arriezc near Mirepoix, the Gardon ani)
Ceze in the Cevennes, the Rhone in the Pays de Gex, tiie
Rhine between Stralburg and Phillplhurg, the vSalat in the
neighbourhood of St Giron, in the Pyrenees, thcGaronne near
Touloufe, and the Herault at Montpellier. Alfo mnll of the
black fand and of the bog-iron found in the neighbourhood,
of Paris is faid to contain a fmall quantity of gold.

In Piedmont veins of auriferous pyrites and quartz are ■
found near Macugnaga, at the foot of Monte Rofa : which .
mountain confifl;s of veined granite in horizontal beds. The
veins of pyrites and quartz have upon the whole a per-
pendlcub.i; direiftion, but in fome parts tliey crofs each other.

GOLD.

anJ w'ii:-rc this takes place, griipft, or nells, arc found whicli
contain the greateft proportion ot' gold. The proprietor of
tliefe mines extradled out of fiich nells, in no more than
twenty-two days, 189 marcs of pure gold, although a hundred
weight of the ore yields no more than from 10 to 12
grains of that metal. Formerly upwards of a thoufand
workmen were emploved in thefe gold-inine5 ; and the pro-
prietors ftill pofTefs 86 mills, by which from 10 to 12 pounds
(of 12 ounces) of mercury inprcgnatcd with gold are pro-
duced per day. Twelve pounds of mercury contain two
marcs of gold. There are likcwife feveral auriferous rivers
on the S. tide of the Apenainc Alps, between mount Rofa
and tlie valley of Aolla, fuch as the Avanlon, which runs
from the valley of Challant into the Doire, and where fome
gold-mines were alfo worked by the Romans ; the Oreo, &c.

Sweden has a gold mine zX. Edelfors in Smoland : the gan-
gne, a brownilli quartz, is fuid to be in a kind of hornblende
flate, which alto con::\ins the metal diffeminated.

Gold has alfo be.-n found in Great Britain : in Cornwall ;
at Lead-hills, in Scotland, diffeminated in quartz ; at Wick-
low, in Ireland, under th.e foil, and in a ilream which runs over
rocks of clay-flate with veins of quartz. It belongs to the
deep yellow variety.

jlfia — The gold-ores of Siberia are partly of the light
coloured, but principally of the deep coloured variety : tfiat
of Berezof; which occurs in pyrites, or rather brown iron
ftone, and iron fnot quartz, and in the rock which ferves as
gangue to the red lead ore, belongs to the latter. Patrin
mentions a fpecimen of gold in Ipangles on hornfilvcr, found
in one of the filver mines of Schlansrenberjr.

The geognollic relation of the gold found iu feveral parts
of India, in Japan, the Philippine and Maldive iflands,
Sumatra, Borneo, &c. is not known ; all the fpecimens from
India, that have come under our infpedtion, were ;n the form
of fmall rounded and amorphous particles in quartz, and be-
longed to the deep yellow variety.

Africa. — Of the occurrence of gold in this part of the
world we know fo much, that the greatcil part, at leafl of
that which comes to Europe, is deep yellow and in grains.
African travellers have made us acquainted with a few of its
localities, but not with any particulars relating to its geognof-
tic habitudes. Though the commerce of gold-powder extends
almoft over the whole of Africa, yet, according to Heercn,
tJiere is none to be found in its northern parts. Among the
principal African gold mines are thofe of Kordofan, between
13arfur and Abyflinia, mentioned by Browne. The an-
cients, fays Brongniart, appear to have been acquainted with
thefe mines : they confidered Ethiopliia as a country rich in
gold ; and we hnd in Herodotus, that the king of that coun-
try exhibited to the ambaffadors of Cambyies all the pri-
foners of war fettered with chains of gold.

A fecond moll confiderable dillritl for gathering gold-
powder appears to be fouthv.ard of the great deiart of Zahara,
in the well of Africa, at the foot of thofe lofty ridges of moun-
tains on which originate, among many inialler rivers, the Sene-
gal, the Ganibier,and Niger. The country of Bambouk, at the
i>I.E. of thefe mountains, is, according to Golberry, that
V. liich furnilhes the greatell quantity of gold wiiich is fold
on the well coall of Africa, from the mouth of the Senegal
to the Cape Palmas. This gold is fov-nd in fpanglcs and fiiiidl
lumps, principally near the iurface of the earth, in the beds of
rivulets, and iJways in a ferruginous foil. In fome parts of
the country the negroes link fomething like Ihifts, but v.'ith-
out giving any fupport to the fides of the pit ; nor are tiicy
wont to follow up the vein, if any Ihould appear, or to make
galleries. The metal is obtained by repeated walliing of l!«e
•arth that includes it. The fame country furnillies likewise

the greatell part of the gold carried to Morocco, Fez, ard
Algiers, by the caravans which, from Tombuftoo, trav.-l
through the great defart of Zahara. The gold which is brought
to Cairo and Alexandria from Senaar comes likcwife frtm
thefe See Parke's travels, where alfo an interelling account
is to be found of the gold in Manding, and of the procefe by
which the negroes obtain it.

The third principal dillria of Africa, for colleclin? eold
IS on theS.W. coall between ,5- and 22' S. lat. oppof.^
Madagafcar. Phis gold comes principally from the country
ot Sofala. According to tlie relation of fome traveller?; iii
this part of the world, the gold is found there not only iti
powder, but likewife in veins. Some an: of opinion that
the country of Ophir, from whence Solomon obtained eoW
was lituated on this coall. ° '

ylnL-nca.—TK- gold of this part of the world, as far as
vve are acquamtcd with it, is fo equally the produaioa
of the fand of rivers and of alluvial land ; but it is alfo, thougli
rarely, found in veins. South America, particularly Bralll,
Clicco, and Chili, are the countries that yield moll ; but fomt-
IS alio found in North America, particularly in Mexico
where it occurs along with lllver-ores. The annual produce
01 thefe Mexican mines is valued at from 1 2 to 1 500 kilograms.
All the rivers of the Caraccas, 10"= north bt. are aurife-
rous.

The gold of Chili, according to Frezier, is lodged in the
all'.'.vial formation.

The Peruvian gold occurs in ferruginous quartz ; that ot
Choco, the richell province in gold in South America is
found as grains in alluvial country, and in rocks belonging o
the neweft fletz-trap formation. Almoll all we know refpict-
ing the geognollic lltuation of the gold of Spanilh America,
we owe to M. de Humboldt.

Brafil furnirnes gold in abundance, and it is from thence
that the greatell part aclually feen in commerce is brou'^iit to
Europe. There are, however, properly fpeaking, no°gold-
mines in that country ; the gold is not found there in v; ins
but difTen-.inated in fand and other alluvial depofitions, out of
w 'uich it is obtained i:i the ufual manner.

The gold that has been furnilhed by Brafil within
120 years, may be valued (according to Correa) at
2,406,000,000 of French Hires ; and, according to other
authors, the amount is calculated to be 24,000,000 per
annum. Brongniart. See Ohes-

Ohfcrvations — i. It would appear that mod writers who
adopt Werner's diftinftion between gold-yellow and brafs-
yellow gold, have millakeiily defcribed the one fub-fpecies
for the other, and fome even fpeak of " grey-yellow gold
from Tranfylvania.' Tlie fub-divi(ion aliuiied to may K-
d^^emed inadmifTible ; but if it be at all adopted, by hi the
greater part of the native gold of Tranfylvania ard Hi;i -
giu-y, snd eonfequeatiy almoll: all cry!l.'..Iiy.cd gold, mull
neceifarily be referred to the light-coloured, and tliat found
in the fand of rivers to the deep-toloi:ivd fub-fpcti. s ; and
this not on account of their colour only, ufuallv indicativr
of differences in the chemical c(;mpofitiou of metals but
principally on account of tfie j;iognoliic rclatioiui. inuUr
which tliey refpcctivtly occur, and on \ihich great ilrcfc
apjjcars to be laid by W^erncr.

2. Iron pyrite;-, containing not unfivqucntly aconfidinibi<?
portion of gold, in moll cafes invifibly diiperfcd and dil-
guifed, has by fome been conlidcnd as a fpecie;: of gold ore :
a dilh'nCtion to which (though fuch aur;f'.-.nis pyrites rre
often lubjccled to metallurgical treatment for cxtrattinc-tlu.i
metal, as will be feen hereafter) it cannot be coalidcrcd ::s
entitled. See V\b.iti.^, yiurif'rosu.

T;«,

GOLD.

The brown cubic crytlals from Ccrcfof, in Siberia, wliicli
contain grains of gold, arc- confid'-rcd by fome as dcuonipoU
ed, by others as hepatic pyrites, and by fome as brown iron
(lone in fuppofititious cryilals. Whatever they may be, lliey
are certainly not what Werner means by hepatic pyrites.

^. The native gold of Tranfylvania is often accompanied,
and fomctimes incrulled, by particles of a pale yellow earthy
fubttance, whicli was conlidered by Hacquet as an oxyd of
gold. Muller and others have deftribcdit as iron-ochre, from
which, howevei-, it appears to differ both in colour and
conlillence. It is almoft always to be met with in the fpe-
cimens of native gold from Veredipatak, but fometimes in
fuch fine particles as to appear merely as a taruilh on the
metal. It is to this dull probably that tiie gold ore, called
Spanilh fnuff, owes its mat, yellowifh-brown colour. It de-
ferves further examination.

4. The grey metallic fubflance occurri)ig as acicular
indeterminate cryftals, along with the gold of Siberia, ni
quartz, and which has been defcribed as tellurium, as grey
copper ore, &c. appears to be native bifmuth.

For the chemical charaaers of gold, and the ufcs to \\ hich it
is applied, fee the fequel of this article.

Extraction of Gold — Tiiis metal is obtained feparate from
foreign fubftances, with which it is mixed by amalgamation
with quickfdver. After it has been freed, by pounding and
wafliincr, from the ftony matter, it is triturated with about
ten times its weight of mercury. The more fluid part of
the amalgam is forced through leather, while that which is
more confiftent, and which contains the cliief part of the
gold, remains. This is fubjected to dillillation, the quick-
iilver is leparated and evaporated, and the gold remains in a
ftate of fulion. When this metal is found in other ores, they
are firft roafted, to dii'perfe the volatile principles, and to
oxidize the other metals. The gold, which is but little
fubjeft to oxyddtion, is extrafted by amalgamation, by cu-
pellation, or other methods adapted to each ore, according to
its properties or conftituent parts. The metal obtained in
thefe ways is always more or lefs alloyed, particularly with
filver and copper. The firfl; ftep in its purification is tlie
proeefs of Cupellation, to which article in our Cyclopxdia
the reader is referred for accurate information on this part of
the fubjcd.

The gold, after it has been fubmitted to tliis proeefs, is
often alloyed with filvcr, which, being nearly as diflicult of
oxydation, is not removed by the action of lead, and hence
the neceffity of the operations denominated Parting and
Quartation, which may be explained in a few words.

In Parting, the metal is rolled out very thin, and cut into
fmall pieces, which are digeftcd in diluted nitric acid mo-
derately hot. The acid lias an aftion upon, and difiolves
the filver, leaving the gold undiffolved in a porous mafs.
When, however, the proportion of filver is very fmall in
comparifon of the gold, the latter fometimes protefts tlie
former from the action of the acid ; in fuch cafes tl;e pre-
vious flep of Quartation is employed, which is lo named on
account of the proportion of materials employed, T/'t. three
parts of filver, with one of gold, and then lubjecting the
alloy, rolled out, to the operation ot the acid. Sometimes
tliey are melted together, and fulphur thrown in, the ful-
phur combines witli the filver, and the gold falls to the bot-
tom. It is obferved bv Lagrange, that rolling and annealing
are operations very necelTary to the fuccefs ot the parting
proeefs, and which recjuire fome precautions. I ft. The
plate mufl not be too thin, left it lliould break in confequcnce
oi the motion communicated to it bv the action of tlie acid ;
: if it is too thick the acid could not penetral? to its centre.

zdly. The annealing of the plate, at the fame time that it gives ■
pliability, facilitates its being rolled without cracking ; it alfo
opens the pores of the metal, wliich the rolling may have
prelfed together, and by thefe means favours the adtion of
tlie acid.

The proeefs recommended by Bergman is this: firft to
difTolve It in nitro-muriatic acid ; the filver is dcpofited f pon-
taneoufiy in the form of muriate of filver, which is infoluble ;
tlie gold is precipitated in fine powder by the fulphate of
iron. Kacli of the above-mentioned procefles is performed in
fuch a manner as to lead to an eflimate of the quantity of
gold, and alio of the difTerent metals with which it is al-'
loycd.

Gold, it is faid, by fome able French chemifls, as I,^
Sage and Rouelle, exills in the vegetable kingdom, it
having, in experiments inftituted for the purpofe, been ex-
tracted from the aihes of certain plants ; the quantity, how-
ever, being, of courfe, too trifling to be fought after for
pradtical purpofes, it is fufficient merely to mention the
fart in this place.

Gold, Chetnical Properties of. — Gold melts at the tcinpera-
ture of 32"'of the fcale of Wedgeuood ; and what is very
remarkable is, that it is more difficult of fufion in the ftate
of filings and grains, than in larger mafTes ; and that the
fmall fragments, even after they are fufed, remain in feparate
globules : and in order to make tlicm run into one mafs, a
little nitre or borax is thrown into the crucible. Gold,
w hich has only been fubjedted to a degree of heat barely ne-
celTary for its fufion, is brittle after cooling. To preferve
itsdurtility, which, as will be i'een farther on, is one of the
more important meeh,*nicnl properties of gold, the tempe-
rature mull be railed much liigher. It is brittle alfo when
it is too fuddenly cooled alter fufion. By an incrcafe of tem-
perature while the gold is in tufion, it becomes convex on
the furface, and when it cools, it finks, circumflances which
are afcribcd to the expanlion and contrattion of the metal.
When it is gradually and flowly cooled, it cryflallizes in the
form of quadrangular pyramids, or regular octahedrons. If
the heat be continued while it is in pcrfeft fufion, it feems to
undergo akindot ebullition. Thiscircumftance wasnoticedby
Homberg and Macquer,as well in tiie application of the burn-'
ing-glafs, as when a fmall globuleof the metal wasatledon by
the blow-pipe. Macquer afTcrts that it rofe in vapour to tlie
height of five or fix inches, and attached itfelf to the furface
of a filver plate, which it completely gilded.

The flrongeMl: heat of a furnace, which has been applied
to gold in fufion, has been found incapable of producing tlie
fmallefl change or the leaft tendency to oxydation ; but, by
the aftion of a very powerful buriiing-glafs invented bv
Tfchirnhaufen, and whicii has been defcribed under tiie arti-
cle KvUN'lNo-GLAS.s, Hoiiiberg found that gold, placed
in its focus, not only rofe in vapour, but that it was covered
with a violet-coloured vitreous oxyd. The experiment was
frequently repeated, lo as to afcertain the fatt moll coir.plete-
Iv. The fame thing has been done by means of the elettnc
difcliarge, by wliicli gold-leaf, placed between two cards,
has been converted into a violet-coloured powder. Tliefe iiu
flances of real oxydation were, at firft, regarded, by fome
who witnefltd the experiments, as merely minute nieclianical
divifions of the metal, but this apparent objetlion has been
removed by the experiments of Van Marum on thecombulli-
bility of gold by means of the large eleftrieal machine at
Haerlem. A llrong elertrical fiiock was paffed througli a
golden w ire fufpended in tlie air. It kindled, burned with a
])erceptible green flame, and was reduced to fine powder,
whicli was diflipated in tlie air. A fimilar oxydation iias
been obferved to take place on the gilding in the inlide of

houlvii,

G O L I).

las been Rruck v:tli "'fic acid, impregnated with nitrous oxvd, and he fuppofes
1, tluis ohtamcd, con- t i;it it is owing to the nitrous oxyd tliat tli<- gold is oxydated
By precipitation from tins oxyd being fo much more cafily decompofod than thj

'lioufes, or on tlie funiitinv which has been flruck wit):

lightning. The purple oxyd of gold,

tains five or fix per c.nl. of oxygen. By precijiitation troin tins oxyd being fo much more cafily Oecomud

fome of its faliiie combinations, a yellow oxyd has been «b- "itric acid. The acid which, at firft, is deprived of its co

tamed, in which the proportion of oxygen amounts to ten lour by the oxydation of the gold, as this oxyd is difTolved'

percent. The oxyd in both inllances may be decompofed, ''liumes an orange-yellow colour, holding in (olution the ni '

and tiie oxygen completely expelled, by an elevation of tem- Irate of gold with an cxcefs of acid. I'he nitrate cannot be

perature not much fupcrior to that of ignition. obtained in cry (lals, and it is decompofed bv heat or bv

The attraction of gold to oxygen is fo weak, that it is being expofcd to the light of the fun ; it is alfo decompofed
fcarcely affected by the greater number of acids. It was by the alkalies, or bv introducing a plate of tin or filver into
formerly luppofed to lie perfectly iniblublc in the nitrous and the folution, and the purple oxyd is precipitated in the
„ nitric acids, whicli in general part with oxygen with fo form of powder ; and likewife by muriatic acid, which at
much facility, and when gold leaf is put into tlie acid cold, the inllaiit of combination converts the orange-colour to a
it f^ems to fuffer no change, but when nitric or nitrous acid is pure yellow.

boiled on gold, it is capable of diflolving a* fmall portion of 2. Alurid/e of G«/,/— Muriatic acid of itfelf has no aftion
it. The quantity dilTolved is, however, fo inconfiderable, on gold, or on its purple oxyd, but gold is immediately oxy-
and depends on lo many conditions, which it is needlcfs to dated and tlien diffolved in oxymuriatic acid: or if nitric
enumerate, that the accuracy of the proceffes of affaying ^p'^l be added to the muriatic in certain proportions, the folu-
can fcarcely be affrfled by it. tion of gold in the mixture is readily effected : hence the ni-

When gold is difiolved in the nitro-muriatic acid, or in a tro-muriatic acid wa,s dilliuguifhed bv tiie name of " aqui
mixture of equal parts of nitric and muriatic acids, an ef- regia," becaufe it difTolved gold, which was regarded by the
fervefcence takes place, and the folution becomes of a yellow alchemifts as the king of metals. The nature of the chemi-
colour. In this procefs the nitric acid is decompofed, its cal aftion is thus explained. Gold is oxydated with
oxygen combines with the gold, and the oxyd, as it is form- great difficulty, but it is effeded by oxymuriatic acid, which
ed, is dillblvcd in the muriatic acid. By adding hme-water readily parts with its oxygen, or bv the addition of the ni-
a precipitate is formed, whicli is the yellow oxyd of gold, trous to the muriatic, the former of which is decompofed
confifting of from eight to ten parts of oxygen in the hun- giving out its oxygen to the gold, which being now oxydated
dred. There is no artion between gold and azote, hydro- 's difiolved in the muriatic acid, forming with it a muriate
gen, carbon, or fulphur : but the oxyds of gold are readily "f gold. This folution of the muriate of gold is of a deep
decompofed by hydrogen, as will be foon feen. yellow colour, extremely acrid and eauftic • has an aftrin-

Pliol'phorus combines with gold by heating together in a gent metallic taile,and ilains the fl<in of a deep purple colour
crucible a mixture of one lart of gold in filings, with two "'hich becomes darker by expofure to the air andlieht. It pro-
parts of phofphoric glafs, and an eighth part of charcoal. d"ces a fimilareffea on all vegetable and animal matters and
Great part of the phofphorus is feparated from the acid, and on marble and filiceous flones. Bv evaporating the folutioH
driven off, but there remains a fmall quantity united with the to one half, nitric acid is difengaged, and cryrtalsare obtaiii-
gold, formifig a phofphuret of gold. It may be done alfo by ^d. Thefe alTume a red colour by the action of llronfj light.
.idding phofphorus to gold in a red heat in a crucible. It is, They attract moitlure from the air, and fpontancoufly be-
in thiii itate, pale coloured, granulated, brittle, and a little come liquid. When oxymuriatic acid is ufed, the oxynrn
more fulible. The proportion of phofphorus is not more of this acid being retained even by a weaker affinity than the
than one part in twenty-four ; and the fubffancc may be dc- nitric acid, the gold attraAs it, and combines with the mu-
compofcd by being kept in fulion ; the phofphorus is driven riatic acid. In this cafe tlio folution is flow, and but a very
off in the flate of vapour, and inflamed. Bergman has ar- fmall quantity of gold can be diffolved, partly from the oxy-

ranged the affinities of gold and its oxyds in the foUowi

order :

Go!J. Oxy.h of Gold.

Mercury, Muriatic-acid,

Copper, Nitric,

Silver, S-ilpluiric,

I.cad, Arfenic,

Bifmulh, Fluoric,

Tin, Tartaric,

Antimony, Phofphoric,

Iron, Pruific.

Platin.-.,
Zinc,
Nickel,
Arfenic,
Cobalt,
Mangariefe.
Sails of Gold. — Thefe are the nitrate and muriate

muriatic acid not being in a very concentrated' ftate, and part-
ly, it is fuppofcd, from the quantity of oxygen prefent not
being fuch as to form a futficient quantity of oxyd to fatu-
rate the acid. It ought, however, to be obferved, that if
the late difcoveries of profeffor Davy he eifabLlhcd, which
make the oxy-muriatic acid a fimple fubilance, .iwd even pof-
fefPing no oxygen whatever, then a iiew^ theory mull be intro-
duced to account forthefachs above-Hated. In oxy-muri.Mic
gas, gold-leaf is inllantlv fufed with intlanmiation, and dif-
folved.

Gold cannot be dilTolved by the other acids when in its
metallic Hate, but itsoxvds may be combined with thom,
and a number of tlie falts of gold be formed. The fulphate
and nitrate alio, as we have feen, do not cryilalli/e : the phof-
phate of gold may be fufed, and in this il,\te it fwrms a finr
red glafs. We ihall now briefly notice fome of the proper-
ties of the muriate of gold. In connexion with this fubjecl,
we mufl not omit the experiments of Mrs. Fulhame, which

NhniteofGoU. When concentrated nitric acid is feve- fhe announced in an " Effay on Combuition." with a view

ral times fuccelfively poured upon gold, boiled and dillilled to to a new art of dyeing and painting, &c. in the year 1794,

drynefs, the gold is diffolved, and tlie folution ali'umes a yel- and w hich were, at that period, expvded to lead to fome

Ijwilh colour. This folution is more readily effected in pro- important praclical refults.

portion to the quantity of gas or nitrous gas which the acid The muriate of gold is very folublc in water, and it dc-

contains. Gold-leaf, according to Fourcroy, is diffolved in compoled in hydrogen gas. If a piece of filk be moiftcned

witU

GOLD.

■with a folution of muriate of gold, tlie fait 13 decompofcd,
and the gold, reduced to the metallic Hate, attaches itfelf to
the filk. It is decompofed alfo by phofphorus. If a ftick
of phofphorus be introduced into » faturatod folution of
muriate of gold, the fait is decompofed, and the gold, being
reduced to the metallic Hate, forms a cylindrical covering to
the phofphorus, which may be feparated by diffolving the
latter in hot water. A fimilar effett is produced by burn-
ing fulphur, by fulphurated and phofphorated hydrogen
gafes, and by fiilphurous acid. If a folution of muriate of
gold be cautioufly added to fulphurous acid, a fine pellicle
of gold appears on the furface, which is inllantly precipitated
in the form of fmall grains. Thefe, and many other experi-
ments equally curious and interefting, were firil defcribed
by the lady above-mentioned, and tiie rationale of tlie fubjeS
is thus explained. All the fubflances which have been
enumerated have a flronger affinity for oxygen than gold,
fo that the oxyd of gold, in combination with tlie acid, is
decompofed ; the oxygen combining with the hydrogen,
and forming v/ater, or witli the phofphorus or fulpliur,
and forming fulphuric or phofphoric acid.

The muriate of gold is foluble in ether, and form* with
it a folution of a golden yellow colour, which floats on the
top of the fluid. By the addition of ether to a folution of
gold, and agitating the m.ixture, as foon as it is left at reft,
the two liquids feparate, the ether rifes to the top, and
aiTumes a yellow colour, while the nitro-muriatic acid re-
mains below and becomes white. By a procefs of this kind
a tinfture of gold was prepared, called " potable gold "
The folution of gold in ether is not permanent : it is quickly
reduced to the metallic flate, and is fometimes found cry-
ftaUized on the furface. The etherial folution is ufed by
Mr. Stodart for defending lancets, and other furgical inftru-
ments, from injury by a moift atmofphere.

The muriate of gold is decompofed by all the alkalies
and eartlia, and is reduced to the flate of yellow oxyd.

Moft of the metals decompofe the muriate of gold : cop-
per, iron, zinc throw down the gold in its metallic ftate :
other metals, as lilver or lead, in the ftate of purple oxyd.
The precipitate obtained by means of tin is valued for the
beauty of the colour which it gives to glafs or enamel.
This preparation is known to artifts by the name of the
" Purple powder of Caffius," and it may be obtained by
various proceffes. That which is commonly reforted to, is to
difTolve pure gold in a nitro-muriatic acid, which is compofed
of three parts of nitric and one of muriatic acid. A folu-
tion of tin is to be prepared by diffolving the motal, in fmall
portions at a time, in an acid containing two parts of nitric
and one of muriatic acid, previoufly diluted with an equal
weight of water. This folution, after it is faturated, is
largely diluted, perhaps with a hundred parts of diflilled
water : to this the folution of gold equal in quantity to
half the quantity of folution of tin, is added, and the preci-
pitate is obtained after it is allowed to fubfide, which is to
be wadied and dried. This is the only known preparation
capable of giving a red colour to glafs ; and if the experiment
be performed with accuracy and judgment, the glafs fo
treated ferves as a capital imitation of the ruby. The
procefs is, however, attended with confidcrable difficulty,
owing to the colour of the precipitate being various, from
circumftances not eafily difeovered. According to Pelletier,
it is a compound of oxyds of tin and gold; and its formation
is swing to the ftrong attraction of the tin for the oxygen,
with which it is difpofed to combine in large quantities.
When the folutions, above defcribed, are mixed, the oxyd
of tin, which is nearly at the minimum of oxydizement, at-

trafts part of the oxygen of the oxyd of gold : the tw/»
oxyds thus brought to itatcs of oxydizement, different from
thofe in which they exifted in the feparate folutions, and
probably likewife exerting mutual affinities, are no longer
foluble, and are precipitated in combination. Muriate of
gold is decompofed by fome other metallic ialts, in coiife-
quence of fimilar aiStions ; the oxygen of the oxyd of gold
being attracted by the oxyd of the other metal, which
hence paffes to a higher ftate of oxydizement. Thofe which
have a ftrong tendency to exift in fuch a ftate, are capable
even of completely de-oxydizing the oxyd of gold. Ex-
ample.— If a folution of the green fulphate of iron be added
to the folution of muriate of gold, the gold is precipitated
in very minute particles in th'_- metallic (late, ivhile the iron
paffes to the ftate of a red fulphate. A folution of muriate
of gold, when concentrated by evaporation, yields beautiful
yellow cryftals, not unlike topazes.

Gold, as we have fcen, does not combine v.ith fulphui-
by fufion, and on this is founded a method of freeing it from
filvcr or other metals, the alloy being fufed with fulphui-,
the filvcr, &c. unite with the fulphur, leaving the gold fepa-
rate. But gold and fulphur may be united by the medium
of an alkali. Example. — Let a fulphuret of potafii be fufed
with one-eighth of its weiglit of gold-leaf, and the combina-
tion is even foluble in water, the folution being of a given
colour.

AUoxs of Gold. — Gold form.s alloys with the greater
number of the metals, which proditce on the m.etal fo ailovcd
a very particular change in its properties. An exter.iive
and accurate ferics of experiments on thefe alloys was made
by Mr. Hatchet, with the view of determining foine im-
portant and interefting facls relating to the ufe of gold as .1
coin. Of thefe v.-e fliall give a brief ab.'lraft, referring our
readers for a more particular account to the TraufaiSlioriS of
the Royal Societv for the year 1803.

The cliief enquiry of Mr. Hatcliet, as conneftcd with the
allovs of gold, was, whether foft and ductile gold, or gold
made as hard as is compatible with the procefs of coiiiim.-,
fuffers moft by wear. His experiments were intended ti>
examine the effects v.hitli various metals produce upon gold,
when combined with it in given proportions, beginning with
T^'-,th, which is the ftandard proportion of aliov, and gradually
dccrcafing to -f-^'y^ part of mafs. Tlie refults drawn from
the trials were, that fine gold, alloyed with filvcr, with
copper, and with tin, did not fufFer any lofs during the
experiment. The gold alloyed with lead only loil three
grains, chiefly by vitrification ; with iron it loft 12 grains,
which formed fcoria ; with bifmuth it loft 12 grains, chiefly
by vitrification ; with zinc it loft a pennyweight by volati-
lization ; and wi»h arfenic, it not only loft tlie whole quan-
tity of alloy, but alfo two grains of tlie gold which were
carried off in confeqnence of the rapid volatilization of the
arfenic. Hence it was inferred th.at only two metals are
proper for the alloy of gold coin, namely, filver and copper ;
as all the others either confiderably alter the colour, or
diminifli the duftihty of gold. In refpcft to the latter
qu:;lity, the different alloys employed in this feries of ex-
periments appear to affeft gold nearly in the following
dccrcafing order: i. Bifmuth. 2. Lead. 3. Antimony.
4. Arfenic. 5. Zinc. 6. Cobalt. 7. Manganefe. 8. Nickel.
9. Tin. 10. Iron. li.PIaiina. 12. Copper, and, 13. Silver.
The three firil have nearly the fame effeil on gold, and
bifmuth is found to render .gold brittle when the propor-
tion of that metal is to gold only as i to 1920'; even' the
vapour arifing from bifmuth, lead, and antimony in fufion-,
produces thele changes.

■ The'

COLD.

The alloy withplatilia is of a ycUouifli white co'our, very
duotili', and of a confiderable fpccific gravity. The alloy
witii iilvcr ill the llandarj proportioii, or I to 12, approaches,
as we have feen above, the nearefl to the dudtility of hne
gold of any alloy, and its fpecific gravity differs but little
troin the mean fpecilie gravity of the two metals. When
the fdver amounts to Ith, the colour of the allov approaches
to green, and forms the green gold of the goldfmiths. In
combination with copper, gold has its colour rather
heightened than impaired ; its Iiardnefs is increalcd and its
ductility very little lelfened, when the llandard proportion of
I part in 12 is not exceeded. This alloy of 22 carats fine is
generally ufed, when gold is fabricated into plate or orna-
ments, and likewife forms the gold coin of the country.
With quickfilver, gold unites with great facility, making
with it an amalgam which will be defcribed hercatter. The
alloy with iron is much harder than gold, very duftile and
malleable ; but the colour is debafed to a dullifh grey, inclin-
ing to white. Tin was formerly regarded as the metal
wliicli rendered the alloy with gold the moil brittle of all
the alloys, but the experiments of Mr. Bingley and Mr.
HaLchet have fl'.ewn that this notion is to a certain extent
erroneous, and that the effects produced by the mixture of
till with gold, ought probably to be afcribed to other
metals, with which the tin was contaminated, fuch as bif-
mnth, antimony, lead, and zinc. The alloy, confifling of
equal parts of zinc and gold, is very hard and fufceptible of
a tine polifli, and not being fubjeft to much alteration from
the air, it is recommended for the fabrication of the mirrors
of teleicopes. The alloy of gold with iilver, in which there
is onlv .'-th part of lilver, changes the colour of the gold
very fenfibly ; and the alloy is employed for foldering gold,
being more fuiible than this metal.

Gold, Phyjual properties of. Gold, auriim, a yellow
metal, heavy, pure, ductile, malleable, and Ihining; and on
thofe accounts, the moft valuable of all metals. lu fufi-
bility it ranks between filver and copper ; it is not oxydable
by fufioii in atmofpheric air; nor is it afted upon by any of
the acids, except the oxymuriatic and nitro-muriatic>

The yellow colour of gold is rendered paler by fufion with
borax ; but this may be prevented or corrected by fulion
with nitre, or fal ammoniac. The colour of gold is
heightened by an alloy of copper, and this property of
copper has given rife to fundry procefles for exalting the
colour of this noble metal. Other metals render it paler.
The alchemiils call gold, fol, the fun ; to denote its pre-
eminence over the otlier metals, which are called by the
names of the planets. Its fymbol, or charaftcr, is O ;
which, in their hieroglyphical way of writing, denotes per-
fection, liniplicity, folidity, &c.

The weight of gold is to tliat of water, according to fome
ftatements, as 19.637 to 1000. Fine gold, immerfed in
water, weighs nearly one nineteenth part leis than in air,
and confequently it is upwards of nineteen times heavier than
its own volume of water. However, the fpecific gravity of
gold, or its comparative weight with an equal volume of
water, has been varioully alhgned : fome have made it
19.637, others 19.640, and in tlie Swedilh Tranfadtions it
is made no lefs than 20.000; that of water being loco.
Others again have made it as low as 18.75. ^"^ '"'""'' '^'-'
experiments of Mr. Ellicot, it does not appear to have ex-
ceeded 19.207 ; and from thofe of Dr. Lewis, on the pureft
gold, well iiammered, its gravity is ilated between 19.300
and 19.400. In all experiments of this kind, the relnlt
fhould be fpecilied with an account of the fenfiblllty of the
balance, and the quality and warmth of the water. An in-
creafe of heat rarefying water more than it does gold, the
Vox.. XVJ.

gold muR turn nut proportionably heavier tliaii an cqihl
volume of tlie exj)iinded fluid ; and this difiereiicc ii nior.;
conliderabie than it has generally bei 11 fuppofed. I'^rom
freezing to boiling water, or by an augn.entation of heal
equivalent to 180 of l"ahrcnheits thermometer, Dr. Lew's
found that a rod of gold was lengthcui-d about one part i.i
703, and confequently its volume increafed about otic part
in 233, while tlie volume of v.ater is increafed one twcnty-
fixth or more ; Jieiice it appears, tliat by an ai!grt""T.ati<jn
of 40"^ of the thermometer, or from a little above fri-e/.i.ig
to the fummer heat, the volume of gold, if its expai;lion he
i.niform, is increafed one part in 1048, anil that of v.ater
i/ne in 117; and the gravity of gold, weighed in ihc water
fo warmed and expanded, Ihould be greater than \y!ien the
gold and water are 40 colder, in the proportion of about
19.265 to 19.400: and this calculation gives a difference,
in the gravity, of O.034 for every 10' of the llicrniomiter ;
but fome trials feemed to make it greater. It Iia3 been
imagined, that the comparative gravity of gold to brafs
weights, which are more than double in volume to an equal
weight of gold, mull be lo far influenced by the variable
gravity of the atmofphere, that there iiinil be an advantage
in buying gold by weight when the air is ligjitefl. Cut Dr.
Lewis obferves, that this difference appears too inconf:d-.r-
able to be regarded in a commercial view. For the lof;; of
weight of the two metals in the air being as much lefs than
their lofs in water, as air is lighter than water ; and air, if
we admit the accuracy of the conclufion deduced from an
experiment of Mr. Hawkibee, being in its lighteft ftate
about a 937th, and in its heavieft (late about an 848th part
of the weight of water ; it will be found, on calculation,
that the gold preponderates above the brafs, in the hcaviefl
more than in the Ughtell air, only by one part in 145. oco,
or one grain in about 302 ounces ; which is a difference too
minute to be feniible in the nicefl balance. If the mean
gravity of gold be reckoned 19.3CO, as a cubic inch of
^vater weighs about 254 grains, a cubic inch of gold will
confequently weigh about 4902 grains, cr 10 ounces, 102
grains. The pound weight, or tv.elve cinccs Troy, of
gold, is divided into twenty-four carats. Dr. Lewis Hates
tlie fpecific gravity of fine gold at 53 Fahrenheit, to te
19.376. According to Briuon the fpecific gravity of fine
gold in ingot is 19.258, and when hammered 19 361.
The fpecific gravity of gold made ftandard by Britilli
copper, was found by Mr. Hatchett (fee Phil. Tranf.^for
I'-!o3) to be 17.281, when call in an iron irould ; but
when the fame was call in fand, it was only 16.994. . (See
Spenfc Gn.^^■ITy.) The foftnefs of gold, for it is nearly
as foft as tin, and its toughncfs, adapt it for receiving thi
inipivfTions of dies, and of courfe to be reduced to the flate
of coin, and for various other purpofes in the arts. It is
biU (lightly elaflie and fonorous. \Vith regard to tenacity,
it is inferior to iron, copper, platina, and nlver, and there-
fore the afiVrtions of fojmer chemills and philofopliers ha\e
been contradicted by later exi>*riin.ciits, for gold lias been
I'fually reprefeiited as the n.oft tenacious as well as tlie luoll
dutlile of all metals. Its malleability and duclility are
fufficiently evinced by the GoLD-/f<j/"and GoLD-ww, whicli
fee. See alfo Ductility.

The value of gold to that of filver, was anciently only as
twelve to one. Indeed, tliis proportion varies as gold is
more or lefs plentiful : for Suetonius relstcs, that C.-cfar
brought fuch a quantity of gold from Italy, that the pound
of <Told was onlv worth feven pounds and a half of filver.
In our coinage, the value of fine gold to fine filver is nearly
as 15,- to I. (>'5ee Coin and ST.vsn.Mtn.) Sir Ifaac Ne*--
ton obferves, in a repfefcnlation to the lords of the treafury
3 II in

GOLD.

in the year 1717, that in the mints of Spain and Pof tugal the
value of gold is fixteen times that of filver ; but that in thofe
countries, payments in filver bearing generally a premium of
fix per cent, the proportion may be confidered as fixed by
commerce at 15 .V to I ; that in the other parts of Europe,
the value of gold is at moit fifteen, and in China and Japan
but nine or ten times that of filver ; fo that gold is rated
higher in England than in any other part of Europe, and
higher in Europe than in the Eaftern countries. Hence, in
great meafure, arife the profits of exchanging gold for filver
in one place, and re -exchanging them in another ; and hence
the o-reater difparity between the relative quantities of gold
and filver in one commercial nation than in another ; this me-
tal being brought in moll abundance which is rated highefl
in proportion to the other, and that which is rated loweil be-
ing drained away. There are various ways of determining
the finenefs of gold ; or the proportion of alloy which it
contains. Thole who are nfcd to this bufinefs can judge
nearly the proportion of alloy from the colour of any given
mafs, provided that the fpecies of alloy be known. For the
method of doing this, fee Tovcil-needks. The great excefs
of the weight of gold, above that of the metals ufed for its
alloy, affords another method of determining the quantity of
alloy in any given mafs, where the fpecies of alloy is known.
Thus fine gold lofes in water one grain in every 19.3 nearly ;
and fine filver lofes one grain in about eleven ; from whence
it is eafy to find the lofs of any number of grains of each,
and confcquenlly of any affignable mixture of the two me-
tals. Thus, fifty grains of gold will lofe above 2/, and fifty
grains of filver fomewhat more than 4' ; fo that a mixture
of equal parts of the two will lofe above feven in a hun-
dred, or one in fo\irteen. A mixture of gold with half its
weight of filver will lofe one part in 1 5.4 ; with a third of
filver, one in 16.2 ; with a fourth, one in 1.67 ; and with an
eleventh of filver,' which is the llnndard proportion of alloy,
one in 18 I. On this principle, the fpecific gravity or pro-
portional lofs in water, of gold alloyed with different quan-
tities of filver, copper, and mixtures of both, may be com-
puted and formed into tables for ufe. The accuracy of this
method, it fhould be obferved, depends on the fuppofition
that each of the two metals, that are melted together, re-
tains its own proper gravity, which is the cafe in mixtures
of gold and filver ; but gold and copper, melted together,
are fpecifically lighter than if thev were weighed feparatelv ;
or the fpecific gravity of tiie alloy is lefs than that of the
mean of its ingredients ; the cafe is the fame with the alloys
of nickel and gold, of lead and gold, of iron and gold ;
but the reverfe happens in mixtures of gold with zinc, bif*
muth, and tin. It appears, therefore, that the hydrollatic ba-
hmce cannot difcover, with certainty, the exadl finenefs of
gold, unlefs when filver is the metal mixed with it.

There are various methods of fcparating gold from gilt
works : it may be feparated from the furfaee of filver, either
by fpreading over the gilt filver a pafte made of powdered
fal ammoniac moiftened with aquafortis, and heating it till
the matter i'mokes, and is nearly dry ; throw it into water;
and the gold will eafily come off by rubbing it with a feratch
brulh : or, by putting the gilt filver into common aqua re-
gia, nearly boiling, and turning the metal frequently, till it
becomes all over black ; then walh it with water, and rub it
with the feratch brufti, which will difengage the gpidleft by
the aqua regia. See Gilding.

Gold may be feparated from gilt copper, by applying a
folution of borax to the gilt parts with a pencil, and fprink-
ling over the place thus moillened a little powdered fulphur;
\vhen the piece is made red-hot and quenched in water, the
^pld may be wiped o'f with a brufh.

Gold may be recovered from wood, gilt on a water fize,
by fteeping, it for a quarter of an hour in a quantity of very
hot water, fufficient to cover it ; then fcrub the wood in a
little warm w.ater, with fhort ftiflF brittle bruflies of different
fizes : boil the whole mixture of water, fi/.e, gold, &c. to
drynefs ; make the dry matter red-hot in a crucible to burn
off the fize, and grind the remainder with mercury. The
gold will be more eafily laid hold of by the mercury, by the
addition of fome clean fand.

Gold, Alchemical Hi/lory of. See Philosopher's Stotif,
and Transmutation.

Gold, jlmalgam of, is a preparation of gold much ufed
by the gilders (fee Gilding) ; and it is made by heating
fome pure quickfilver in a clean crucible, and adding to it,
when it is nearly boiling, about a fixth of its weight of fine
gold in thin plates that are hot ; after this mixture has been
kept hot for a few minutes, it becomes an homogeneous fub-
fiance ; and when cold, it is put into a piece of foft leather,
and which is gradually prefied till the fluid part of the amal-
gam, confining almoil wholly of mercury, is forced through
the pores of the leather ; while the gold, combined with
about twice its weight of mercury, will remain in the ftate
of a yellow filveiy mafs, of the eonfi Hence of foft butter ; •
when this mafs has been bruifed in a mortar, or fliaken in a
phial, with repeated portions of iait and water, till the water
receives no foulnefs from it, it is fit for ufe, and may be
preferved for any time in a corked phial. For the purpofes
of gilding it i.s of great importance, that this amalgam-
(hould be formed of pure materials, as any portion of lead
or bifmuth would deteriorate the colour of the gold, and
tarnifh it with black fpecks. The mercury (liould therefore
be previoufiy diftilled from the red precipitate (nitrous red
oxyd of mercury), either alone or mixed with a httle char-
coal powder. See AiMALOAii and Mercury.

GoLTJ-bealin^, and Gohv-l/cater' s fiin. See GoLv-leaf,

Gold, Burmjlied, is that which is polifhed with a fteel in-
ftrument, called a burnifiier, if it be wrought gold, or gild-
ing on metal ; or with a wolf 's tooth, if it be gilding in water.
See Gilding.

Gold Chain: See Chain.

Gold Coin, or fpecies of gold. See Coin and Coinage.

Gold Colour on Clafs artd China. See Gems, Glass,
GiLDiNti, and Porcelain.

GoLD-coloured Glazing. See GlazinG.

GoLD'Colourcd JlTeltil'is produced by melting zinc with cop-
per. According to the purity of the zinc and copper, the
proportions in which they are mixed, and the intimacy of
their union, tl^ compound metal proves more or lefs malle-
able, and approaches more or lefs to the colour of gold.
Some direft the zinc to be taken only in a fifth or fixth part
of the weight of the eepper, and others in an equal weight
or more. Dr. Lewis oblerves, from the refult of many ex-
periments, that both with the fmallell and largell of thefe
quantities of zinc, the metal proves more hke gold than with
the inteiTnediate proportions.

The colour of thefe compounds is improved by a fmall
mixture of fome other metallic bodies. Cramer recommends
the addition of a fmall quantity of pure tin to copper, melt-
ed with a fourth or fixtli part of zinc, which forms a com-
pound metal, that acquires, on being well cleaned, and laid
in the air for fame days, a fupevficial colour of fine gold;
Geoffroy fays that iron has the bell efleft : with the pro-
portions of ten parts of zmc, eight of copper, and one, of
iron-filings, he produced a metal of a fine fmoolh grain, com-
patt, hard, and bright, and of a beautiful gold colour. By
making the copper firft into brafs, and then melting it with
a fuitable quantity of zinc, a metal may be obtained of fu.

p'irioiv

GOLD.

perior quality to t}iat produced cither by melting the copper
and zinc, or by impregnating the copper witli zinc, by ce-
mentriiion and fufion with calamine; which is a nnethod foine-
times praclifed. A very ingenious artift, fays Dr. Lewis,
who now prepares a gold-coloured metal in grc ..' perfec-
tion, has a fine kind of brafs made on purpofe for this
ufe. The union of the copper and zinc in fulion, fucccx-Js
•bell and with leaft lofs ef the zinc, according to Dr Lewis,
by ufing a mixture of black flux and l)orax, or a compohtion
of twelve parts of greci: glafs powdered, fix parts of put-
afh, two of borax, and one of powdered cliarcoal : when this
■flux is fiifed in the crucible, the copper and zinc are dropped
into it ; and when they appear perfectly melted, they are to
be vi-ell ftirrcd togetlter with an iron rod, and expeditiouflv
poured out. The fame flux will ferve for melting fevtral
frefli quantities of the metal. Dr. Hooke gives the follow-
ing receipt for making a gold-coloured metal : eight parts
of diftilled verdigris, i. e. of verdigris purified by folution
in dillilled vinegar and cryftallization, and four parts of
Alexandrian tutty, with two of nitre, and one of borax,
are directed to be mixed with oil to the confiilence of pap ;
then melted in a crucible, and poured into a flat mould firft
well warmed. A con:pofitiou of this kind is called auriim
Jophiflicum.

The following method is recommended by Homberg for
giving a gold colour to copper, without the addition of
zinc ; make an amalgam of one part pure copper, and three
parts quickliber ; boil this in river-water for two hours,
then diilil off the quickfilver in a retort, and cohobate it
once ; take out the copper and fufe it, and it will be found
of a beautiful gold colour, more duftile than common cop-
per, and extremely well fitted for watch-work, gilding, and
the finer machines and utenfils. The celebrated Mr. Pott
affirms that a gold-coloured metal may be made from a
mixture of copper and tin, and diredls it to be compounded
in the follo«-ing manner; Take one half ounce of tin aflies,
and four htlf ounces of copper ; melt them wt-ll together
in a clofe luted crucible, with a ilrong fire ; or take one
half ounce of the pureft tin cut in pieces, and fixteen half
ounces of pure copper beaten into thin plates ; lay the tin
between the copper-plates, lute the crucible clofe, and melt
with a flirong fire. See Prince's Metal and Tombac.

Silver is tarni(hed fuperficially, by certain vapours, as
that of putrified urine, to a colour fo like that of gold,
that feveral edifts have been iffued in France to prevent
frauds of this kind with regard to wire and laces.

GoLD-co/oured Pigments. See Pigments.

GoLD-ioloureel l^arni/h. See I^ACciUER.

Gold, Croivn, See Coin and Standard.

Gold, Dutch, is a kind of leaf ufed in gilding. Sec
which is copper gilt, or brafs beaten into leaves hke the
genuine gold-leaf. It is faid to be made from copper-
plates, by cementation with calamine, without fubfequent
f '.lion. Tlie thicknefs, compared with tliat of leaf-gold, is
as nineteen to fo-ar, and under equal furfaces it is confi-
derably more than twice as heavy as the gold.

Gold, Farthing of. See Farthing.

Gold, Fine or Pure, is that pur^-ed bv the fire of all its
impurities, and all alloy. The Latins call it aurum purum,
aunim primum, aurum obrixum, aurum coSnm.

Ttie moderns frequently call it gold of liuenly-four carats ;
but, in reality, there is no fuch tliinir as gold lo very pure.;
and there is always wanthig at leaft a quarter of a carat.
Gold of twenty-two carats has one part of iDver, and an-
other of copper : that of twenty-three carats has half a
part, / e. half a twenty-fourth of each.
-Bouteroue maintains, that the electrum of the ancients

was gold of nineteen carats; or four parts gold, and a fiftk
filver.

From an ordinance of king John of ranee, it app»ar»
that the gold then ftruck at Paris was of ninet<tn caratt
one-fifth ; and yet it is added that it was tlie bell ai:d lincft
gold t/.-n known on earth. See Standai.d.

Gold, Fulminating, aurum fulminans, a precipitate of
gold from its M;iro-niuriiitic folution by ammonia, which
pofTenes a moll remarkable exploCvc property. See At uiv.

It is prepared by diluting a folution of muriated g' Id
witli fix or eight times its bulk of dillilled water, adding
drop by drop liquid ammonia, til! the precipitation ccsft-s ;
then let the ) ellow powder thus obtained be ferarated by
a filter, \yell waflied in hot water, and afterwards drier'.
The fulminating gold, thus procured, will exceed the weight
of the original gold by about 33 parts in ico. If a finall
quantity, e. g. half a grain, of this powder be held over a
candle, in a fpoon or on the blade of a knife, it prefintly
explodes \\-ith a ver)- loud report, 'i'his powder (hould be
very cautioudy ufed ; the temperature requifite for its ex-
plofion is ftated at above 250' of Fahrenheit. Before it
explodes, its yellow colour changes to black, and at the
moment of its decompofition an inftantancous fla(h is ob-
ferved. The principal energy m explofion is directed down-
wards, infomuch that two or three grains of it exploded on
a moderately tliick (heet of copper will burft a hole in it.
This fait is decompofed by an electrical Ihock, but it can-
not be ignited by a fpark from eledricity or from flint and
fteel. It will vehemently explode by fudden friclion, and
therefore, in order to avoid dangerous accidents of this
kind, it fliould never be kept in a ground-lloppered bottle.
The facility of its explofion is very much incrcafed by high
drying ; fo that if it be heated till it becomes black, and if
immediately removed from the fire, it will frequently go
off by a mere touch. If the fulminating gold be mixed
with four or five times its weight of chalk, or fulpnat of
potalh, or with any pulverulent fubllance neither fufible nor
decompofable at a moderate temperature, and expofed gra-
dually to a low heat, it will be quickly decompofed, le.iv-
ing merely the purple oxyd of gold. Tlie fame effed may
be produced by very cautioully heating the fulminating
gold without any addition, removing it from the fire when
it has changed its colour, and when cold heating it again,
and proceeding in this way till the powder becomes purple,
in wiiitli rtate it will have entirely loil its explofive facultv.
A fimilar change occurs by melting fuljihur at th.e lowcil
poflible heat, and dropping in the ^Imiiiating gold by half
a grain at a time, well mixing it ; the fulphur may then be
burnt off without danger, and minute grains of metallic
gold will be left beliind. " The true theory of the de-
compofition of fulminating gold was partially difcovered
by Bergman, and has fince been fully ilhiftratcd by Berlhol-
let. The former of thefe able chemills Ihewid tliat this
fait when decompofed in clofe veffels was reduced to gold,
partly in the metallic ftate and partly in that of purple
oxyd, and at the fame time a gas was cxtricat.d in bulk,
about a thoufand times a« great as that of the original fulmi-
nating talt, and wJiicli extinguiflicd flame and aniinal life, was
not ablorbed by water, and gave no prccipitr.te with lime-
water. BerthoUi't, by decompofiiig the fame fubllance in a
copper tube, connected with 3 jar inverted in mercury,
obtained azotic gas and a few drops of water, and the
gold was reduced to the metallic appeanmce. Now as am-
monia is compofed of hydrogen and a/.ot, and as the affi-
nity of gold for oxygen is very flight, it is inanifcil that
the decompofition and explofion, under the circumilance*
already mentioned, are occjlioned bv tlu* oxvvva of the

; H 7

Told

C O L D.

gold and the liydrojrpn of the ammonia combining to form
water, and to the hboration of the azot and its fudden af-
fum-rtion of the gafeous llate.'" Aikin's Dift.

Gold, Leaf, or heuUn ^ohU is gold beaten w ith a ham-
mer into exceedingly thin leaves. It is aftoiiifliing to con-
hd?r the iinenefs to 'which a body of gold is thus reduced.
In an experiment of Reaumur's, forty-two fquare inches
and three tenths of gold-leaf weighed one grain Troy ; and
Mr. Boyle found tlint fifty and feven tenths weighed but
a grain.' As ;\ cubic inch of gold weighs 4902 grains,
the thicknefs of the gold-leaf examined by the one was
the 207355lh, and of that by the other only the 248532nd
part of an incli. See Ductility of Gold.

This gold is b.'at on a fmooth block of black marble,
from two hundred to fix hundred pounds in weight, and
about nine inches fquare on the upper furface, litted into
the middle of a wooden frame, about two feet fquare, fo
as that the furface of the marble and frame form one even
plane. Three of the fides are furniflied with a hjgh ledge,
and the front, which is open, has a leather flap fallened to
it, which the gold beater ufes as an apron, for preferving
the fragments of gold that fall off. Three hausmers are
employed in this bufinefs, having two round and iome-
wh.it convex faces : t!ie firft, called the cutch hammer, is
about four inches in diameter, and weighs fifteen or iixteen
-pounds : the fecond, called the flioderlng hammer, weighs
about twelve pounds, and is about the fame diameter : the
third, called the gold or finidiing hammer, weighs ten
or eleven pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in (ize and fliape
from thofe of our workmen.

The gold beaters alio ufe three kinds of animal mem-
branes ; fome of which are laid between the leaves to pre-
vent their uniting together, and others over them to defend
them from injury by tlie aftion of the hammer. For the
oatfide cover, they ufe common parchment made of (heep
ikin ; for interlaying with the gold, firit, the fmoothefl and
clofeft vellum made of calves ikin; and afterv.-ards, the
much finer ikins of ox-gut, ftript off from the large flraight
gut flit open, prepared on purpofe for this ufe, and^ hence
■c-^t&. gold-lniter s Jh'm. The general procefs of their pre-
paration, is faid to confifl in applying one upon another, by
.the fmooth fides, in a moill ftate, in which they readily
cohere and unite infeparably, ftretching them on a frame,
and carefully fcraping off the fat and rough matter, fo as
to leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut ; beat-
in'f them between double leaves of paper, to force out the
remaining umSluofity ; moiftening them once or twice with
an i-Ti'ufion of warm fpices, and laftly, drying and prefTing
tl em. It is faid, that fome calcined gypfum, or plafter
of Paris, is rubbid with a liare's foot, both on the vellum,
and ox-gut ikins, which fill up their pores, and prevent
the gold'lcaf from flicking. Thefe f]<ins, after feventy or
t'ighty repetitions, become unfit for ufe; but their virtue
may be reilored by interlaying them with leaves of paper
r.ioitlened with vinegar or white wine, beating them for a
whole day, and afterwards rubbing them over with plaller
of Paris ; and even holes in them may be repaired by the
dextrous application of frefh flcins.

Gold, the manner of preparing and beating. They firft
melt a quantity of the pureil gold in a black-lead crucible,
with fome borax, in a wind furnace, and pour it into an
iron ingot mould, fix or eight inches long, and \ of an inch
wide, previoufly greafed and heated ; the bar of gold is
made red-hot and forged on an anvil into a long plate,
which is farther extended, by being pafTed repeatedly be-
tween polifli'-d Heel rollers, till it becomes a ribband, as

thin as paper. This ribband is divided by compafTcs, ancl
cut with (hears into equal pieces, which are forged on an
anvil till they are an inch fquare, and afterwards well an-
nealed. Two ounces of gold, which is the quantity melt-
ed at a time, make a hundred and fifty of tliefe fquares,
fo that each of them weighs fix grains and two fiftlis ;
and as 4902 gi-ains of gohf make a cubic inch, the thick-
nefs of the fquare pieces is about the 766th part of an
inch. All thefe fquares are interlaid with leaves or vel-
lum, three or four inches fquare ; one leaf being laid be-
tween every two of them, and about twenty more of the
leaves are laid on the outfides : over thefe is drawn a
parchment cafe open at both ends, and over this another,
in a contrary direftion, fo that the veilum and gold leaves
are kept tight and clofe. The whole is then beaten with
the heavielt hammer, till the gold is llretched to tlie ex-
tent of the vellum : the pieces taken out of this cafe or
mould, are cut in four with a fteel knife; and the fix
hundred pieces thus produced are interlaid, in the fame
manner, with pieces of the ox-gut fiiius, five inches
fquare. The beating is repeated with a lighter hammer,
till the golden plates have acquired the extent of tSie fkin ;
when they are divided into four, by a piece of cane cut
to an edge. The whole number of leaves is then divided
into four parcels, which are interlaid, as before, and
beaten feparately, till they are ftretched for the third time
to the fi/e of the fltins. The French repeat the divifion
and beating once more. After the laft beating, the leaves
are taken up by the end of a cane inllrument, and being
thrown flat on a leathern cufliion, are cut to a fizc, one
by one, with a fquare franie of cane made of a proper
fliarpnefs, or with a frame of wood edged \\'ith cajie. They
are then fitted into books of twenlv-five leaves each, the
paper of which is v.-ell fmoothed, and rubbed with red bole
to prevent their flicking to it. The fize of the French gold
leaves is from fomewhat lefs than three inches to 3^ fquare :
that of oui 's from three inches to 3 i. We Ihall here obferve,
that the gold ufed for the above purpofe is never pure,
becaufe pure gold is too duttile to be worked between the
gold-beater's Ikins. The newefl flcins will work the finefl gold,
and make the thinned leaf, becaufe they are the fmootheil. Old
fl<ins, being rough or foul, require coarfer gold. The
finefl: gold for tliis purpofe has three grains of alloy in the
ounce, and the coarfeft 12 grains. In general the alloy is
fix grains, or one eightieth part. The alloy of kaf-gohl
is filver, or copper, or both, and the colour is produced
of various tints accordingly. Two ounces and two peiniy-
weights of gold are delivered by the mailer to the work-
man, who, if very ikilful, returns 2000 leaves, or So books,
of gold, together with one ounce and .fix pennyweights
of walle cuttings. Hence one book weighs 4.8 grains ;
and as the leaves meafure.3.3 inches in the fide, the thick-
nefs of the leaf is one two hundred and eighty-two thou-
fandth part of an inch.

The French prepare what is called green gold-leaf, from
a compofition of one part of copper and two of filver,
with eighty of gold; but Dr. Lewis obferves, that fueh
an admixture gives no greennefs to gold, and that this kind
of leaf is made from the fame fine gold as the highcft
gold-coloured fort, the greeuilh hue being a fup<'rficial teint
given to the gold in fome part of the procefs : this leaf
is chiefly ufed for the gilding of books. A kind of leaf,
called parly-gdd, is form.ed by laying a thick leaf of filver,
and a thiimer one of gold, flat on one another ; they arc-
then heated and prefTed together, fo as to unite and cohere ;
and being beaten into fine leaves, as in the foregoing
procefs, tlie gold, though only in quantity a fourth

of

GOLD.

of tlr.it of die filvcr, cxtcii;!s over it and cvc-ry xviiere
covers it.

Goi.n, MiHioii of, a phrafe often ufed to fignify a million
of crowns,

Cdi.i) Money.. See Money and Coiv.

GcLD, Mofdic, is gold applied in pannels on proper
ground, diftributcd into iqiuu-es, lozenges, and other com-
partments ; part of wliicli is (liadowed to railc cr heigliten
the reft. See Mosvir.

Gold Plates for 7^'VrtW(7/;n^ arc generally made of ducat
gold, vvhofe finenefs is from 23^ to 23^ carats: and the
finelt gold is the bell for this purpofe, unlefs where fome
parts of the gold are left hiire and unpotiihed, as in watch-
cafes, fnufT-boxes, &c. for which purpofe a mixture ofa'-
loy is neceffary, and filver is pn-ferred to copper, becaufe
the latter difpofes the plates to taniilh, and turn green.

See F.N-AMF.LMXG.

Gold, Potable, aurum patab'ile. Sec Auiiu.M Potalih; and
Goi.n.

Gntn Powder, for the pnrpofes of gilding, may be made
by grinding gold leaf with hor.ey, or thick gum-water,
(fee Shell-GOLv) : by diililling to drynefs a folulion of
gold in aqua refijia : by evaporating the mercury from an
amalgam of gold, taking care well to ftir the mate near the
end of the proccfs with a glafs rod or tobacco pipe ; or
bv precipitating gold from its folution in aoua regia by ap-
plying to it a foli.t'ou of common green vitriol in water,
or fome copper. Sic.

Gold Pree'ipilate lu'ith Tin, called alfo, from its fnppofed
difcovercr, calx Cajfi, is prepared with great care both in
diflolving the tin, and diluting the folution. For this
jiurpofe, a mixture of two parts of aquafortis, and one
cf fpirit of fait, is fuppofed to be the beft menftruum for
the tin. Into this mixture fome fine block tin, granulated,
is to be let fall, grain by grain, waiting till one grain is
diffolved before another is dropped in, that the diftolution
may go on flowly, without any heat or difcharge of fumes.
The jjold is diffolved in common aqua regia ; and a few drops
of this folution being mixed with fome ounces of pure
water, as many drops of the folution of tin are added. If
the mixture changes inmiediately to a clear bright purplifii
red colour, the due degree of dilution has been determined ;
if the colour appear;? dull, a greater quantity of water mud
be added for the reft of the folutions. Afttr the n-.ixture
has depofited its I'ed matter, and become clear, a little
more of the tin folution is to be dropped in, for difcovering
and precipitating anv gold that may ftill remain in it ; the
liquor being then poured off, the precipitate is waflied and
dried. Lewis's Com. Pliil. Tcchn. p. 176. See Ruby
Gl \.ss.

Gold, Queen. See OuEEX gnlil.

Gold, Sijell, is that uied by the gilders and illuminers, and
with which gold letters are written. It is made by grinding
gold kaves, or goldbeater's fragments, with a little honey,
and afterwards ieparating the honey from the powdered gold
by means of water. When the honey is waflied away, the
gold may be put on paper, or kept in fliells ; whence its
name. Wlicn it is ufed, it is diluted with gvim-w?.tcr, or
foap-fuds. The German gold-powder, prepared from the
Dutch gold leaf in t lie fame manner, is generally ufed, and
when it is well feoured with varnidi, anlwers the end
in iapanner's gilding, as well as the genuine. Sec Gilding.

GoLvfize for barnlilied gilding, is prepared of one pound
and a half of tobacco-pipe clav, half an omice of red
chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead, forty drops
cf fwcet oil, Kii three Jrams of pare tallow ; grind the

clay, cliulk, and black-Icad feparately, very fine in water;
then mix them together ; add the oil and tallow, and griiifl
the mixture to a due conliftence ; or it may be more fimplv
prepared by grinding together fome ilmngly calcined red
ochre with the thickeli and oldeft drying oil that can t»t- pro.
cured ; and, previoufly to ufe, mixing it with a little oil of
turpentine for giving it a proper confillencc. St-e Oil
Gilding.

Goi.D;//-/' of .h:pi!nners may be made hv piilveri/ing giiiii
animi and arplialt\mi, of each one ounce ; red-Kad, litliar-'c
of gold, and umbre, of eacli one ounce and a half, mixing
them with a pound of linfced oil, and boiling them, ob-
ferving to ftir them till the whole be incorporated, and ap-
pears, on growing cold, of the confillencc of tar; ftrain
the mixture through a flannel, and keep it ftoppcd up in a
bottle, fiir ufe. When it is ufed, it muft be ground with
as much vermilion as will give it an opaque body, and di-
luted with oil of turpentine, fo that it may be worked
freely with the pencil. A fimple preparation confifta of
one pomul of linfeed oil, and four ounces of gum animi ;
powder the gum, and mix it gradually with the boilipg oil :
let it continue to boil, till it becomes of the confiftcnce of
tar ; ilrain it througii a coiirfe cloth, keep and ufe* it as the
oth.er.

Gni.Tifmith, or as fome choofe to exjjrcfs it, fherfmith,
the artid who makes vedcls, utenfils, and ornaments in gc!d
o" filver. The goldfmiths work is cither performed in (lie
mould, or beat out witli the hamm.cr or other cngiti.-. All
works that have r.iifed figures are call in mould-., aiid
afterwards polllhed and finiihed ; plates or difhe? of fiker
or gold are beat out from thin Rn plates, and tankard? and
other veflels of that kind are formed of plates foldered
together, and their mouldings are beat, not caft. Tl'.s
bufinels of the goldfmith formerly required much more
labour than it docs at prefent, for they wore obliged
to hammer the metal from the ingot to t!ie thirrefs they
wanted : but there are now invented flatting-mill.<, which
reduce metal to the thinnefs that is required, at a Trry
fmall expence. The goldfmith is to make his own mould?,
and for that rcafon ought to be a good defigner, and have
a talle in fculpture : he alfo ought to know enough of
metallurgy to be able to alfay mixed metals, and to mij£
the alloy.

The goldfmith in London employs feveral hnndj under
him for the various articles of his trade. In thi.* great
city there are always hands that excel in every particular
branch of the trade, and there is commonly enq.Ioynrnl
enough for cvcrv one in his particular brant!:. Thf
jeweller, the fiiulT-box and toy-maker, the filver tumrr,
the glider, the buniifncr, the chafir, the refiner, .-.nd
the gold-beater, arc all employed by and under the gold-
fmith,

GoLB-fmi:i.>, Company of, !n LcnJcn. See Comp.\xy.

G01.X) Thread, or fpiin gold, is a fiuttcd gilt wire, whip-
ped or laid over a thread of veDow lilk. by twilling it
with a wheel and iron bobbins. Ry means of a curious
but complex machinerv, a number of thrravls- is thus
tv.'illed at once bv the turning of one wheel.. The principal
art confifts in fo rognlaling the motion, tl.at the fe-
ver.il circmnvolutions of the llatted wire, on each thread,
may iuft touch one ar^other, and form, as it wcrv, one
continued covering. At Milan, it is laid, they make a
fort of flatted wire, gilt only on one fide, which is wound
upon tl.e thread, fo tliat only the gilt fide appears. There
is alfo a gilt copper wire, made in the f.uv.c maniKT as
the gilt filver, cliicrty at Nuremberg : and- the- ordinances of

France

GOLD.

France require it to be fpun on flaxen or hempen threads.
The Chinefe, inftcad of flatted gilt wire, ufe (lips of gilt
paper, which tlicy interweave in their ftuffs, and twill upon
lilk threads.

Gold, Tun of, is a kind of money of account, for-
merly ufed by tiie Dutch, and in fome other countries, con-
taining a hundred thoufand florins.

A hundred pounds of, or in, gold, is found to weigh
two pounds ten ounces : the fum in filver weighs twenty-
fix pounds four ounces. Twenty-two pence in copper far-
things and half-pence, weigh one pound avoirdupois. A
tun of gold, at 4/. the ounce, amounts to 96,000/. .\ tun
of filver, at Jj. 2d. the ounce, to 6200/. A pound ftcr-
ling of gold to 48/. An ounce is worth 4/, The penny-
•weight 4J-. One grain, 2d. A pound of fterling iilver
amounts to 3/. 2s. An ounce is vvortli Jj. zd. The penny-
weight, 3(7. and fomethiiig more ; one grain a half-penny.
A pound of filver avoirdupois comes to 3/. 5.1. ^d. half-
penny.

Gold, Virgin, is pure gold, juft as it is taken out of the
mines, before it has nndergone any aftion or preparation of
fire;whence the Greeks call it aTujo.;. ,

Such is the,a^i^oxfjcro;, or gold-diift, and that got by lo-
tion in the lavaderos in Chili : it is added, that there are
m.afles or lumps of pure gold foand in the mines, particu-
larly thofe of Hungary. Accordingly, in the emperor's
coUeftion, are ftill preferved feveral plates of gold, faid to
•have been thus found.

Virgin gold is fometimes very pale, and fo foft, that
it may be moulded into any figure with the liand ; it even
takes .sn impreffion from a feal, like the fofteft wax. To
harden it, as alfo to heighten its colour, they mix emery
.with it.

Gold, White. See Platina.

Gold Wire is a cylindrical ingot of filver, above an inch
thick, two feet in length, and weighing about twenty
pounds, fiiperficially gilt, or covered with gold at the
tire, and afterwards drawn fucceflively through a great
number of little round holes of a wire -drawing iron,
each -lefs than the other, till it be fometimes no bigger than
a hair of the head. There is very little wire made entirely
of gold, and this chiefly for one particular purpofe, that of
fiUigree work.

It is amazing to what degree of finenefs the gold is here
drawn ; and yet it ftill keeps firm together, and never (hews
the leaft figns ol the filver underneath it. The reader may fee a
computation hereof, as alfo a more particular account of the

which are applied all over the filver rod, and prelTed down
fmooth witl; a fteel burnifher. Several of tliefe leaves are
laid over one another, as the gilding is required to be more
or lefs thick. The fmalleft proportion allowed by aft of
parliament, is 100 grains of gold to a pound, or 5760 grains
of filver. The largeft proportion for the bell double gilt
wire was Formerly 120 grains to a pound ; but the propor-
tion of gold has been of late increafed to about 140 grains.
The firil part of the drawing procefs, as well as the prepa-
ration and gilding of the filver rod, is performed by the re-
finer, who ufes plate of hardened Heel, with a piece of tough
iron welded on the back, to prevent the fteel from breaking.
The holes in thefe plates are conical, being larger in the
back part than in the fteel, that the rod may not be fcratchcd
againil the outer edge, and that they may contain bees-wax,
wliich makes the rod pafsmore freely, and preferves the gold
from being rubbed o(F. One end of the red, made fmaller
than the reft, is puilied through a hole that will admit it,
when the plate has been properly fecured, and laid hold of
by ftrong pincers, called clamps, adapted to the purpofe ;
to thefe pincers, which are fo contrived, that the force which-
pulls them horizontally, ferves at the fame time to prefs
them together, a rope is faftened by one end, and the other
end goes round a capitan with crofs bars, whicii requires the
ftrength of feveral men to turn it. The rod, thus drawn
through, is well annealed ; it is then pafted through the next
hole ; and the annealing and drawing are repeated, till, being
reduced to about the fize of a large quill, it is delivered in
coils to the wire-drawers. The remainder of t'ne procefs re-
quires plates of a different quality, which are brought from
Lyons in France, and are (ormed of a metallic mafs, whofc
prevailing ingredient is iron : the holes are drilled in them
here. Thefe plates are ot two forts ; fome of confijerable
thicknefs, for the wire in its larger ftate,and otliers about half
as thick, for the finer wire. In the ufe of tiiele plates, fur-
niftied with a variety of holes, the dexterity of the workman
principally confifts in adapting the liole to the wire : for
this purpofe lie ufes a brafs plate, called a fi/.e, on wliich is
meauired, by means of notches, like fteps cut atone end, tlie
increafe which a certain length of wire fliould gain in paf-
fing through a frefh hole ; and if the wire is found to (Ireteh
too much or too little, the hole is widened or contracted.
Shtsof different widths, in thick poli(hed iron rings, ierve
alfo as gages for meafuring the degree of finenefs of the
wire.

The wire-drawer's procefs begins with annealing the large
wire received from the refiner, wliich he does, by placing it.

Id.

manner of proceeding, under the article Ductility of coiled up, on fome lighted charcoal, in a cylindrical cavity,

called the pit, under a chimney, and throwing more burning
charcoal over it. When it is cooled by being quenched in
water, one end is paded through the iiril hole in the thick
plate, and fattened to an upright wooden cylinder fix or eight
inches in diameter ; in the top of which are two ilaples, and
through thefe is palTed the long arm of a handle, by which
the cylinder is turned on its axis by feveral men. By this
procefs, called degroffing, the wire is frequently annealed and
quenched, after pafllng through every hole, or every other
hole, till it is brought to about the fize of the fmall end of
a tobacco pipe, and then cut into portions for the fine
wire-drawer. In this laft part of the wire-drawing pro-
cefs, annealing is not neceffary, but the wire is waxed at
every hole. The contrivance for drawing the wire through
the plate in this cafe, when lefs force is needful, is a kind of
a wooden wheel placed horizontally, having in its upper fur-
face fmall holes at difierent diftances from the axis, intg
one or other of which, according to the force required,

go,

Gold Wire flatted, is the former wire flatted between two
rollers of pohlhed llee', to fit it to be fpun in filk, or to be
ufed fiat as it is without fpinning, in certain ftulFs, laces, em-
broideries, &c.

Manner of forming Gold Wire and Gold thread, both
round and flat .—T\\e firll objecl, whicli is of the utmoil
confequence, is the choice of the purell gold ; for on
this chiefly depends the beauty and durability of the colour
of the laces, brocades, and other commodities prepared from
it. To a difference in this refpeft, the boalted fuperiority
of the French laces to the generality of thofe made in Eng-
land, till of late, has been wholly ow-ing. With regard to
the filver that forms the body of the wire, it is faid that
there is an advantage in its being alloyed. The French fil-
ver for gilding is faid to be alloyed with five or fix penny-
weight, and ours with twelve penny-weight of copper, in
the pound Tray. The gold is employed in thick leaves,

GOLD.

IS iiifeitird the end of an upright handle, whofe upper Gold of Pleafurt, in Botany. See MvAGRUM.

fnd is received in a ho'e mad'- in a crofs bar above. From Gold CoaJI, or, as it is fomcti'i-.es called, Gutrua prober, z

this the wire is wound off upon a fmaller cylinder, country of Guinea, on the S. W, coaft of Africa, bordering

Called a rochett, placed on the fpindle of a fpinning- "n tliat part of the Atlantic wliich is called the guJf of

wheel ; and this cylinder being placed behind the plate, Guinea, and extending between three and four degrees from

the wire is again drawn through upon the firft, and
being brought to the proper fincnefs, it is annealed for the
fiat:ing-niill. In this annealing, tlie wire is tvound on a large
hollow copper bobbin, fet upright, including fmall-coal, and
encompafled with lighted charcoal or fmall-coal, commmii-
cating a gradual heat. The wire, in this ftate, mull be

the river Ankobar, or, as others fay, from the Colta, or the
Allinoe, to the Volta, and deriving its name from the
quantity of gold which it produces. It is bounded on the
north by Kongo or Congo, on the eafl by the Slave coafl,
en the well by the Ivory coall, and on the fouth by the
gulf of Guinea. It comprehends a number of petty ilates

watched and removed from the heat, when it appears of the or kingdoms, wz. Adomir, called likewife Saku and Avena,
proper Colour. The next operation is that of the flatting- Axim, Ankobar, Adom, iikewife called Little InkaiTan,
mill, which confiits of two pertettly round and exquifitely or Warflier, Jabi or Jabo, Commendo or GualTo, Fetu,

polilhed rvillers, formed internally of iron, and welted over
Mth a plate of refined fteel : thefe rollers are placed with
their a.Kes parallel, and their circumferences nearly in con-
taft ; they are both turned with one handle ; the lowermoft.
is about ten inches in diameter, the upper little more than
two, and their width or thicknefs is about an inch and a
quarter. Thefe rolls are fometimes repolillied with putty,
prepared by calcining a mixture of lead and tin. The wire,
unwinding from a bobbin, and puffing between the leaves of
a book gently preffed, and through a narrow flit in an up-
nght piece of wood, called a ketch, is directed by a fmall
conical hole in a piece of iron, called a guide, to any parti

Sabo, Fantin, Acron, A gonna or Anguirra, Amra or
Aquamboe, Lableade, and Ningo or Lambi. Each of thefe
provinces or kingdoms contains one, two, or more towns or
villages on the fea-coaft, between, or under tlic European
forts and fettlements- Eight of thefe are real monarchies,
having their own proper kings ; the rell are repubhcs,
governed by magillrates, who are fubjeA to th?- laws and>
periodical changes. Upon the river Ankobar, or Cobre,
which fome reckon the firll proper county of the Gold
Coall, there is a number of towns, which compofe three
different provinces of Ankobar or Ajicober, Aborrcl or
Abocro, and Eguira, at which latter place the Dutch bad

cular part of the width of the rollers, fome of the bed of formerly a fort, and carried on a confiderable trade in gold.

which are capable of receiving, by this contrivance, forty
threads. When the wire is 'iatted between the rollers, it is
wound again on a bobbin, which is turned by a wheel, fixed
on the axis of one of the rolls, and fo proportioned, that
the motion of the bobbin juft keeps pace with that of the
rolls. Dr. Halley Ilates tliat fix feet in length of the finell
gilt wire before flatting will countcrpoife no more than a
grain ; and as the gold is not quite l-57th of the v.hole,
a fingle grain of gold thtis extended v,:ll be 345-6 feet long.
By flatting, the length of the wire is increaled about one-
feventh, and its weight is equal to i-96th of an inch;
hence the furface occupied by one grain is equal to 98.7
fquare inches, with a thicknefs of i -490444th of an inch.
(See Ductility.) See on the fiibject of the preceding
articles, Macquer's Dicl. of Chemillry, Eng. edit 1777.
and particularly Dr. Lewis's Philofophical Commerce of
Arts, paffim. See alio Aikin's Didtionary.

Gold, in Medicine and Chimijlry. The chemifls make
feveral preparations of gold for medicinal ufes ; as falts,
mercuries, and tinClures of goid ; but it is a point not yet
well agreed on, whether gold has any real property whereby
It may be of ule in medicine.

SoiTie mechanical phy fi ians have had a notion, that if the
particles of gokl could b? rendered line enough, fo as to cir-
culate with the blood, that it would prove more effeilual in
the cure of difeafes than mercury. But this is a mere hypo-
thefis. The aurum Julmhtans has been ufed, and other pre-
parations of gold are to be met with in authors; but they
feem to nee: with little credit among modern practitioners.
Gold, in Heraldry, is one of the metals, more ufually
called by the Fi .-nch name, Or.

GoL-a-finch, in Ornithology, is the Frikgilla carduelL of
Linnaeus ; which fee.

GohD-fJh, in Ichthyology, is the CypRINUS auratus of Lin-
naeus ; which fee

alio

Eight leagues E. of cape Apolionia (lands the town of
Axim, called by fome Achembonc. (See Achembose and
Axim.) • See Acron, Adom, Adomir, A.sta, Com-
MENDO, &c. &c. The country throughout the Gold Coalt
abounds in hills, adorned with high and beautiful trees,
among which are the palm, the cocoa-nut, the papay, and
the banana. The vallies between the hills are wide and ex-
tenfive, and fit for the plantation of all forts of fruit ; and
if they were as well ci:ltivated as watered, they v.ould
fupply halt the coail with provifions. The foil produces
in great abundance very good rice, the richell fort of millet
with red grain, yams, potatoes, and other roots, all good
in their kind. The fugar-cane grows here plentifully, and
larger than any v.here elfe on the Coaft of Guinea. Palm-
wine and oil are very good, and very abundant ; the country
alfo has plenty of tame cattle and wild bcalls. The domeftic
animals are bulls, cows, (heep, and goats, the laft of which
are numerous and their flefh is excellent ; neither the mutton
nor beef is good ; but of all animal food dog's flefli is moll
preferred by the negroes. The wild anin.als are elephants,
tygers, jackalls, boars, deer of various fizes, cats, porcO-
piiies, moukies, rats, mice, &c. &c. Among the birds are
pheafants, parrots, maccaws, turtle-tiovcs, and feveral
others. The reptiles are numerous ; fuch as fnakes, fer-
pents, vipers, lizards, fcorpions, fpiders, &c The coails,
lakes, and rivers abound with fifh, and Ukewile with alli-
gators and gunas, an amphibious animal, refembling the cro-
codile, and four feet in length. The chmate is very liot from
Odlober to March, but during the other months tolerable.
The natives are generally healthy ; but to Europe.ins the
climate is infalubrious, and often fatal, cfpciially in the
months of Julv and Augull.

It is obferved that ot all the countries oa the coafl of
Weilern Africa, the Gold Coall tx.pcriences »ho ir.oll in-
tenfc heat. Ifert, a modern traveller, near Rio Volta, has
feen Fahrenheit's thermometer as high as 95^ in his

GoLD-fJh is alio a name by which fome authors have chamber, and 134° in the open air ; . furpafruig by 26 the
called the alaufa, alofa, or Jhacl, 'from the yellow colouring greatell heat obferved by Adanfon on ,-.11 t.le^anks of the
k frequently has on the covering of the gills. See Clutea Senegal. AUhough this traveller advanced only 10 miles
^lofa, from ChriiUanburg on this coall, his joaniey is curious.

TliC

GOLD.

Tlip countries be vifitcd duiing his fiiort excurfion in the they are temperate, but very profufe in drinking. Their
Interior, arc rejirclcnted as very beautiful, fertile, and po- marriages are encumbered with few ceremonies, and without
pu'ons ; they aiv, in general, >voudy, but, neverthelels.

more htalthy than the ihores ; they are agreeably inter
minsiled with mountains, vallies, and hills. Trefti Arater,
which is fcarce and bad on the ccall, ia here cxcellint and
abundant. About live miles from Cliriftiaubiir;^- lu-rt ob-
lerved a chain of mountains covered with tall trees, and
compofjd of large grained graiiite, of gueifs, and of
quartz

anv previous courtfhip ; and they are as cafily diflblved as
contracted. Polygamy is allowed among them; and tiio
women are generally doomed to the moft laborious ofnces;
they are obliged to cultivate the ground, fow millet, plant
yams, and provide fubliftence for the hufband, who is idly
fpcnding his time in gofilping, drinking, and fmonking.
Tiie rich, however, have two wives, who are exempted from
labo\ir and all fervile employments; and to them tlie

rhe native negroes of the Gold Coail are in general tall, management of the houfe is intruded, and a fort of autho

ftraight, and well-proportioned, v.ith oval faces, fparkling
eves, regular, wliite teeth, mouths of a moderate iize, and
lips tinged with a better colour and thinner than thofe of the
Hegroes of Angola. As to the qualities of the mind, they
have a quick apprehenlion and ready memorj', accompanied
with an allonilhing prei'ence of mind, and equanimity ; but they
are generally fo indolent that mere ueceffity puts them upon
exerting the faculties they polfefs. In general, they are
crafty, fraudulent, and treacherous ; thieves, gluttons, and
drunkards, and equally incontinent and covetous. When

rity over all the other women is committed. It is laid to
be no uncommon expedient among Negroes to marry, iu
order to obtain a livelihood by the proftitution of their
wives. As the wealth of the Negroes confills chiefly in
the number of their family, they are anxious for multiply-
ing their children ; and a pregnant woman is treated with
great tendernefs and refpeit. A child, as foon as it fees
the hght, is confecrated by the prieft, and has three names
given to it Circumcifion, it is faid, though praftifed in
other parts of Africa, is hardly known on the Gold Coaft,

they obtain a vifiory over their enemies, they return home except at Acra, where it is performed at the time of bap

dancing and iinging, and when defeated do the fame round
the crraves of their friends and fc-Uow-foldiers. Alike inlen-
iible of grief or jov, they ling till they die, and dance into
ihe grave. The women are proportionably handfomer than
the men, ftr&ight, (lender, and well-limbed; their chefts
high, their mouths fmall, and their eyes indicating vivacity except at Acra.
afld fpirit. They are quick, cheerful, and loquacious ; gay cobar, Anta, and
in their difpofition, and loofe in their principles as to gal-
lantry, but temperate in their diet. When the men and
women overcome their natural indolence, they are laborious,
induftrious,' and ingenious; and apply with aftivity and

tifm or confecration. Befides their lawful wives, the Ne-
groes often keep concubines, who are preferred to their wives,
and more tenderly treated; neverthekfs their children are
reckoned illegitimate. But legitimate children never inhe-
rit any paternal fortune, in any kingdom on the GoldCoall,

In the countries of Eguira, Axim, An.

Adorn, there are certain women who
never marry, but are dedicated by profeffion to the publiv;
ufe, and initiated in their vocation in a formal manner.
Among the Negroes there is a variety of mechanical arts,
in which thev are expert ; fucli as the making of wooden and

diligence to agriculture or lilhing , fo far as they are excited earthen vclfels anci plates, chair-mat ting", copper ointir.ent

by poverty or avarice. Their drefs is various according to boxes, bracelets, necklaces, rings, and ear-rings of gold,

their rank and circumftanccs ; but the rage of drefs is chiefly filver, or ivorN" ; and alio all forts of weapons and inftrun ents

prevalent among the women, who are fond of adorning all of war. Their tool.', which are rude and fnnple, conliil only

parts of their bodies with gold, coral, and ivory trinkets ; of a flone for an anvil, a pair of tongs, a pair of bcUiiWS, a

and this rage they derived from the Portugueie and Dutch, file, a faw, and a hammer. They can linifli with extraordinary

as before their arrival men and women went na!:ed to the age exaitnefs ileel-wirc. and materials of gold, brafs, and cop-

.of maturity. They are fond of frequent ablutions, and per. In building canoes, which are of various fizes, from

being accuftomed to the ufe of water, they are excellent 30 to 14 feet in Icngih, and three or four feet in brcadl)i»

fwimmers and divers from their youth. Befide the natural the Negroes are very ingenious, and they are no leis dex-

inhabitants of the Gold Coa'i, there is a great number of trous in the ufe of them. Vvith regard to the bufbandry of

Mulattoes, a mixed -progeny, ariliiig from the commerce of
Europeans- with the black women. This fpurious race forms
gangs of thieves and plunderers, void of decency, honour,
honelly, or principle in their dealings with each other, with
ihe Negroes, or the Euro])eans. Thefe call thcmfelves

the Negroes, they fow in the rainy feafon, the foil at other
times being unmanageably hard: and they luiapt their
ground to the nature of the grain ; fowing maize, in elevated
and dry fituations, and rice or millet in low marlhy lands,
fubjeft to inundations. The natives of the coaif, tinding it
Chriftians, although they are the groITeft of all idolaters, eafy to difpofe of all their grain, have eftabliflitd corn mar-
and moft of their women proftitute their bodies publicly to kets in every village, and the price of grain, in gold-duil:,
Europeans, and privately to the Negroes. The towns and cowries, &c. is rated by certain officers of police, appointed by

villages of this coail confift of a multitude of little huts or
cabins, difperfed in groups, without order or defign, and
communicating with each other by narrow crooked roads,
which terminate in the centre of the town or market place.
It is obfervable that the further you remove from the fca-
coail, the more civilized do the natives appear, at leafl fo
far as relates to their mode of building and of living. The
common food of the Negroes, in this part of Africa, is a
pot of millet boiled to the conliftence of bread, yams, and

the king. Hither the men and women meet from conlidcruble
diftances, bearing heavy burdens ; and the women efpecially
fubmit to great labour and fatigue in this way, that they
may exchange their heavy loads for European commodities,
fuch as looking-glaiTes, bracelets, ear-rings, glafs-beads, and
other female trinkets, fuited to their taile for dreis and
finery. The markets are exempted from all duties and
impoits. Befides thefe frequent markets, they have alio
fairs twice a year for European wares. All the diver-

potatoes, over vviuch they pour fome palm-oil, and garnifh lions among the Negroes coniift of dances, to which they

the (lifti with herbs and putrid filTi. This is their mei's on are exceffively addifted, mufic, and mock combats, which

common days ; and on holidays they feafl upon beef, nnit- often terminate tragically. The principal mufical initru-

ton, and'fowls. They begin the day with drinki:ig brandy, ments among the Negroes are horns, made of ivory, trum-

and conclude the ea-ening with palm-wine, mirth, riot, and pets, drums of different fizes, and a kind of harp, with lis

"tobacco, of .whicK they are extravagantly fond. In eating or eight ftrings.

7 The

G O L

The honour of the firft dircovery of tlie Gold Coaft is
coutelled between tlie French and Portugucfe ; the Freiich
.pretend that they were acquainted with Nigritia and Guinea
above lOO v'ars before the Portugucfe began their difco-
veries, or about the year 1346 or 1364, but little credit is
altaehed to rhefe .tocoUHts of French writers. The Purtu-
gu.'fo, it is faid, fitted out a fliip at Lifbun, under the pro-
tection of Do;! Henry, for the folc purpole of making dif-
coveries along the coail of Africa. At this time Alphoiifo I.
reigned in Portugal. The navigators, it is further faid,
were driven on an illand in the gulf of Guinea, wiiich they
called St. Thomas, and where they made a long ilay, lay-
ing the firll foundation of a colony in this ifland. Having
repaired their veffel, they returned to Lifbon, and arrived
there in 1454 The Portuguefe foon equipped a fleet, and
pulhed their difcoveries as far as Benin, and in procefs of
lime arrived in tiie road of Acra, ou the Gold Coail, where
they procured a quantity of gold. A number of adven-
turers from the illand of St. Thomas arrived at Ehuina
four years after the departure of the French. Purchas re-
lates, that Alphonfo, having little leifure for purfuing difco-
veries towards the latter end of his reign, gave an exclufive
privilege for five years to Fernando Gomez, a citizen of
Lilbon, to fail to the coaft of Africa: and a perfun, de-
puted by him, fays Purchas, difcovcred Elniina; and dur-
ing this period, were alfo difcovcred the iflands uf St. Tho-
mas, St, Matthew, Annobon, and del' Principe. In 1481
John II. encouraged the commercial fpirit of his fubjecls,
and proji'Cled further difcoveries; and it was probably upon
this occalion, notwithttanding the aliertions of French wri-
ters, that fort St. George dc la Mina, or Elmina, had its firll
rife, John, the iuccefTor of Alphonfo, conferred many privi-
leges on this now colony. A few years after, the lame
prince eilabhlhed a Guinea compan}", with exclufive privi-
leges. In tl.if reign of Henry III. of France, after the ter-
mination of the civil wars, the Frvnch began to renew their
voyages to the Grain and Gold Coail. From this period
the credit of the Portuguefe began to decline, and other
Europeans began to open a commerce with the Coall of
Guinea. Among others the Dutch engaged in the war-
fare, which had been prolecuted between the Portuguefe
and other Europeans; and by perieverance they made them-
felves mailers of the forts of Elmina ar.d Axini; obtaining,
by their courage, that fecurity, which the Portuguefe had
loll bv their infolence and cruelty. Tiie tiril Dutchman
■who led the way to Guinea, was one Bernard Erick, in
1595. Running along the Gold Coall, he ellablilhed a cor-
refj)ondence with the natives, treated them with civility, and
alienated their aflettions from the Portugucfe. At length,
by their intrigues with the king of Sabo, the Dutch ob-
tained permiilion to build a fort, three leagues E. ot Cabo
Corfo, or Cape Coaft. This ftirt was linilhed in 1624, and
the Dutch power founded in Guinea, at the time when the
States were engaged in a war with Philip IV. ot Spain.
In the venr 1637 they fueceeded, after much relillance, in
taking the foit of St. George d'Elmina, and in the year
1642 the fort of Axim alio fell into their hands. The
Dutch, having thus far been fuccelsful, proceeded to attack
t!ie Englilh fettlenients. In tracing the liril Britilh eila-
blhhments on the Coatl of Guinea, we may begni with ob-
ferving, that a trade here had been carried on by Ionic pri-
vate adventurers, witiiout the aid or protection of the
government. In 15S5 and 1588, queen Eli/.abeth granted
two patents to certain rich merchants of England; one for
an exclufive trade to the coall of Barbary, and another tor
that of Guinea. In 1592 a third patent was obtained by
«be fame body of merchants. In i6ji the re]>ublic oi F.iig-
VoL. XVI.

G O I.

land encouraged the African trade; and in 1662 Clnrl.-s XL
granted a charter to a body of merchants, under the name
of the Royal Company of England tradinjr to Africa, ex-
tending their limits from the mouth of the Straits to tli»
Cape of Good Hop?. The afl'airs of this company filling
into diforder, the king crctfed another corporation, cnll -d
the ♦' Royal African Company," which has fubdlled Id
this day. This charter bears date, Sept. 27, 1672. Thi»
cumpany, w idi a fmall capital, was diligent and fiiccofsful ;
Cape Coaft was enlarged and beautified; the forts of Acra,
DixI'.ove, Winebaw, Sukkonda, Commcndo, and Anarr.a-
boa, were built or repaired, all of them on the C;old Coaft,
and feveial within mullcet-fhot of the Dutch fettlemcnU.
They bought Frederickfburg of the Danes, and built a new
fort ill Whidah. Sec ylfrican CoMi'.wv.

Gold Cronach, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Bayreiith, which had formerly a goldmine; y' miles N.
of Bayrenth.

GOI.DAPP, a town of PrufTian Lithuania; r.S miles
E. S E. of Koniglberg — Alfo, a river of Prudia, which
runs into the Rominte; 6 miles N. of Goldapp.

GOLDAST, Melciiior HEiMKXSKELn, in Bwgrap!.>y, a
learned writer of the t6th century, was a native of Switzer-
land. He ftudied the civil law at Altdorf, but he is better
known as a man of letters. His works, tho gh not marked
for originality, were highly cftecaied by the learned of the pe.
nod in which he flourilhed : the' prini-ipal of thefe are,
I. " Monarchia Saiicti Imperii Romani,"' in three volumes
folio, publiflied in 1611-14. Tliefe volumes con fi ft of a
coUedion of treatifes on the civil and ecclefiaftical jurif-
di<flion of the empire. " Alemaniae Scriptores," three vo-
lumes folio, 1730. " Commentarius de BohemirE Regno,"
4to. " InforniAtio de ftatu Bohcmise quoad Jus," 410.
" Sybilla Francica," being a quarto collcdiou of pieces rela-
tive to the maid of Orleans : " Scriptores Rernm S lenca-
rum." " Colleftio Confuetudinum et Legum Imperialium.''
" Politica Imperialia," and a colledion of letters, written
tohim by feveral men of learning. This lall work was print-
ed at Frankfort in 1688. Mr. Goldaft was of a capricious
temper and of changeable habits, which prevented him from
rifmg in the world. He died in 1635, having long ftrugglcd
with poverty Moreri. Bavlc.

GOLDBERG, in Gin^^taphy, a town of Silella, in tic
principality oi Lignitz, deriving its name from a gold-mine
in its vicinity, which was formerly very rich. The earth, call-
ed ligillata terra, i': dug near it ; and the inhabitants are em-
ployed in the woollen and linen mannfaetuivs ; 12 miles
S.W. of Lignitz. N. lat.51 4'. E. long I J ;3'. — Alio, a
town of the duchy of Meckkuburg ; ij miles E.of Wif.
mar

GOLDECK, a town of the archbilhopric of Salzburg 1

28 miles S of .Salzlnircr.
o

GOLDEN, ionutii-ng that has a relation to gold, or con-
fills of geld; is valuable like gold, or the like.

Goi.DKN" Jiull^ Bulla /Inrfa. See Bri.r..

Goi.DKV Ciilf was a tlgure of a calf, which the IlVaelitei
call in that metal, and let up in the wildernel^ to worlhip,
during Molt b's abfence in the m.onnt, and which ;liat legilla-
tor, at his return, burnt, ground to powder, and mixed with
the water the people were to drink oi, as related ExoJ.
xxxii.

The eommeniatori have been greatlv divided on this aiti-
cle : the pulverizing of gold, and rendering it potable, is au
operation in chemiltrv of the laft diflienltv ; and it is hard
to. conceive how it IhoulJ be done at that tiiui*, before clie-
millry was ever hearvl of, and in a wildcrnefs too ! Many,
ihrrcfore, fuppafe it done by a miracle ; siid the reft, who
3 I allork-

G O L

G O L

allow of nothinsT fnpeniatmal in it, advance noiliiiig but con-
jeAiires as to tlie manner ol the procels.

Mofes could not have done it by a liniple calcination, nor
amalgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination : nor is thei-e
une of thofe operations tliat quadrates with the text.

Mr. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difBculty. The
method Mofes made uie of, in making his auntm potabilc,
according to this author, was the fame with that which now
obtains ; only, inltead of tartar, he made ule of the
Egyptian natron, which is common enough throughout the
Ealt.

Golden Cape, in Geo^rnpby, a cape of England, on tl'.e
W. coaft of Dorfetfhirc. N. lat. 50-' 43'. W. long. 2' 50'.

Gulden Cups, a name by which fome caU the ranimcylas,
•r crow-foot.

Golden Eye, in Ormthohgy, tlie Anas Clangula. See
Duck.

Golden Eye, a fpecies of fly. See Ciirysopls.

Golden Fleece, in the Ane'unt Mythology. Sec Argo-
VAUTIC.

Golden Fleece, O/v/ivo/" /i^, is a military order, inftituted
by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429.

It took its denomination from a reprefentation of the
golden fleece, borne by the knights on their collars, which
coiififted of flints and ftcels. I'lie king of Spain is now
grand mailer of the order, in quality of duke of Burgundy :
the number of knights is fixed to thirty-one.

It is ufually laid to have been initituted on occafion of an
iaimenle profit which that prince made by wool ; thougli
others will have a chemical niyftery couched under it, as under
that famous one of the ancientp, winch the adepti contend
to be no other tlian the iecret of the elixir, written on the
fleece of a Iheep.

Golden Flo-ajcr, in Botany. See CirRY.s.VNTiiEMrM.

Golden Flower-gentle, a name fometimes given to feveral
fpecies of the amaranth.

Golden Head, in Ornhhulogy, a water-fowl, otbervi'ifc
called anas arH'ica. See Duck.

Golden IJland, in Geography, a fmallifland at the entrance
of the gulf of Darien, in Terra Fir^ia, S. America. N.
lat. f." 20'. W. long. 72= 32'.

Golden Laie, a lake of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 3^
55'. E. long. 115-^45'.

Golden Lung-'wort, in Botany. See Hieracium.
Golden Malden-hair. See Adi.vntu.m flWi'um, and Po-

LYTRICHUM.

Golden Mnufc-ear. See Hier.acium.

Golden Number, in Chronology. See Cycle of the Moon,
and Nu-MBER.

Golden Prebendary of Hereford. See Prebendary.

Golden River, in Geography, a river of America, which
runs into the Miififippi, N. lat. 43" 20'. W. long. 92' 2'.

Golden River, or Rio del Oro, a river of America, which
runs into the Spanifh Main, N. lat. 14' 44'. W. long. 82°

55'- , . .

Golden Rod, or Saracen's Wound-ivort, virga aurea, in
Botany. See Soi.iD.vco.

Golden Rod Tne. See Bo.sea.

Golden Rule, in /Irilhmelic, a rule or praxis of gi-eat ufe
and extent in the art of numbers, whereby we find a fourth
proportional to tluee quantities given. The Golden Rule is
idfo called the Rule of Three and Rule of Proportion.
Sec its nature and ufe under the article Ri'LE of Three.

Golden A;//;/)/'//-^ is a Ipecies ot the inula or elecampane.
(See Ini'LA.) It grows naturally on the fca-coalls in many
p.-.rts of England, and is fometimes fold in. the London mai"-

ket for the true famphire, though entirely deftitute of its
warm aromatic talle. Sec S.\mpiiire.

Golden Sa.rifrage. See Ciiry.soplenium.

Golden Stole, order of the. See Stole.

Golden Sulphur of yiniimony. Sec Antimony.

Golden Thijlle, in Botany. See Scolymu.s.

GOLDENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Olmutz ; 32 mfies from Olmutz.

GOLDENSTETT, a'town of Germany, in the country
of Diepholz ; 1 1 miles N. of Diepholz.

GOLDENTRAUN, a town of Upper Lufatia; 16
miles S.E. of Gorlitz. N. lat. 50^ if. E. long. 15 26'. ■

GOLDINGEN, a town of the duchy of Courland, fitu-
ated near the river Weta, defended by an old callle, and con-,
taining two churches ; 48 miles W.N.V/. of Mittaw. N. lat.
56' 51'. E. long. 21 ' 44'.

GOLDLAUTER, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg, f2 miles N.E. of Meinungen.

GOIjUMAN, NK}rOL.'Vs, in 7)'/r;^/;;^/jj', a mathematician,
was born at Breilaw, in Sdefia, in the year 1623, and died at
Eeyden in 1 665. The works by which he is generally known
are •' Elemcnta Arehitectur;E Mifitaris,'' .1643. " Dc
Ufu Proportionarii Ciiculi.'l " De Stylometricis," 1662,
and another trcatii'e " On Arch.itefture," p\ibli(lied in 1696,
with numerous engravings, and the life of the author. Mo-
reri.

GOLDONI, CuARLT'.s, was born at Venice in the year.
1707. Almoft from his infancy he gave indication of a hu-.
morons charafter, and a propeniity to dramatic performances.
Before he could well read he became an author, and wrote the
plan of a comedy by the time he was eight yeai's old. This,
piece pofTefTcd fo mucli merit, that it reqifired the tellimony of
reipedtable witneffes to verify its being the produtfion of a
child. He received the elements of education at Venice,
from this city he went to the Jefuits' college at Perugia to
ihidy rhetoric, and afterwards he iludied philofophy at Ri-
n-.ini. His mind was, however, too deeply engaged in thea-
trical exhibitions to make the fyftem of Ariftotle a predo-
minant purfuit. E^•cry leifiu'e moment lie fpcnt at the tlica-
tre, till at length he pafled from the pit to die ftage, and
joined a company, of players. This, by his own account, was
an error, which drew after it many ferious confequences. He
had been intended by his father for the profeflion of phyfic,
which he was unable to ftudy : he was then foliclted to prepare
himfelf for the bar, and was engaged, after many changes, in
praiSiice at the courts of Venice. After this he was appointed
iecretary to the Venetian refident at Milan, where he became
acquainted with the manager of the theatre., and wrote
a farce for him, entitled " The- Venetian Gondolier,' which
was performed and printed : by degrees he 'became united to
the company, and compofed many pieces for them. He now
turned his thoughts towards reforming the Italian llage, and
fo earned was he in his proiefts, that it is faid in a fingle year
he wrote fixteen new comedies, befidcs forty-tv.-o other
pieces for the theatre, and among thefe are reckoned fome of
his bell produftions. The firft edition of his works was pub-
lifiied in 1753 "' "^ ^'°'^' ^'■'°- After tliis iie publiilied many
additional pieces under the title of the " New Comic Theatre.''-
He had compofed 59 other pieces fo late as the year 1 761,
and here clofes the literary life of Goldoni in Italy. Ele .
now repaired to Piu-is, and was as zealous in his endeavours to
reform the Italian theatre thei'e as he had been in his own
country. His firft attempt was in a piece called the " Fa-,
ther of. Love," but the. bad fuccefs of this comedy was a
lufficient warning to him to defift from his undertaking. He-
continued, during the remainder of his engagement, to pro-
duce piece* agreeable to the general talte, and publiihed ;

twenty--.

G O L

C O I.

Cjuldoiii

iwenty-four comjdies. At the end of two years Iio was
preparin£r to return to Italy, when he was fuddenly iir;ied to
become Italian mafter tothe princefTes, aunts to the rcigniiijr
monarch. During this engagement he k)ll his fight, which
lie never after completely recovered, and at the end of three
years he received a very inadequate recompence for his la-
bour and tlie time fpent at court, namely, loo louis in a gold
box, and tiie grant of a penfion of four thoufand livres per
ann. This, with wliat he was enabled to make by his works,
was
taine
Fr(

them became extremely popular. After the death of Lewis pofe a comic opera for the Teatro delle Dame in that citv

Goldoni was appointed Italian teacher to the princefs which had lately been very unfortunate. No /iireito was

prefent pnncefs of Piedmont, and after her ready, and application having been made to the poet Go!-

doni, at tlii; time in Rome, he furnilhed the mufical drama

III i>, perhaps, -the only author of comic opera* in
Italy, who lias g-iven them a liitJe common fenfc, by a natu-
ral pl.jt, and natural charaaers ; and his celebrated comic
opera of the " Biiona Figliuola," fet by Piccini,and firft per-
tunned in London Dec. 9th, 1766, rendered both ihe poci
and compofer, wliofe nameis had fcarcely pvnrtraled into
this country before, dear to every lover of the Italian lan-
guage and mufic, in the nation. Tiiis admirable produaion
befo— •' ' 1 . 1 •-. , 1 r ... « >

XV

Clotilde, the

marriage, he attended the unfortunate pnncefs Ehzabeth in
the lame capacity. His laft work was the " Volponi,'' writ-
ten after he liad retired from court. It was his misfortune to
live to lee his pcnlion taken away by the revolution, and, hkc
thoufands in a iimilar fituation, he was obliged to pafs his
old age in poverty and diftrefs. He died in the beginning of
the year 1 793, at a period when the Briffotines had the fway in
the national councils, and when Goldoni would, for a fliort
time at Icaft, lia> e received every attention that a grateful
country could have afforded. As a comic poet, Goldoni is
reckoned among the beft of the age in which he flouriflicd. His
works were printed at Leghorn in 1788-91, in 31 vols. 8vo.
He has been reckoned the Moliere of Italy, and he is llylcd
by Voltaire " The painter of Nature." " Goldoni,'' fays
his biographer, " is one of thofe authors whofe writings will be
re'ilhed in ti;e moil remote countries, and by the lateft pof-
terity. Plis profound knowledge of the human heart, his
exteniive defcription of the vices and virtues of men, in all

ages and nations, will jullify my concluding this imperfect and new cff^as ; but fo difficult, particularly for the"orchcK
eulogy witli applying to him the following lines of Horace '" .1 ..1
from his firil Epiill

of "LaBouna Fighuola," from his comedy of " Pamela,"'
111 a few days. Several of the original performers were now
in London, particularly the firR bulfo, Lovattini, and the
fenous man Savoi, widi the iufj caricato Morigi. And
tliough females are not allowed to appear on the llage at
Rome, yet fignora Guadagni l-ad previouily performedthe
part of Cecchina in feveral cities of Italy, with great and
well-deferved applaufe before his arrival here.

After the great fuccefs of the " Buona Figliuola,'' the
public was difpofed to hear with partiality any produclionf.
by the fame authors ; and v.iien the " Buona Figliuola Mal
ritata,'' (or Pamela in high life), was brought out, the crowd
at the opera-hoiife was prodigious; but expectation, as
iifual, \yas fo um-eafonable as to fpoil the ftalt ; to gratify
It was impolhble. Some afcribed their difappointment to
the compofer, f(;me to the performers, but none to them-
felves. The mulic was excellent, full of invention, firv.

jEque pauperibus prodeft, locupletibus reque
7Eque uegleClum pueris, fenibuiqiie nocebit.".

. Monthly Magazine, vol. v.
• His principal works are comedies in ])role, for decla-
mation, of which the exaft number is not known ; but
they at lead amounted to 120 before he left Italy at the de-
fi're of Louis XV. to-write for tlie " Theatre Italien'' at
Paris, for which theatre he compofed at leaft 30.

Tiiis fertile, natural, and pleafing writer, was amliilious
at lirll of treating ferious and tragic fubjcfts ; but finding,
as he tells us himlelf in his life and prefaces, that Metalla-
fio was arrived at as high a point of perfection in his ferious
operas as that fpccies ()f drama was capable of, he pointed
his tliou'rhts wholly to comedy, which had been long treat-
ed in fuch a buffoon and farcical manner, as to Itand in
great need of reformation.

• But though he had determined not to attempt ferious
pieces for mullc, yet Galuppi pi-evailed upon him, much
againll his inclination, to furnilh him with lliree lerious operas
for the theatre at Venice ; thefe were, Orontes, king of
Scythia; Gullavus Adolpliiis ; and Statira. I'nit though
tiiey had great fuccefs, Goldoni never thought them worthy
of pubhcation. He was not more vain of his comic operas.
However, he produced at different times and places 40 or 50,
wiiich, without his confent or knowledge, were collecieil
and publilhed in 6 vols. 121110. ; they are not very ellimable
Works, being on the old burletta model, full ot buffoonery,
a' id a broad kind of Italian humour, tailed in no other
country, though fuffered for the fake of the nuifu-, whicji
is often ing -nious, imitative, and fometimcs ^rdc-etul, but
more frequently grotefque.

tra, that the performers forgot it was winter. The princijial
part of the M.ireiiefa was given to Zamparini, a very pretty-
woman, but an affected finger. Mulic fo difficult to perform
\vas not cafy to hear ; and tiiis drama was never fufficientlv
repeated for the public to be familiarly acquainted witli it.
They were glad, as well as the performers, to return to the
" Buona Figliuola ' for their own eafe and relief from a too
ferious attention.

In France, Goldoni wrote feveral very fuccefsful come-
dies for declamation in the French Ir.ng'.iage. btit we arc
not acquainted with any dramas « hicli he produced for mu-
lie in that country. Poor Goldoni was in fuch favour with
the. royal family of France before tlic revolution, that br
was never allowed to return to his own country ; but died
at Paris in the year of /^rfw, 1793, ^'^ "^'"^ ^^'^ "^ ^3-

GOLDSBOROUGH, in Geography, a poll town of
.'\merica, in Hancock county and Itateof Maine, incorpo-
rated in 1789, and containing 379 inhabitants ; 47 mdes E.
of Peiioblcot. N. lat. 44' 19.

GOLUSINNY, in Lk.hyology, a fiOi difcovcred on the
coaff of Cornwall, in the whole form of tlie body, lips,
teeth, and fins, rcfembhng X.\\f ivrajfr, which is faiJ never to
e.^ceed a palm in length ;' near the tail is a remarkable black
fpot ; the firil rays of the dorfal (in arc tinged with black-
See Labhls Cor/,<i^(W.

GOLDSMITH, Ox.ivr.a, in Biography, was bom in
the county of Longford, Ireland, in 1 731, though, accord-
ing to other accounts, this event too^c place at ElpJi.n, iii
1729. He was the fan of a clergyman, who gave him a
literary education, and lent him early to Dubhn college.
Being defigned for the profcffion of medicine, he was
rcmuvcd to- Edinburgh in 1 751, where he continued till
1754, when he left that place to avoid a procels again ft him
3I 2 for

G O L

' for (Icbts iiicurr,;d, probably to adminiftcr to his diffipation.
He was intercepted at Suuder'and, and thrown into con-
finenient, from which he \<as re'eafed by the kindncfs of two
fellow-collegians. After this, he determined to vifit the
continent, embarked for Holland, travelled through Flan-
ders and part of Germany, pafTed fome time at the imiver-
fities of Stralburg and Louvain ; at the latter place he took
his degree of bachelor of phyfic, and thence accompanied
an Englifh gentleman to Geneva. Here heengagid himfelf
cis travelling tutor to a young man who liad become poffelTed
of a large fortune, but whofc mind was ill adapted to do
credit to the giits of Providence. They difagreed in the
foulh of France, and Goldfmith was left to contend «ilh
the hardlhips of indigence in a foreign country. He re-
turned in 175'^, and had in mod of his peregrinations truft-
ed tor hh iupport to his own cafual efforts. His learning
enlured him a favourable reception at the monaderies, and
his Genr.an flute feldom failed to procuie him a meal and a
night's lodging from the peafantry, who were delighted
with ftrains which a politer audience would have treated

• with difdain. His arrival at London with a few pence in
his pocket, was not likely to be the termination of his pecu-
niary diftreiTes. He attempted to get into the employ
of un apothecary, but his appearance being againft him, his
application was treated with uifdain. He at length was ad-
Tui ted a:^ uflier to Dr. Milner, who kept an academy at
Pcckham. Here he remained but a fliort time, and tlien
relolved to lollow the profeflion of an author in London.
He obta:nev\ fome ei^rploymcnt in the Mo.nti'jly Review,
ond furnhhed paper:, for tlie public Ledger. He publiflied
a weekly pamphler, entitled " The Bee," and " An Enquiry
into the flate of Polite Learning in Europe." After he
had been fome time exercifing his pen in obfcuritv, he be-
came on a fudd >n celebrated as a poet, by the publication of
Ins " Travcllev, or a Profpecl of Society." This work
had lain by lum in MS. fome years, and it was at the infti-
gation of Dr. Johnfon that he prepared it for the prefs.
That great critic declared it as his opinion, that there had
not be.-n fo fine a poem fmce tJie days of Pope. In this de-
cifion the public concurred, and the author was, slaioft im-
mediately, inti-odiiced to the moft eminent 'iterary characters
o; the age. In the following year was pi.b'ilhed his novel
of the " Vicar of Wakeii.-Id/' which had been fold to a
bcokfe!Ier fome years before, but had been kept back as
the work of an unknown writer, and exciting no e xpefta-
tioHS cf fuccefs. It was, however, received with unbounded
applaufe, and has ever fmce borne a diftingniflicd rank
among funilar compofitions. His next work was a " Htf-
tory of England," in a feries of letters from a nobleman to
his fun, in two VLlumes i2nio. a work that ftill continues to
be read with great delight. His poetical fem% reached its
fummit in 1770, by the publication of his " Deferted Vil-
lage,'' which was univerfally admired. For this he obtain-
ed of his bookfcller ioo/. a fum whSci appeared to the a'l-
thor fo exorbitantly grent, that he refufcd to take it ; but
the fale of the work convinced l.im that he might fairly ap-
propriate the fum out of the profits. A s an author of
comedy, he produced in 1768' " The Good-natured
Man," which was not very fucccfsful ; and in 1772
another play, entitled " She Stoops to Conquer, or the
Millakes of a Night. " From this Gordfi.Mth cleared a
large fum, and it is ilill occafionally reprefented to applaud-
ing audiences. Notwithftanding the fuccefs of his pieces,
by fome of which it is aflerted he cleared 1800/. in a fingle
' year, his circum.tances were never very profperous, which
• -was partly owing to the liberality of his difpofition, and
jartfy to an ur.fsrtumte hsbit wh ch _hc had contracted of

G O L

gaming ; the arts of which he knew very little of, and con--
fequently became the prey of thofe who were bafe enough
to take advantage of his fimplicity. Befidcs the works
already treated of, Dr. Goldfmith, as he was called, though
he had only taken a bachelor's degree, compiled an Enghlh
hiftory in four vohunes, and a Roman and Grecian hillory
in two volumes each ; and " A Hillory of the Earth smd
Animated N-ature," in eight volumes Svo. Such was the
confidence which he acquired in his fliill at compilation, that
he formed a plan for a much greater work, w's. " A Dic-
tionary uf Arts and Sciences," but this and otiier fchemes
which he had planned were cut off by his untimely death.
A defpondence of mind, probably occalioncd by the con-
fcioufnefs of the bad (late ot his affairs, had been fecreuly
preying upon him, wlien in March 1774 he was attacked
with the fymptoms of a low fever, under which he funk on
the 4th of April He was buried in the Temple church-
yard without much attendance-, but a monument has fmce
been erefted to his memory in AVeilrainlter abbey, with a
Latin infcription by Dr. .Tohnfon.

Goldfmith, as a man, was rather adinired for his genius^
and beloved for his benevolence, than folidly elleemed_
The bell part of his moral character was a warmth of fenfi-
bility, which made him in all tortunes ready to fliare his-
purfe with the indigent, and rendered him in his writingii
the conftant advocate of the poor and oppreffed. The woril
feature was a malignant envy and jealoufy ot fuccefsful ri-
vals, which he fometimes difplayed iif a niamier not lets ridi-
culous than offenfive.

As a writer, no one of his time was poffcffed of more true-
humour, or was capable of more poignancy in marking the*
foibles of individuals. This lall talent he dilplayed in a
very amufing manner in his poem entitled " Retaliation,"
written as a retort to the jocular attacks made upon liim in
a club of which he was a member. His literary fame ilanth
highell as a poet, in which character a place may be given
him perhaps at the head of the minor clafs, the term nunoir
being apphed with relation to the quantity, rather than the-
excel'ence of compofition. " It would not be eafy," lavs,
his biographer, " to point out in the whole compafs of Eng-
liih poetry, pieces that are read with more delight thim
" Tlie Traveller j" and " The Defertcd Village." The
elegance of the verfification, the force and fplcndour vst
fimplicity of the diAion ; the happy mixture of animatsA
fentiment with glnwing defcrij'tion, are calculated to pleafe
equally the refined and tiie imcultivated tal'te. The moral
and philofophical views of fociety they exliibit arc, indeed,
objectionable ; yet upon the whole they e.iert a favourable
influence over the heart. In addition to ihcie capital worksj^
his pleafing bullid of " Tlie Hermit," and lome ihort hu-
morous and milce'laneous pieces, c<Mnpletc the catalogue o£
his performances in verfe. As a profe writer he defcrves.
high praife for llyle, which he adapts with great felicity to-
his fubject, and which, whether elevated or plain, is always
clear, pure, and imsutetled. Life prefixed to his poems.
Europ. M;ig. Ann. Regis.

GOLDWIN, Joav, an ecelefialtit-al eompofer, was
brought up under Dr. William Child, and, in 1697, fuc-
ceeded him as organilt at the free chapel of St. George at
AVindfor. In 1 703 he was appointed uiaUer cf the choirif-
ters there, in both which itarions he continued to the time
of his death in 17 19. Dr. Boyee, out of a great number of
anthems by this eompofer, feletted one for four voices, " I
have fet God always before me,' wliich he has infertcd in
the fecond volume of his "Collection of Cathedral Mufic,"
and \\ ell charaAeri'z.ed it with reipedt to the n iidulation, by
faying that " it is fingiilar and agreeable."

GOLDY.

G O f,

where thofe monks were tducatpd whe were intended to be
fcnt vn iniiTions mio tlie Ealt. Goiius was dt-'lllncd to this
fcrvicc, and having viiitcd eviry part of S) ria and PalctHnc,
founded a monaltcry of his order on moui.t Libanjs., over

G O L

GOLDYLOCKS, in Botany. Sec ClliU.sot ()\rA and

GnAI'II ALIL'-M.

GOLEEAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; iS nules
E. oi Ramgiir. N. lat 22 2S'. E. long. 8j 51'.

GOLETTA, a fottrefs of Africa, fituated on a canal, which he prelidi-d tiil he was recalled to Rome. Here he

in the kingdom of Tunis;. 25 miles N. of Tunis Alfo, a v/as employed as one of tlie principal afilJbnts of Scrgiu*

narrow channel l.etween the lake of Tunis and the fea, de- Riliiis, archbifhop of Darnafcus, in preparing his edition of

fended on each (ide by a calUe. the Arabic bible, wiiich was publiflied in 1671 by the di-

CiOLF, or Gouf, tlie name of a diverlion or exerciic, re«i<jn of the college " De propaganda." After it was

much uied in Sootlnnd, and played upon the lawns or links, completed, Goluii was appointed vilitor of the mifliont of

as they are there called. the Ealt Indies. He dud in this employ.ner.t at Surat

It conliils oi driving a ball with clubs, between two about the year 1673. He was author of trantlations into

goals or holes, half a mile or a mile afunder. He who can Arabic of I'liomas a Kempis' imitation of Jefus Chrill :

do this with tlie fewvft llrokes of his club is, the
queror.

GOLFO Tristf, in Geography, a bay on the coail of
South America, in the government of Caraecas. N. lat.
10 30'. W. Long. 6(>. 20'.

GOL.GAM, a town of Hindooflan, ia Dowlatabad;
15 miles N. of Beder.

COLGOM, a town of the ifland of Cevlon ; 48 miles
N.W. of Candy-

GOLGOTHA. See Calvary.

GOjilATH, in Scripture H'lflary, a f.inious giant of
Gath, who delied the arniies ot Ilrael, and was (lain by
David. I Sam. xvii. 4, &;c.

GOLICH, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
.vernment of Irkutfch, on the Lena ; two miles S. of Or-
lenga.

GOLINDA, a fmall illand near the N. coaft of Cuba.
N. lat. 23 ' 2o'» W. long, yo' 4.

GOLISANO, a town of Sicily, iji the valley of De-
niona ; 9 miles S. of Cefalu.

GOLITZ, a town of Nubia, on the left Tide of tlie other being Liamune. Golo comprehends the northern di
Nile; 45 milts W.N.W. of Dongola. vilion of Corlica, in N. lat. 42 30', and containing 165

GOUUS, Jame.s, in 5w^m/>^v, was born at the Hiigue fc;unre leagues, and 103,466 inhabitants, is fubdivided into
in 1596 ; but he purfued liis iludies at Leyden with three circles, x'ja. Ballia, whofe inhabitants arc 47,842 ;
the moll unremitting dihgence and ardour, and- be- Calvi, having 20,282 inhabitants; and Coitc containing
came diftinguiftied, for his deep knowledge of the learned 35,342 inhabitants. There are feveral lofty mountains near
languages, antiquities^ philofophv, and mathematics. In the centre of a chain that traverfes the illand longitudinally.
1622 he accompanied an euibad'ador of the United Pro- The moll coiiliderable lakes are Ino and Crcno, the former

of lennons on tlie Evangelills : an " Hi:i<iric diicourfe of
St. Gregory of Decapoli> :" feveral fmuU devotional pieces,
and a tranllation from Arabic into Latin of a " Collection
ot Parables and Proverbs." Moreri.

GOLLl, or Colli, in Geography, a town of Africa,
near the river Grande, the inhabitants of wiiich trade in
flaves, ivory, and cotton.

GOLLING, a town of the archbiftiopric of Sali^burg,
cni tiie Sul/a ; 14 mi es S.S E. of Sa'zburg.

GOLLOSING, a town of Bengal; 70 miles W. of
Midna])i)ur.

GOLNTTZ, a town of Hungary, oa a river cf the
fame name ; 14 miles S.E. of Kapfdorff.

GQLNOAV, a town of Anterior Pomerania, furmcrlT
Hanfeatic, fituated on the Ihna ; 12 miles N. of Stargard.
N- l^it. 53 37. E. long. 24 57- .

GOLO, a river of Corlica, which rifes nearly in the
centre of the ifland, and puriuing a N.E. courfe, runs into
the lea;. 12 miks S.S E. of Baltia. It gives name to one
ot the two departments into which the illand is divided ; the

;vinccs to Morocco, where he exelted the admiration of the
emperor Muley Zeidan, with, whom he had fivquent in-
terviews. After his return to his native country he fuc-

.ceeded to the Arabic profefTorlliip on the death of Erpenius,
under whom he had formerly lUidied. In 1625 he obtained
penniffion to travel in the Levant, and palTed more than a
year at Aleppo, whence lie made various excurfions into

, Arabia and Mefopotaraia. On his return he vilited Conlhin-
tinople, wlvcrc he obtained very diltinguilhed notice from

of wiiich is of unknown depth. The foil is tolerab'y fec-

ii Idiiii' barli'i

millet, olives, chcliiuts, wi.io, fruits.

Sec

tile,

See. On the hills are forells and exeelkiit pallures.

Cou.sic.v.

(iOLOBGUKGE, a town of Bengal ; 10 miJi-s E. of
Silhet.

GOLPHINGTON, tlw chief town of Wafliington
county and Hate of Georgia, in .\merica, lltuated near the
head of Ogeechee river, about 26 miles E. S.E. of Occonee

the learned in that capital, by whofe means he had acccfs to town

the belt libraries. During his abfence he was appointed GOLPS, in HeraUry, are roundlcs, or tocteaux, of a

profeiTor of mathematics, and returned to Leyden in 16^9, purple colour.

and applied himlelf to the duties of his office. He diid in GOLTBERGENSIS Tkura, in the Materia Medico, p.

1667, having occupied with m.uch credit the arduous ijtuation whitllh earth, ul'ed in the (liops of Germany and Italy as

i>f profclfor for more than forty years, and patted tlu-ough an altringmt, u cordial, and a ludurilic, but httle known

all the academical honours. As an author he publillied the

" Saracen Hiltory of Elmacin,' which had been begun by

Erpenius : alfo a hfe of the great Tamerlane, \\ ritten by

an eminent Arabian author: " The allronomical Elements

of .^Ifergan," with a new verfion and learned commen-

tai-ics : " An Arabic Lexicon ;" a " Periian Dictionary,"

which was printed in I^ondon. Bayle. Moreri.

GoLiLS, Pf,tf.!i, brother of the preceding, entered
when very young among the Carmelites; like his brother
he excelled in the knowledge of the Arabic language, and
taught it in the ftminary belonging to his order at Rome,

iinong tlie Englilh apothecaries. It is dug in many pj-rts
of Germany, as Goldberg and Strigaw, and Lignit/ m
Silelia ; but partieulariy at this time in the neiglibour-
hood of Haflelt, in the bilhopric of Liege, in the circle
of Wellph.ilia. It is taken up there in confiderable
quantities, and ufually is fealed with the iir.preflii.n of an
eagle, and with its old name Gollbergenlis terra under
it. It was imagined to contain foine particles ot lilver,
and thence to derive fomc of its virtues: on this account
Montanus called it j.\UHi;;j /u.-/y; but experience fliews that
it doth not contain a p.u-iicle of tlat meta'. It is a deiil'c

compa<;\

G O )M

loiiipait earth of a dull greyidi %vhite, foft aiid fi-iable, and
adheres firmly to the tongue, and makes no cffervefcence
with acids'.

GOLTIAVINA, in Ccosraphy, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Tobolfc ; 1 88 miles E. of Enifcik. N.
Iat.5S-'2o'. E.long.98-'i4'.'

GOLTPACH, a town of Pruflla, in the palatinate of
Culm; 8 miles N.E. of Thorii.

GOLTVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Kiev ; 112 miles S.E. of Kiev. N. lat. 49^ 15'. E. long.

GOLTZEN, a town of Lower Lufatia ; 10 miles W.
of Lubbcn. N. lat. 51'^ 58'. E-Jong. 13= 30'.

GGLTZIUS, HuBEiiT, in Biography, a painter, who
was born at Venlo in 1520, and ftvidi-d mider Lambert
Lonibard. Becoming enamoured of tl j antique by havmg
copied feveral works of that clafs, he r-folved to cultivate
his talle byvifiting the more unportant Greek works pre-
ferved at Rome ; and therefore travelled to that city, where
he relided fome time, and thence drew an ample ftoek of
materials for his future progrefs in the art he profefled.

He lived priiicipSlly at Antwerp, where he painted the
hillory of Jafon ; but as he was engaged in a variety of flu-
dies, his pidures are rare. Among other things he invefti-
gated coins and medals, and publifhjda colleftion of them
with critical annotations. He died at the age of G^.

GoLXZlus, Hesry, an artiit: of confiderable talent, who
praclifed both painting and engraving. As a painter, he
drew his refources from the ftudy of the antique, of Ra-
phael, Polidoro, and Michael Angelo ; the laft of whom
appears to have been his favoured Apollo' in the art, but
whofe faults he exaggerated in an outrageous manner, fel-
dom attaining any of his beauties. Hence his ilyle of de-
fign is inflated and caricature ; and his exprefilons participate
of the fame taiie ; but his fenfe of hue in colour is rich, vi-
gorous, and tranf])arent. He died in 1617, aged ^'g.

GOLUB, \n Geography, a town of Pruifia, in the territo-
ry of Culm ; 24 miles S.E. of Culm.

GOLUBENSKA, a town of Rufria, in the country of

the Cofl'aeks, on the Don ; 200 miles E.N.E. of Azoph.

GOMAHNY,a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of Mo-

hurgunge ; 45 miles N.W. of Harriopour. — Alfo, a town

of Bengal; 8 miles S.S.E. of Goragot.

GOMAR, Fkanxls, in Biography, celebrated as the
great opponent of Armini\is, and from wliom the Calvinillic
party in Holland received the name of " Gomarills,'' was
born about the year 1563 at Bruges. His parents had been
brought up in the Roman Ca'tholic religion, but having em-
braced the Proteftant dotlvmes, they retired into the palati'-
nate in 1578, for the fake of profefliPig their principles in
peace and fecurity. Their fon Francis was fent to Straf-
burgfor his education, and purfued his ftudics there under
the celebrated John Sturm, after which he went to New-
iladt, whither the profefTors of Heidelberg had been obliged
to retire by the elector Lewis, becaiife they were the o;)po-
nents of the Lutheran faith. In 1582 he took a journey to
England, and attended the divinity leftures at the univerli-
ties of Oxford and Cambridge He was admitted to the
decree of B.D. in the year 1584. By great afliduity he
became very deeply learned in the Greek and Hebrew lan-
guacres, and in 1587 he fettled with a Dutch congregation
at Frankfort, and continued to difcharge his minillerial
fanftions. in that conneftion, until the year 1593, when his
flock was entirely difperfed by perfecution. In the follow-
ino- year he was invited to accept the theological profclTor-
(hip at Leyden, and having taken his degree of D.D. he
entered upon the duties of his new ftation. In 1603 Armi-

G O M

nius was appointed his colleague, and openly and zealonfiy
oppofed the gloomy dottrines- maintained by John Calvin,
and made many converts in the univerfity. This roufedtiie
attention of Gomar, who declared himfelf his opponent, dif-
putedwith him in the fchools of Leyden, and publiihed
treatifes to excite the orthodox to make a firm ftand againlt
his doclrines, which he reprefenled to be profane and im-
pious ; he went much farther, and endeavoured to provoke
againlt him the indignation of the States of Holland, be-
fore whom the two combatants difputcd twice in the year
1608. On one occafion, when Barnevelt exclaimed that he
was grateful to God that their controverfies did not affect
the fiind-cimental articles of the Chriftian religion, Gomar
protefted " that he could not appear before the throne of God
with Arminius's errors," thus vainly letting limits to the
mercy of the mod high and moil merciful God. In 1611,
feeing that his opponents increafed in numbers and in ftrength,
Gomar refigned liis office, and retired to Middleburg. Al-
ter this, he accepted the profefTorlhip of divinity, firft at
the academy of Saumur, and then at the univerfity of Gi'O-
ningen, and at the latter place he was employed as the He-
brew profeflbr, in addition to that of theology. He was
prefent at the fynod of Dort, and took an aftive part in
procuring the infamous decrees by which the Arminians
were condemned and profcribed as corrupters of the true
faith, and enemies to their country. He died at Groningen
in 1641. leaving a dillinguifhed charafter for found learn-
ing, particularly in the Oriental languages, but it cannot,
and it ought not to be concealed, that he difgraced the cha-
rafter of a Chriftian minifter by his bigotry and intolerance.
As an author, he publiihed many treatifes, but chiefly on
controverfial fubiefts, which were colle6led and printed at
Amllerdam in the year 1645. He was alfo concerned in re-
vifing ihetrandationof the Old Teftament, printed at Ley-
den with notes in the year 1637. Moreri. Bayle.

GOMASTAHPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal,
42 miles N.W. of Nattore.

GOMAUN, or Kemaoon, the name of mountains of
Afia, called alfo thofe of Sewalic ; an extenfive ridge,
which fecms to form the exterior barrier of the Thibetian
Alps in Sirinagur, S:c.

GOMBAULD, John Ogier De, in Biography, ' a
French poet of the feventeenth century, was the younger
fon of a gentleman of the Proteftant religion, to which' he
adhered. He was educated at Bourdeaux, and came to
Paris about the time of the death of Henry IV., and fre-
quented the court of Mary de Medicis, Of her he obtain-
ed a penfion of 1200 crowns, which was but ill-paid, and
wiiich was foon reduced nominally to one-third of that fum,
fo that, nut\\'ithftanding his high patrons, he pafied much
of his life in a ftate little above indigence. He was eledted
one of the firft members of the French Academy, and was
fo extremely zealous for its great obieft, the purity of the
language, that he once propofed to the academicians that
they Ihould bind themfelves by oath to ufe no words
but fuch as were approved by the majority of the fociety.
He lived to a good old age, aiid died in 1666. He was au-
thor ot many tragedies, tragi-coniedies, paftorals and ro-
mances, fonnets, epigrams, &c. He alfo engaged in theolo-
gical controvcrfy, and wrote " Treatiles and Letters con-
cerning Religion," in favour of the Protellants. Gom-
bauld was very ready at repartee, and his wit did not leave
him even in old age, for his latell publication was a collec-
tion of epigrams. Moreri. Bavle.

GOMBERT, Nicolas, a difcijjle of Jufquin, who
publiflied two books of motets for many voices in 1552.
He fet to mufic a Latin epitaph on his mailer Juf-
quin;

G O M

quill ; and at this time compofcrs being fcarce, he gained
fome reputation among tliofc of Flanders, with very little
genius. ^ For after performing the tedious ta/k of feoring
the mufic of the na;nia on .Tulquin, we found its chief merit
to confill in imitations of his admirable mailer. Tins com-
pofition was in the third ecclefiaRical mode of E, with a mi-
nor fecond, as well as third ; which M. Blainville fome
years ago wiflied to pafs on the public for a third or new-
key, different from the major and minor, which comprife
all fccular mufic at prefent. And it is extraordinary, that
this pretenfion Ihould have had any abettors in a Roman Ca-
tholic country, where old compoiitions in this mode are
daily performed in cathedrals and collegiate churches. How-
ever, it was a matter of wonder and debate, during fome
tiniV, in France. Sec Mercure de France, 175 1, and Did.
de Mui". par Rouffeau, art. Mode.

GOMBERVILLE, Makin- Le Roi, Smir ck, a man
of letters, was born at Chevreufe, in the diocefe of Paris.
He became diilinguifhed at the age of fourteen by a collec-
tion of quatrains in honour of old age. In 1635 he was fo
much diftinguiflied for a literary reputation, that lie was of
the number aflembled by cardinal Richlieu for the purpofe
of founding the French academy. He had publilhed ro--
mances and works of a light nature, of which he aft-er-
wards fcemed to beafliamed, for at the age of forty-live he
formed the refolution of confecrating his pen to religion.
He even adopted a penitentiary courfe of. life, and is men-
tioned by fome of his contemporaries as having joined the
Chriilian virtues to thofe of morality. H.? died in 1674,-
leaving behind him many works, of which perhaps the beii is
a " Difcours fur les V-ertus et Ics Vices de I'Hilloire et
de la Maniere de bien ecrire.'' This is ■ deemed a fenfible
and very judicious performance. Moreri.

GOMBEY, in Geography, a- town of Africa, in Boton-
ga, on theZambezc. S.lat. i8\ -E. long. 36 ' 3'.

GOMBEZCALA, a town of Perlia, in the province of
Farfiilan ; 1 00 miles N.N. W. of Schiras.

GOMBIN, Gambix, or Gabln, a town of Poland, in
the duchy of Warfaw, fituatcd on the river Biura ; 34
miles N.N.E. of Rawa.

GOMBRON. See G.UMnnox.

GOMER, in Scripture Hiftory, the fon of Japheth
(Gen. X. 2.) and, according to Jofephus, father to the peo-
ple of Galatia. The ancient inliabitaiits of that country
were called Gomares before the Galatians feizcd pofTeffion
of it. The Chaldee places Gomer in Africa ; Bociiart in
Phrygia, becaufe Phrygia, in Greek, has the fame fignifi-
cation (a coal) as Gomcr, in Hebrew and Syriac. Others
are of opinion that the ancient Cimbri, or Cimmerians, fprung
from Gomer, and probably from them the W'elOi, called
Cymri. It is not improbable, that Gomer, or the Gome-
rites, his defcendants, peopled likewife Germ.any and
Gaul ; the name German not differing much from Gomerim.
Cluvier (Germ. Antiq. Li. c. 5. 6.) conjecturing that the
ancient Ccltica comprehended Illyria, Germany, Gaul,
Spain, and the Britifii ides, as all ihefe people anciently
fpoke the fame language, farther fuppofes, that Gomer, or
lu.> family, peopled the countries iuAfia, between the Paro-
pamifus and mount Imaus, and between the confluence of
the Oxus and Oby ; whence thefe people are called Gomares
by Ptolemy (1. vi. c. 17.) and Tvlela (1. i. c. 2.).

Go.NtF.K, or Omer, an Hebrew meafure. See CoRUS.

GOMER A, or Velez de Peoxon, iu Geography, a caftle
of Africa, in the country of Fez, buiic on a rock near the
coall of the Mediterranean. Before tins fortrifs there was
anciently a city, called " Bedis,.'^ fvpuofed to have been
fouad' d by the Carthaginians. The Am'';'-, called it Bells and

G O iM

\'eli.-, whence \"eles. Thefe two places, furroiinded by moun-
tains andforefts, were fupporttd by tlie building of (hips for
fi(hing and piracy, before they were taken by the Spaniard?.
— Alio, a river of Fez, which run^ into the llraits of Gibral-
tar, near the above-mentioned fortrefs.

Go.MF.riA, or Gomara, one of the Canary iflands, about
20 miles long and 10 broad, having a capital of the fame
name, htuated on the eall coall, with a good harbour. Thr
illand is fertile and well cultivated, and produces fugar-caiics
and vines in abundance, as well as filk, together with fufficient
corn for the fupply of the inhabitants, who amount to about
70CO; 18 miles S.W. of TenerifTc. N. lat, 2^ 6'. W.
lung. 17' 8'.

GOMETRA, one of the weftcrn iflands of Scotland.
This is a fmall illand at the weft end of Ulva, tolerably fer-
tile, but without wood.

GOMEZ DE CiviDAD Real, Alvarez, in Biography,
a modern Latin poet, was born in 1488 at Guadalaxara in
Spain. He was page of honour to archduke Charles, after-
wards emperor. As an author, which entitles him to a place
in this work, he poffeifed a great facility in wTiting Latin
verfe, which is feen by his " Thalia Chriftiana," or the
triumph of Jefus Chrift , in twenty-five books : " Mufa
Paulina," or the epillles of St. Paul, in elegiac verfe : the
Proverbs of Solomon, and other works of a fimilar kind.
His work on the order of the Golden Fleece, entitled " De
Principis Burgundi Militia qnam X'elleris aurei vocant," is
reckoned his maftcr-piece. The fubjedl which he chofe in
this inftance was more favourable to poetry than the others.
Moreri.

Gomez de Castro, Alvarez, a native of St. Eulalia,
near Toledo, was eductitcd at Alcala, where he obtained a high
chnraillcr for diligence and real learning. He was patro-
nized byPhilip H., who engaged him to prepare an edition
of the works of Ifidore, which death prevented him from
completing. He was author of many works ; but the chief,
and that which is moll elteemed, is a " Life of Cardinal
Ximenes," inferted in a colle(5t'.on of tlie writers on SpanilH
hiftory. Gomez died in 1580, at the age of 65. Mo-
reri.

Gomez, Magdalen-Axgelica Poissox, born at Pari*
in 16S4, was the daughter of Paul Poiflbn, an aftor. Her
fertile pen produced a great variety of romances and other
works of the entertaining kind. The principal aiv, " Les
Journees Amufantes," in eight volumes. " Anecdotes
Perfanes," "two vols. " Hill. Secrete de la Conqvi^te de
Grenade." " Hilloire du Comte d'Oxford avec jfelle.
d'Eullachede St. Pierre." " Les cent Nouvelles." She
died in 1770, at the age of 86.

Go-MEZ, Seb.\sti.\no, a Mulatto flave of the Spaniih.
painter Murillio, who employed his leifure hours in painting,
and obtained conlidcrable fuccefs. The city of Seville is,
or was, adonied with many of his works : the mod confpi-
cuous among them were a " Madonna with the Infant," in
the portico of Lof. Mercenaries Defcalxos, and the " Fla-
gellation of Cl.riit," at the Capuchins. It is not known at
what period he died ; but he is faid to have i'urvivcd Uis
mailer, whofe deccafe happened in the year 1685.

GOMGAH, in Geogr,7p/jy, a town of Hindooftan, iu the
circar of Surgooja ; 22 miles S.W. of Siirg^ja.

GOMI, a town of the pi-oviuce of Guricl, on the Black
fea.

GOMMERN, a town of Saxony, on the Elbe ; 3 miles
E. of Magdeburg.

GOMNIALPAR, a town of Hindooflan, in the circar
of Guntoor ; I c miles E. of Imiaconda.

8 GOMORA,

G O M

GOMORA, a fmall iflantl in the Eaft Iiidian f-a, near
tlie welt coali of Oby. S. !:.t, i' 52'. E. long. 128^.

QOMORRKA, in Jnc'init Gtfography, a town of Paltf-
tiue, and one of tlic principal cities of the Pentapolis, cou-
funied by fire from heaven. It was probably the moft
northern of the five cities. Gen. xix. 24.

GOMOZIA, or GoMEZIA, in Bolany. See Ner-

GOMPHI A, from yof/.?').-, a mill or knob, alluding to the
form of the receptacle of the fruit. Sclireb. 291. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 569. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 2. (Jabotapita ;
Plum. Grn. 41. t. 32. Ochtia ; Gaertn. t. 70. Julf. 2H2.)
Clafs and order. D<ram\r\a Momgyina, Nat. Ord. Mog-
■vol'j', Juff.

Gen. Ch. (7.7/. Perianth inferior, of five lanceolate,
(harpifti, ribbed, coloured, deciduous leaves, two of which
have a membranous margin at each fide, one on one fide
only, and two are deilitute of any. Cor. Petals five, fpread-

G O M

membrane, and producing two conipTcffed mafTes of pollen,
whicli attach tliemfthes by a tnper point to the (ligma, and
remain pendulous there. I'lft- Germens two, fuperior, ovate,
fi)lcs two, very fnort, Itanding clofe together; ifigma
common to the two, dilated, horizontal, flat, with five
angles to receive the mafTes of pollen. Pcr'tc. Follicles two,
iuflated, ovate, pointed, clotiied with foft fpiiTcs. Recep-
tacles membranous, longitudinal, linear, at length feparate.
Seeds numerous, imbricated, pendulous, cro^vned with lilky
down.

EfT. Cli. Corolla in five deep reflexed fegments. Nec-
tary of five hooded leaves, fimple, with a fingle tooth on
eacii fide, crowning the filaments. Anthers terminated by
a membrane. Stigma deprefled, pointlefs. Follicles in-
flated, prickly. Seeds hairy.

This genus is feparated from Jlfdepias by Mr. Brown,
(whofe effay on the whole order, and whofe difcovery of the
mode in which the pollen is projected by the anthers upon

' lontrer than the calyx, rather unequal ; the claws are the lUgraa, do him the iiighelt honour,) on account of the

fiiorter than the calyx, each gradually widening into a
roundifh, flat, entire torder. Siam. Filaments ten, very
fliort, thick and angular ; anthers creft, (horter than the
calyx, f/}uare, tapering upwards, burfting at the top, on
the outfide, by two pores. Pijl. Germen placed on a fliort
flefhy angular receptacle, with five angles and five-divilions ;
flvle longer than the ilamens, marked with five furrows ;
fligma acute. Perk. Drupas from oae to 'ii^t, molt gene-
rally two, ovate, obliquely attenuated at the bafe, fi)mewhat
comprefled, obtufe, ereft, Handing on a very large globofe
receptacle, which is undivided, if the berry be lolitary,
lobcd if there be more, one lobe being appropriated to each
berry. Seeds folitary, ovate.

Efl". Ch. Calyx five-leaved, inferior. Petals five, vsitli
claws rather unequal. Anthers nearly felhle, fqiiare, open-
ing by two pores. Drupas Handing on a rounded flefliy

receptacle.

Vahl and Swartz defcribe five fpecies, all trees, natives of

tropical climates. IMie chief and original one is G. Juhnta-
p'l'.a, (Ochna Jabotapita ; Linn. Sp. PI. 732. Jabotapita

pvramidato flore luteo, fruftu rubro ; Plum. Ic. 147.

t. 153.) Tliis is a native of South America, flowering

in December and January. The ivood is foft and tough.

Leaves fimple, as in the whole genus, alternate, ftalked.

inflated prickly fruit, and the Angular horrr which in Afcle-
p'uu grow out from the bottom ot the nectaries. It confiils
of Afclep'ias arburejccns, Linn. Mant. 216; frvticofa, Linn.
Sp. PI. 315; s.nd fetoj a, Vahl. Symb. v. i. t. 8 ; and, as
Mr. Brown lufpects, of crifpn, Linn. Mant. 215. Suppl.
170. A.pubefcem, Liim. Mant. 215, is, as he juflly obferves,
on the authority of the late excellent Mr Dryander, bor-
rowed from the I.,irmxan herb;uium, the fame plant as arbo-
rtj'rens, with a fynonym from Plukenet (t. 139. f. i.) and
Morifour which is prefumed to be cr'tfpa.

GOMPHOLOBIUM, fo named by the writer of the
prefent article, from ^c^.'ii, a <uiedge, club, or any thing
fwelling upwards from a narrow bafe, and J'.,3cf, apod, or
legume, expreifive of its tumid fruit. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
V. 4. 220. Ann of Bot. v. i. ^05. — Clafs and order,
Deeandr'm Monogyma. Nat. Ord, PapiUonacca, Linn. Le-
guiiiinofte, .Tuff.

Gen. Cli. Cal, Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coriaceous,
fliort, bell-fiiaped, in (i\e deep, oblong, pointed, unequal
fegments. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard very large, in-
verfely heart-fliaped, carinated at the back, recurved, with
a fliort claw. Wings fhorter than the llajdard, parallel,
horizontal, with a prominent lobe on one fide near the bafe.
Keel the length of the wings, of two half-ovate, tumid,

ovate, acute, ferrated. Floivers in terminal clulters, yellow, clawed petals, with a reverfed tooth at the upper edge of
fragrant, compared by Marcgrave to thofe of a Wall-flower each. Slum. Filaments ten, concealed in the keel, awl-
in figure, or rather colour, but he fays their fcent isfweeter. fliaped, dilliiKt, afccnding, rather unequal in length ; anthers
The/r«/V and its receptacle are black, juicy, aflringent. vertical, roundifli, two-lobed. Plfl. Germen ftalked, ob-

Thls genus is certainly very nearly related to Ochna, both long, fomewhat cylindrical ; flyle awl-fhaped, afcending, as
in habit and character.

GOMPHIASIS, fromyoyv'o-, a nml, a difordcr of the
teeth, in whicli they become loofe and painful. The con-
nection of the derivative with the Greek is imputable to the
circumltaBce of the teeth being fixed in their fockets, like
nails in a piece of wood.

GOMPHOCARPUS,in Bnlany, fromy-i.ujo., anything
fwelling upwards from a narrow bale, as a nail, wedge, or
club, and xkjt ?, fruit, alluding to the tumid follicles.
Brown Afclepiad. (from the Wernerian Society's Tranfac-

long as the ftamens ; fligma fimple, acute. Piric. Legume
on a ftalk, nearly globular, inflated, of one cell, crowned
with the flyle. Sereis feveral, roundifh, ranged along the
upper future on fliort flalks.

Eff. Ch. Calyx bell-fliaped, fimple, in five deep feg-
ments. Corolla papilionaceous. Stigma fimple. Legume
inflated, globofe, of one cell, with many feeds.

Five fpecies of this genus are defined in the Tranfaftions
of the Linnxan Society, v 9, 249, Ci - grcindijl-;rum, Exot.
Bot. t. 5 : — lal'ifolium, [fiuibrintum ; Exot. Bot. t. 58:)

tions) 26. The genus is confounded by I.,inn£eus under fcabrum, a fpecies communicated by Mr. Menzies : minus,

his AJchpias. Clafs and order, PeiUandria Digynia. Nat. very near the lafl, except in the acute recurved points of the

Ord. Contortie, lAnn. Apocineir, Ju{{. A/clepiadea, Brown. leaves: ?ind piiinatum, a fmall fpecies from Port Jackfi)n,

Gen.- Ch. Ciil. Perianth inferior, fm.all, in fi\e acute, remarkable for its pinnate leaves, and zig-zag herbaceous

permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, regular, in five ftem. Probably the fubfequent volume of Ivlr. Brown's

deep, reflexed fegments, deciduous. Ncftary of five hooded- Prodromus will add more to this number.

leaves, fimple within, furnifhed with a tooth at each fide. The habit of Gomplolobium is marked by the compound

placed on the top of the united filaments. Stam. Fila- (ternate or pinnate) leaves, and a certain aipcft of rigidity

inents five, cohering; anthers of two cells, terminated by a and fmoothnefs. The flipulas arc not istriiioliaccDus as in

PuticniTJt

I

G 0 M

Putfcitita, but Hand on each fide of tlie bafc of the common
footftalk, being a pair of acute flat clore-prcffed leaves, cx-
ti-emcly ntinute, and often altogether wanting. The flowers
are yellow, generally numerous!, large andliandfome ; in G.
fcabrum they are purple when dried, but this is fufpefted
to be an alteration of their original hue, and they are
judged, from tlie analogy of Dav'njia, to be yellow, with
crimfon keel and wings, when frefh.

All the fpecies, as far as hitherto known, are natives of
New Holland. S.

GOMPHOSIS, in Anatomy, from youZo.; a nail, denotes
the manner in which the fangs of the teeth are fixed in their
fockets.

GOMPHRENA, in Bohiny, a name adopted by Lin-
nxus from Dalechamp, and which is perverted from the
Cromphaia of Pliny. Linnsus made it clafllcal by an allu-
fion to ■)5iy.po;, J nciil, 'zvf/fge, or c/i/l/, which can but obfcurely
apply to the round head of flowers. See Ghomi'IIexa. —
Linn. Gen. 123. Schreb. 172. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1. 1321.
Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew v. i. 318. Jufl". 88.
Lamarck. lUuftr. t. i8o. Gitrtn. t. 128. ( Amaranthoides;
Tournef. t. 429.) — Clafs and order, PaiUtndrla Digynia.
Nat, Ord. Holeraceit, LiJin. AmarmilJn, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. reformed; Cat. Periantii inferior, coloured,
membranous, permanent, double ; the outer of two large,
comprefTed, keeled leaves, cohering by their inner margins,
and one fraaller ; inner in five deep, awl-fliaped, upright,
downy fegments. Cor. of one petal, tubular, cylindrical,
the length of the inner calyx ; its margin equally five-cleft,
■fpreading. Slam. Fi!a;nent3 five, very fliort, inferted into
tlie orifice of the corolla, betwixt its fegments ; anthers
ere£l, roundilh, clofing the mouth of the corolla. P'ljl.
Gcrmen ovate, pointed, fuperior ; ftyles ihort, cohering at
their bottom part ; lligmas fimple, obtufe, fcarcely reaching
■to the ftamens. Perk. Capfule rcundifh, membranous, of
one cell, buriling all reund. Seed folitary, large, roundidi,
with an oblique point.

Eff, Ch, Calyx coloured, the outer of three unequal
leaves ; inner in five deep fegments. Corolla cylindrical,
five-toothed, bearing the llamens at its orifice. Capfule
burfting all round. Seed foUtary.

The fpecies of Gr,mplirena come under the denomination
of Everlaftings, or Amaranths, on account of the perma-
nent nature of their calyx when dried, which retains its ori-
ginal colour and fplendour.

G. ghbofu. Globe Amaranth, a native of India, is com-
monly railed on a hot-bed, and planted out in our borders,
like other tropical annuals. It is alfo frequently kept in
pots to decorate the (love or green-houfe. The original
crimfon fort is much more liajidfome than the paler varie-
gated variety.

G. feremiis, figured in DilL Hort. Elth. t. 20, a native
of Buenos Ayres, is fcarcely cultivated but in curious
garijcns, having fmall heads of yellovvilh flowers of no re-
markable beauty.

There are eight fpecies befides in Willdcnow, of which
the arborejeens, Linn. Suppl. 173, is by far the moll re-
markable. This was not fent to I.innaus by Mutis from
New Granada, as erroneoufly aflfcrted by the younger Lin-
nseus in the Suppkmmlum, but by Vandelli, who received it
from Brazil, and who has defcribed it under the name of
Bragar.t'ii, in his Eafc. Plant, p. 6. The J/cm is woody,
round, leafy, clothed with rigid, prominent, brown hairs,
as are alio the Imva, wiiich are nppofite, obovate, obtule,
entire, about three inches long, and half as broad. Heads
terminal, folitary, tl>e fize of an African Marigold or
TagcUs, pale red or whitifli, compufed of innumerable
V01..XVL

CON

flowerj, the fegments of whofe calyxei are aborf ai iflcl,
lon^, hnear, acute and cliafTy, clothed in iheir low.-r part
witli long denfe filky hairs. We know of no figure of thi»
fine plant.

Mr. Brown, Prodr. Fl. Nov. HoU. v. i. 416, addi four
new fpecies to Gomphmia, while he remov< a from it th»
hrafdl.-nfis and vermieularii, which, with two new one? from
the trujiical part of New Holland, he forms into a new-
genus, PhUo.venis. He confidcrs v.hat wc term corolla iis
Gomphrena, as the tube of the united filaments

GoMi'ilHKN'A, in Gardaiing, contains a plant of the
flowery annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated U, the
annual globe amaranth (G. globofa.)

It is a fine flowerini' i)lant, the head.^ of which at their
firft appearance are globular, but as they jncr-afe in fize
become oval, and, according to Martyn, the flov.ering headi
are extremely beautiful, and, if gathered before they are
too far advanced, retain their beauty fevcral years.

There are varieties with fme bright purple heads, with
white or filvery heads, which never alter from feeds, with
mixed colours, with purple and with white heads, which
two lall :.re much fmaller and rounder than the others ; the
plants alfo grow much larger and fpread more into branehti,
and are later before they flower; thcfe are called batchelor'*
buttons in America. •

Miihod of Culture. — It may be incrcafed by fo wing the
feeds annually, in pots of light frcfli mould, in the early
fpring months, and phuiging th.-m in the bark hot-bed.
When the plants are up, they fliould be watered often with
care ; and, after they have attained iom<i growth, be re-
moved with balls about their roots into other ui^ts, and
replunged in the hot-bed. When they have had fome'
growth in this fituation, they fliould be removed into a deep
frame, being placed in a frefli hot-bed, to bring them up tall
and handfomc. Afterwards tliey fliould be often refreflied
with water, and have air admitted freely as the fummer
advances, till they arc capable of bearing it without injury ;
when about Augufl tiiey may be fet out during the day-
time, being protecled in the night, and from wet weather.
At this yeriod they fliould be watered three or four times a
week at lead, in a rather fparing manner.

They aff'ord a good eftecl when fet out in the principal
fituatiims about the houfe, in afTcmblage with other plant*
of the potted kinds.

GOMRAPENDV, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan,
in the Canuuie ; 25' miles N. of Madras.

GOM.S, one of the feven independent dixains or common*
wealths of the Upper Vallais, in Switzerland; called ifixain,
becaufe the Upper and Lower Vallais comprehend 10
dillricls, each being a dixain or tenth of the whole. Gomi
is fituated at the foot of mount Grimfel, and extends alonr
the bank of the Khone ; and is fo called from a t.>\vn, 35
miles E. of Sion. See Vai.l.m.s.

GOMl'T, a river of Bengal, which runs into the Magna,
near Chandpour.

QoMi r Peperee, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad;
fix miles N. of Amednagur.

GOMUTTRA SfLagitta, in ^\lluraf H[,hry, the
name given by the Indians to a kind of fufnl, found in groat
plenty on the mount Vimly in the Eaft Indies, iu places, a«
they obfcrve, \vhere the cows frequently unue. It ig ■
bitmuinous fubflance, and after cdcination the rofiduiim i«
given in cafes of internal ulcers and in gonorrhaas, Thr
Indians fuppofed it formed by the drying up of tl»e cow's
urine. '

GONAGRA, compofedof y>v, y(;;a, and a;'),ot, c.7f>tvrj,
C'l-Jn^, in Mtdidnf, the gout in the knee See Gorr.

3 K GONAM*

G O N

G O N

. GONAMBOUCH, in Ornltbolc^y. See Emberiza
Gri/.a.

GONANPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
jn the circar of Eljore ; 1 8 miles N. E^ of Ellore.

GONAPI, one of the fmaller Banda illands, in the
centre of « h;eh is a volcano. The only inhabitants are wild
l>ogs, cows and ferpcnts. S. lat. 4 10'. E. long. 130^

34'-

GONARCHA, a term in the ancient diallnig. Mr.

Perraiilt, in his notes on Vitruviiis, lib. ix. cap 9. takes
the gonarcha to have been a dial drawn on divers furtaces or
planes ; fome of which being horizontal, others vertical,
•bliquc, &c. formed divers angles.

Whence the appellation, from yo-.i, knee, or yivis, angle.
GONARY, ill Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in the
Myforc ; 12 miles S. of Rydroog.

GONAVE, La, an illand fnuated on the weft fide of
St. Domingo, about 147: leagues in length, and about three
ill breadth. This is called Grand Gonave by way of diilinc-
tion from Petit Gonave, another fmall idand about tivo
miles in each direction, feparated from the S.E. corner of
the former, by a channel three miles wide. Gonave is 13^
leajjues W. by N W. from Port an Prince. N. lat. ?8 51'.
W. long. 73 40'. See St. Do.vriNC.o.

GONAVES, a fea-port in the above-mentioned ifland,
at the head of a bay of its own name, on the N. fide of a
bay of Leogane. The harbour is excellent ; the town has
a medicinal fpring, and in 1 772 both were ercftcd with
lodging-lioufes for the accommodation of ihofe who refort
to it, and an hofpital for foldiers and failors. It lies on the
great road from Port de Paix to St. Mark, 16 leagues
ts.E. of the former. N. lat. 19" 22'. W. long. 73 ' 20'.

GONCANAMA, a town of S. America, in the au-
dience of Quito ; 20 miles S. W. of Loxa.

GONCELIN, a town of France, in the department of
the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diilricl; of
Grenoble ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Grenoble. The place con-
tains 1558, and the canton 10,259 inhabitants, "" * terri-
tory of 197I kiliometres, in 14 communes.

GONDAR, the metropolis of Abyflinia, is fituated upon
a hill, elevated 8440 feet above the ocean, and confills of
about 10,000 families in times of peace. The houies are
ehicfiy conllrucled with clay, and th' roofs are thatched in
a conical fopn, which is the mode of building within the
tropical rains. On the well end of the town is the king's
houfe, formerly a ftrufture ef ccnfiderable importance ; it
was a fquare edifice, flanked with fquare towTrs ; formerly
four ftories high, and the top of it afforded a magnificent
view of the whole country S. of the lake Tzana. Although
tlie greatell part has been burnt at different times, there is
a^nple lodging in the two loweft floors of it ; the audience
chambers being above 120 feet long. Annexed to this
fuined palace are apartments, conftrufted by fucceeding
kings, aifo of clay, according to the fafnion of their own
country; for the palace itfelf, fays Bruce (Travels, vol. iii.)
was bulk by niafons from India in the time of Facilidas, and
by fuch Abyflinians as had been iniirufted in architeCfure
by the Jcfuits, without embracing their religion, and after-
wards remained in the country, unconnefted with the ex-
pulfion of the Portuguefc, dui-ing this prince's reign. The
palace and its contiguous buildings are iurrounded by a ftone
wall, 30 feet high, with baltleniciits upon the outer wall,
and a parapet roof between th.e outer and inner, by which
you may pafs along t!ie whole and have a view of the ftreet.
There never appear to have been any cmbiafures for cannon ;
the toiir fides of this wall are above l\ Engliill mile in
kiigth. The mountain, on which the town is iituated, is
S

encompaffe.i on every fide by a deep valley, which has three
outlets ; the one to the foiith, to Dembea, Maitfliaw, and
the Agows, the fecond to the N. W , towards Sennaar over
the high mountain Debia Tzai, or the mountain of the Sun,
at the foot of which Kofcam, the palace of the Itcghe, is
fituated, as are alfo the low countries of Walkayt and Wal-
dubba ; th? third is to the N. to Woggora, over the high,
mountain Lamahnon, and fo on through Tigrc to the Red
fea. The river Kahha, coming from tiie mountain of the
Sun, runs through the valley, and covers all the foulh of
the town ; the Angrab, falling from Woggora, furrounds
it on the N.N.E.: thefe rivers join at the bottom of the
hill, about a quarter of a mile S. of the town. On an emi-
nence oppofite to Gondar, on the other fide of the river, is
a large town of Mahometans, conliftiiig of about IOC3
imufes. They are all aftive and laborious, and are em-
ployed in taking care of the baggage and field-equipage of
the king and nobility, when they take the field and return-
from it; but they never fight on either fide. N. lat. 12'
34' 30". E. long. 37^ 33'.

GONDEBAUD, in Biography, third king of the Bur-
gundian.';, celebrated as a legidator among the barbarians
over whom he reigned as iovereign. He obtained the
crown in 491, and almoft immediately, v.nder pretence of af-
filling Odoaccr againil Theodoric, ent' red Italy, carrying
fire and fword through Emilia and Liguria, and made a
great number of captives, manv of whom he liberated with-
out ranfom, at the requeft of Epiphanius biftiop of Pavia.
He aifembled, in 499, a council at Lyons, in order to effect
a reconciliation between the Catholics and Arians. He was
himfelf an Arian, from habit and education ; but he was un-
able to effedt fo laudable a purpofe. About this time he
was attacked and defeated by Clovis king of the Franks ;
who made the Burgundian monarch his tributary. Clovis
returned to his own country, and Gondebaud revenged him-
felf upon his brother Godegefil, who had joined Clovis, fur-
prifcd him, and put him to death. From this periodhe reigned
in peace over liis people, whom he rendered flourifliing by
the arts of civilization, and by a regular fyftcm of laws.
Thefe, fays the hiftorian, wei-e in general founded on equi-
ty, and difplay much fagacity in preventing all caufcs of
dilpute ; ncverthelefs, they enjoin the barbarifm of judicial
combats, which the legiilator juftified as an inference from
the admitted doClrine of the interference cf a particular pro-
vidence in human affairs. The Burgundian code, called " La
loi Gombrette,'' has been pubhfhed in feveral cclleclicns cf
ancient laws. This prince died in 516, leaving behind him,
as memorials, letters upon theological fuhjects to Avitus,.
bilTiop of Vienne. Univcr. Hill.

GONDEGAMA, or Gondlaco.m.ma, in Geography, a,
river of Hindooftan, which forms the nominal boi-.ndary o£
the Carnutic, and difcharges itfelf into the fen at Mediptlly.
Combam, or Commum, is near its fource. It is lome-
times called Gilllgama, and Gunta-camma.

GONDICOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar;
3 3 miles N. of Trumian.

GONDOL.'\, a little flat boat, very long and narrow,,
chiefly ufed at Venice to row on the canals.

The word is \x.rsMw>, gonelola. Du Cange derives it from
the vulgar Greek Mui'i£>.x;, a bark, or litdi Jhip; I..aneclot
deduces it from ■jcvJi, a term in Athena-u.s for a fort of
vafe.

The middle-fized gondolas are rpwards of thirty fbct
long, and four broad ; they always terminate at each end in a
very Iharp point, which is raifed perpendicularly to tlic full
Jieight of a man.

The

G O N

The ri'lJrefs of the Venetiafi gondoliers, in pafTing aloP'T
their narrow citials, is very remarkable; there arc ufimllv two
to each gondola, and they row by pufhiiig before them.
The fore-m^.n relU his oar on the left fide of the gondola :
the hind-man is placed on the ftern, that he may fee
t!ie head over the tilt or covering of the gondola, and
reds his oar, which is ver)- long, on the right fide of the
gondola.

Gondola is alfo the name of a palFage-boat of fix or
eight oars, ufed in other parts of the coaft of Italy.

GoXDor,.v-yZi //. in Natural Hifiory, a name given by au-
thors to a peculiar kind of concha ;^!obofa, fiippofed, in fonie
degree, to reprefent the (hape of a Venetian boat. It is of
the genus of the dol'ium, and there are feven fpccies of it.
See Doi.u'M and Coxciiology

GONDOMAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ga-
licia ; 6 miles E. of Bavona.

GONDRECOURT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Commercy. The place contains 1 1 13, and the can-
ton 8973 inhabitants, on a territory of 340 kiliometres, in
24. communes.

GONDUFEE, a town cf Africa, in the kingdom of
Kong; ICO miles SE. of Kong.

GONDWARRAH, a town of Bengal; 15 miles
S.S.W. of Purneah.

GONESSE, a tovi-n of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oiie, and chief place of a canton, iu tlic diihicl
of Pontoife,ninemilesN. of Paris. The place contains 2400,
and the canton 14,811 inhabitants, on a territory of 182}
kiliometres, in 22 communes.

GONET, JoKX B.VPTIST, in Biography, was born at
B;7,iLrs in the year 1616. He embraced the eccleliatUcal
liff when he was young, and was admilted to the degree of
dodlor of divinity by the univerfity of Bourdeaux in the
year 1640. He was at the fume tijne eledted to the profef-
forfliip of theology hi that univerfity, an office which he
held with great dignity till the year 1 67 I, when he was ap-
pointed provincial among tl'.e Dominican friars. In 1675 he
refumcd his labours as profeffor, which he continued about
two years, ard then retired to his native place, where he
died in 16S1. He was autlior of a fyilem of divinity, er.-
titled " Clypceus Theologis Thomilllca?, contra novos ejus
impugnatores," firll publilhed at Bourdeaux in 1666, iu
eighteen volumes iznio., but it was afterwards enlarged,
and printed in five volumes folio. He was likewife author
of a " Mannale Thomillarum, feu brevis Theologix Cur-
fus,'' which has pafied through different edition?, of which
the bed was publifhed at Lyons in 1 68 1 : and " Differta-
tio Theologica de Probabilitate." Moreri.

GONFALON, or Goniwxok, a kind of round tent,

borne as a canopy, at the head of the procefiions of the

principal churches at Rome, in cafe of rain ; its verge or

banner ferving for a fiieltcr, where there is not a great deal

. of attendance.

GONG, a Chinefe metalline, mufical inrtrument of per-
cufllon, in the form of a flat bafon, with a ridge round it,
and beaten by a mallet covered with feveral folds of wool-
len cloth. It is ca.-rieu on a pole by two men, and beaten
by the hindmoft. In the march of an armv, it is ufed as a
military in llrument to regulate the ileps of the ioldier^i ;
when ftruck with great force, it is fufiiciently loud to be
heard at a mile's diliance ; but fo confufed is the found, that
. no diftincl tone can be afcertalned. Yet by reiterated gen-
tle (Irokes on the fame part of the bottom of the bafon a
mufical tone may be produced ; but dilleri'ut parts of ^ the
circle produce tones of diiTercnl gravity and aculenels.

G O N

It IS ufed in proceflions, and at court on Jays of ceremo-
ny and feftivals, in concert with other inltr'uincnts, as a
double drum. On the water, in vefTels that are rowed, thi»
inilrument regulates the Arokes of the oars.

It is formed of brafs or bron/.c, and called Lu by the
Chinefe, who, from hearing it only on great occafions, re-
gard it with reverence.

GONGA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Romania, near the ka of Mprmora ; 36 miles N.E. ot
Gallipoli.

Go.\o.-\, or Bain Gonga, a river of Hindooftan, which
falls into the Godavery about 90 miles from the fea. Sec
Bai.v Gctiga, and God.vvery

GONGACA, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles S.W. of
Calcutta.

GONGADEE, a town of B-.ngal; 50 miles S.W. of
Rogonautpour.

GONGOLARA, in Bolaay, a name by which Impcra-
t\:s has called a very beautiful fea plant, known among bota-
nical writers by the name oi fucus erict foliis, or erica marimi,
the fea heath.

GONGONG, is anindrument ufed by the Hottentots,
and all the negroes on the weft' m coaft of Africa. Cf this
kind there are two forts, the large gongong and the fmall.
In the fujiplemcnt to the fir.1 edition of the French En-
cyclopcdie, a defcription of this inilrument has been attempt-
ed, that feems totally uninttlligiblc.

" The fmall gongon (lay the editors) is an iron or
holly bow, of which tne ftring is the finew of a fhccp dried
in the fun, or a bowel ftring ; at the extreinify of the bow is
placed, on one fide, the pipe of a fplit quill, in the hollow of
which the itring of the bow is lodged. The performer
holds this quill in his mouth when he is playing, and the
different tone^ of t!ie gongon proceed from the different
modulations of his breath.

" The great gongon only differs from the fmall by the
(hell ot a cocoa-nut, of which the upper part has been cut
off, and the ftring of the bow, before its tenfion, paffed
through it on each fide. In touching the inilrument the
cocoa-ihell is moved to and from the quul according to tlw
tone which is to be produced.'

We hope our readers will comprehend this defcription, by
which wo frankly own ourfelvcs not to be much enlightened ;
nor can we well conceive how the motion of tiie fplit quill,
or the feClion of the cocoa-nut, can produce different tones.
Nothing that anfwers to this defcription is to be found on
the plate referred to (fig. 3. PI. II.) but in PI. III. fig. 9.
Muf. lull, there is, we think, a very unlatisfadory rcprefen-
tation of it. And in the rude ftate in which the European
arts ill general have been found in fuch parts of Africa as
have alre;;dy been explored, ' we have little reafon ta
lament our ignorance of the conllruction and ufe of the
gongong.

GONGOO, in Geography, an ifiand in the Keel Abud
or Guin river of Africa, in its courl'e between Cafhna or
Kaffina, and Mekzara. N. lat. 16. E. long. 1 1\

GONGOOPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oudc, 12
miles S. of Kairabad.

GONGORA, Lewis, in Biography, a celebrated Spanilh
poet, was born at Cordova in 1562. He ftudied at .Sala-
manca, and being broight up to the church, was rr.-de chap-
lain to t!ie king, from whom he received confiiicrable eccle-
fiaftical prefermcj-.t. Ho died at Cordova, of tiic cathcdnl
of which he was prebend. His rej)Utatioii is built on a vo-
lume of poems, under the title of " Obras de Dom. Lcui.-i
do Gontfora-v-Argoro," 4to. The poems confift of a \-a«
riety of compoficK'ns, chiefly of th- ihorter kmJ, cfj-ecially
^ K I Krical,

G O N

fyrical, in which ftyle he fo much excelled, as to be termed
ty liis countrymen " the prince of lyric poets." Gon-
gora pofTencs, in the eftimation of his countrymen, a very
high rank amonjr the Spanilli poets for an artillcial elevation
of languatre, and uncommon turn of thouglit, which were
formerly tiic characlerlllics of the poetry of that nation.
So much, indeed, did he furpafs in theft- quahties, that he
had many ccnfurcrs in his own country, though he alfo met
with as many warm defenders. He is faid to Tiave enriched
his native language by the introduclion of many Latin words
happily emplovcd. Moreri.

GOMGRONA, in Sur^i-ry, a hard tumour ; but efpe-
eially a bronehocele, or fwclling of the thyroid gland. The
word is faid to be; derived from yo-^'^o;, a round tubercle on
the trunk of a tree.

GONHARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 40 miles W. of Lucknow.

GONIA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 16
miles W. of Aphiom-Karahifar.

GON.TAH, or Kong, fuppofed to be the Concbe of
D'AnvlIle, and the Gouge oi Delifle, a kingdom of Africa,
fitliated to the N. of Guinea, between the meridian of
Greenwich, and 5^ W. long, and between the loth and 12th
degrees of N. hit. It is about 870 miles weftward from
Cafhna or Kafliua, and between 530 and Geo miles from
the Gold Coall. Some fay, there is no communication be-
tween this coafl and the country of Gonjah ; the king of Af-
fentoi, who pofTcifes the intervening fpace, prohibiting his
inland neighbours from paffmg through his country. Olhera
report, that other ftatcs (c. g. the Fantees, and their confede-
rates) lie between Adcntoi and the fea ; and that the Affen-
tois liave often unfuccefsfiilly attempted to open a communi-
cation with the coaft. — Alfo, the name of n town, which is
the capital of the kingdom of Gonjah or Kong. N. lat.
1 1° 30'. W. long. 3 30'. — Alfo, the name of part of a
chain of mountains, extending from almofl the mouth of the
river Gambia, in the Atlantic, to Nigritia, towards Abyf-
finia.'

GONIAH, a decayed town and large caftle of Afiatic
Turkey, belonging to the province of Guriel, at the mouth
of a river which runs into the Black fea. It is garrifon-
ed by a few .Taniffaries, and inhabited chiefly by feamen ;
$0 miles E.N.E. of Trebifond. N. lat. 41° 25'. E. long.
41'" 10'.

GONJENPILLY, a townof Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 1 8 miles N.E. of Nellore.

GONIGCARPirS, in Bokwy, fo caHed from yui-nx, an
engle, and xc.frTo:,fru'tt, expreflive of one of its (.flcntial cha-
rafters. The name, originally contrived by I'lumberg, was
Conocarpus, v.'hich being incorreftly conftrutled, and too
near Conocarpiis-, was judicioufly changed by Mr. Konig.
Schreber, Willdenow, and otl\crs, have made it Goncitocarpus,
for want of attending to its meaning and appHcation, which
has no reference." to ycvi.', yK-A'^:,. a hnee,_ bvit to the very pe-
cidiar angles of the fruit. — Konig in Ann. of Bot. v, i. 546.
t. 12. f. 5. 6. (Gonocarpus; Thftnb. Nov. Gen. 55. FI.
Jap. 5. Murr. in Linn. Sylt. Veg. ed. 14. 1.64. Jufl". 442.
Lamarck. Illullr. t. 73. Gonatocarpus ; Sclireb. 86.
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. I. 690. Mart. MiU. Diet. v. 2.)— Clafs
and order, 'I'etrav.dr'w. Monogyma. Nat. Ord. Oiiagris, or
Qnagrar'i<z, Juff. Konig-.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth fuperior, in four deep,, acute,
equal, upright I'egments. Cok. Petals four, equal, oblong,
concave, inferted' into the rim- of the calyx, and twice as
long as its teetli. Slam. Filaments four or eight, very (iiort,
inferted into the calyx, oppofite to the petals if four, to
ihe petals and calyx-teetKif eight ;, anthers oblong, large,

6.

G O N

Hiorter than the corolla. P'ljl. Girmen inferior, Itirbi.iatr-
with eight furrows and as many angles, crowned with th;
permanent calyx; ftyle extremely fliort ; ftigmas four, ob-
tufe, downy.

Eft". Ch. Calyx fuperior, in four deep equal ferments-
Petals four. Drupa dry, with eight angles. Nut (olita/'. ■
of one cell.

Three fpecies of this inconfpicuous though ciuious gcnii.^
are at preient known.

1. G. mkranthtis. Thunb. Jap. 69.1. 15. — Leaves ovate,
obtufely crenate, fmooth, as v.ell as the ftem. — Galliereillv
Thunberg in Japan. Root fibrous, annual. Stems three o--
four inches high, afcending, quadrangular, fmooth, leatv.
fimple below, panicled above. Leaves oppofite, on Ibov;
ftalks, ovate, rather acute, half an inch long, bluntly crena:-
and cartilaginous in the margin, fmooth on both fides/minute
1) dotted, furnilhcd with a rib, but no veins ; the upper one ■
gradually fmaller and more entire. Stipulas none. Flo-wei-
very i'mall, purplilh, drooping, in fcveralflender, lax, upright
fpikes, forming a fort of panicle. The pe!a/s as well as ca/y
are fufficiently evident in ITiunberg's own fpecimens beft)n-
us. Thefruti is no bigger than the fmalleft pin's head,' and
the petals fcarcely longer.

2. G. rotiinjifoihis. — Leaves rounded, fcMTiewhat heart-
fliaped, obtufely crenate, fmooth. Angles -of' the item
rough. Spikes in a compound panicle. — Gathered near Port
Jackfon, New South Wales, by John Wiiite, M. D.— We
are by no means certain that this is more tiifen a variety of
the former, but its different eouHtry, much more rounded
leaves, heart-ihaped at the bafe, and the briftly angles of the

Jlem, induce us to propofe it as a fpecies. Poffibly the pani-
c\cA fpikes may be owing to the greater luxuriance of the fpe-
cimens. T\iQ fnitiyication appears preclfely like that of th'j
firft fpecies.

3. G.fcaber. Konig Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 547. t. I 2. f 6.—
Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, fliarply ferrated, briftly as well as
the ftem. — Gathered by Mr. David Nelfon, in cuitivated
ground In the idand of China, near Macao. This appear-
to diiler from the two former very materially, being .all over
rough, with depreffed brlftles, and having longer and nar-
rower ftiarplv ferrated leavet. Tlie Jloiuers, moreover, have
eight ftamens,, and the angles of the//'«;V are wavy or c-jifp-
cd, not fmooth and even.

We have a plant gatiieredby Dr. White, near Port Jack-
fon, which feems to anfwer in every point to Mr. Konig's
defcrlption and figure of the laft, except that its petals have
a briftly keel, ana the ftigmas are fingularly branched and
pllimofe, making a large tuft in the centre of each flower
after the petals are fallen. Perhaps Mr. Konig's fpecimens
had loft all their ftigmas. Yv''e remark, hov.ever, a further
difference in the fruit, whofe alternate angles areiefs diftinct,
or rather more crifped and interrupted than the reft. No'i
having examined authentic fpecimens of G. fcabtr, v.e'muft
leave this matter in doubt. — Poftibly this may be G. l:ti\igy~
mis. Billard. Nov. Holl. t. ^^.

GONIOMETER, an inHr>:r.ient uft-d fsr ll-.e purpofe of
meafurmg folid angles (partieularly of cryitals), or the in-
clination which one plane furfaee makes with anotljcr. Tlie
fmall goniometers, as ufually fold at tlie ffiop?, arc of a coi:-
ftrudion fo fiinple,.as to require but little defcription. They
generally confift of a fmall pair of compafTes or nippers, del-
tincd to receive the angle of the cryftal ; and the legs of tl'.ele
being continued :n the oppofite direction, beyond the angulas
point or joint, the angle is meafured by applying tliem to
a pritractor or femicircuUir fcale of degrees.

But notwitlillanding much ingenuity has been beftowed
en iiiftrutr.ents conftruiled on this principle^ none of them

have

GONIOMETER.

h3^;e been found nearly accurate enough for tlie purpofet for of the rcflecling furface, the rcflccled image of fome
which they arc required, many intcrclling quellions in the tant chimney may be feen inverted beneath its true n

tnodern Tcience of cryC.allography requiring a much more
exacl determination of tiie angle than can poffibly be obtaiii-
ed by inftruments of this conllruction.

We are indebted to Dr. W^olhillon for having removed all
thefe difficulticj, by the invention of an inftrument which
^ acconiplidies all that the moll fcrnpulons natnralift can pof-
Clily defire. The principle of this invention is entirely op-
tical, and {Piute XIX. AHjc.-lla>iy,fg. 2.) reprcfents the in-
Urument as made and fold by Mr. Carey, in the Strand; but
the reader, when acquaiiitcd witli the nature of it, will rea-
dily fee that any perion poifelTcd of a graduated inftrument,
fuch as a theodolite, tranfit, &c. may, without great diffi-
culty, apply it to the incafurenient of angles., though in a
much lefs commodious manner than on an inftrument made
exprefsly for the purpoL',

Dr. WoUaftou's method coufifts in employing a ray of
light refletied from the fiu-facc, inllead of ih.e furface it-
felf; and thus, for a radius of i-joth of an inch, we may
fubiiitute either the diilance of the eye from the cryllal,
which would naturally be twelve or fifteen inches, or for
greater accuracy we may, by a fecond mode, fubiiitute the
diftance of objecls feen at a hundred yards or more from
us. The inllrument dcfcrlbed by Dr. Wollafton, in the
Tranfaclions for 1809, confifts of a circle, _/5V. 3, gradu-
ated on its edge, and mounted on an horizontal axle fup-
ported by an upright pillar. This axle, being perforated,
admits the pafiage of a fmaller axle through it, to which
any cryllal of moderate fize may be attached by a piece of
wax, with its edge, or interfeclion of the furfaces, hori-
zontal and parallel to the axis of motion. This pofition of
the crytlal is firft adjufted, fo that by turning the fmalkr
axle, each of the two furfaces, vi'hofe inclination is to be
meafured, will reflect the fame light to the eye. The circle
is then fet to zero, or 180 , by an index attached to the
pillar that fupj'orls it.

The fniall axle is then turned till the further furface re-
flects the light of the candle, or other definite objedl, to
the eye; and laftly, (the eye being kept lleadily in the
fame place, ) the circle is tiu-ned by its larger axle, till the
fecond furface reflefts the fame light. This fecond furface
is thus afcertained to be in the fame pofition as the former
furface had been: the anidc thron>{h which the circle has
moved, is, in facl, the fupplement to the inclination of the
furfaces; but as the graduations on its margin are numbered
accordingly in the inverted order, the angle is correctly
fhewn by tlie index, witliout requiring any computation.

It may be here obferved, that it is by no n-.eans ncccflary
to have a clean uniform fraflure for this application of the
inftrument to the ilruflure of laminated fubftances; for
fince all thofe fmall portions of a (battered furface that are
parallel to one another, (though not in the fame plane,)
gliften at once with the fame light, the angle of an irregidar
(urface may be determined nearly as well as when the re-
flefting furfaces are aflually in the fame plane. In this
method of taking the meafure of an angle, when the eye
and candle are only ten or twelve inches dillant, a fmall
error may arife from parallax, if the interledlioa of the
planes or edge of the cryllal be not accurately in a line
with the axis of motion. But fuch an error may be ren-
dered infenfible, even in that mode of ufing the inllrument,
by due care in placing the cryftal ; and when the furfaces
are fufficiently frnooth to reflect a dillinft image ot obje&s,
all errors from the fame fource niay be entirely obvratcd by
another niode of ufnig it.

For this purpofe, if tlic eye be brough.t witliiji ;'.u incii

dlf.
mney may be leen inverted beneath its true place,
and, by turning the fmall axis, may be brought to corrc-
fpond apparently with the bottom of the houfc, or fome
other diftant horizontal line. In this pofition the furfacr
accurately bifefts the angle which the height of that houfe
fubtends at the eye, or rather at the reflecting furface;
then, by turning the whole circle and cryftal together, the
other furface, however fmall, may be brought exaftly into
the fame pofition ; and the angle of the furfaces may thus
be meafured, with a degree ofprecifion that has not hitherto
been expected in goniometry.

The accuracy,, indeed, of this inftrument is fuch, tial a
circle of moderate dimenfions, with a vernier adapted to it,
will probably afford corredtions to many former obferva-
tions. Dr, Wollafton has remarked one inftance of a mif-
take that prevails, refpefting the common carbonate of lime,
which he mentions, bccaufe this fubllanee is very likely to
be employed as a teft of the corredlnefs of fuch a gonio-
meter, by any one who is not convinced of its accuracy,
from a diftinft conception of the principles of its conftruc-
tion.

The inclination of the furfaces of a primitive cryftal of
carbonate of lime, is ftated with great appearance of preci-
fion to be 104' 28' 40": a refult deduced from the fup-
pofed pofition of its axis, at a:i angle of 45°, with each of
the furfaces, and from other feducing circumllanccs of appa-
rent harmony by fi-.nple ratios.

But however ftrong the prefumption might be, that th:»
angle, which by meaiiiremenl approached to 45% is actually
fo, it mull iieverthelefb be, in' fact, about 45" 20'; for the-
inclination of ll'.c furfaces to each other is found to be very
nearly, if not accurately, 105'', as it was formerly deter-
mined to be by Hnygcns; and fince the meafure of the
fuperlicial angle, given by fir Ifaac Newton, correfponds
with this determination of Hnygens, his evidence mav be
confidered as a further confirmation of the fame refult ;' for
it may be prefumed, that he would not adopt the meafures
of others without a careful examination.

Esplanat'ion of the Figurt.

ah. Is the principal circle of the goniometer, graduated
on its edge.

c c. The axle of the circle.
d, A nulled head, by which the circle is turned.

e e. The fmall axle for turning the cryftal, without mov-
ing the circle.

f, A milled head on the fmall axle.

g, A brafs plate fupjjorted by the pillar, and gradu-
ated as a vernier to every five minutes.

/>, The extremity of a fmall fi)ring, by which tlie cir-
cle is flopped at 180 , without the trouble of reading off.

i i and h k. Are two centres of motion, tlie one liori-
zontal, the other vertical, for adjufling the pofition of 3
cryftal; one turned by the handle /, the other bv the milled
head m.

The cryftal being attached to a fcrcw head at the point
iL, in the centre of all the motions, willi one of its furfaces
;is nearly parallel as may be to the milled head m, is next
rendered truly parallel to the axis, by turning the handle /
till the refleiited image of a horizontal hue is feen to be truly
horizontal. By means c\f the milled licad J\ the fecond fur-
face is tlien brought into the pofition of the iirft, and if the
refletled image from this furface is found not to Iw hori-
zontal, it is rendered fo by turning the milled head m, and.
fince this motion is parallel to the firft f;uface, it does not
derange the preceding adjuftirent,

CONIO.

G O N

GONIOMETRICAL Lines, derived ^romy^^x, angle,
and i^.sTfK, Im.-afui-r, in Geometry, linu3 ulcd for meafuriiig
or determining the quantity of angles. Such are iuies,
tangents, fecants, verft-d fines, &c.

We have a paper by Mr. Jones, in the Philofophical
Tranfaflions, containing a commodious difpoiltion ot equa-
tions for exhibiting the relations of goniomelrieal lines, from
whence a multitude of curious theorems may be derived.
See Phil. Tranf. N\ 483. feft. 26.

GONIIIM, in Zoology, a genus of Vermes, charaftcrizcd
only by their very hmple, flat, and angular form, and be-
ing iuvifible to the naked eye. The fpccies at prefent
known are few, amounting to no more than ilve in num-
ber ; and for the cxiilencc of thefe we rely chiefly on the
niicrofcopical refearches of MuUer and Scliranck, the
fcn-mer of whom defcribes four of thefe minute creatures
with great accuracy in his " Zoologia Dauica." They an
molUy inhabitants of frefh or pure water, thouj
them occur in ilagnant water or in dunghills.

Species.

fomc of

G O N

OONKOFEN, or Gankofe.v, ato-wn of Bavaria; 14
miles E. of Landlhut.

GONNA, a town of Hindooflan, in Lahore; 12 miles
W. of Nugorcoto.

GONNl, or GoNNO, in Jnaent Geography, a town .of
Greece, in the Perrhxbia, fituated near Paneus, towards
the ftrait where tlic Olympus and OiTa iipproached each
other.

GONNOCONDYLUM, a town of Crcec?, in Mace-
donia, in the Perrhitbia.

GONOESSA, a town of Greece, in th'- Peloponr.efui.
In the time of Panfanias it belonged to the Sicyonian,':.

GONOLOBUS, in Botany, from ',3j.-v., an angle, and
?o;5o , a prill, ijluding to t!ie angles or ribs of the fruit.

Miehaux Boreali-Amer. v. I. 119. Brown Afclep, 34

Clafs and order, Pentandrla Digynia. Nat. Ord. Con!or!,r,
Linn, ylpochivit, Jul!". AjcLp'iadeit, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in li.v
deep, acute, fpreading fegments, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, wheel-lhapcd, in live deep fpreading fegments. Nec-
tary like a fhield, crowning the ilamenr-, lobed. Stair.
Poi.YSPll.T'.RlUM. Orbicular, pellucid, with innumerable Filaments five, thickifli, united into a ihort tube ; anthei's
fpherical molecules. Schranck. burlling Iranfverfely, terminated by a membrane, their maifes

Found in Ilagnant water; the colour greenilli-yellow, of pollen attached to the outer extremity, with reipetl to
and general appearance that of a thin membrane filled with the cell, and covered by the lligma. PiJI. Germens two,
innumerable lucid globules. Very common in the month ovate-oblong ; llyles two, very (liort, clofe together ; lligma
of .lulv. common to both, flattilh and deprelfed, witli live angles.

Pmtou.m.E. Quadrangular, pellucid, willi fi.steen fphe- Peru. Pouches inflated, more or let's angular or ribbed,
rical molecules. Miill. Goe/e, &:c. Seech numerous, imbricated, oblong, crowned with down.

The molecules are oval and nearly of an equal fize, their EIF. Ch. Corolla wlieel-lhaped, in five deep fegments.
colour greeniHi, pellucid, and difpofcd in a quadrangular Netlary alobed ihield-like crown. Anthers burlling tranl-
nianner within the membrane, like diamonds in a ring ; or verfely, terminated by a membrane. Stigma five-angled,
rather, as Miiller compares them, to the jewels in the bveall- depreffed. Pouches inflated, ribbed. Seeds with a hairy
plate of the high priell among the Jews, and refledling crown.

liii-ht 0:1 both ildes. Its progrefs is by an advancement This appears to be a num.crous genus, properly iepa-
alternately towards the right and left, at which time all rated from Cynnnihum, and conlltHng of climbing ihrubs,
the molecules are in motion, and an"ume their oval form, with oppofite broadilh leaves, and flowers growing in um-
thefe molecules being round when the animal is in a quiefcent bels between the infertion of tlie foot-llalks. They are
ijate. natives of America, chiefly within the tropics. Examples

TliUNCATUM. Angles t btufe ; pollerior part arched, of it are Cynanchum marilimiini, Linn. Mant. 54. Jacq.
Miill. Amer. 83. t. 56, a hairy plant, with dark-purple blofToms :

This occurs in frclli or pure water, and is rarely met fuberoftmi, Linn. Sp. PI. 310, figured in Dill. Hort. Elth,
with ; its fize is rather confiderable ; the fore-part is a t. 229. f. 296, likewife a downy fpecies. with purplilh-
llraight line, the fides forming therewith obtufe angles, the green flowers; and o-ijpjflorum. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 302.
extremity of the fides being tnited by a curved line; the Plum. Ic. t. 216. f. i : as well as many others prefumed
internal organs, perceptible to the eye by the affiltance of to have the fame generic charafters, but which, according
the microfcope, confift of a number of molecules of a to Mr. Brown, require to be thoroughly examined, as does
dark green colour, and two veficles of peculiar brightnefs the whole genus. — Micliaux enumerates three fpecies, na-
in the middle. Its motion is languid. tivcs of the warmer parts of Novth America, and which

LuN.^TL'.M. Retlangular, the pollerior part arched, he calls G. macrophyllus, liirjulus, and Levis.
Miill. Gmel. G. RcQangulum, Adams. GONON Besar, in Geography, a mountain on the E.

The projeftion at the bafe of the body in this fpecies is fide of the illand of Java, famous for the quantity of pep-
placed in a right angle ; the intellines green, with the per which its trees produce.

larger veficle tranfparent. GONONG, or Ganai'ez, one of the group of Afiatic

PuLViXATL'M. Ouadrnngular, opaque, with four cylin- illes, called i?^«(/(7, in which there is a remarkable volcano.

drieal protuberances. Miiller. GONOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Go-

This fpecies, according to Miiller, appears under a flight hud.
magnifier like a quadrangular niembrane, plain on both GONORHYNCHLTS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Cy-

lides, but, when a deeper lens is applied, refembles the figiu'e
of a bolller, formed of three or four cylindrical pillows,
flattened or funk in various places : this was the appear-
ance it affnmed when firil examined ; fome days after all the
fides were plain without convexity and decuflated, or di-
vided into little fquares by the intcrfeCtion of flraight lines.
It is found in puddles under dunghills.

GONKEER, ill GeograpJjy, a tov.'n of Chinefe Tartary.
N. lat. 44-' 50'. E.long. 117" 51'.

printjs, which fee.

GONORRHOIA denotes, in Surgery, adifeafein which
a kind of matter, which is either aflually pus, or a fluid of
very fimilar qualities, is difcharged from the urethra of the
male fubjeft, and from the furfaces of the labia, nymphce,
clitoris, and vagina of the female, attended with more or
lefs heat, pain, and difficulty in making water. The dif-
charge is infeclious, and capable of communicating the,
complaint trom one perion to another, whenever it corned

into

GONORRIICEA.

into contafl witli any of thofe furfaec«, which are fufcep-
tible of contaiiiinatio;i by it, and which, wc heHeve, muft
■be fuch as are naturally dellined to focn-te mucus. On the
foregoiiip; account, the difordcr is almoft always caught, or
commuiucated, in the venereal conncdtion, when fomc of the
difchnrge of the difcafed perfon is applied to the parts,
which are liable to be affected in the Iiealthy one. How-
ever, a gonorrluTa may be produced in any innnner, which
l>riitgs the infectious difcharge into contaft with the mouth
of the urethra, the hirfices of the labia, &c. In the arti-
cle Or'liTHAi..\rv, we (liall liave occafion to notice a parti-
cular inflammation of the eyes, attended with a copious
difcharge of matter from beneath the eye-lids, wliich is rc-
prefented, by furgieal writers, as originating from the inad-
vertent application of gonorrhocal matter to the eye -lids,
the inner furfaces of which are well known to be mucous
ones.

The Hunterian doftrines go fo far as to affert, on the
nutliority of experiments, that the poifon of the lues «e-
nerca, and that of gonorrhoea, are in faft the fame, though
ufually productive of oppohte cfFctts, by reafon of tfie
jiarts affcifted in a chancre, and thofe concerned in gonor-
hoca having quite different ftructures. Thcfe tilings, if
true, tend to prove, that the matter of a clap may, under
certain circumltanres, impart tlic venereal difeafe to the
conilitution. However, it fliould be underllood, that the
flatement jufl nmv made can only refer to the gonorrhoea
virulenta ; for it is certain, that a fimple difcharge from
the urethra, and a fcalding fenfation in making water,
which would conflitute a gonorrhoea, may be the confe-
quence of any thing which produces m.cre irritation in the
palTage without the poflibility of the venereal or common
gonorrhocal virus being at all concerned. Thus, a man
may linve a flricture, and begin the emplo)Tncnt of bougies
for its cure ; iheir irritation may bring on a forenefs in the
urethra, and excite a difcharge. Here we have an in-
flance of the complaint arihng from the operation of no
virus whatever ; but altogether from the imequivocal, me-
chanical, irritation of the bougies. Doubtlefs, alio, there
are fometimes difcharges both from the male and female
parts of generation, which, when applied to other perfons,
are capable of bringing on certain kinds of gonorrlicea by
the entire cffeft of their irritation. So were a man, with a
gonorrhoea, excited by the irritation of bougies to have
conneftion with a v.-oman, there is no doubt tiiat the lat-
ter would be very likely to become troubled v.-ith a dif-
charge and fcalding in making v.-ater, merely in confe-
quence of the application of fome of the matter from the
male urethra to the furfaces of the labitE, nymphre. Sec.

The arguments whicii h.ave been adduced to fliev.- that
the poifon of one form of gonorrhoea, and that of the ve-
nereal difeafe are the fame, will more properlv come under
conllderairon hereafter. In the meanwhile, it is our part
to enter a little more particularly into the hiltory of
gonorrhoea.

The etymological meaning of gonorrhiz.i is a running of
the femcn, the term being derived from ■; .ir, fignifying the
feminal fiiiid, 7mA ^'x, to Jlo'W. The ancients are faid to have
entertained the very erroneous notion that the difeafe con-
fiited of an oozing of the femen in a morbid and altered
(late. As it is long fince fo abfurd a f'.ippofition has had
any partifans, a refutation becomes fuperfluous, and every
one now knows, that in the prefent, as in r.iar.y otlier cx-
rmples, truth and etym.ology are not coupled together. Dr.
Swediaur, who has found fault with the term ^onorrhma, as
conveying an untrue idea, has not been happy iu a fubllitute.

He remarks, that if a Greek name is to be retained, he
would call the complaint Llnmorrha/ia, from .z><i'.:,, mucui^
and jSi, lofoiu. Now this lall cxpreflion i-. obicdtionablc, on
the identical principle which makes Dr. Swcdiaux wi(h for
the relinquilhmcnt of gonorrhoea ; for it is generally thought
by all the moll cmineiit modern furgcons, that the difcharge
is pus, and not mucus. Defidcs, we do not fee mucli utilitv
in abandoni!ig the ancient appellatio i. The knowledge o'f
fnrgery is no\r fo highly cultivated, that there is not tin-
lealt danger of any man imbibir.g ati abfurd opinion rcfp-ftii,;;
this common complaint, from the etymological import of
its name. Every juvenile apprentice kno«o that a clap is a
running of matter from the urethra. Few common
practitioners trouble thr mfelvcs about Greek derivation'.;
and where is the objeft of changing the name of one difeaf.-,
while many hundred other furgicalu-rms ftand in equal, at;d
often greater, need of alteration ?

The firft perceptible fymptom of a gonorrhoea ii gencrallv
a kind of itching about the orifice of the urethra, attended
with a flight fuelling of its edges, and fometimes extending
over the whole of the glans peni^. Very (hortly afterwards
the running commences, and the itching fenfation changes
into pain, which is fevcrely felt at the time of making water.
In fome few inllances, no confiderable pain is experienced,
till a long while after the accefs of the difcharge and other
fymptoms. It is faid that there are certain cafes which arc
attended with no pain whatfocver, while other indanccs
occur, in which patients fuffcr fevercly, even before the
difcharge makes its appearance.

When the inflammatory iVmptoms have come on, the-
penis feems fwoUen, and as if it were in a llateof half-ercdion.
The glans appears red, fmooth, and enlarged, with a kind of
tranfparency about it. Sometimes it is affected with a
(light excoriation, which makes it exceedingly tender, and is
the fource of fome trivial quantity of matter. The canal of
the urethra becomes narrower than natural, if we mav fonn
a judgment from the diminution which takes place in the
ilream of urine. Indeed, very frequently, this fluid can
only be difcharged in a broken fcattered current, or by drops..
We have often fecn fevere retentions of urine attendant on,
the inflammatory fiage of a gonorrhoea.

Small tumours may frequently be noticed along the inferior
furface of the penis, in the courfe of the urethra. Thcfe
fwellings have been coniidered as the mucous glaud of that
canal in a fwollen flatc. Sometimes they acquire a very
large fize, and itltimatcly Uippurate and form abfcefic.s
which, in fome inflances, biirll externally, while, in others,
they break into the urethra itfclf. In the latter event, the
fwelling all on a fuddcn fubfides, as foon as the contained
matter has efcaped. Sometimes, after a certain interval,
the tumour is fecn to re-appear, v.hich circumftancc is faid to
be owing to a premature clofure of the opening. .Ablecffes
of the preceding kind arc often met with in the fltuation of
Cowper's glands. Here they a'fo fometimes burll out-
wardly, fometimes inwardly, fometimes in both ways in the
fame patient. In this lafl cafe a new paffagc is made for the
urine, termed a tiitnla in perinxo. Sec Fj^Tl.:r.\.

A painful fenfation is frequently felt by the patient along-
the lower furface of the penis, extending as f.ir as the anuv
and depending on the inflamed ilate of the urethra In m.olV
cafes the ereSions arc frequent, and gener.tlly produiilivT of
infinite pain, particularly v.lien a forenefs cxifls along the
track of the urctlira towards the anns, or when the com*.
plaint is comphcated with chordrc. St-c CirouDEE.

The vilcid tranfparcnt fluid which is naturally fecreted by
thc glands of the urethra changes into a whinih aqueous

G O N O R R H CE A.

Jiquar, and the fccretion which takes place from the hniiig
of this canal, and is intended for its lubrication, alfo becomes
Icfs tranfparent. At length both thefe fluids, becoming
thicker and thicker, gradually affume more and more the
qualities of pus. The difcharge often undt-rgoes an altera-
tion in its coloiu- and confiftence, a circumllance which Mr.

but yet it differs alfo'from the latter affeftion in maiijr
refpefts. It does not excite any puliatory fenfation ; it
caufes little pain, except what arifes from the irritation of
the urine and the tenlion of the parts ; and tlie inflammatory
irritation feldom extends beyond the aft'efted iurfaces. Tiie
rcafonof fo large a quantity of pus being lecreted, in confe-

Hunter imputed to the difpol'ition of tlie parts by which quence of fo moderate an inflammation, has been attributed

tfie matter is formed. Sometim.cs it is white, fometimes yellow, '■ '' '- '--■-- -r— '— — "-- <■- - '- -'■- ••■ —

fometimes of a greenifli colour. Such varieties depend upon
the diminution, or increafe of the inflammation, and not upon
the poifonous quality of the matter ; for the fan:e appear-
ances happen whenever tlie parts are irritated in a certain
de-^ree .by any caufe whatfoever, as feveral fadls confirm.
Dr. Swediaur injefted into his urethra fome cauftic volatile
alkali mixed with water, by way of experiment. The
ufual fymptoms of a gonorrhosa enfued, together with a dif-
charge which had the fame appearances and alterations of
•colour, as the matter of the gonorrhaa virulenta. We ha-,e

to the parts being fuch as naturally fecrete, fo that they
readily alter the natural into a morbid fecretion.

Although the inflammation of a gonorrhoea is commonly
moderate, there are inllanccs in which it is exceedingly
fevere, and extends into the reticular textui-e of the fur-
rounding corpus fpongiofum urethrx, particularly of that
which is near the glans penis. Sometimes the inflammatioii
advances further along the corpus fpongiofum, and occafions
a fwelling, or extravaiation of coagulating lymph, which is
the caufe of chordee. We have already ftated that the in-
flammation occafionally gives rife to abfcefles of the glands

already fl;ated that the fame circumilances mofl: frequently of the urethra, particularly of thofe in the perineum
attend the employraent ot bougies.

In the generality of iiiftances, the difcharge does not
pi-oceedfrom any great extent of the urethra, not from more
than an inch, or an inch and a half of that part of the paf-
fage, which is nearcft the orifice in the glans penis. This
diilance Was what Mr. Hunter ufed to name the fpecific ex-
tent of the inflammation. Before tiiis celebrated furgeon
flouriflied, it wa? commonly fuppofed, that the matter came
from the whole of the urethra, and even from Cowper's
o-lands, the proftate, and the veficula feminales. Due at-
tention to the fymptoms, however, makes this idea feem
quite improbable. If, for example, every part of the ure-
thra, bevond the bulb, or if the bulb itftlf contributed to
the difcliarge, the matter would be propelled out of the
palTao-e in th.e fame manner as the fenicn, that is to fay, by
;i fudllen convulfive kind of aftion. It is well known that
nolhincr can lodge in the bulb of the urethra, without immc

It is not decidedly known in what manner the difeafe com-
municates itfelf to the uretlira. Seme fuppofe that the in-
flammation creeps from the glans penis to the edges of the
orifice of the urethra, and thence furtiier into the paffage.
Thefe reafoners will not allow the probability of a common
opinion, that fdine of the infeftious matter gets into the
urethra at the time of coition. At all events it feems clear,
that none of the contaminating fluid can get as far as the
diieafe extends in ordinary intiances, much kfs in others,
where the affection reaches a great way towards the bladder.
There are fcjme fafts which tend to prove that the fimple
application of the infedtious matter to the end of the penis
may give rife to a gonorrhixa. A cafe related by Mr.
Hunter in his treatife on the venereal difeafe, feems to con-
firm the truth of what we have mentioned.

As wc have already obferved, the complaint feldom extends
further along the urethra, than abota an inch and a half, or

diately putting that part of the canal into aftion, particularly two inches. Mr. Hunter t'lought, that this part of the ca-
when in a (late of irritation and inflammation. A drop of nal appeared

urine is not allowed to remain there, and if fimple warm
■water be injefted thus far, it is inftantly forced out by the
adion of tlie accelcratores urinte mufcles. Therefore it
Seems rational to conclude, that if the membranous and
bulbous parts of the urethra, Cowper's glands, the proftate,
and the veficuls feminales, all had a (hare in forming the
matter, no Iconer would a certain quantity have collected in
the bulb, than an immediate expulfion would be occafioncd

to be mod fufceptible of the particular kind of
inflammation brought on by the iiifed'tion, and it conftitutcd,
what he ufed to term, the fpecinc diihince of the diforuer.
However, neither the fcnfations of which the patient com-
plains, nor the irritation of the parte, are confined to the real
feat of the difeafe. The neighbouring parts are often affected
with a variety of fymptoms, of a nature more or lei's fevere,
fuch as uneafinefs, and even pains every wliere about the pubcs,
fcrotum, perinasum, anus, and hips. It is often necefl'ary

by the mufcles of the part. No fymptom of this kind, to fufpend the tefticles, which become fo irritable, that tlie

however, is ufually obferved, although it occafionally hap
pens, that the accelcratores urinx are afl^eCled with fpal.modic
contraftions, which are particularly difpofed to occur juft
"after the patient has been making water, and do not feem to
have any dependance on the difcharge.

Mr. Hunter has taken notice tiiat when the inflammation
J6 violent, I'ome of the vcflels of the uvc-thra often give way,
l-fence a hemorrhage arifes, which is molt profufe, juft sfter
the patient makes water, though it alfo continues at ether
times. Sometimes the blood is inconfidernble in quantity,
andonly jull fufficient to give a red colour to the matter.
The eredtions, which are ib frcq^^£nt in thii complaint, are
iipt tooccafionan extravafation ufulood, a fymptom which
is always attended with an increafe of the,^paiii felt at the

p. leaft accident, or exertion, which, in other circumflances,
would have no effeft, makes them fwcll. It frequently hap-
pens that the glands in the groin nif fympathctically aileCl-
ed ; they fwell and inflame, though thcy du not commonly
fuppurate. Cafes alfo occur in wliicli the irritation extendi
to the buttocks, thighs, and abdominal mufcle.';, occafion-
ing acute pain, fwelling, and extreme forvnefs of the parts,
and putting the patient under the nceeflltv of always con-
tinuing in an horizontal pofture. Thefe fymptoms, how-
ever, are not ftriClly intiammatory : if the patic-nt be bled,
his blood does not exhibit the inflammatory cruft, and the
ConlHtution is little or not at all afFettcd.

M'hen the *cafe, independently of the affedtions ariung
from fympathy, b not mprc violent than wliat has been

time of making water ; but the bleeding' ahvays in the end deftribed, it is called a common gonoiThoea ; but the vio-

leftens the inflammation, and tcnda to the relipf of the leoce of the efTentiai fymptoms of the difeafe will be moifl

•patient. _ . °'' ^^^^ confiderable, according as the patient is more or lef»

. The inflammation, accompanying a gonorrhcca, is attended fufceptible of fuch t-omplaints as de]!cnd upon irritation,

with feveral of the charnfters of common inflammation ; Thu?, in particular liabits, the inflammation does not con^

JlilC

GONORRHOEA.

fijie itfelf to the fpecific diflance, but reaches all along the
urethra. Severe pain is alfo frequently experienced in tiie
periiiosuai. Sometimes the accelcratores urim mufcles are
afFefted 1 with the fpafmodic contraftions, of which feme
mention has already been made. Such fpafm is particularly
apt to come on when the patient has juft finiflied making
water ; it (hews itfelf by the manner in which the lad drops
of urine are expelled ; and it is generally attended with con-
traftions of the ereftores mufcles. Sometimes the inflam-
mation is fo great as to occafion a fwelling, and even an ab-
fcefs in the cellular membrane. It has already been ob-
ferved, that the moft common fituation of fuch fuppuration
is in Cowper's glands ; b>it the fmall glands of tike bulb
may alfo be affefted in a fimilar manner, and the irritation,
in certain inftanses, is found to extend even to the bladder
itfelf.

When the latter organ is once affefted, it becomes more
fifceptible of every kind of irritation, fo that very diflrcfling
complaints are apt to be produced. It is no longer capable
of bearing the degree of diftention of which it is capable
in the healthy ftate. Hence the patient cannot hold his
■water in the ufual way ; but no fooner does the inclination to
difcharge it arife, than he is immediately compelled to make
the evacuation, nutwithilanding the fevere pain, which, while
the urine is efcaping, is felt in the bladder, and efpecially
about the glans penis. This pain has been compared with
what is experienced in a fit of the ftone, and it lafts for fome
time after the evacuation is completed.

The ureters, and even the kidnies, are fometimes fympa-
thetically affefted, when the bladder is confiderably inflamed
or irritated. Such an occurrence, however, is exceedingly
uncommon. Mr. Hunter mentions his having feen an in-
flammation of the peritonxum brought on by a fevere affec-
tion of the bladder in gonorrhoea ; and others have obferved
; violent inflammation of the kidnies from the fame caufe.
See Encyclopedic Methodique partie Chirurgicale, tom. i.
' 584. ) It has already been mentioned that a chordee is one
f the occafional effefts of a gonorrhoea. It arifes in general
rrom inflammation ; but in fome cafes it appears to be en-
tirely of a fpafmodic nature.

When the inflammation is not confined to the urethra and
its glaads, but fpreads further, it attacks the fubftance of
•he corpus fp»ngiofum, where it occafions an extravafation of
-oagulating lymph, v.-hich, uniting the cells together, makes
I'le urethra incapable of yielding and being ftretched in the
fame degree as the corpora cavernofa. Hence, during an
erection, the penis becomes bent forward. The adhclion of
the cells of the corpus fpongiofum urethn together, which
is the caufe of chordee, in general, come'! on in confe-
.queiice of mere inflammation of the canal ; but occafionally
it is the effed of a fpecies of inflammation, which is feen ac-
companying certain ill-conditioned chancres. A chordee
often continues after all the other fymptomsof a gonoiThcea
have quite ceafed.

A chordee is fometimes altogether fpafmodic, in which
cafe it is feen to difappear and re-appear alternately, at in-
determinate interval*. At one time the creftions, which
are fo common in cafes of gonorrhoea, happen without being
attended with any curvature of the part ; while at other pe-
riods the chordee takes place in a great degree ; the intervals
of time between thefe changes being fometimes remark-
ably fhort.

A fwelling of the tcfticles is a frequent confequence of a
gonorrhoea. It may happen in any llagc of the difealc ;
but, perhaps, it take's place moft frequently when tli? com-
plaint is on the dc<-line. It was confidered by Mr. Hunter
a.^ an affection arifing from fympathy. It is feen attending
Vor.. XVI.

any kind of irritation in the urethra, whether occafioticd tij
injeftions, bougies, or any other circumllanct. In many
cafes, the fwelling comc.4 on aud difai>pcars very fuddcniy, or
foems to leave one tefticle to attack the other.

The fwelling of the teilicle generally logins witJi a foft,
pulpy tumefaftion of its glandular part, which becomes ra-
ther painful when handled. The tumour afterwards incrcafct
in fize and firrancfs, aud produces confidcrable pain. The in-
flammation feldom ends ill fuppuration, though foraeinftancej
of this kind are met witli. The epididymis (efpecially it5
lower end) is ufually the hardeft part ; but, frequently, the
induration and fwelling attack the whole of the epididymis,
and form a fort of knob at its upper part. The fpcr;r.atic
chord alfo is often affected, efpecially the vas deferens, which
is thickened, and exceedingly tender. Sometimes the vein*
of the tellides arc varicofc.

The inflammation of the teilicle, as well as that of the ure-
thra, is frequently attended with fympathetic fymptoros of
irritation in oUier parts ; for inllance, pain at the lower end
of the fpine, a fenfe of weaknefs in the loins, colic paint,
naufea, flatuluiice, diforder of the digefiive organs, &c.

The fwelling of the teilicle is noticed to take place re-
markably often jutl when the pain in the urethra has iubfided,
aud the difcharge has flopped ; or elfe the truth is, that
on the teilicle becoming afi"eCted, the fymptoms of icritation
in tlie urethra immediately ceafe. Here it is foracwhat diffi-
ctdt to determine which is the caufe, and wliich the effedl.
However, it is worthy of remark, that it is not uncommon
for the teilicle to begin to fwell at the very momeat v hen the
inflammation of the urethra, and the difcharge, are becoming
worfe. Sometimes the epididymis alone is affefted ; fome-
times only the vas deferens ; and, on other occafions, only
the fpermatic chord. No reafon can be afligned, «hy one
of thefe parts (hould be affefted rather than the rell. The
inflammation of tl.efe organs is frequently attended with a
fl;rangury, efpecially when the difcharge is fuppreffed ;
and, indeed, it is remarked, that the ftoppage of the run-
ning generally brings on a tendency of that diftrelliiig com-
plaint.

Another occafional effeft of a gonorrhoea is a fwelling of
the lymphatic glands in the groin, a f)-mptom, which is of
the fame nature as the inflammation of tlic teilicle, but
much more common. It has been fuppofed that the tume-
faftion of the glands depends, on the abforption of fome of
the matter from the urethra ; but Mr. Hunter contended
againft thi« opinion. He thought that, in gonorrhoea, the
matter was feldom abforbed, and he derived tliis fentimeiit
partly from feeing that a lues venerea was feldom the con-
fequence of this difeafe. However, this argument will liavo
no weight with thofe praftitioners, who diibclieie in the doc-
trine that the poifons of gonorrhoea and the venereal difealc
are of the fame nature. Another confideration, which iuflu-
enced Mr. Hunter,"will meet with more general approbation.
It was tlie i'act, that any fim]ile mechanical irritation of irrita-
ble organs is capable of exciting an inilammatjoii of their
abforbents, and of the glands to which fuch vcffels run.
Now, fince the lymphatics and tlieir glands ufually inflame
bo'fore fuppuration has taken place in the part originally
affecled, and their inflammation often fiibfides as foon as this
lall occurrence begins, we muil conclude, that the fwelling
of the inguinal glands, in gonoiThxa, .irifet altogether from
the irritation iii the urethra. It is obferved alfo, that
fuch fwellings ahiioft always admit of refolution, while
thofe which originate from the abforption of venereal matter
from chancres very frequently fuppurat.-, burll, and turu
into fyphilitic ulcers. It is tj-ae.howc%er, that fwellings pf
the iiin-iiinal glands, induced bv die Irritation of goncrrha*.
3 L do

GONORRHCEA.

liofometimes end in abfcefTea and fores ; but no lues vene-
rea follows, nor is mercury reqiiifitc for the cure.

Another fympathetic afFeftion, fomctinies attendant on a
clap, is a fwcUing of the abforbent vefTcls themfclves. In
foiiie inftances, tliis fymptom accompanies the fwelling of the
glands. It makes its appearance in the form of a hard,
pailful cord, which, proceeding from the prepuce, extends
along the dorfum of the penis, fometimes as far as the groins,
Th;3 effect is not the confcquence of the abforption of mat-
ter ; for it is feen attending other irritations in the urethra^
where no fufpicion of any irritating or poifonous matter
being taking up by the lymphatics can be entertained by any
kind of reafoning whatfoever. The fymptom is fometimes
brought on by the employment of bougies, in the treatment
of (Iriftures. It was for a long while fuppofed, thit the
matter which is difcharged from the urethra, in cafes of
gonorrhoea, was furnifhed from ulcers in this canal ; but
obfervation at length detefted, that the opinion was deltitute
of all foundation. Dr. William Hunter is reputed to have
been the iirft who afferted, that in gonorrhc:a no ulcers ex-
iiled in the urethra, and he is faid to have begun to incidcate
the faft in his leftures about tlie year 1 750. This celebrat-
ed phyfician had dtriwd Iiis fentiment from fome particular
cafe; which he had feen, where a large quantity of pus had
been farniL-d upon the furface of the vifcera, without any ul-
ceration of thefe parts whatfoever. In 1753, his brother,
Mr. John Hunter, had an opportunity of diffefting the bodies
of two malefaSors, who were executed, while it was known
that they were affec\ed with a fevcrc gonorrhcea. After a
moll: careful examination, no ulceration could be difcovered :
the urethra of each was merely found to be rather redder
than natural, particularly near the glans penis. Mr. Hun-
ter afterwards opened the urethra of many patients who had
died with gonorrhcea upon them, and he never could fujd
any veftiges of ulceration. It conftantly appeared, that the
membranous lining of the canal, near the glans penis, was
redder than ufual, and that the lacunae were frequently fil'ed
»vith pus. Morgagni i.-i faid to have remarked the fame fadt.
(De Sedibus et Caufis Morborum. Epift. 44. J 7.)

^ As an attempt has been made by a late writer. Dr. Swe-
tiiaur, to transfer the honoi:r of the difcovery from the Hun-
ters to Morgagni, we deem it our duty to obferve, that we
cannot difcover any accuracy, or jullicg, in the do£lor's
ftatement, lince Morgagni's 'work was not publifhed till
1761.

Although there can now remain no doubt, that in go-
norrhsa there are no u'cers efientially, or commonly pre-
■fent in the urethra, to furnifh the matter which is difcharg-
ed, yet Mr. Hunter himfelf has explained, , that a fore,
occafioned by the bariling of an abfcefs in one of the glands
of this paffage, is fometimes produced. This kind of ulce-
ration, }.K)v/ever, never takes place till long after the com-
mencement of the numing, and.it is quite uf a different na-
ture from. fi;ch fores as were fancied to be the caufe of go-
norrhxa.

We fnallnow conuder the identity of the gonorrhoea and
venereal poifons. It has been rep;-efented by fome furgical
authors, that the efFential difference bet'.veen gonorrhcea and
the venereal difeafe depends upon the circvimflance of the
firfl complaint being an affeftion of a fccreting fu!-face.
Many other writers, and we may add, llie generality of en-
lightened praftitioners in this co-untry, contend, that the two
djfeafes originate from different poifons, a fentiment which
is fupported by the ftriking diffimilarity of t!ie two affec-
tions, and the wide difFereace of their modes of cure.

Such authors, as maintain the. doilrine of the two com-
flaiiits being the cosfequence.of different diilina poifons,

found their arguments \ipori' ?ari6us circumft'ances. Finl,
the hiflory of thefe difeafts, and of their progrefs in <iif«
ferent coantries. Secondly, the phenomena peculiar to
each diforder. Thirdly, the remedies neceffary for tl>e
cure.

It is afferted, that the venereal difeafe apd gonorrhcea did
not make their appearance in Europe- at the fame period 4
but that the former was many years antecedent to the lat-r
ter. The fame thing is ftated to have happened in other
parts of the world, wliither Europeans have coiweyed the
venereal virus. Foriniiance, the venereal difeafe v\'as known
in China almofl immediately after it had made its appearajice
in Europe ; yet it is remarked by Aftruc, that at the time
when be wrote, gonorrhcea was a malady wliich had only
been very recently obferved among the Chinefe. Alfo, in
the South-fea iflandi, difcovered in modern times, wliere
both the venereal difeafe and gonorrhoea were unknown be-
fore the landmg of European navigator?,, but v.-here thefe
maladies were afterwards difTufcd,. gonorrlioea- was not ho-
ticed tiUfeveral years after fyphilitic diforders had begun, to
fhew themfelves. Claps are faid to liave been yet unknown
to the natives of the South-fea iflands, at the period when
captain Cook was perform.ing his fecond, voyage. (Dun-
can's Medical Cafes and Obfervations.) All thefe circum-
ftances have been adduced to prove the difference betweea
that virus which gives rife to the venereal difeafe, and that
from which jfonorrhrra has its origin.

On the other land, the circumftances attending the com-
mencement of the venereal, difeafe in tlitfe remote countries,,
led Ml". Hunter to draw, a conclufion diametrically oppofjte
to the one deduced by the foregoing clafsof reafoners ; for,
he obferves, that it is almofl impoflible for a man to ha-ve a
chancre during a voyage of fcveral months, without the
whole of the penis being deilroyed, while it is well known,
that a gonorrhcea may lafl an iramenfe time, without lofuig
the charadler of being virulent. It is related in the accouiit
of captain Cook's voyage, tliat the inhabitants of Otaheite,
who were infedted with the gonorrhcea, went up the coun-
try and got well ; but that when the i.-onfequence of the
malady was the venereal difeafe, the latter was incurable.
Hence it is inferred, that the complaint whicli the Otahei-
teans contratled v>as the gonorrhoea, fiuce chancres and ve-
nereal affedlions would never have yielded to the iim.ple mean*,
which were adopted. Befidcs, if the diforder had confided
of chancres, and the natives of Otaheite had been acqurjnt-
ed with the mode of curing fuch fores, it is contended, tliat
they would likewife have underflood how to cure other ve^^
nereal fymptoms. We find, alfo, fi-om the perufal of cap-.
tain Cook's third voyage, that tlie venereal difeafe afterwards,
raged in all its forms in the ifland of Otaheite. Now,,fuice
there is no document to fhew, that the gonorrhoea v.-as again,
introduced into that country, fiibfequeiitly to Cook's fecond.
vilit, it is concluded, that every form of the venereal difeafe
wliich has been obferved there • has been derived from one
fource, which, in all probability, was a gonorrlicea.

Mr. Hunter mentions a gentleman who had a gonorrhcsa
thrice, of which he was cured without mercury. About
two months after each infeftion, he had fymptoms of- lues
venerea. The firfl were ulcers in the throat ; the fecond-
were blotches on the fl;in ; both which forms of the difeafe
yielded to mercury. Tiiirdly, two punftures were made oHt
the penis, with a lancet dipped in the matter of a gonorrhoea.
One of thefe produced, on the part of tlie prepuce v.hcre it
was made, a red, thickened fpeck, wliich iiiorcaftd audi
difcharged fome matter. This fuppofed chanci-e licaled on-
having its furface repeatedly deilroyed by cauftic. TliiJ
otbcrpundlure was ntade on the glans, where it was followed

by

GONORRHai:A.

by a pimple, full of yellowifh matter. This pimple was
touched with cauflic, and healed in the fame way as the fore
on the 'prepuce. Fonr months afterwards the chancre on
the prepuce broke out again ; tlien it healed, and returned.
This it did feveral rimes ; but always healed without any
application to it. While the fores remained on the prepuce
and glans, a bubo formed in the groin. A fufficient quan-
tity of mercury A\"as given to cure the gland locally, but not
to prevent the coniliturion froni being affefted. Two months
after the cure of the bubo, a venereal ulcer, according to
Mr. Hunter, formed on oi!e of the tonfils. This was cured
by ir.eixrury ; biit the medicine was purpofely left off as foon
as the fore was {kinned ever, in order to fee what parts
would next be afie&ed.

About three months afterwards, copper-coloured blotches
made their apper.r.ince in the f.an, and the ulcer on the
t-onfil recurred. This difeafe was again osily palliated by
mercury ; but the complaints returned in the iame fituation
as before ; f.nd were ultimately cured by a proper quantity
of mercury.

On the other hand, doubts mud cxift, concerning this ac-
count of the matter of gonorrhoea, when the following cir-
cumftances are taken into coniiderntion :

III. It is impoffible to fay what tim.e may clapfe between
the apphcation cf venereal poifon to the penis, and the com-
mencemeiit of ulceration. Therefore, Bougain\-ille's failors,
alluded to by Mr. Hunter, might have contracted the infec-
tion at Rio de la Plata ; but adiual ulcers on the penis
might not have formed till about five months aftcrv.ards,
v.-hen the (hip ai-rived at Ocaheite. 2dly. The fecond ar-
gument adduced by Mr. Hunter is certainly inconclufive.
Every ulcer in the throat is not regularly venereal. A
common ulcer may herd while the patient is ufing mercury.
Hence the cure, apparently accomplilhed by this medicine,
is no proof tliat the complaint was fyphilitic. 3dly. The
hft fact of inoculation is undoubtedly very llroug. But,
though the infertion of gonorrhccal matter, or any other
r.iorbitl matter, beneath the cuticle, will undoubtedly pro-
duce troublefome local complaints, may we not doubt that
tlie fores, in the above cafe, were adually venereal ones ?
Can we implicitly depend on the continence of the fubjecl
of the above remarkable experiments, during the long fpace
offour months, between theheahngof the fore ontheprepuce,
and its recurrence ? If we cannot, the inference, in regard to
t'le power of gonorrhaal matter to communicate the venereal
difeafe remains uneftabhlhed. How much more concliifive
I 1 this refpect, the experiments would have been, had the
i loculation been praclifed on any other part but the penis.
If the matter of gonorrhoea be capable of communicating
th.' venereal difeafe, why does not the difcharge commonly
jiroduce chancres on the glands and prepuce, with which
parts it muft lie in contaft a very coufiderable time in every
rnfe i Why alfo does not the prcfencc of a chancre fro-
ci'jently caufe a gonorrhaa ? If the infedlion of gonorrhoea,
;•. id the venereal difeafe, be really cf the fame identical
iiriture, certainly, it feems very extraordinary-, that the
f )rmer complaint fliould receive no benefit from mercury,
and the latter difeafe invariably require tiiis fpecidc re-
medy.

^V'ith refpeft to the venereal difeafe and gonorrhoea having
rvifen in Europe and elfewhere at different periods, it has
' -'en obferved by fuch writers, as incline to the belief in tlie
identity of the virus of the two afieclions, that every kind
of contagious difeafe appears with greater violence in iiew-
infefted countries, than in other fituatior.s where it has been
a confiderable time endeir.ial. In this manner, an endeavour,
which, ia our opinion, is quite unfuccefsful, is made to ex-

plain the caufe why the gononhaa generally did not raakc
its appearance till a long while after the vencrt-al diic-afe iiad
lliewn itfclf in much worfe Ihapcs. The fame dafi of
reafoners alfo affert, that, notwitlillanding the diligent en-
quiries of many able men, there k ftill a degree of doubt
concern !ng the exact time when thcfe difeafcs originated,
and, of courfc, concerning the point, whether one of them
actually exiikd a long while before the oilier. As we fuaH
liivc occafion to treat of the origin of tlic venereal difeafe
hereafter (fee Lbiw ViiNf:KK.\), we (hall not enter into
this difquitition in the ]>refent article. W'q mav be per-
mitted, however, to exprefs our fufpicions, that difcharge*
from the urethra muil have been cccafi-mal difcafca from
time immemoriaL Whether there be a fpecies of gonorrh(r«
truly venereal, that is to fay, one whicij depends upon th.-
fame viriw, as fyphihs, there may for e-.er remain doubts;
but, that there are claps or difchargcs which arife from
no poifonous or infectious matter whalfoeicr, but altogether
from mere irritation in the urethra, as, in certain cafe^ c>t
ftriclurcs, is certain and uudilputed. Thefe gonorrh<ca.i
mufc have prevailed as long as that cr.ual lias been liable to
various kinds of irritation.

One argument adduced againft tlic identity of the virus,
is derived from the ilrikmg dilTercnce ubfervable in the
progrefs and fpiiptoms of the two difeafes. \Vhen the
venerea! difeafe is negleftcd, it always groivs v^irfe and
worfe, and fooner cr later brings on the p.iticii* 's diifolutioD.
On the contrary, a gouorrhira tends to a natural cure, and,
though left to itfclf, commonly ends in a favourable wav.

The ad\T)catts for the identity of the poifon, however,
contend, that, in order to account for thij lad faft (vliich
they Hate is not without exceptions), it is bv no n.e?xs
nece(I<iry to fuppofe a diSerent virus. The^- bring into
c infideration the circuniilancecf gonorrhara depending upon
an inflammation of ihe furface of the urethra, and not ulce-
ration ; and they m.aintain, that .the abforption of the
vjnereal poifon generally happens much more eafilv from
u'cerated furfaces, than from fuch as are (imply inflamed.
This mode of reafoiiing is brought forv.ard as explanatory
of tlie caufe why, in the majority of cr.fts, a gonorrhoea re-
mains entirely a local complaint, and admits of a fpontan.'ous
cure, while the vericreal difeafe is always prone to extend
itfclf, and fpread from one part of the body to another.

An argument againlt the identity of the Wrus is alfo
f jundcd on the reflection, that the venereal difeafe is only
«{jable of communicating the venereal difeafe, and gonorr-
hxa of impai-ting gonorrhoea. The partizans of the doc-
trine which imputes this latter aflvction to the venereal
virus, acknowledge, that things do ufually correfpond with
tiie ftatcment jull now given ; but they aiTcrt that the
contrary cafe is alfo freqiicntly obferv'ed. They remark,
that we may calily convince ourfelves of this circumllance,
by a faiil which is well known to practitiontrs, namely,
tliat when persons, who Lave a gonorrl-.tca, are not prrti-
cularlv careful to keep the gians and prepuce clean, claji-
cres are very apt to lur.n upon tiiefe part.', and by o«:e fuch
fore the whole tyllem m;iy become iufefl.d. It h r.lio
aii'erted, that, iudcpeudcntly of the fonuationof any cii.^tcr-,
therc are cafes proving, tlikt the venereal d-f.-afe nay be the
confequeiice of a gvinorrha-a, and that ei.rv- liu-gcon cf es-
tenfive practice muli -r.ec'. \vith inllances <;F ihis kird. Ore
of the moll remark;.bie on record, is that related by Mr.
Hunter ; and it having been 8lr;-ady r.jticed by i:s is ibr
pivfont article, v.e iie.d noi dwell upon il agcia.

With refpeft to chimcn-s arifiiig frv.m the ma'tcr »f
gonorrha-a being in contiiot with the glans and prpiice,
we Jo, undoulieiiiv, fee l>.>ih trfti zudiruccc who barr

GONORRHOEA.

flaps and tliancrcs together ; 'but, in our opinion, it 'is moft
rational to impute the fovt-s to the application of venereal
pus from chancres, together with the gonorrhoeal matter,
at the time of coition. We liave no doubt that this aft is
often performed, when, between the two parties, both kinds
of infetlion are prefent.

Certainly it feems extraordinary, that if the virus he of
the fame nature in both cafes, tiie two Mj&s (liould not always
occur in the fame patient. We ought naturally to expedt,
that when a gonorrhoea makes its appearance firil, it would
always be tlie caufe of a chancre ; and that when a chancre
is the firll fymptom, it would invariably be the occafion of
ffonorrhcra. We difmifs from prefent confideration the
aifertion of fuch writers as defend the identity of the virus,
that, in fomc few inftances, one malady docs become the
caufe of the other. Mr. Hunter fufpefted, that the irrita-
tion of one of the parts, forming the feats of the two dif-
eafes, became the prcfervative of the other. He thought,
that when the urethra inflames and difcharges matter, the
adjacent external parts might, on that very account, be
exempt from a difeafe which thty would othtrwife inevitably
contraft, by reafon of the effeft of the very virus which,
crave rife to the gonorrhoea. The fame celebrated writer
alfo »ntertained a fufpicion, that when a chancre attacks
the glans, or prepuce, the urethra might become infufccp-
tible of the irritation, which, without the external difeale,
would certainly' lead to a difcharge from that canal.

This mode of explanation appears to us fomewhat theore-
tical. We are of opinion, alfo, that in arguing in this way,
the advocates for the identity of the virus only bring for-
ward the (hadow, initead of the fubftancc of reafon. In faft,
they fay nothing more than that fuppofed venereal matter
cannot make the external parts of the penis ulcerate, becaufc
there is an irritatiou in the urethra ; and that the urethra
eannot be affedted with gonorrhoea, becaufe a chancre already
occupies the external parts. If this reafoning be not hypo-
thetical and fanciful, we cannot conceive what arguments
can ever be confidered fo. They who talk in this manner,
inadvertently fall into difficulties, and make one opinion
inconfiftent with another. Thus, they have already told us,
that, OGcafionally, a chancre is apt to occur, when patients
witli gonorrhoea negleiit to keep the glans and prepuce
clean ; yet, according to their principles, a clap renders the
external parts infufceptible of infeftion, and, of courfe,
there would be no need of cleanlinefs as a prcfervative. We
think that the wcaknefs of the argument muft be obvious to
the youngeft ftudent, who, on his entrance into any venereal
ward of an hofpital, is almoll fure of immediately finding a
patient who has at the fame time both chancres and go-
Dorrhcca.

The different treatment required by gonorrho:?a and the
venereal difeafe, is another argument againfl the identity of
the virus, mercury, being unnecefTary in claps, and the fole
fpecific in the other complaint. The partifans of the oppo-
ftte opinion endeavour to diminifh the force of this fail, by
adverting to the different ways in which the two difeafes
nff-ct the parts wiiich are attacked, and by maintaining tJiat
BO iull inference can be drawn from the diflerence of treat-
ment, while the particular adlion of mercury, on various
parts affefted witii the venereal poifon, is not underftood.
They alfo contend that, though mercury may have no cflecl
in gononhaa, when ufcd in the fame way as for other vene-
real affetftion-;, yet, when applied to the urethra itfelf, it
fervcs 10 n.od;'rate the fymptoms, and accelerate the cure.

Having feen the calomel injeftion employed in fome hun-
dreds of cafes, with lefs benefit than the comntpn vitriolic
one, we cannot atfent to the laft obfervat»on. I'he other

remarks, being bare opinions, may be received or not, as
the judgment of the reader may incline Inm ; but, for our
own part, we have no hofitation in rcfufing them a place
among fuch information as is founded on rational evidence.
We fliall now fay a few words, refpefting the time, be-
tween the application of the infeftion and the beginning of
its effefts.

In the greater number of difeafes, a certain fpace of time
always elapfes betvceen the application of the caufe and tlie-
firll ap))earance of the efFeft. The time when a gonorrhoea
begins, after contamination, varies confiderably in different
cafes. In fome examples, the poifon takes effeft in a few
hours, as Mr. Hunter has feen two or three times; while,
in other inllances, the complaint does not (hew itfelf till the
end of five or fix weeks. There are alfo cafes to be met
with, in which the diforder begins at all the intermediate
periods. It is calculated, that the moft common time of
its origin is in the fpace between the iixth and twelfth day.
In one inftance, in which the malady did not commence till
the end of fix weeks, it was noticed by Mr. Hunter, that
the afFeftion was preceded by various iyniptoms of irrita-
tion, and uncommon fenfation, in the parts. Hence, this
celebrated autlior concluded, that the virus icldom, or never,
remains io long inaftive; but that the inflammatory ftaJe
may exiil a good while before fuppuration takes place.
The delay in the cosnnieuceinent of the difcharge, however,
ntfy be owing to caufe.'i v.hich are not underflood, and this-
is very likely to be true, if we confider that fome cafes of
gonorrhoea do not begin for five or fix weeks after infeftion,
and yet are not preceded by any remarkable fymptom what-
ioever.

The obfervations already made in a preceding part of this
article, mull have apprized the reader, that difcharges from
the urethra may originate from more caufes than one, and
frotn more irritations than that which is produced by one
particular kind of virus. There are fometimes fpontaneous
difcharges from this pafTage, while no immediate caufe what-
ever is affignable. Such inftances as occur independently
of a fpecific gonorrhoeal, or, according to the Hunteriaii
doftrine, the venereal virus, have been termedjimpli: or lie-
vign. Some affert, that thefe cafes may be known by their
coming on immediately after coition, and it is violent from the
very beginning ; while the virulent gonorrhoea docs not com-
mence till after fome days, and grows gradually worfe.
However, this criterion is infufficient: fimple genorrhceas
are not always owing to coition, nor are they always fudden
in their appearance.

Mr. Hunter has feen the urethra fympathize with the
gums in dentition, and all the fymptoms of gonorrhoea affeft
the fame infant feveral times. The author of the article
Gonci'ihie, in the Encyclopedic Mcthodique, alfo mentions
his having feen two female children, v«lio were aflefted
during dentition with a difcharge from the pudenda, attend-
ed by a certain degree of inflammation, and pain in making
water.

We (hall next introduce a few remarks on the effeft of
the difcharge on the parts producing it.

It was formerly not <*n uncommon opinion, that the dif-
charge was a means employed by nature tor carrying off the
virus occafioning the- complaint, and thus bringing about a
cure. However, it is impoflible for this to be true, v.-itli
refpeft to inflammations, which arife from a fpecific virus;
for, fnppofmg the fuppuration could wafh away all the
poifon, caufing the original irritation, yet, as all the mat-
ter afterwards fccreted is equally virulent, no good would
be done; the irritation, according to the precednig idea,
would Le perpetuated, and, of courfe, the difcharge. This

1 liUl

GONORRHCEA.

all occurrence, ho\^-ever, we need hardly remark, is not
;i o cafe. The afFeftion of the urethra in gonorrhoea is not
ki-pt up hy the matter, but by tiie fpecitic quality of the
uillammation itfelf, wliich, in all probability, can never con-
tinue beyond a limited time, fince the fymptom.s at length
fpontaneouny fubfide. Had the infetiious matter, which is
lornied in the courteof the dii'eafe, the power of protracting
the original irritation, the difurder would have no termina-
tion.

In gonorrhoea, as in many other difeafcs, the morbid
action of the parts aFFefted cannot go on for a long while in
the fame way. After having increafed in violence to a cer-
tain degree, it naturally tends to become w;eakcr; and the
lymptoms of the diforder which depend upon fucli aclion,
at length, entirely ceafe. The time of this o ffation will
vary according to circumllances; for if the irritated parts
be very fufceptible of the fpecific irritation, the difeafad
action muft be more violent and lading; but, in all cafes,
this difierence is always owing to fome particularity of con-
lUtution, and not to any peculiarity of the virus.

Tlie reader is aware that Mr. John Hunter regarded the
gonorrhoea as one form of the venereal difeafe. It was the
opinion of this diillnguifhcd man, that the venereal difeafe
was only capable oi a natural celfation, when it occupied a
fecreting furface, from which it produced pus. He be-
lieved that when the part attacked was not a fecreting one,
aad iw. ulcer was formed, the difeafe would of itfelf go on
t^)r ever. He referred this difference between gonorrhoea
and a chancre, however, more to the difference in the mode
of aftion, than to that of the affeded furfaces; f(;r when
the venereal virus produces an ulcer upon a fecreting fur-
face, as it fometimes does upon the tonfds, and even the
urethra itfelf, luch fores are not more diipofed to heal,
than if they were fituated any where elfe in the body.

It is fometimes obferved, in cafes of gonorrhixa, that the
parts which were firll irritated get well, while the irrita-
tion is communicated to auotlier part of the fame furface,
as happens, when it leaves the urethra near the glans, and
affecls that part of the canal which is further on towards
the bladder.

Admitting that every gonorrhoea is capable of getting
well, without iurgicai aliiltance, it may be doubted wiiether
a perfon, who already has a gonorrhoea, is fufceptible of
the irritation of frelh gonorrhocal mattei", or that the clap
which exills could be augmented by its application. Mr.
Hunter extended the fame obfervation to every form of the
venereal difeafe ; and he ftates, that the matter of gonor-
rhoea, or of a chancre, put on an ulcerated bubo, does not
in the leaft retard the cure, although, if venereal matter be
applied to a common for^, the venereal irritation will fre-
ouently be excited. Such fafts are ftrongly in favour of
the opinion, that the matter of gonorrhoea has no etfeft in
keeping up the complaint. The urethra is neither irritated
by the infectious matter which it fecretes, nor can the irri-
tation already exifling lail beyond a certain period. Even
were frelli matter applied to the urethra, the complaint
wuuld probably get well with equal quicknefs.

Mr. Hunter extended the idea further, and even con-
ceived that a frcfh gonorrhoea could not be contracted,
w-re frefli virus applied to the parts affefted, at the period
v>hen the cure was juil on the point of being completed.
He thuught that, in time, the parts might be lo habituated
to the impredjon of the virus, as to become infenhble of it,
aiid i.hey muft have regained their natural and original itate,
tfe the iufeitiou can again have fuch effcf^ upon them as to
r-;>roduee the compliant.

The foregoing opinions do not reft altogether uporf '
theory : they are alio founded on experience and obfer>-a^
tion. Men, who have jull had a gonorrhoea, have frequently
been known to expofe tiiemfelvcs to be infcfted again with- '
out any recurrence of the complaint taking place, while
other iiealthy perfons, who had connexion with the fame
woman, have immediately caught the malady. Perhaps, it
is on the fame principle, that the firil gonorrhoea is generally
the moil violent, and that fuch perfons as are often af-
fefted with claps have them m.ore and more mildly, particu-
larly when the intervals are fhort.

In corroboration of thefe fentiments, Mr. Hunter rdatcs
feveral cafes, among which is the following : a married
man, who, for feveral years, had had no connection uith
any woman except his own wife, happened to meet with ati
old acquaintance, who gave him a fevcre gonorrhoea, though
(lie declared her belief that fhe was quite well. Both
adopted fome means of cure ; but continued to cohabit to-
gether during the treatment. The man gut well, and it
was prefumed that the woman was alfo cured. Thev con-'
tinued to live together feveral munlhs, without tlit former
experiencing any inconvenience, or having anv reafon to
fuppofe that there was ilill any thing the miittcr with the
latter. At length they parted, and the woman formed a
new attachment. Slie had no fooner made this lall con-
nedlion, than ihe gave the new lover a gonorrha-a. She
again confulted ^ir. Hunter, whom (he alfured, that (he-
had never cohabited with any others, except the preceding
two ; and confequently, if this be true, the infection of
her lall lover mull have arifen from the very fame ic-'
norrhoca, of which (he fuppofed that (he had been for.ncrfy
cured. However, (he now uled no remedies, and the ir.ar,"
after he was well, continued to cohabit with her for fevehil
months without receiving any new infection. But her old
lover now returning, after a year's abfence, and thinking
that, as file was living regularly with tiie fecond, there'
could be no danger, ventured to have connection with her ;
the coniequence was, that he caugiit another gonorrhoea.

Before defcribing the treatment, it is prtiper to fay a
few words of the difeafe in women.

The gonorrhoea in females is not fo complicated as in'
men, the parts affected being more fimple and fewer in
dumber. In women the difeafe is not fo eafy to be afccr-
tained, becaufe they are alfo liable to a cojnplaint, called ■
the fluor albus, which Iras fome relemblance. A mere'
running from the parts is not fo much a pn^of of the ex-
illence of an infectious gonorrhoea in a woman, as a dif-
charge without pain in a man ; and in the former the difeafe
will often exill, while there is no increafe wh.ttever in the
natural fecretion from the parts. Nor can any criterion be
deduced from the kind of matter, (ince the difchtirge of
tlie fluor albus frequently puts on all the appearaices cf
gonorrhaal matter. Neither is pain, nor any peculiarity in
t(\e r-nfalions of tlie parts, neceffarily attendant upon the com-
plaint in women Mr. Hunter alfo remarks, that the appear-
ance of the parts often gives us but little information ; for
he frequcutly examined tliem in patients, who complained of
all the ufual fymptoms, fuch as an increafed difclargv, p.iin
in maicing water, iorenefs, &c. and yet he could perceive no
difierence- in the look of the parts and of fuch as are quits'
healthy. When the patient was not confcious of any par-
ticul.ir fymptoms, or was difpofed to conceal her kT.ow.
ledge of them, Mr. Hunter thought that fon-.e judg-
ment might be formed from her having had connection
with men fuppofed to be ur.four.d, and from her power
of communicating the difeafe to others. However, it is

actcncwledjed, "

G :0 N 0 11 R H CE A.

acknawlcdgcd, that as this lad cii«umftance is derived from
the tcltinioii}- of another pcrfoii, thciv arc obvious rcafoiis
why it ihoulj not always be ti-ultcd.

When a woman contradls.a gonorrlioca, the vagina muft he
firft ivttacked, a part which is not endued with confiderable
fenlibihty. Frequently, however, the complaint extends
much furtlier, producin^j difagreeable fenfations and fore-
ncfs of the inhde of the labia, nymphjc,, clitori?, carunculae
myrtiforracs, and meatus urinarius. The parts arc fome-
times fo fore that the patient cannot bear them to be touch-
ed ; flte can hardly walk ; and a great deal of pain is ex-
perienced when the urine comes into contaft with the fore
furfaees, as it muft unavoidably do as often as the bladder
is emptied.

Wlien the difeafe extends to parts which are more fenfi-
ble than the vagina, and more fufceptible of inflammation,
women have nearly the fame fymptoms as men; a fulnefs
about the parts, a difcharge from the urethra, violent pain
in making water, and great uiieafmefs from the preffnre
on the parts in fitting. Sometimes tlie bladder is alfo
aifeilcd.

The inflammation frequently extends to feme depth, run-
ning along the dufts of the glands, and afl'edting the glands
them.felves, fo as to occafion hard fwellings under tlie fur-
fiice of the infide of the labia. Thefe tumours often fuj)-
purate, and burll near the oritice of the vagina. They re-
tciuble the abfcefl^.'S in the glands of the urethra in men.
. The time in vihich a gonorrhoea may be cured is ex-
ceedingly variable, fome cafes terminating in a week, while
others continue for months under the fame treatment.

According to Mr. Hunter, the objeft in the cure is to
dellroy the difpofition and fpeeifie mode of aftion in the
fijhds of the parts, and, as foon as that change is accom-
pliflied, the poifonous quality of tlie matter produced will
alfo be deftroyed. Thus the difeafe may be cured though
not always its confcquences.

A gonorrhcca is not capable of being continued beyond
a ceVtain time in any conllitution, and when the com-
plaint is violent and lails a long while, it is owing to the
parts being very fufceptible of fuch irritation, and readily
retaining it.

Since there is no fpeeifie medicine for the gonorrhcea,
it is very fortunate, as Mr. Hunter obferves, that time
alone will eiFeft a cure. This celebrated furgeon was in-
clined to think, that, in cafes of gonorrhoea, medicines
were fcldom of fervice, perhaps not more frequently
than once in ten inftances. With the idea, that every go-
norrhoea cures itfelf, he gave certaii. patients pills of bread,
which were taken with great regularity. Thefe perfons all
got well ; but Mr. Hunter thought that fome of them
were not cured quite fo ioon as they would have been, had
artificial means been employed.

Tlie furgical methods of cure confift of internal remedies
and local applications; but in putting any plan of treatment
in execution, more attention Ihould always be paid to the
nature of "the confliitution, or to any attending difeafe in
the parts themlelves, or parts conncfted with them, than to
the riuming itftlf.

The nature of the conllitution is principally to be judged
of from the local eiredls of the difeafe. Thefe are fo dif-
ferent in di.fercnt people as to require a great variety of
treatment, a circumllance, fays Mr. Hunter, which has
been too little attended to, every one endeavouring to at-
tack the immediate fymptoms, as if he had a fpeeifie for a
g.onorrhoea.

Wearefirll to confider, whether the inflammation is vio-

lent or mild, commoai or irritable. When the fymptoms
are violent, but of the common inflammatory kind, which
u to be j\idged of from the attending circumllances, and
particularly from the extent of the inflammation not ex-
ceeding the fpeeifie difl:ance, the local iipphcations may be
either of the irritating or foothing kind. In this ex-
ample, irritating applications may be lets dangerous, tljan
when die inflammation is of the irritable fort, and may have
the elfeA of altering the fpeeifie aclion, the parts after-
wards recovering of themfelves, as from any other com-
mon inflammation. Mr. Hunter, however, exprefii;s his
belief, that the foothing plan is the bett at the be-
ginning.

When the inflammation is great, and of the irritable kind,
no violence -i to be ufed'in the treatment, as the fyihptems
would thus only be increafed. Mr. Hunter thought, indeed,
that there were fome cafes, which are exceptions to the lat-
ter remark, the great degree of inflammation ari/ing entirely
from a fufceptibility of this irritation, and not from any ge-
neral irritability in the conllitution. He confefles, how-
c\Tr, that fuch examples can feldom be difcriminated.

When the fymptoms run very high, nothing fliould be
done to Hop the difcharge, as, were it to be checi^:ed, the
inflammation would ilill contuuie, and no good be cfFefted.

Mr. Hunter recommends us to alter the confl:itution, if
poflible, by remedies adapted to each difpofition, with a
view to alter the aftions of the parts arifing from fuch dif-
pofitions, and reduce the difeafe to its fimple form. If the
confl:itution cannot be altered, we can only allow the adtion
to wear itfelf out.

Wlien the inflammation has confidcrably abated, and the
difeafe only remains in a mild form, its cure may be at-
tempted either by internal remedies, or local applications.
If local means are ufcd, violence is ftill to be avoided, be-
caule it may bring back the irritation. At this period (con-
tinues Mr. Hunter% gentle afl;ringents may be applied witli
a profpedl of fuccefs ; or, if the difeafe has begun mildly,
and there are no figns of an inflammatory difpofition, either
of the common, or irritable kind, an irritating injcftion may
be ufed, in order to get rid of the fpeeifie mode of adlion
quickly. Such application will increafe the fymptoms for
a time ; but, when it is left off, they will frequently abate,
or wholly difappear. In fuch a ftate of parts, afliringents
may be ufcd : for the only thing to be done, is to procure
a ceffation of the difcharge, which is now the principal
fymptom.

\Vhen the itching, pain, &c., are felt for fome time before
the dilcharge appears, Mr. Hunter rather prefers the foothing
to the irritating plan of treatment. He fufpefted, that thus
the coming out of the difcharge would be promoted, which
occurrence he conceived was the firft ftep towards a re-
folution of the irritation. He believed that, at all events,
in this cafe, the employment of aftriiigents would be
bad praflice, as, by preventing the difcharge from taking
place, they might prolong the inflammation, and protraft
the cure. Alf'), in cales of ftrlftures, and of difeafed tef.
■ tides, he is adverfe to the ufe of aftriiigents; for, fays he,
while the difchai'ge lafts, both the other complaints are re-
lieved.

The interna! remedies commonly recommended in a gonor-
rhcca, may be divided into evacuants and aftringents. The
evacuant.s (fays Mr. Hunter), are principally of the purga-
tive, or diuretic kind, and tliefe are not confined to any par-
licular ntedicines, every practitioner fujipofing that he is in
]w..ll'effion of the heft. Sonje life mereurial evacuants ;
\s hilll others carefully avoid mercury in evej-y form. Tlie

neutral

GONORRHCEA.

'<ciitTal fait* have heeirgiven fi'om the idea of their heini-
cooling. Some of the profcfrion have cljipfly kept to diu-
retics, perhaps with two views ; firll, as evacuants aclirij^
r.echaiiically upon the uri.-inry palTages, fo as to \va(h away
the matter ; fecondly, as fi>ecifics. For this purpofc, nitre
has been given, a modi<;ine wliieh has always been tliought to
i'.ave great effe£l in leiTening inflammation, though Mr. Hun-
ter had doubts concerning the truth of the opinion. Under
f very mode of treatment the patients always get well, and
the cures are afcribed by each practitioner to liis own
favourite method.

Mr. Hunter remarks, tliat " to keep the body open in
mott cafes, even wlien the patient is in other refpcfts in
health, muft, no doubt, be proper ; but what idea can we
form of an irritation, produced all along the intcllinal canal,
caring a fpecific inflammation in the urethra ? Yet there are
cafes where a brill< purge has been of forvice, and even in
fjme has performed a cure. But I fufpeft, that, in fucli
cufes, the difcafe had been continued by habit only, and
tliat this practice would not liave fucceedcd in the beginning.
A gentleman had a gonorrhcca, all the fyniptoms of whicli
continued for two months, and by taking at once ten grains-
of calomel, wiiich purged him mod violently, h:; was almoil
immediately cured. The calomel could not have acled
fpscLfically, but by a kind of, derivation, that is, an irrita-
tion produced in ojie part, cared, one tliat fubfdlcd in an-
uiher ; but even if it fliould be gr.anted,.that in fome con-
ilitutioos purges, hrjve the pov.-er of making the folids lefs
fufceptible of this irritatioh, it cannot be fuppofed they will
have this effeft in every caf^ : in fome conltitutioas, they
might debilitate, increafe irritability, and of ccurfe'increafe
rhe fymptoms. Thefe contrary effefts muil take place in
different conftitutions, in wliich a medicine has no fpecilic
ailion. On the fuppofition of the euro being promoted by
an evacuation from the blood, v/hat fervice can purging
out fome -of the blood, in form of a fecretion from one part,
do to an inflammation of another part ? On fuch a fuppofi-
tion would not a fweat, or an increafe of faliva, by Cjhcvtfing
tobacco, or fl:irBulating the nofe by fnuff", all tend equally to
cure a gonorrhoea ? But humours having been confidered as
the univerial caufe of every difoafe, efpecially thofe in which
pus is fornied', or a difcharge produced, and purging having
been fuppofed to be the cure for humours, purgatives were
' f courfe made ufe of in this difeafe ; and as the patients
,ave always been cured, the practice became generally clta-
bli.licd.

" Thofe who recommended mercury in this form of the dif-
oafe, did it moll probably from the opinion, that this medi-
cine was afpeciiic for the venereal difeafein all its forms. On
tins fuppcUtion, we can iee fome realon for their pra&ice, as
it would be abforbed from tlie intellines, circulate tlu-ough
the inflamed vefi^els of the urethra, and tliereby deftroy the
venereal irritation. Here we can only fuppofe it to ac"l
by its. fpeciiic virtue ; but I. doubt very much of mercury
having any fpeciflc virtue iu' this fpecies of difeafe ; for I
find, that it is as fcon cured without meix-ury as with it ; and
where- this medicine is.only ufcd as a purge, or purged off the
ne>;t day, ?.nd therefore allov.-ed to a6t merely upon the
bowels, I cannot conceive that it could have any more effeiil:
\ipon the venereal inflammation in the lu'ethra, than an irrita-
tion in the bowels arifrng from any other purgative. So little
eitetlj indeed, has this medicine upon a gonorrhoea, that I
have kinown a gonorrhoia take place while under a courfe of:
mercur.y fuiRcient for the cure of a chancre. Wliether the
gonorrlicsa arofe from the fame infection that produced the
chancre I cannot fay; nor can it be eahly determined ia-
Cweh cafes, ivlen Lave alfo been known to contract a. go-

norrhcea when londtd witli morcuiy for the cure or a hnn
venerea ; the gonorrhcca, nevcrthelefs, has been as difficuU
of cure as in ordinary ca(c5." P. 72, &c.

Witli refpedt to diuretics, confidered as evacuants, Mr.
Hunter obfervcs, tliat they may have the fame general re-
marks made on them as iia-vc been offered in regard to pur-
gatives. It is poffiblc, fays he, tliat fpecittc medicines,
taken into the conititution (if we liad fuch), ami pafling off
by tlse urine, might aCt upon the uretln-a in their paffagc-
through it. The balfams and turpentines paf» ofF in this
way, and become fpecifics for many irritations in the urinary
paifagcs ; but how far medicines wliicli have the power of
affe£ting particular parts when found, or when under difeafe*
peculiar to thofe parts, have alfo the powers of affecting a'
Ipcciiic irritation in them, Mr. Hunter was uncertain. H»
conceived, however, that they mii.;ht be capable of rcmoN-ing
any attending irritation, though not the fpecific one. He
thought, tliat diuretics did good inafmuch :is they increafcd
the quantity of urine ; but he believed limple 'water \va6
bell fortius purpofe, or water joined with fuch things as en-
cinuage the patient to drink a good deal, as with ten, capil-
lairc, orgeate, <xc.

Alh-ingeuts have frequently been prefcribed, though \vith^
out the approbation of the generality of regular i)ractiti-
oners. It was Mr. Hunter's opinion, that fuch mcdiciaw
did not leffen the inflammation, but that they oflen leffened
die difcharge.

With regard to local applications, they may be either in-
ternal to the urethra, or external to the penis. In many'
cafes both kinds are proper. One would f.ippofc, that what
is ajjplied to the urethra, muft be the moll likely to eflect
a cure, by coming immediately into contaft with thedifeafed
parts.

Local apphcations to the urethra may be cilh.er in a folid
or fluid form, each of which has its advantages and difadvan-
tages. A fluid, (fiiys Mr. Hunter) is only a teniporarj- ap-
plication, and that of very (hort duration.

The folid applications may remiiin a long time, and. in
tlds refped, would fecm to be better than fltrid ones; but
in general they create irritation. They mull: be ufed in the
form of a bougie, which Mr. Hunter imagined vres com-
monly injurious, when the parts were in an inflamed llatc,
though he confeffep, that lie never faw anv harm from it it)
any cale, when employed with caution.

Fluid applications to the infide of the uretljra are i:fval)y
called injcttions, and, like the internal remedies, are without
number. However, as the inflammation is fivquently re-
moved under the ufe of injections of various kinds, irtvr
we not, (as Mr. Hunter notices) a ibrong' cf rrcborstingcir-
cumihuicc in favour of an opinion, that ewry fuch complaint
will in time cure itfelf? This eminent furgeoii thought,
however, that praftice evinced, that sn inje^'rion often has
almoil an immediate effeft upon the fymptoms, and, therefore,
that it muit: have fome powere, tiiough the injeilion, which
v.ould have the greatcif fpecific effe(5f, he believed, was not.
yet known. If an injeftion has no fpecilic powers, it muft
be very uncertain in its effefts, and can only be of fcrrice as'
far as it may be adapted to a pecuharit)' of conlHtution, or
parts. As injections are only temporary applicrifion!!, it bp»
comes nccelfary to ufe them often, efpecially in cufcs where
they are found to be of fervice. They Oiou'd therefore be
applied as often as convenient, perhaps every honr, orcTen'
oftener; but Mr. Hunter adds, tirat this rnwll br rrguhted
i:i fome mcafure by the kind of njec'tion ; for, if it br irri-
tating, it will not'he proper to uf* it f* oft^,- as it maybe
productive of bad conf.-quenees-.

The fame aatliar obferves, tliat- nwny iajeft'.ot* rcmo-»e-
4 the

GONORRHCEA.

the fymptoms immediately, or foon after the application,
ajid prevent the formation of matter, which has given rife
to the notion of their lliutting up the difeafe and driving it
into the conftitution ; but this fuppofition cannot be true,
iince the matter is the only fub.lance in which the poifon is
contained, and the formation of the poifon is inleparable
from the formation of matter. I'herttore, if we can pre-
vent the one, the other cannot take place, and, of courfe,
there can be no room for abforption ; fo that there can
neither be any power of infetting the conllitution in the fame
perfon, nor of conununicating the infedtion to others.

Mr. Hunter divided injediions into four kinds, namely,
the irritating, fedative, emollient, and allringent. He be-
lieved tliat we are not acquainted with any fpccilic one, al-
though a mercurial injection, of fome fort or another, is
frequently fancied to have fuch a quality.

AH irritating injections act upon the principle of pro-
ducing an irritation of another kind, which ought to be
greater than that of the gonorrhcca, by which means the
latl is dellroyed ar.d the difeafe cured, although the pain
.and difcharge may dill be kept up by the application.

Thefe fymptoms will loon go olf, as foun as the injection
is laid afide, becaufe they only arife from its irritating qua-
lities. In this w-ay bougies, as well as many injeittions, may be
fuppofed to perform a cure; and although they increafe the
fymptoms for a time, they never can increafe the dilcafe it-
fclf, any more (fays Mr. Hunter) than the fame injeftion,
which would produce tlie lame fymptoms, if applied to the
urethra of a found man, can communicate the difeafe.
Moll of the irritating injections have an allringent elFeft,
and, when mild, prove hmply allringents ; their irritating
quality depending chiefly upon their Itrength.

Mr. Hunter was not able to determine abiolutely the kind
of cafes in which irritating injeiitions might be uled with
advantage. He thought, however, that fuch applications
fhould never be ufed when there is already much inflammation,
efpecially in conftitutions which cannot bear a great deal of
irritation, as a previous knowledge of the difeafe in the
fame perfon fometimes teaches us. Neither flioulji thefe
injections be ufed when the irritation has fpread beyond the
fpecilic dillance ; when the tefticles are tender, or when
they have become fore upon a fudden diminution of the dil-
cliarge ; when the perinosum is very fuiceptible of inflamma-
tion, and particularly if it {hould have formerly fuppurated.
Irritating injections alfo ought not to be employed when
there is a tendency in the bladder to irritation, which is
known from the patient having had, for fome time, a fre-
quency in making water. In all the preceding caies they
do no good, and often do mifchief : Mr. Hunter thought he
had feen abfcefles in the perinxum brought on by their
employment.

In mild cafes, and in conltitutions which are not irrita-
ble, fuch injections often fucceed, and remove the difeafe
almoft immediately. The practice, liowever, as the fore-
going writer remarks, ought to be attempted with caution,
and not, perhaps, till milder methods have failed. Two
grains of corrolive lublimate (hydrargyrus muriatus), dif-
lolved in eight ounces of dilHlled water, are an eligible in-
jeCtion of this kind ; but an injeftion of only half this
itrength may be ufed, when it is not the defign to attempt
a very fudden cure. If, however, the mjeCtion thus
weakened fliould give conliderable pain, or occafion a great
increafe of foreneis in making water, it mult be Hill more
diluted.

Sedative injeftions, according to Mr. Hunter, will al-
ways be of fervice in cafes where the inflammation is conti-
..derable, not by lefTening the difeafe itfelf, but by lefTening

the difeafed aftion, which always allows the natural actions
of the part more readily to take place. They are likewifc
very ufeful in relieving the painful feelings of the patient.
Perhaps, fays this celebrated iurgeon, the bell fedative
which we iiave is opium, as when given by the mouth or
anus, as when applied to the part affefted in the form of an
injeftion. But even opium will not agree, nor act as a feda-
tive in a'l conftitutions or parts. On the contrary, it ha'<
often oppofite effects, producing great ii-ritability. Lead
may be reckoned a fedative, fo far as it abates inflammation,
while, at the fame time, it may aCt as a gentle allringent.
Fourteen grains of faccharum faturni (acetite of lead), dif-
folved in eight ounces of dillilled water, make a good feda-
tive allringent injedlion.

Mr. Hunter next remarks, that the drinking freely of
diluting liquors may, perhaps, be conlidered as liaving a
fedative eifeCt, as it in part removes fome of the caufes of
irritation, rendering the urine lefs llimulating, either to the
bladder, when the irritation is there, or to the urethra in its
paflage through it ; and the plan may poflibly lefTen the
fufceptibility of irritation. . The vegetable mucilages of cer-
tain feeds and plants, and the emollient genus, are recom-
mended for impregnating the patient's dnnk. Such fub-
ftances pafs olf with the urine, and render the evacuation of
that fluid lefs painful. It is proper to notice, however,
that Mr. Hunter does not appear to have a high opinion of
the utility of this praftice.

When the inflammation is very great, Mr. Hunter be-
lieved, that emollient injections are the molt proper applica-
tions. It feems probable, that they aft tiril by fimply
wafliing away the matter, and then leaving a foft app'icaticni
to the part, in which way, fays this eminent writer, tliey
can be of lingular fervice by leflening the irritating elFeCts
of the urine. A folution ol gum arable, milk and water,
or iweet oil, will frequently lelfen the pain and other fymp-
toms, when the more aftive injedtions have done nothing,
or feemed to do harm.

AVhen great irritation and forenefs prevail at the moutli
of the urethra, the point of the fyringe cannot be intro-
duced, and no attempt to ufe an injeftion ought to be made
before the inflammation abates. Emollients may be ufed
externally in the form of fomentation.

The aftringent injections, obferves Mr. Hunter, can only
aft by leflening the difcharge. They can have no fpecific
effeft upon the inflammation. They fliould only be ufed to-
wards the latter end of the difeafe, when it has beconH.' mild
and the parts begin to itch. However, if the difeafe fliould
begin mildly, they may be ufed at the very beginning ; for,
by gradually leflening the difcharge, without increaling the
inflammation, we complete the cure, and prevent a continua-
tion of tlie difcharge called gleet. If the aftringent i»jec-
tions be ftrong, they will be irritating, and frequently in-
creafe the difcharge, inlleadof diminillnng (tt When weaker,
they often Hop the running, without halrening, however,
the cure in all cafes ; for the inflammation may Itill continue
even longer than it would liave done, had the tendency to
fecretion not been removed. But fometimes an allringent
injeftion w'ill cure a flight irritation in a verv few davs. Mr.
Hunter never found one aftringent more efficacious than
another. The aftringent genus, as dragon's blood, the bal«
fams, and the turpentines, diflblved in water; the juices of
many vegetables, as oak bark, Peruvian bark, tormentil
root, and, perhaps, all the metallic falts, as green, blue,
and white vitriols ; the falts of mercury, and alfo alum ;
probably all aft much in the fame way. Mr. Hunter, how-'
ever, owns that tliey do not iKt equally well in every go.

norrlia-a.

GONORRHCEA.

norrhcra, and that changing the injedlion will often fuccced,
■whrn a long perfeverance in a previous one would not.

We have to obfervc, that the aftringcnt injection, which
is moft generally approved of by praftitioners, is that con-
taining white vitriol (ziucum vitriclatutn), about half a
fcniple of which, ditfolTcd in eight ounces of water, is a
\cry good application to begin with. The ilrength may
be increaled or diminilhcd, however, as the patient's feelings
may require.

Poultices and fomentations have been ufed as externa! ap-
jjlications in cafes of gonorrhoia ; but, fays Mr. Hunter,
they can be of little fervice, except when the prepuce, glans,
and orilice of the urethra are inflamed. It is now more
common, in the inflammatory ilage of the complaint, to
furround the penis with linen kept continually wet with the
faturnine lotion.

When any of the glands of the urethra remain in an in-
durated Hate, after the fubfidence of the inflammation, the

begin mildly ; but a fevere fever coming on and cofitinulnr
for fevcra! days, the fymptoms of the firil diforder arc
rendered much worfc, and, on tin; fever going off, Oie
gonorrhica likcwife difappears. Mr. Hunter remarks, that
altliough a fever doe^ not always cnre a gonorrhaa, yet, ib
itpoflibly may, nothing fhould be done while the fever lafts ;
and if the local coniplaint fhould continue after the fever is
gone, it is then to be treated according to the fymptoms.

The fame writer reprefents, that, unfortunately, there are
cafes in w hich no known method leffi ns the fymptoms ; eva-
cuations, a ftrengtheniiig plan, fedatives and emollients, all
prove ufelefs, and time alone feems to bring about the cure.
In thefe inftances, Mr. Hunter thought the foothing plan
of treatment the moll advifable, and was againd the em-
ployment of allringcnts. Neither had he much opinion of
the capivi and Canada balfams, nor of turpentines in general*
though they might diminifli the difcharge.

A gonorrhaa is alfo confiderably affeded by the patient's

dnefs may be removed by friftions with camphorated way of life, during the inflammatory ftate. Moft thin

mercurial ointment

It is remarked by Mr. Hunter, that in women, the mode
of curing the gonorrhoea is nearly the fame as in men ; but
the difeafe itfelf is milder, and the fecondary fymptoms lefs
n\imerous in females. Hence the cure is more fimple.

When the difeafe is confined to the vagina, it may be
e;ilily cured by means of inje<?tions, taking care alfo to wafli
the external parts with the application. The patient cannot,
however, apply an injection to the meatus urinarius, when
that paflage is affefted.

The fame kinds of injeftions are proper for women as are
prefcribed for men ; but they may be made doubly ftroug,
IS the parts in women are not nearly fo irritable as the cora-
riion feat of this difeafe in the other fex.

When the inflammation runs along the dufts of the glands,

gs
which hurry or increafe the circulation, aggravate the fymp-
toms, fuch as \io!ent exercife, drinking llrong hquors, caxisg
ftrong indigellible food, taking peppers, fpices, fpirits.
Sec.

When the complaint begins mildly, or after the violent
fymptoms have fubfided, we may prefcribe medicines which
will afTift the above local remedies, in checking the difcharge.
Mr. Hunter th.ouglit the turpentines the moll efficacious.
Cantharides, cuprum vitriolatum, acctite of lead, and alum,
have alfo been recommended.

The reader is already aware, that Mr. Hunter regarded
gonorriia:a as a difeafe ariling from the venereal poifon, and
believed that the matter from the urethra, if introduced into
the circulation, would occafion a lues venerea. In order to
guard againft the effects of abforption, he was an advocate

ther of the mouth of the vagina, or of the urethra, or for exhibiting finall dofes of mercurj- at an early period of

where it affefts the glands themfelves, the cafe claims the
fame treatment as in men. The mercurial ointment Ihould
be freely applied to the indurated parts. When the duds
and glands fuppurate and form abfcefles, thefe fliould be
ojiened and drefled like a fore. The ulcer, however, is
not re"-arded as venereal. Though Mr. Hunter entertained
inch a fentiment, and direfted a correfponding treatment.

In plethoric conllitutions, the fymptoms are frequently
\iolent, attended with a ftrong propenlity to the inflamma-
tory fever. The inflammation, however, does not extend
beyond the fpecific dillance. Many medicines, which might
be of fervice in another conftitiition, here do harm, and
ncreafe the fymptoms which they were intended to relieve

the malady, and for continuing them even for fome time
after the formation of matter is at an end. He advifed a
grain of the hvdrargyrus calcinatus to be taken every night,
or every evening and morning ; but frictions, with the mer-
curial ointment, when mercury dilagreed with the ftomacU
and bowels. Many praditioners at this day are ftrongiy
attached to the fyllem of prefcribing a grain or tvo U
calomel every day during the treatment ot a gonorrhoea,
and deem it unfafe to abilain altogether from the ule oi
mercury, in fome form or another. Others give ca1omi>l
with a view of its acling as an alterative and purgative.
We never have feen any reafon, however, for exhibiting

or c.ilomel, or for em-

Mr. Hunter has feen opiate glyfters, after at firft doing
good, bring on fever and an exafperation of all the fynip-

either the hydrargyrus calcinatus
ploving mercury in any mode whatloever.

Before clofing the prefent article, it only remains for us
toms. He~ has feen the balfam capivi render the inflamma- to fay a few words refpeding fome C0lnplaint^ vrhith are
tion worfe. The treatment of fuch a conllitution, when occafionally attendant on gonorrhorj.

iiifeded with this difeafe, Ihould chiefly confift in bleeding When the inflammation is viol-nt, or fprcads along tJie
<:nd gentle purging. It is proper alfo for the patient to live urethra, there is frequently a dilcii.u-ge of blooJ trora the
iparinglv, and'sfe little exercife. veU'els of that part. Mr. Hunter Itale.s that m fuch cifes

In die weak and irritable conftitution, as Mr. Hunter the balfam capivi has been found ferviceable j but that he

obfervcs, the fymptoms are frequently very violent, and
often extend beyond the fpecific diftance, the inflammation
running along the urethra, and even affeding the bladder.
In this inrtance the foregoing author was of opinion, that a
I'rengthening plan (hould be adopted.

Sometimes a gonorrhoea is fo capricious in its cure, that
the acceflion of an accidental fever ftops the difcharge,
removes the pain in makhig water, and the dilorder is per-
manently cured. Sometimes the fymptoms ceafe on the
commencement of the fever, and return when the latter
complaint is well. In other examples a gonorrhaa may

Vol. XVI.

did not obferve any good refult 4rom the ufe ot aflringcr.t
injeftions.

Opium alone, or joined with camphor, islhebeft r-.edicine
for die prevention of painful ereiftioi'.s. Cicula i< iho iaS
to prove uteful for the fame purpofe.

With regard to the treatment of chardee, Mr. ITurter
remarks, that in the beginning ot this complaint bietdmg
from the arm is often of fi rvice, but th.it it is more imme-
diately ufeful to take away bloi>d from the part itfi-ll b)
Wches; Great benefit often follows the r.ccidental buritii.g
of a reflel, and a profui'e hemorrliii^e. Relief u; often ob-'
; .M laineJ

G O N

tained from expofing the penis to the fteam of warm water.
Poultices and fomentations, efpecially fuch as contain cam-
phor, are frequently produftive of benefit by removing the
inflammation. Opium given internally is of Angular fervice,
and is ftill more beneficial when joined with camphor. It
lefTens the pain and prevents ereftions, which arc the iramc-
•diatc caufe of the complaint.

Whea the chordee continues after all the other fymptoms
are gone, the only remaining object is to promote the ab-
forption of the extravafated coagulable lymph, by friftion
with mercurial ointment on the parts. Mr. Hunter informs
us, that in one cafe confiderable benefit teemed to refult
'from giving, cicuta, after the common methods had failed.
Eleftricjty, he fays, may alfo b-J of fervice. A chordee is
often longer in difappcaring than cither the running or pain;
cbut, like moll of the confequences of iuflammatic n, its de-
clenfion is gradual and uniform.

Mr. Hunter has feen the kind, of chordee, which feems to
■depend on fpafm, relieved by bark.

When the glands of the urethra fuppurate, Mr. Hunter
advifes the ufe of mercury, juft: as if the cafe were a chancre;
but. this practice is not deemed neceflary by the mod judi-
cious furgeona of the prefent day. It is proper to make an
early opening into the abfcefs, when Cowper's glands fup-
. purate, in order to prevent the matter from making its way
into the urethra or fcrotum.

When the bladder is affeftrd with irritation, in conf*-
>quence of gonorrhoea, opiate clyfters, the warm bath, and
copious bleeding, are the cliief means of rehef. Leeches
applied to the perinaeum have alfo good effeds. Bleediiig,
however, in certain conftitutions, is hurtful, and fhould al-
ways be reforted to with caution. When the complaint
lalls very long, refilling ordinary methods, Mr. Hunter
fuggells the trial of an opiate plaller on the pubes, or fmall
of the back ; or a fmall bliller on the perina:um.

The mode of treating a fwelling of the tellicle, we Ihall
confider under the head, Hernia Hamoralis.

The decline of a gonorrhcea is generally known by the
pain becoming lefs, or changing into an itching, fimilar to
what is often felt in the beginning of the complaint, and
which at length goes away altogether. The fcnle of weari-
nefs about the Joins, hips, tefticles, and fcrotum is no longer
felt ; and the cherry-Uke appearance of the glans penis
gradually fubfides. The running diminilhes, or at all events
becomes whiter, then paler, and by degrees affumes a more
flimy confiftence, in proportion as it becomes more like
the natural fecretion, which is defigned to lubricate the
urethra.

Recurrences of the difeafe every now and then are met
with, after the pain, difcharge, &c. have quite ceafed.
■Such relapfes, however, are more common in women than
men, and the complaint is ufually in a milder form than
before.

GONR.^, in Gtography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Bundelcund ; 20 miles N. of Callinger.

GONS, a town of Hungary ; Z2 miles S.S.W. of
Zatmar.

GONSALVO, Hehnandez De Corpova, in Bio-
yjaphy, an eminent Spanifh commander, was born in 1443,
'and ijrought up from a very early age to the profefiion of
arms. He fignalized himfelf in a war againfl Portugal, and
under the reign of the celebrated Ferdinand f nd Ifabella he
ftrved in the conqueil of Grenada. He was afterwards
employed to fuccour Ferdinand king of Naples againil
Charles VIII. of France, and by his affillance the whole of
tliat kingdom was recovered from the Frencli. Kings, how-
ever, iff* not always confident in their projefts, and. the

3

G O N

monarcli of Spain who had defended and favcd one king of
Naples, formed a projeft of fupplanting his fucceffor, and
making a partition of the country with Lewis XII. ot
France, and Gonfalvo was employed to execute the attempt.
The warrior was completely fuccefsful, and made Alphonfo,
fon of the kintr of Naples, his captive. Elated with his
fuccefs, and willing to lliew his moderation, Gonlalvo fwore
upon the holy lacrament, a wretched abufe of a religions
rite, that the young prince (lioidd enjoy his liberty ; but
after the fuirender was complete, and the time was come
when lie could execute his promile, he pretended that he
had received new orders from his own fovereign, which
obliged him to fend Alphonfo a prifoner into Spain. The
partitioning powers foon diiagreed among themfelves, and
the French, being in a greater ilatc of preparation, attacked,
defeated, and expelled the Spaniards from mod of the places
which they podefled. Gonfalvo was now compelled to
retire with his army, deditute of money, proviiions, and
ammunition. He retired, however, only to recruit liimielf,
which he had an opportunity of doing among the Veni-tians,
when he rallied, drove the French before him, and entered
Naples in triumph. Ferdinand, in the mean time, doubtful
of the event, had negociated a treaty with Lewis,i. confirm,
ing their former partition ; but upon the intelligence of the
great fuccefs of Gonfalvo, fuch was " Spanidi honour,"
that he refufed to fign it, and the French were, by the efforts
of Gonfalvo, obligeil entirely to evacuate the kingdom of
Naples. For thefe and other eminent fervices, he not only
obtained the title of the " Great Captain,'' but was rewarded
by his fovereign with many valuable as well as honourable
pods of honour. He was made conftable of the kingdom
of Naples, raifed to the dukedoms of Terranova, St. An-
gelo, and other edates. He at length fell under the fuipi-
cion of his fovereign, who fent letters to recal him, which
•the general repeatedly eluded upon different pretexts. The
king determined to go to Naples, and was met at Genoa by
Gonfalvo. They entered Naples together in apparent har-
mony, and the king conferred an additional dukedom on
Ills " Great Captain,'' but Ferdinand thought it prudent,
in the following year, when he left Naples, to .take liis gene-
ral with him. At Savoaa they had an interview with Lewis
XII. who diewed his elleem for Gonlalvo, by decorating
him with a gold chain taken from Iiis own neck, and caufing
him to flip at the fame table with himfelf. At Venice alio
he received fome magnificent prefents. On his arrival in
Spain, he was commanded to retire to his own edate at
Grenada, where he died in 151 5, at the age of feventy-
two. Gonfalvo is dillinguilhed as a firm dilciphnarian, a
great mailer of the art of war, but as one «'ho was never
didinguilhed for generolity of fentiment. Univer. H.ill.
Moreri.

GoNSALVO, St., in Geography, a town of Brazil, in
the government of St. Salvador ; 40 miles W. of Sergipe.
GONTAPILLY, a town of Hindoedan, in the circar
of Cicacole ; 2J miles S. of Coflimcotta

GONUS, in Botany, from yom:, offspring, becaufe of its
plentiful produce. Lour. Cochinch. 65!^. — Clafs and order,
Polygamia Dioec'ia, Loureiro : rather Tetrandrla Tetragynia,
Nat. Ord. Tcrdintiuea, Jufl". ?

By Loureiro's defcription of his only fpecies, G. amarif-
Jimiis, a dirub with pinnated ferrated Iiairy leaves, and by his
reference to Rumph. Amboin. Append, t. 15, it Ihonld feem
to be allied to Fagara, though the defcription of the pillil
and fruit does not exaftly anfvver. It agrees perhaps bell
with Brucea, Julf. 373, both in botanical charaders and
medical properties ; fee that article. Loureiro fays his plant
is found in the woods of Cliina and Cochinchina, and that

the

G O N

GOO

rfie v1rLuc3 of the root and fruit arc diapliorctic, alexitcric,
aiitifebrilf, and anthelmintic. He adds, that " it fecnis to
be the- fame drug which the Portugucfe call radix dc Solor,
becaufe it grows in the idand of Solora, as well as in Timor,
and which is in great ufe in India." Is the Bntcea, after all,
an Indian plant ?

GONWA, in Gco^mphy, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zcrat ; 20 miles N.W. of Amood.

GONYALGIA, of ^mv, knee, txXo:, pain, a term ufed
by fome authors to exprefs a violent pain in the knee.

GONZAGA, LuCKETiA, in Biography, daughter of
Pirro Goiizaga, lord of Gazzuolo, was diftinguiflied as a
literary lady in the fixteenth century. The celebrated Ban-
dello was one of her matters ; by him (he was introduced to
the knowledge of the Greek tragedians. She married, at
the age of fourteen, Gianpaola Manfroni of Ferrara, which
proved an unfortunate union, fince her hufband, on account
of a plot againft the life of duke Hercules II. was capitally
condemned in 1546. The duke did not caufe the fentence
to be executed, but was contented with keeping him in per-
petual imprifonment, under which he died in 1552. His
faithful fpoufe, Lucretia, employed all her powers to obtain
his liberation : fhe is faid to iiave addreffed letters to almoft
all the powers in Europe, imploring their intcrceffion, and
one to the grand feignior, inftigating him to make an at-
tack upon the fortrefs where her hufband was confined. It
muft be obferved, that thefe letters have been imputed to
Ortenfia Landi ; it cannot, however, be doubted, that this
lady had acquired a confiderable literary reputation by being
fuppofed capable of fuch produftions. She was, indeed,
panegyrifed by moft of the learned in Italy in her time,
among the reft by Julius Gsefar Scaliger, and a volume of
poems in her praife was publifhed in Bologna in 1565. Se-
veral of her works were printed, one of %vhich was a fmall
volume of poems. She remained fingle after the death of
her hufband, and placed her two daughters in a convent.
She died at Mantua in 1576. Moreri.

GoNZAGA, SciPio, born in 1542, was fon of Charles,
count of St. Martino, of the branch of the Gonzagas,
dukes of Sabbionetta. He was carefully inftruftcd in let-
ters, and fent to Padua to complete his itudies, where he
greatly diftinguifhed himfelf in clafTical hterature. He af-
terwards acquired confiderable repirtation for his knowledge
in theology and philofophy. MuretuG, in 1 571, dedicated to
him the firft volume of his Orations, with a high panegyric :
and Guarini fubmitted to his criticifm his " Pattor Fido.''
He was created cardinal in 1587, and died at Samartino in
the year 1593, leaving behind him commentaries of his own
life, written in elegant Latin. Moreri.

GoxzAGA, Ve.spasian, duke of Sabbionetta, born in
I 53 1, is celebrated as a commander in the fervice of Charles
V. and PhiHp II., butheisi^ill morediftinguiflied asa Iplen-
did promoter of the arts and fciences. He built from the
ground the city of Sabbionetta, which, for the neatncfe
and regularity of the ftreets, the architcfture of the pri-
vate houfes, the beauty of the churches, and the elegance of
the public buildings, has excited univerfal admiration. He
alfo founded in it a public fchool for the learned languages,
to which he invited as a profeflbr Mario Nizzoli, one of the
moft learned men of the age. His palace was always full of
men of knowledge and fcience, of whom he was the liberal
patron. Gonzaga employed Scammozi in the ereftion ot a
very fine theatre, for the performance of dramatic pieces,
and he is himfelf recorded as an elegant Italian poet. He
is mentioned with high refpeCl and applaufe by Taffo, and
other literary characters, and he is noticed as a collvftor of
books.

Gos7.:\r..\, in Orography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mincio ; 16 miles S. of Mantua.

GONZAGO, St., a town of Peru, in the audience of
Quito; 60 miks N.W. of St. Jofcf de Hualci.

GONZALES, B\RTOLOMK, in Biography, a painter,
born at Valladolid in the year 1 564. He frtquented the
fchool of Patricio Caxcs at Madrid ; in the fequci painted
much i"«r Philip III. at Burgos, Valladolid, Lcrma, in tli"
Pardo and Efcurial, till 1617, when he was made painter to
the court, in the place of rabricio Caftello. His portraits
are admirable, efpecially the fix whole lengths with the date
162 1, pofleffed by the baron of Cafa Davalillo. In hif-
ftory, his ftylc was ornamental ; iiis draper)', a varied imi-
tation of ftufls, by its illufion captivated the vulgar, whilft
it deilroyed the dignity, fimplicity, and generally the cof-
tume of the fubjett. He died in 1627, not, as Palomino
ftates, in 161 1. Fufeli's Pilkington.

GOOBER, iR Geography, a country of Africa, S. of
Wangara, between 10 and 12' N. lat. and 15 and 20'' E.
long. The mountains of Komri, fo called by Abulfeda,
commence in this territory.

GOOCHLAND, a county of Virginia, in America,
furrounded by Louifa, Flavanna, Henrico, Hanover, and
Powhatan counties ; about 40 miles long and 14 broad, and
containing 4893 free inhabitants, and 4803 flaves.

GOOD, or G00DNE.SS, denotes whatever tends or con-
duces to preferve or improve human nature or fociety ; in
oppofition to evil, which tends to dcftroy, injure, or impair
the fame.

Hence good is divided by the philofophers into 1. Bonum
Jui, private good ; which is that whereby a thing tcndb to
preferve, &c. itfelf, under which comes that popuwr divilioa
of goods of body, mind, and fortune.

2. Bonum crjmmunionis, whatever promotes the intereft and
welfare of fociety ; as all the civil offices, &c.

Good, in Metaphyfus, or Metaphyfcal Good, called alfo
ahfohile or real good, and good per fe, is the efTential per-
fettion or integrity of a thing whereby it has every thing
that belongs to its nature.

In this lenfe, aU things are good, inafmuch as they have
the perfections naturally belonging to things of their kind.
Thus, a thinking fubftance is good, or perfeft, as it has
all the efTential attribute? of thought ; fo an extended fub-
(lance is good, as it poffefTes all the parts ncceffary to confti-
tute it inch.

In effeft, as it is abfurd to imagine a being without it*
cfTencc, fo is it to imagine a being witliout the rcquifitcs of
it.s effence ; fo that it appears an error in fome philofophers,
who divided beings into good or perfect, and evil or impcrfett.
See Essence. ■

Others define metaphyfical, or tranfcendental goodncfs, by
congrucncy with the divine wilt, which, they fay, conftitutci
the meafure of all real goodnefs.

Good, Phyjiea/ or Kalural, is that whereby a thing pofTcircS
all things neceflary to its bene eJTe, i. e. its well being, or fe.
cond perfedion, and to the performance of its fundions and
ufes.

lu this fcnfe, phyfical goodnefs coincides with phyfical
pcrfeftion.

To this are required the feveral powers and faculties, in ,
their proper degree ; a due fituatiun, figure, and proportion .
of parts, &c.

Note, befide abfolute phyfical goodnefs, there may be 3
relative one ; as in foods, which to one, are falutarj-, to an-
other poifon, &c. To this head alfo belong the things good
pro tempore, or according to circumllances ; as the amputa-
tion of a mortified limbj, &c.

3 M 3 Natural

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Natural good may be otherwifc defined to be that which
tiiLikcs or dcaoininatcs a being happy, or prepares him for
happinefs ; or, at leail, prcvonls or removes his mifery : ac-
cordingly, c;ood is either objcftive or formal ; cbjerliTe good
IS that which makes us happy ; forma! good, or the pleafure
refulting from ihc application of the faculty to the object, is
that which denominates us happy.

Good, Moral or Ethka!, is the agreement of a thiTiking,
reafonable being, and of the habits, acts, and inclinations of
fuch a being with the dictates of right reafon, and the will of
the Creator, as difcovered by natural light. Sec Viktle.
In order to this, it is not enough that a thing done, faid,
thought, defired, be jufl and good ; but it rr.nW be done,
thought, Sec. well, i. c from good principles, and to good
ends.

Others define moral good more largely. Moral, which
they alfo call relative good, according to them, is fomething
that is good to another, or that tends fomc way to the per-
fedlion thereof. In this fenfe they divide it into three kinds,
honeftum, jucundum, and utile.

The firft, bonum honejhim, is what agrees with right reafon,
and is defirable for itfelf; as all things virtuous; e. gr. to love
God, refpecl our parents, &c. It is confidered without
any regard to pleafure j not but there is fmcere pleafure an-
nexed to it. Zeno and the Stoics allow of no other goods ;
thofe of the body. See. they call commoda, conveniences, not
goods.

Bonum juciinJum is that which is good, as it tends to give
us pleafure, and is defired on that account ; but without any
repugnancy to virtue or right reafon ; as mufic to the ears,
painting to the eyes, &c.

Bonum utile, or commodum, is that which is good on ac-
count of fomething elfe for which it is defired ; as money,
riches, &c.

Good, chief, fovereign, or fupreme, fummum bonum, is that,
the enjoyment of which renders men truly and completely
happy. The fchools diftingnifli this chief good of man into
that which is fimply and adequately fo, and beyond which
there can be no other; and an interior, fubordinate kind,
which is, in fome meafure, attainable in this imperfetl ilate.
This lall they call felicitas viatorum, and the former felicitas
cnmprehsnforum. The chief or fovereign good, according to
the idea colleiled of it from the original, natural, and uni-
vcrfal preconceptions of all mankind, is fomething agreeable
to our nature, conducive to well-being, accoirtmodate to all
places and times, durable, felf-derived, and indeprivable;
and this confills, fays Mr. Harris, in rcdfitude of conduft,
or in living perpetually felefting, as far as poffible, what is
congruous to nature, and rejefting what is contrary, mak-
ing our end that felefting and rejefting only. Three Trea-
tifes, &c. 1765, p. 121, &c. 205, &c.

Philofophers are divided as to what the chief good of man
confifts in ; whether in the goods of fortune, of body, or of
mind. Some hold riches and honours the fupreme good;
others, as Ariftippus and the Cyrenaic fchool, bodily plea-
fures; and otliers, as Zeno and the Stoics, virtue, or liv-
ing according to nature. The Peripatetics agreed with the
Stoics in maintaining that virtue is \.\\e fummum bonum: but
ihe Stoics afierted farther, that virtue was the only good ^
whiltl the Peripatetics denied, with reafcn, that virtue was
4elf-fufficient. and therefore required feveral other things as
auxiliaries, fuch as health, profperity, friends, &c. which,
are to the virtuous man in the nature of inllrumcnts or orna-
-ments to his fehcity. An excellent writer lays doR'n the
following criteria or charafteriftics of the fummum bonum, or
chief good, which reafon can demonllrate to be aftually de-
figned for man: it is fomething which all men, if not want-

GOO

ing to themfelves, may be poffefied of; it is on? and thr
fame to all mankind ; and while in itfelf fitted to make the
poffefTor happv, is not prevented in its operation by fomc
other thing which keeps him from relifliing it: and as to tlie
higheft good which it is poffible tor man to enjoy, it muft
bo referred to no other, but all otliers muil be embraced for
the fake of this; and it mud be fufficient to furnilh a happi-
nefs adequate to the capacities of human nature, and of equal
duration; /. e. it muft be not only perfeft whilft it lails, but
everlalling. According to thefe charatter.s we may infer,
that neither the goods of fortune, nor thofe of the bodv,
nor even virtue itfelf, conftitute the chief good. Virtu;-,
rightly underftood, is the perfection of human nature; it is
the inftrument of obtaining happinefs: but this alone will
not make a man happy ; it is farther neceffary that he be
perfeft as to life, or happy in the circumftances of his
being: and, therefore, natural reafon demonftrates, that the
favour of God, fecured by virtue, is properly man's fu-
preme good. Grove's Syftem of Moral Philofophv, vol. i.
part. I. pafilm. See EncuKE.VNS, Perip.ytetrs, and
Stoics.

GooD-wi'/A See Benevolence.

Good ll'^orh. See Merit and Superehogation.

Good jibearing, bonus geflus, in a I^aiu Senfe, is particu-
larly ufed for an exaft carriage or behaviour of a fnbjeft
towards the king and his liege people; to which fome men,
upon their milbehaviour, are bound.

The juftices are empowered by 34 Edw. III. cap. i. to
bind in this manner all them that be not of good fame;
under which general exprefiion, it is holden that a man may
be bound to his good behaviour for caufes of fcandal, contra
bonos mores, as well ■&% contra pactm; as, for haunting baw-
dy-houfes ; for keeping bad women in his own houfc ; or
for words tending to fcandalize the government; or in abufe-
of the officers ofjuilice, elpecially in the execution of t'.:eir
office: a juilice may alio bind over all night-walkers, eaves-
droppers, fuch as keep fufpicious company, or are reported
to be pilferers or robbers, common drimkards, whore -maf-
tcrs, the putative fathers of bailarJs, cheats, idle vagabonds^
and any other perfons, whofe milbehaviour may reafonably
bring them within the general words of the ftatute. Per-,
fons of this defcription may be bound, with one or more
fureties, in a recognizance or obligation to the king, entered
on record, and taken in fome court, or by fome judicial
officer, whereby the parties acknowledge thcmlelves to be-
indebted to the crown in tiie fum required, e.gr. loc.'.'with-
condition to be void and of none effeft, provided that they
behave themfelves well, either generally or fpecially, for the
time therein limited; as for one or more years, or for life..
This recognizance, if taken by a juftice of the peace,, muft
be certified to the next feffions, by 3 Hen. VII.. cap. i. and
if the condition of it be broken, the recogni'/.ance becomes
forfeited or abfolute; and being eftreated or extrafted^
(i. e. taken out from among the other records) and fent up.
to the exchequer, the party and his fureties are become the
king's debtors, and are fued, for tiie feveral fums in which-
they are bound. All perfons under the king's proteftion-
may obtain fuch fecurity, upon due eaufe (hewn; and the
juilice may be compelled to grant it by a mandatory w-rit,.
cM.i;d fiipplica'cil : but this writ is feklom ufed, for, when
application is made to the fuperior courts, they ufually take
the recognizances there, under the direftion of the ftatute
21 .Tac. I. cap. 8. A recognizance may be difchargcd,.
cither by the demife of the ki.ig, or by the death of the-
principal party bound thereby, or by order ot the court to.
which it is certified by the juftices. He that is bound ta.
thisj Lambard fays^ is more ftriftly bound than to the

£eace ;

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peace; becaufe, whereas the peace is not broken witlioiit ?.n
affray, battery, or fuch like, this furety lie bono ge/iu may
be forfeited by the number of a man's company, or by hii
or their weapons or arms, by fpeakiiig words tendir.g to
fcdition, or by committing any of thofe acts of mirt)clia\iour
which the recognizance was intended to prevent.

Good Alter. See Aller.

Good Behaviour. See Good abearing and Peace.

Good Conf deration. See Coksidekation.

Good Fortune, or Para, in Geography, an ifland in the
Eall Indian fea, near the W. coalt of Sumatra, about ^6
miles long and iix broad. S. lat. i° 5'. E. long. 98 30^

Good TaJIe. See Tastk.

GOODALORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Dindigul; 10 miles S of Ootampaliam.

GOODENIA, in Botany, fo named by the writer of the
prefent article in honour of the Right Rev. Samuel Good-
enough, lord biihop of Carlifle, F. R.S. and a vice-prelident
of the Linnaean Society, author of a moft valuable paper on
Britiih Car'ices, in the fecond volume of the Linn. Society's
Tranfadtions, and of one on Britifh Fuci, in conjunction
with Mr. Woodward, in the third. The name was con-
ftruc'ted after the example of Tournefort, who, as he tells
us, not without m\ich confideration, contrived to form Cun-
delia out of Gundelfcheimer. It did not occur to us at the
time that Gooilenovia might have come nearer to the original,
and have been equally unexceptionable. It is now too late
to make any fuch alteration. Linnxus named Richardia
after Dr. Richard/on, Stil/ingia after Mr. Stillingjleet, and
thefe are fufScient precedents. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2.
346. Brown. Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 574. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. I. 954. Mart. Mill. Diet v. 2. Clafs and order, Pen-
tandria Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Campanaceie, Linn. Campa-
nulaceie, .luff. Goodenovi/c, Brown,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five, nearly equal,
linear leaves, permanent. Cor. of one petal, much longer
than the calyx, irregular; tube flit from ttp to bottom at
the back; limb of five deep, firm, lanceolate fegments,
with thin dilated longitudinal borders, turned moil to one
fide, forming one lip, or generally two. Stam, Filaments
five, fliorter than the tube, often projedling through its
fiffure, capillary, equal; anthers vertical, oblong, of two
lobes. Pijl- Germen inferior, oblong, crowned with the
calyx -leaves, which run down its fides and form ribs ; ftyle
taper at the bafe, fwelling upwards, undivided, nearly as
long as the tube ; ftigma large, firm, obtufe, enveloped
with a cup-lliaped cover, more or lefs two-lipped, its mar-
gin fringed with denfe upright hairs. Perk. Capiule oblong
or elliptical, of two valves feparating at the top, and two
(rarely four) cells, the partition flat, parallel to the valves.
Seeds numerous, imbricated, compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, flit longitudinally at the
back ; limb in five deep fegments turned one way. Anthers
feparate, beardlefs. Stigma with a cup-fhaped fringed in-
tegument. Capfule inferior, of two or four cells, w;th a
parallel partition. Seeds numerous, imbricated.

Obf. Mr. Brown has remarked, in fome fpecies, a fmall
bag of honey attached to the germen, oppofite to the fiffure
in the corolla.

Eight fpecies of this very curious genus were originally
defined in the Linnxan Society's Tranfadions, tlu-ec of
which, having been defcribed without a knowledge of their
fruit, are now, on more full examination, removed by Ca-
vanilles and Brown to other genera. Thefe are the alhida,
flriaa, and ramojijjlma ; the latter, which, like the albida, is
a Sctvola, may be feen in Sm. Bot. of N. Hull. t. 5. The
Jlr'iBa belongs to Mr.. Brown's Dampiera. But on the other

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Iiand tlie difcoverics of this indefatigable colleaor and aeca.
rate botanitt have increafcd Goodenia to 32 fpecies, all
natives of New Holland or of Van Diemen's land. Of
thefe the firil 28 have a two-lipped corolla, and the firll
24 of them have yellow flowers, the reft blue or piirpU-.
Of the remaining four, two liave a finple-lipped corolla,
and the sthers are doubtful in this refpcct, it being doubt-
ful whether thefe laft properly belong to the genus. One
of them is Selliera radicans ; Cavan. Ic. t. 474. f 2. Goode-
nia repeat ; Billard. Nov. Holl. t. 76.
Satisfaftory examples of the genus arc,
G. paniculata. Sm. n. 2. Cavan. Ic. t. 507. This has yei-
low Jioiuers in terminal panicles. Leavtt moilly radical,
ilrongly toothed. Herbage hair)-.

G. ovata. Sm.n. 1. Cav. Ic. t 506. Andr. Repof. t. 68.
The firll fpecies that flowered in England, and from which
the genus was defcribed. This has rather (hruhby Jhnu,
ovate neatly fcrrated finooth leaves, and axillary forked
ftalks, bearing elegant yellow Jlozirrs. It is a dcfirabh-
ornament for a greenhoufe, and not difficult of culture.

G. grandijlora. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 890. Differs from
the lalt in being downy, with lyrate leaves and hiecrj!<,'u.<ert,
whofe tube is Iplit into four fegments, and fingularly rough
or bearded within.

G.elongata. Billard. Nov. HoU. t. 75. Is a very fleiidcr
fpecies, with long fimple flowcr-llalks deftitute of bracteas.
GOODENOVIyE, a natural order of plants recently
eilabliihcd by Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 573^
being feparated by him from the Campanulacet of Jullicu^
and effentially dillinguilhed by a peculiar cup-lhaped inte-
gument, cither undivided or two-lobcd, which contains the
iligma, and has hitherto been defcribed by botauifts as the
lligma itfelf. See Campasulacejb.

Mr. Brown defcribes his new order at follows:
Calyx tuperior or half fuperior, rarely inferior, five-clefr,
fometimes in five or three deep divifions, fometimes ftiort,
undivided, and occafionally obfoletc; its fegments equal,
rarely unequal, pcriivmcnt.

Corolla of one petal, more or lefs irregular, deciduous or
withering. Tube fplit longitudinally, fometimes feparable
into five portions, while the calyx is merely attached to the
bafe of the germen. Limb in five det- p fegments, compo-
iing one lip or two, tl'.eir diik lanceolate, fl.it, their fides,
or wingj, of a thinner texture, elevated, folded inwards
when young, rarely obfolete or deficient.

Stamens five, unconnecled with either corolla or iK-le^
and alternate with the divifions of the former. Filaments
dillinct. Anthers either feparate or cohering, linear, ver-
tical, attached by their bafe, undivided, two-cclkd, the
cells opening lengthwile. Pollen fimple, rari'Iy compound.
GcTniiK ot two or four cells, rarely of one only ;; the rudi-
ments of the feeds cither indefinite or definite, ereft; fome-
times bearing a ghvnd between the two antepor filaments.
Style one, fimple, very rarely divided. Stigma iVlhy, ob-
tufe, either undivided or two-lobed. rncomp.iff«d from be-
neath with a fomewhat membranous, cup-(hapcd, cmir<- or
two-lobed integument, the great peculiarity of the order.

Pericarp, wlien the number of the fecd.^ is indefinite, a cap-
fule of two cells, i-arciy four, or fometimes, from the (hort-
nefs of the partition, of fcarcely morr than one Partition
moilly parallel, rarely contrary, to the valves, which arc
either luidivided or cloven, bearing the feeds on it* midrib.
WTien the number of thf lced« i* defiriite, one being in each
celH.the pericarp is a drupa or a nut, rarely an ■jlri:uliis {or
membranous undividing capfuie;, beari.ng the l-.-ed from its
bafe.

Sctdt often ivith a thickifli cost, lometirtiei with a bard
I Ibclt

GOO

GOO

fliell. Albumen flcfliy, fhapcd like the feed, fcldom want-
ing.

Ewlno ftraight, about as long as the albumen. Coty-
ledons of a middling lize, often leafy. PUimula inconfpi-
cuous.

Thefe plants are either herbaceous or flirubby, not milky,
chiefly found in the fouthern hemifphere, rarely witliin the
northern tropic. Their pubcfccnce when prcfont is gene-
rally fimple, fometimes glandular, rarely ftellaled. Leaves
fcattered, with'iut llipulas, fimplc, mollly undivided, fome-
times lobed, often toothed. Inflorefcence terminal or axil-
lary, various. Flowers diftinfl, very rarely aggregate,
yellow, blue or purplilh, feldom reddifli.

The firft feftion, with indefinite feeds, contains fix genera ;
Gooileiiia, Calngyne, Euthaks, VeUeia of Smith, Lechenaulua
and Anthattum : the fecond, with definite feeds, three genera;
Scicvola of Linnxus, much augmented, Diafpqfis and Dam-
piera : the third feflion, with a fingle-feeded ulriculus, is
contrived to admit the Brunoiiia, named after the worthy
and intelligent author, by Dr. Smith in the loth volume of
the Linnxan Society's Tranfadtions not yet publilhed.
The place of this genus in a natural fcries is extremely dif-
ficult to determine. It agrees with the Goodenovtis chiefly
in having an integument to the ftigma, but in habit, aggre-
gate flowers, four dillinA brafteas, and fome other marks,
agrees with the Dipfaceie of .Tuffieu, to wliich it is referred,
not without doubt, in the Linna^an Tranfaftions. It con-
fills of two fpecies, Brunoma ferkea, and nufralis, herbaceous
plants, with the afpeft of fimple-leaved Scahhfa.

GOODEROE, in Geography, a town of Abyfrinia ; 94
miles SS.E. of Mine.

GOOD HOPE, or Hope Island, an ifland in the S.
Pacific ocean, difcovered by Le Maire and Schooten in
1616. The land is mountainous, not very high, and
abounds with cocoa-nut trees ; the coaft affords no anchor-
ao-e. S. lat. 16 . E. long. 174'' 15'. — Alfo, the name of
a Danifh colony in Well Greenland. N. lat. 64^
Good Hope, Cape of. See Cape.

GOODIA, m Botany, in memory of Mr. Pe :er Good,
an indnftrious gardener, employed in coUedling feeds in
New South Wales for the Kew garden. He died, fome
years fince, in that remote country, and Mr. Brown has
always been fo fenfible of his merits, that he has long
deftined a genus to his honour. — Salif Farad. Lond. t. 41.
Sims, in Cm-t. Mag. t. 958 — Clafs and order, D'ladelphia
Decandria. Nat. Ord. fapi/isnacea, Linn. Legummofie,
Juff. ...

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fomewhat
bell-fliaped ; its upper lip with two, lower with tliree, longer
and fharper, teeth. Cor. papihonaceous. Standard bruad,
inverfely heart-fiiaped, ercft. Wings horizontal, obovate,
rather Ihorter. Keel nearly equal to the wings, abrupt, of
two petals united in their lower part. Stam. Filaments ten,
diadilphous, nine in one fet, one diftind. ; anthers roundifh.
P'ljl. Germcn (talked, ovate, comprefTed ; flyle awl-lhaped,
afcending ; Itigma fimple, obtufe. Perk. Legume ilalkcd,
ovate, comprefTed, of one cell, gibbous and flat at the back.
Seeds two, roundifh, comprefTed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped ; the upper cloven, broadeft
and 'fhorteft. Legume ilalked,. comprefTed, flat at the
upper edge, of one cell. Seeds two.

Obf. This genuSj as Dr. Sim,>! obferves, ought to be
placed next to Bojfixa, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 302, from
which it differs elfentially in its legume, which has no
dilated thickened edges, nor is it internally fpongy nor
raanv-celled. The llamens are truly diadelphous, in which it

differs from Crotalar'm, as alfo in not having an inflated le-
gume, though its habit comes nearetl to that genus.
Two fpecies are known.

1. G. lotifolia. Curt. Mag. t. gjS^^Leaflets fmooth, a»
well as the branches and flower-ilalks. — Native of Van
Dicmen's land. One of the firfl New Holland plants raifed
in this country, and very hardy in the green-houfe, poffibly
able to bear our climate. Mr. Alton favoured us with
fpecimens from Kew in 1796. It is a delicate fmooth

JJjrub, with ternate fomewhat glaucous leaves, and terminal
clullers of numerous yellow Jloiuers, the bafe of whofe
ftandard, and part of the wings, are flained with crimfon,
as in many New Holland flowers of this family. The legume
is fomewhat ovate, with a taper bale, fmooth, but marked
with numerous, tranfvcrfe, parallel, reticulated veins. One
feed only is ufu.Jly perfe&ed.

2. G . pubefceiis . Curt. Mag. t. 1310, — Leaflets downy,
as well as the branches and flower-flalks. — Very like the
former, and brought from the fame country. It flowered at
Mr. Loddige's at Hackney, We think with Dr. Sims it
hasfufficiently thcafpcflof a diftiuft fpecies, though its downi-
nefs, often a variable circumflance, affords the only fpecific
characler. The leaflets in the plate do not anfwcr to his
definition of obcordate, and we believe they vary in fliape,
as in many leguminous plants.

GOODIANELLl, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan,
in Myfore ; 19 miles N. of Seringapatam.

GOODIMANELLE, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 20 miles W. of Bangalore.

GOODINGARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Tinevelly,
near the coall ; 50 miles S. of Palamcotta.

GOODLUCK Bay, a fmall bay in the ftrait of Magel-
lan, entirely furrounded by rocks. This bay fupplies a
little wood, and plenty of good water, but it is very difficult
of accefs. S. lat. 53' 23'. W. long. 74^ 33'. Variation
two points eafterly.

GOODNESS, in Theology, exprefTes one of the attri- '
butes of the Deity, fometimes denominated Bene-voknce. (See
Attuibutes and Benevolence,) Dr. Paley, in his " Na-
tural Theology," illuftrates and proves the divine goodnefs
by two propofitions, v\-hich may be .cvijiced by obfervations
drawn from the appearances of nature. Thc^fiifl of thefe
propofitions is, that in a vaft plurality of intlances in which
contrivance is perceived, the defign of the contrivance is te-
neficial. No productions of nature difplay contrivance fo
manifeilly as the parts of animals, and all thefe parts have a
real, and, with very few exceptions, a known and intelligible,
fubferviency to the ufe of the animal. Nor is the benevolent
defign of the creator abortive. The world, made with this
defign, is a happy world. The air, the earth, the water,
teem with delighted exiflence. This argument is ftated by
the author in his "Moral Philofophy'' in the followino-
manner; " Contrivance proves defign ; and the predominant '
tendency of the contrivance 'indicates the difpofition of the
defigner. The vrorld abounds with contrivances, and all-
the contrivances which we are acquainted with are direfteti
to beneficial purpofes. Evil no doubt exifls ; but is never,
that we can perceive, the objedt of contrivance. Teeth
are contrived to eat, not to ache ; their aching now and tlien ■
is incidental to the contrivance, perhaps infeparable from it •
or even, if you will, let it be called a defeift in the contri-'
vance ; but it is not the objedl of it. This is a diflinftion
which well deferves to be attended to. In defcribing imple-
ments of hufbafidry, you would hardly fay of tlie fickle,
that it is ma-Je to cut the reaper's hand, though , from thf
conflru(5lion of the inllrument, and the manner of ufing it,
this mifciiief often follows. But if you had occafion to

dei'cribe

GOO

defcribe the inflrumcnts of torture or excctition, this
engine, you would fay, is to extend the finews ; this to
diflocate the joints ; tliis to break the bones ; this to fcorch
the foles of the feet. Here pain and mifery are the very
objects of the contrivance. Now, nothing of this fort is to
be found in the works of nature. We never difcovcr a train
of contrivance to bring about an evil purpofe. No anatomill
ever difcovered a fydem of organization, calculated to pro-
duce pain and difeafe ; or in explaining the parts of the
human body, ever faid, this is to irritate ; this to inflame ;
this duft is to convey the gravel to the kidnies ; this gland
to fecrete the humour which forms the gout ; if by cliance
he come at a part of which he knows not tlie ufe, the moit
he can fay is, that it is ufelefs ; no one ever fufpefts that it
is put there to incommode, to annoy, or to torment."

Our author's ftcond propofition is, "that the Deity has
added ^/ifa/u;v to animal fenfalions, beyond what was necef-
fary for any other purpofe, or when the purpofe, fo far as it
was neceflary, might have boen effected by the operation of
pain." There is a clafs of properties, pertaining to animals,
which may be faid to be fuperadded from an intention ex-
prefsly directed to happinefs ; an intention to give a happy
exiftence dillinftfrom the general intention of providing the
means cf exiflence, with which other capacities are con-
licAed ; and that is, of capacities for pleafure, in cafes,
wherein, fo far as the confcrvation of tlie individual, or of
the fpecies, is concerned, they were not wanted, or wheiein
tlie purpofe might have been fecured by the operation of
pain. The provifion which is made of a variety of objects,
.not neceffary to life, and admuiillering only to our pleafiires ;
and the properties given to the neceffaries of life themfelves, by
which they contribute to pleafure as well as to prefervation ;
fhew a farther defign than that of giving exiftence. Tiiis
obfervation is iliuilrated bv our ingenious author in a variety
of familiar inftances, deduced from the ienfes of talte,
hearing, fmell, and light. The fenfes appear to be fpecific
gift^>, . minillering not only to prefervation, but to plealurc.
But the fenfes, as they are ufually called, are far from being
the only vehicle of enjoyment, or the whole of our conllittition,
which is calculated for the purpofe. We have many internal
fcnfations of the moft agreeable kind, hardly referable to any
of the five fenfes. Befides thefe there are exercifes of the
undcrftanding in volition, S:c. of the imagination, and of
other faculties of the mind, which furniih unmixed gratifica-
tions, without any counterbalancing pains. Whillt the
above-ftated propofitions can be maintained, we are autho-
rized to afcribe to the Deity the character of benevolence ;
and what is benevolence at all, mull in him be infinite bcne-
■\()lence, by reafon of the infinite, that is to fay, the incalcu-
lably great, number of objefts, upon which it is exercif.-d.
But befides the evidences of divine goodnefs that are fur-
nifhed by a furvey of the creation of the world, and cfpecially
of mankind ; the fame attribute is evinced in the providential
government of the univerfe, and in the extraordinary means
which the Deity has felefted and purfued for meliorating the
prefent condition of the human race, for recovering man-
kind from the degeneracy and mifery that have prcval 'd in
■-onfequence of their own folly and vice, and tor conducting
them to the perfeftion of knowlcdgerand virtue, and a happy
immortality in a future world.

The charaftcr and undertaking of Jefus Chrill, and all
the benefits that refult to mankind from his miffion and me-
diation, refledl peculiar lullro on the benevolence of the
Deity.

GOODOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Golconda; 35 miles S.E. of Warangole. — Alfo, a tow ii of

GOO

HindooRan, in the circar of Adoni ; 15 miles N N.E. of
Condanore.

GOODS, in Mining, fignify, in Dcrbylhire, the large
and fizable lumps of lead ore, otherwife calLd bing or pot-
ter's ore.

Goon.s, among public brewers, denote the malt or g^D(
and liquor in tlicir mafli-tuii.

Goods, icina, in La-a.; and particular!)- the Cir// Laio,
include all kinds of cffeds, richer, lands, poffcnions. Sec.
There are two kinds of goods ; vto'^eaLl , rrt mmmtii, or
mcbdts ; and immn-eabh, called res ncn moven/es, or imme-
biles.

It is a maxim in the civil Jurifprudence, that he who con-
fifcates the body, confifcatcs the goods ; meaning, that
all the effeds of a porfon condemned to a capital pu-
nifliment, or perpetual banithment, are forfeited to the
king.

A man is faid to bind himfclf body and goods ; meaning,
that befides liis goods, he obliges his perfon, and fubmits
to remain in prilon, provided he do not execute his pro-
mife.

Goods, again, are divided into, 1 . Proper, paternal, pa-
trimoTiitil, /.'erecli/ary ; 2. jlcqiiired or acquejls, alio quam liert-
ditatis jure acquijita, and, 3. Conquejls, viro tf uxori Jlante
fccietale acquifita.

Goods, again, are divided into real and perfinal. (See
Cn.\TTEL.s and Estate.) And, laiUy, mlo noble or free,
and fervile or bafe.

Goods belonging to the domain of the crown, ad ffcum
Jpedantia, cannot be alienated for ever, unlefs it be done by
way of exchange : they may be fold under the faculty of
perpetual redemption.

GooD.s, Adventitious, advenlitia, are thofe which arife other-
wife tbau by fucccflion from father or mother, or from
dircft anceftor to defcendant. Sec Adventitious.

G00D.S, Dotal, dotalia, thofe accruing from a dowr\', and
which the hufband is not allowed to alienate. Set Duwrv.

Goods, Fu^iii-v.s. See Fugitive.

Goods, Paraphernal. See Pak.\piiersalia.

Goods, Prohibited. See Prohibited.

Goods, Profictitious, prnfenilia, are thofe ariGng by dire^
fuccefiion.

Goods, Rcceptiiious, t.-erc thofe which the wife might rc-
ferve the full property of to herfclf, and enjov them inde-
pendently of her hulband ; fo called, in dillindtion from
dotal MiA paraphernal goods. •.

Goods, l^acant, ■vacantia, arc thofe abandoned, or left
at large, cither becaufe the heir renounces them, or that
the defiindl hss no heir. Sec Bona.

Goods, Allotting of. See Allotting.

Goods, Confignmentof. See Cos.mgnwent.

Goods, Running of. See Rlkninc;.

GOODWIN, John, in Bicgritphy, a learned divine fn
the feventeenth century, who is laid to have made more noife
in the world than any other perfon of his age, rank, and
profeffion. He v.as born in 1593, and received his academical
education .'.t Queen's college, Cambridge ; and, immediately
after he was admitted to orders, he was much admired for
the erudition and elegance which dillinguiibcd his pulpit com-
pofitions. In 1633 he vs'as iiidu£\ed to the living of St.
Stephen, Coleman llreet, Lor.don, fr^.ni which he was ejetted
in 1645, 'Looaufe he refufed to bapiile the children oi his
paril'iiionti!. promifcuoufly, and to adminider the facrament
to iiis whole parifh. He embraced the Arminian dotlrir.es,
and eagerly pleaded their caufe in his fermons and writings ;
he adopted and maintained the independent form of church

govcrniBent,

GOO

government, and he was reckoned to be exceedingly (kilful
and courageous in attacking or repelling thofe who oppofcd
him. His tenets were not thofe generally embraced, and at
one period he is characterized as a man by himlcU ; as being
againll every man, and having almoU every man againll; him.
lie had a clear head, a fluent tongue, a penetrating fpirit,
and a marvellous faculty in defcanting on fcripturo. In
politics he was a decided and llrenuous republican, and,
being eager in whatever he engaged, diftinguidied himfelt
by his difcourfes and writings to promote, and afterwards
to juftify, the condemnation of the king. He lived, how-
£ver, long enough to feel the weight of government
directed againft himfelf and his writings. He was obliged
to abfcond for a feafon, and one of his pieces was burnt by
the common hangman, and in the fame fire vi-hich executed
its commifllon on the " Defcnlio pro populo Anglicano,"
by John Milton of immortal memory. The friends which
his Arminian principles had procured him, found means to
pacify the people in power, and to affure themfelves that
Goodwin fliould not be profecuted for the part wliich he had
taken in the late reign. He returned from folitude, and be-
came miniller of a private congregation in the neiglibourhood
of Coleman ftreet, and, dilapproving of the art of uni-
formity afterwards pafTed, continued a difi'enter from the
etlablifhed church of the Independent denomination, till his
death in l66j, in the feventy-fecond year of his age. His
works, which are chiefly theological, are very numerous,
among which the following may be mentioned ; " Redemp-
tion Redeemed," in folio. " The divine Authority of the
Scriptures," 4to. " An Expofition of the ninth Chapter of
the Epiille of St. Paul to the Romans," 4to. Neal's Hill,
of the Puritans, &c.

Goodwin, Thomas, who is ftyled by Anthony Wood
"One of the AtlafTes and patriarchs of independency,"
was born in the year 1600 at Rolefby in Norfolk. Having
received the elements of a grammatical learning, he was fent,
when he was thirteen years old, to Chrill-church college,
Cambridge, where he applied himfelf with fo much diligence
to his fludies, as to fecure the efteem of his tutors, and to
attract much notice in the univerfity. In 1 619 he was
removed to Catherine Hall, of which he became a fellow.
He foon fhewed a decided inclination to the views and fenti-
ments of thofe who were denominated Puritans, and taking
thera as his models, he prepared himfelf for the office of a
Chrillian minifter. It is not known when he took orders,
but he was eletted lefturer of Trinity church, in Cambridge,
in the year 1628, and in 163Z he was prefented by the king
to the vicarage of the fame church. In thcfe employments
he was greatly admired and followed by the Puritans, who
began to look up to him as a leader, but becoming diffatisfied
with the terms of conformity, he relinquifhed his prefer-
ments, and quitted the univerfity in the year 1634. In
1639 he was felefted as an objeil of persecution by the
fpifcopal confiftories, and to enjoy liberty of confcience he
fled to Holland, where he was chofen pallor to an inde-
pendent congregation at Arnheim. During the fittings of
the Long Parliament he returned to London and became
pallor of a church there, and alfo a member of the aflembly
of divines. His conduA, in their various meetings, and
his zealous fupport of the Prefbyterians, contributed to render
him a favourite with Cromwell, through whofe influence he
was, in 1649, made one of the commiffioners for the appro-
bation of public preachers, and alfo appointed prefident of
Magdalen college, Oxford. Here he formed a church upon
the independent plan, and was exceedingly diligent in pro-
moting the interefts of learning and piety. His public

GOO

duties as a preacher did not prevent him from thofe lludies
which enabled him to become diftinguifhed as a writer. He
attended Cromwell upon lii^ death-bed, and was overheard
to exprefb himfelf boldly and eiithufiaftically confident of the
protestor's recovery ; and it is affirmed that when the event
proved him mitlaken, he exclaimed in a fubfequent addrels
to God "thou hall deceived us, and we are deceived."
After the relloration he was difmified from his prefident-
(hip, when he retired to London, where, however, he was
permitted to continue in the exerclfe of the minillry till liis
death in 1679. when he had attained to his eightieth year.
He was a coiifiderable fcholar, and a learned and eminent
divine. In the common regifter at Oxford he is defcribed
"in fcriptis in re theologica quam plurimis Orbi notus."
He was a high Calviiiill, but while he zealoufly enforced
what he conceived to be the doctrines of Chrifiianity, he did
not forget to enforce by every incitement in his power the
necelfity of pure moral conduC\. He was author of nume-
rous pious and controveriial pieces, fermons, e.Kpofitions, &c.
fome of which were printed during his life tim.e, and in-
ferted, after his death, in a collection of his works publifhed
in five volumes folio, which continue to be read and quoted
by Calvinills of the prefent day. Neal's Hill of Puritans,
by Toulmir.

Goodwin Sands, in Geography. See Godwin Sands.

GOOGINGS, in Sea Language, are clamps of iron bolted
on the ftern-poft of a (hip, whereon to hang the rudder
and keep it lleady ; for which purpofe there is a hole in
each of them, to receive a correfpondent fpindle bolted
oh the back of the rudder, which turns thereby as upon
hinges.

GOOGOOS, \nGeography, inliabitants of the inland terri-
toryof theifiand of Sumatra, covered with long hair, and little
fuperior to the ourang outangs of Borneo. See Sumatra.

GOOJINDERGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Sanore ;
25 miles N. N.W. of Sanore.

GOOL, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes near Bur«
rawny, and runs into the Tapty, 8 miles S. of Chuprah.

GooL, fignifies a ditch or trench for water ; called alfo
a goit, gurt, leat, S:c.

GOOLE, a breach in a fea-bank or wall ; or a paffage
worn by the flux and reflux of the fea. Vide 16 and I7
Car. II. cap. 1 1.

The word comes from the French, goulet, the gullet or
neck.

GOOLGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Chanderee ; 25 miles E. of Chanderee.

GOOI..LAH, a fmall circar or province of Bengal,
fituatcd E. of Coos-Beyhar.

GOOMAH, a town of Bengal, 45 miles N. of Ram-
gur. N. lat. 24 23'. E. long. 85' 54'. — Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 40 miles N. E. of Chittra.

GOOMBO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra. N. lat.
15^ 3'. W. long. 5- lo'.

GbOMBOGANO, a town of Africa, in Kaftan. N,
lat. 14° 20'. W. long. 8 50'.

GOOMGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar; 12
miles S of Nagpour.

GOOMERPUN, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
16 miles S.W, of Azimgiu".

GOOiMPINA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
20 miles N. E. of CuUoor.

GOOMREPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaha-
bad; 20 miles E. N. E. of .lionpour.

GOOMTV, a river of Afia, which rifes in the moun-
tains I

I

I

GOO

tiiins of K'Tiaoon, and eroding the country of Oude,
joins til'." Ganges, about 15 miles N. of Benares.

GOONANGAPY, a fir all illand in the Eatt Indian
fea, near the N. E. coaft of Ciimbava. S. lat. 8 10'.
E long. 119° 24'.

GOONI)V>'ANAH, the ancient name of the province

of Kagpour, \\h\c\i fee Alfo, mountains of Ilindoortan,

called " Koiiduaimah," fituated in the S. E. part of the
rO'.ntry of Malvva, extending from Hufliigabad to Mim-
rfellah, about lyo miles long. N. lat. 21'^ 40, to 23 . E.
long. 78 to 81 .

GOOP.-\MOW, a town of Hindooilan, in Oude;
20 mile^ W. of Kairabad.

GOOPIGUNGE, a town of Hindooflan ; 32 miles
W. of Benares. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the fou-
bah of Agra. N. lat. 26° 24'. E. long. 79 18'.

GOORACKPOUR, a province of Oude, bounded on
the N. by Thibet, on the E. by Bettiah and Sarun, on the
S. by Gazypour, and on the W. by Oude proper and
Bahraitch, about 60 m.iles long and 50 broad. The capi-
tal of the fame name is fituated 65 miles E. of Fyzabad.
N. lat. 26' 44'. E. long. 83 30'.

GOORAH, the name of two towns of Hindooftan ;
one in Oude and another in Allahabad.

GOO RUNTY, a town of Hindooflan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 17 miles S. W. of Ganjara.

GOOS, a town of Nubia. N. lat 18=. E. long. 34" i8'.

GOOSANDER, in Ornilhology. See MiiiiGUS Mer-
ganj'r.

GOOSE, An.<;eu, forms an order of birds in the Lin-
iiKan fyllem. (See As.seres.) The feveral fpccics of
geefe belong to the genus of anas or duck under this order.
See Dlck.

GoOL-E, a well-known bird, which, in many fituations,
may be highly beneficial to the farmer, as, where there are
large waters and commons, and where the ilubbles are
abundant. It is valuable both for its fle(h, fat, and fea-
thers.

The varieties of geefe are numerous, but the large
common kinds are probably the bed for the ufcs of the
farmer.

Goo.SE, Ember. See CoLYMBUS Immer.

Goo'»E, Soland or Solan, fometimes called gannet, the
Englifh name of a large water-fowl, called bv authors
yliifer Bafanui, and by Linnxus Pelec.vxus Bajfanus, \', Inch
lie.

Goose Cnei, in Geography, a river of New .lerfey,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 39 ' 53'. W. long.
74~ 16. — Alfo, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the
Ohio, N. lat. 38^ 10'. \V. long. 86" 3'. — Alfo, a river
oi North Carolina, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat.
54 40'. W. long. 77' 21'. — Alfo, a river which falls into
ilie Potowmac, about a mile S. E. of Thorpe, in Fairfax
county, Virginia.

Goo^E-dung, in yfgricullure and Medicine. See DuNG and

CilENOCOPRLS..

GoonK-foot, or Wild Orach, or Good Henry, in Botany.

See ClIESOPODIUM.

GoosK-griifs, the common name of a troublefome weed
that is frequently met with on clayey foils. It is bell
ufftroyed by cutting it in the fummer, and keeping trie
. i.id imder the plough in good condition. See G.'il.lUM
.iparine.

Gnosr.-grn/s, Great. See Asperlt.o.

Goose //land, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf of
't. Lawrence, near the coall of Labrador. N. lat. 50' 52'.

Vor.. XVI.

GOO

W. long. 59^ 10'.— Alfo, a fmall ifland in Chriilmaa Sound,
on the coall of Terra del Fuego.

GocsE Lale, a lake of North America. N. lat. ^2'' cc'.
W. long. 94' 45'. — Alfo, a lake of North America. N.
bt. 54° 30'. W. long. loi' 21'.

GoosE-n.v^, in Sea Language, is a fort of iron hook fitted
on the inner end of a boom, and introduced into a clamp
of iron or eye-bolt, which encircles the mail, or it fitted
to fome other place in the Ihip, fo that it may be unhooked
at plcai'ure.

Goo.SE River, in Geography, a river of America, which
runs into the iVlilfifippi N. lat. 43 ' 14'. W. long. 93" 56'.
— Alfo, a river of South Carolina, which runs into Cooper'*
river. N. lat. 33 2'. W. long. 79' J7'.

G()Osv.-'u.-ingt of a fail, in Sea Language, denote the clue*
or lower comer.s of a fliip's main-fail, or fore-fail, when the
middle part is furled or tied up to th? vard.

GoosE-w/n^, at Sea, a certani manner of fitting a fail,
which is thus performed : when a Ihip fails before a wind.
or with a quarter-wind, and in a frelh gale, the feamcn
fometimes, to make the more halte, uiiparal the mizpn-
yard, and then they launch out both fail and yard over the
quarter on the lee-lide, fitting guyes at the farther end, to
keep the yard fleady with the boom, and this booms out
the mizen-lheet. This they do to give the iliip the more
way, which otherwife, with thife winds, tiie mizcn-fail could
not do ; and this fail, fo fitted, is called a gonfe-'wing, and
fometimes a fluddiug-fad.

GOOSEBERRY Bus.r, Grojfularia, in Botany, is a
fpccies of the ribes'm the Limwan fyllem. See RtBE-s.

The goofeberry-buih is propagated either by fuckers or
cuttings, but the latter way is preferable, as the roots are
lefs fubjeft to fhoot out fuckers afterwards.

The bell feafon for planting the cuttings is in autumn,
jufl before the leaves begin to fall ; obfening always to
take the handfomeil flioots, and to pick them from fuch
branches as produce the greatell quantity of fruit The
cuttings fhould be about fix or eight inches long, and fliould
be planted in a bed of light earth expofed to the morning
fun ; they muft be planted about three inches deep, and
watered to help their taking root. The flioots fliould be
rubbed off from thefe plants as they put out, except thofe
at the top, that there may be a regular Hem. In the
Oclober following, they Ihould be removed to a bed of
fine light earth, and j)lanted in rows at three feet dillance,
and one foot afunder in the rows. They fliould remain
here one year, and the crofs branches at times bo cut off,
as alfo the lower ones, fo as to ket-p a clean Item about a
foot above the ground. They will be then fit to plant out
where they are to iland, which fliould be in a light fandy
loam. They liiould be kept from the (hade of other trees ;
and to have the fruit in its utmoll perfection, fliould be let
in an expofed place in rows of eight feet afunder, and each
of the flirubs iix feet from the others in the rovvi. The
bell time for tranfplanting them is in Oclobcr, when tlie
leaves begin to decay. Miller.

GoosEBERRV, in ylgricu'ture, is a plant that may fome-
times be employed in the forming of hedge-fences, efpeci-
ally that fort known in the North by the title of Iron.
monger.

GoosEBEURY Caterpillar, in Gardening, the common name
of a very dellrr.ftive infecl to the goofelierry and fome other
plants. Many diflereiit methods of dellroying it have been
propofed, but with little luccefs.

G00SEHEHUY of Barbad'ies. See C.\CTi;3.

GoosEiiERRY Tree. Sec Mel.\stom.\.

GoostBERHY-^i?///, in Natural Bi/lory, the name given by
3 N aiithorn

GOP

authors to a fpecies of protuberances of the gall kind,
found very frequently on the oak. They are of a roundilh
figure, and fonietimcs adhere to the tree by a fhort pedicle,
but more frequently by a part of their fpheric fiirfacc.
They are ufually found on the under fide of the leaves of
the oak, but fometimes on the young (hoots, and fonietimcs
on the pedicles of the leaves.

They are mod frequent in fpring, but they are found at
all timer, when the leaves are upon the trees. Thefe galls
are grceniia nt firft, and afterwards become yellowirti, and
finally red ; in which laft (late they very much relemble the
fmall red goofeberry. They are very foft to the touch,
and when opened arc found to contain a juicy fubftance,
with a cavity in the midft, in which there is lodged a fm-
j^le infect. This, according to the time in which the gall
is opened, is found in the form of a white worm, or elle of
a white chryfalis, or finally of a fmall (hort-bodicd four-
winged fly of a black colour ; for the creature does not
leave the gall to go through any of its changes, but palTes
all its Hates in it. The gall, in all tliefe cafes, is found
whole and unhurt ; but if one is opened in which there is
a hols pierced, this is fure to be found empty, that bemg
the pafiage by which the fiy has made its way out. Reaum.
Hift. Inf. vol. vi. p. 214.

GOOSEBERUY IJlands, in Geography, fmall iOands near
the E. coaft of Newfoundland ; 24 miles N. W. of Cape
Bonavifta.

Goo.SEBERRY Rochs, dangerous rocks lying on the coaft
of E{re:c county, in the ftate of Ma(rachufetts.

GOOTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwanah ;
10 miles S. of Nagpour.

GOOTOKA, a town of HindooRan, in the circar of
Ruttunpour; 5 miles S. of Ruttunpour.

GOOTY, or GuTTi, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan,
the capital of a diftrift in Myfore ; 170 miles N. of Se-
ringapatam. It is fituated on a hill beyond the river Pennar,
or Pen-aur, and towards Adoni ; and was formerly the feat
of government of a Mahratta prince ; but at the death of
Tippoo, the town and dill rift were affigned to the Nizam.
N. lat. 15' 15'. E. long. 77 48 .

GO-OUT, in AJln'wg, is fomelimcs ufcd to exprefs the
appearance of tiie Q<\^e of a ftratum at the furface ; other-
wife called the ba{iet, crop, out-going, or out-burft of
that ftratum ; and fuch ftrata are faid to go-out, burft-out,
run-out, head-out, want-cover, &c.

AVhea the ore in a vein fuddenly ends in the deads or
gano-ue, it is laid to go-out ; alfo, v/hca a ftratum of coals
ends abruptly agaiu(t a fault, or wall of gravel filling a
fault, or balfet under a heap of gravel, as is not un.-iimmon
in the fouth of D-'rbydiire, it is faid to go-out, and fo of
the irregular or feather-edge maffes which are fometimes
met v.'ith in the ftrata accideiitally, or v.'ithout being coa-
tinuous like aU the rc" alar ftrata, however th.in.

GOPALCHITTY, in Geography, a town of Hiiu
doofta:T, in CoimbetOre ; 18 miles N.W. of Erroad.

GOPALGUNGE, a town of Bootau ; 58 miles N. of
Dlnagepour.

GOPALNAGUR, the name of two towns in Bengal;
one 25 mihs S.S.E. of Kiihenagur, and another 30 miles
E.S E. of D.^cca.

GOPALPOUR, the name of fcveral towns in Hindoo-
ftan, one 8 miles N. of Hurdah, a fccond, 12 miles N. of
Goragot, a third, 15 miles N. of Gurrah, a fourth, 23
miles S. of Bahar, a fifth, 20 miles N.W. of Narvp,
a fi.\th, 20 miles S. of Goorackpour, a feventh, 38
miL's S, of Fy-iubaJ, ao eighth, 25 miles l\. of Ameda-
bad

G O R

GOPALDROOG, a fortrefs of Myfore ; similes 1L.
of Seringapatam.

GOPAULGUNGE, a town of Bengah N. lat. 23^
2'. E. long. 89- 56'.

GOPAULNAGUR, a town of Bengal, 42 miles S.
of Burdwan. N. lat. 22" 31'. E. long. 88 .

GOPEER, a town of Bengal; 15 miles E.N.E. of
Ranigur.

GOPERAPILLY, a town of Golconda ; 20 miles
E.S.E. of Hydrabad.

GOPHNA, GopHNlTH, or Caphna, in yfncienl Geogra-
phy, a town of Paleftine, and chief place pf one of the ten
toparchies of Judah. Eufebius places it fifteen miles from
Jerufalem, towards Sichem.

GOPLO, in Geography, a lake of Poland, in the palatinate
of Br/.efc, 16 miles long, and four wide.

GOPPINGEN, a town of the kingdom of Wurtem-
berg, fituated on tiie Vils, in a fertile country, having con-
ilderable woollen manvifaflures, and near it a medicinal fpriiip- ;
20 miles N.N.W. of Ulm. N. lat. 48 47'. E. long. 9"

+ ''•

GOR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan ;

57 miles N.W. of Schiras. — Alfo, a town of Italy, in ll;e

department of the Mela ; 8 miles S. of Brefcia.

Goit, a name given by fome writers to a ver)' lofty tree,
which bears a fruit like the chefnut ; it grows principally on
the banks of the river Niger, and that not near the fea, but
far up the country.

GoR-coeh, in Ornhholngy, the name of a bird cf the galli-
naceous kind, called by authors the lagopus altera, and by
many the moor-cock, or red game ; it is of the Ihape of the
partridge, but is half as large again. See Gkolse and
Tetrao Lagopus.

GOR A, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan. in the
circar of Chandail ; 20 miles W. of Saipour.

GORACALLY, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S.S.W.
of Mahmudt>our.

GORAGOT, a province of Bengal, bounded on theN.
by Rungpour, on the E. by Radjoohow, Patladah, and Ifia-
mabad, on the S. by Bettoriah and Pargunnah, and on the W.
by Dinagepour ; about 55 mrles long, and from 12 to 30
broad. Its capital, Goragot, is dittant So miles N.N.E.
from Moorfliedabad. N. lat. 25^ 14'. E. long. 89°
22'.

GORAI, a town of Poland, in Galicia.

GORAM, a fmall ifiand, being one of the Moluccas, in
the Eaft Indian fea, S.E. of Ceram ; reputed the moft
eaftern boundary of Mahomctanlfm. It has thirteen mo(l<s.
S. lat. 3° 42'. E. long. 121 36'.

GORANTO, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
80 miles S.W. of Satalia.

GORAPARI, a town of Brazil, at the m.outh of a
river of the fame name, which runs into the Atlantic. S. lat.
20° 40'.

GORBA'RA, a town of Corfica ; 8 miles N.E. of
Calvi.

GORB.'\TA, a town of Africa, in Biledulgerid, an-
ciently " Orbita ;" 12 miles S.W. of Gaf.^a.

GORBATOV, a town of RulTia, in the government of
Niznei Novogorod. N. lat. 56 5'. E. long. 43° 14'.

GORCA. SeeGoKKAii.

GORGE, or Gourt, denotes a weir. By ftat. 25
Edw. III. cap. 4. it is ordained, that all gorces, mills, weirs,
&c. levied or fjt up, whereby the king's fiiips and boats
are difturbed, and cannot pais in any river, ftiall be utterly
pulled down, without being renewed. Sir Edward Coke
derives tliis word iyomgurgesy a dttp pit of •u.'aler, and call*

it

G O R

it a gors, or gulf; but this feems to be a miftake, for in
Doonifday it is called gourt and gcrt, the old French word
for a zudr,

GORCHWICH, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
the Vogtir.iid, 1 8 miles S.S.W. of Gera. N. lat. 5o''22'.
E. long, u 53'.

GORCUM, probably a corruption of Goiichcm, a
town of Holland, fituated on the river Linge, at its union
with the Wahal. From the ileeple of the principal church
may be feen 22 walled cities, beiides a great number of
towns and villages ; before the revolution it had one parifn-
church, and three rehgious houfes ; 12 miles E. of Dort.
N. lat. 51^ 5-2'. E. long. 4" 50'.

GORDENE', in ylnclent Geography, a country of the
Greater Armenia, according to Ptolemy ; which country
is called " Gordyenc" by Strabo and by Plutarch in his life
of LucuUus.

GORDES, in G(ojn:/i/i)', a town of France, in the de-
partment of Vaucluft, and chief place of a canton in the
dillritl of Apt ; 9 miles \V. of Apt. The place contains
2812, and the canton 6430 inhabitant';, on a territory of
167^ kiliometres, in 8 communes.

GORDEWARE Point, a cape of Hindooftan, on
the coall of Rajamundry, at the mouth of the Godavery.
N.lat. 16- 42'. E. long. 82' 28'.

GORDIiEUS Mo.N-s, in ylncient Geography, -a, mountain
of the Greater Armenia. Ptol.

GORDIANI, M. A-N-TONlusGoRDlANLS, mBiography,
Roman emperor, born A.D. 157, was fon of Metius Ma-
rullus, a fenator defcendcd from the Gracchi, by Ulpia
Gardiana, of the family of the emperor Trajan. He became
pofTeiTed of a great eftatc, with which he lived in a ftyle of
magnificence, but without palling the bounds of moderation.
He was a patron of literature and literary men, and a pro-
iicient in eloquence and poetry. He wrote a poem in thirty
books, to celebrate the reigns of Titus and M. Aurelius An-
toninus. \Vhen he fcrved the office of edile, he enter-
tained tlie people with a fplendour which no private perfon
had for a long time exhibited, and his (hows were exhibited
every month in the year while he was in office. There is,
however, no reafon for fuppofmg that he was over ambitious
of coming forwards into public life, for it was not till his
fifty-fifth year that he was elefted conful in conjunclion with
the emperor Caracalla. He might, perhaps, be unwilling
to rifque the fafety of his perfon in thofe turbulent times ;
and it has been thought extraordinary that under fo jealous a
tyrant he fhould venture upon the profufe expences wliich
diftinguiflied his confullliip not only in the imperial city, but
in various parts of Italy alfo. He enjoyed the fame honour
a fecond time in the reign of Alexander Sevcrus, wlio ex-
prefTed his high efteem for him by confirming his nomination
to the government of Africa asproconful. In this import-
ant poll he difplayed fo much equity and beneficence, that he
was more beloved in the province than any of his predecefTors.
Under the emperor Maximin, in the year 237. a fedition was
excited againft the rapacity of an officer in the government
of Africa, and the perpetrators, to avoid the venge;mce of
a cruel and incenfed fovereign, appeared in open rebellion
and infifted upon Gordian's afluming the purple. He re-
monftrated with the confpirators, but their refolutioii was
formed, and at the age of fourfcore he was forced to ap-
pear in a character, after which he had never afpirrd. They
afTociated with him, to alleviate his cares, the younger Gor-
dian, a man of voluptuous habits, but wlio was ot a mild
difpofition, and attached to letters. A library of fixty-thou-

G O R

Lnd volumes, bequeathed liim by his tutor Sercnus Sammo-
nicus, gave him rcputatiosi in the literary world, which he
maintained by writing both in profu and verfe. Tins young
man had been elevated to the office of quellor by the defpi-
cable Heliogabalus ; nevcrthclefs, the confidence placed in
his integrity, and knowledge of the law?, by Alexa/ider,
who created him prefect of Rome, and who always paid
great deference to his advice, was much in his praife. He
Ihared in the elevation of his father, and they were declared
joint emperors. The Gordians removed to Carthage, whence
tlity fent letters to Rome, announcing their eleftion. Maxi-
min was at that time abfent, and the fenatc willingly fanc-
tioned the choice of the Africans, and dtclared Mjximin a
public enem.y. In tlie mean time, a change took place in
Africa, which annulled all their projects. Captlianus, go-
vernor of Mauritania, v.ho had been always upon ill terms
with Gordian, affemblcd a body of veterans, declared for
the reigning emperor, and marched to Carthage. The
younger Gordian fallied out to oppofe him wiili his guards,
but he was foon defeated and flain. Capelianus entered ibc
city, which fo much alarmed the eUler Gordian, that to
prevent his faUing into the hands of liis enemy, he ftranglcd
him.felf in his apartment with his girdle. This event hap-
j'cned in June 237, and within a few weeks of bis afluming
the office of eraperor. Gibbon.

GoRDI.^^■ III., Roman emperor, grandfon of the elder
Gordian, was but thirteen years old when he was chofen
emperor, in conneftion with Maximns aid Balbinus. He
was created Cifar, and afTuTned the family name. His two
colleagues were in a few months murdered by the Pretorian
bands, and the youthful Gordian remained folc crrperor.
His perfon and manners excited univcrfal favour, and the
fenate, people, and army united in giving him the endearing
appellation of their fon. In the commencement of hu
reign l;e was governed by his mother's euniichs,who abufcd his
authority, andfet the honours andofficcsoflheempircuptofale.
He ivas, however, happily refcued from this difgraccful con-
dition by Mifitheus, a n^an of learning, to v.hom he was
alfo indebted for literary inilruction and advice. In the
year 241 he married the daughter of Mifilhcus ; and rai-
fing his father-in-law to the poll of prxfiCt-pnEtorio, com-
mitted to him the principal direction of public aifairs. He
proved himfelf worthy of the important trull confided in hiir,
and difcliarged the duties of a llalefman and gener:;!, as well
as he had maintained thofe of a more private ftation. By
his perfuafion, the your.g emperor accompanied him in 242, in
an expedition to the Eall, for the purpofe of repelling an in-
vafion from Sapor king of Perfia. Under his guidance, Gor-
dian relieved A ntioch, crofii'd the Euphrates, defeated Sa-
por, ar.d recovered the wl.ole i^f Mcfopotamia. The young
er.iperor did not affinne the glory of the deeds, but, in a
letter to the fenate, announcing tlie fuccefles, he niodeillT
afcribes them to the conduct, the experience, and wildomof
Mifitheus, who fliortly after died. l"*uring t!ie whole ex-
pedition Mifitheus had watched over the fafcly and difciphn."
of the army, while he prevented their murmurs by maintain-
ing a regular plenty in the camp, and by e'l'ahlilhiiig ar;plc
magazines of vinegar, bacon, llraw, barley and wlitat, iu
all the citi'S of the frontiers. The proiperity o( the empe-
ror expired with Mifitheus ; he w as' fucceoded in the office of
prefect by Philip, an Arab by birth, and confequentiy, fa> s
Gibbon, in the earlier part of his hfe, a rt.bbcr by profoffion.
He was a man of conlider<ible ir.ilitury talentf, but ambi.
tious, and dellitlite oi true moral principle. His energy
and boldnefs prompted liim to alpire to the throne, aijd hit
abilities were employed to 'fuppiam, not to fervc Iiis induU
gent mailer, liv his arts difeontents were fomentrd among
:; N 2 'b'

G O R

G O R

the troops, which induced them to demand that liis miniflor
Pliilip (hould lie afTociated witli Gordian as partiK-r ni thu
empire. This was not fufficient to fa isfy his ambitious
views ; the young emperor was facrificed at liis inlligatiun ;
he was put to death near the banks of the Euphrates, in
March 244, after a reign of five years and eight mouths.
A I'epulchral monument was erefted to his memory on the
fpot wliere lie was killed. Gibbon.

Gordian, a term in Hijlory. GorJian knot was a
knot made in the leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gor-
dms, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas ; fo very
intricate, that there was no finding where it began or
ended.

The inhabitants had a tradition, that the oracle had de-
clared, that he (hould be mailer of Afia who could untie
this knot. Alexander having undertakan it, rfnd fearing
that, if he iliould not be able to effect it, it would be
deemed an ill augury, and prove a check in the way of
his conquefts, cut it afnnder with his fword ; and thus,
fay Qnintus Curtius, cither accompliflied the oracle, or
eluded it. But Arillobulns gives a different account of
tliis matter. See Arrian, lib. iii. cap. 20, and Plut. in
Vit. Alex.

Some will have the phrafe derived from Gordius who tied
tlie fatal knot ; others from Gordium, a city in Piirygia,
where the knot was made.

GORUIUM, in Geography, a town of Afi;i, in Phrygia,
fituated on the river Sangar ; afterwards called Juliofolis.

GORDIUS, in Zoology, a genus of Vermes, the eflen-
tial character of wliich confills in the body being round,
filifor.Ti, naked or fmooth, and of equal thicknefs through-
out.

Linnasus, and after his example the French naturalil^ Bru-
guiere, has placed the animals of this genus among the in-
tcifinal vermes, an order of beings to which, from their
general ilrufture, they feem to bear no very remote alliance :
and this fimilarity is Hill more ftrongly evinced in the habits
of thofe fpecies which occafionally penetrate into the flefh
of men and animals, and therein for a while derive their
fuftenance from the blood and other fluids. Notwilhllaud-
ing this analogy, under fuch circumftances we cannot but
agree with Lamarck that it is impoffible to coniider them as
internal vermes with propriety, fince they only occafionally
refide in the bodies of animals as before mentioned, and in
their habits and manners of life at other periods differ moll
elfentially : they are literally aquatic animals, with carnivo-
•rous appetites; though for a certain length of time they
can fubfift like the true inteftinal vermes, when by any acci-
dental circumilance they happen to infinuate themfelves
■into the flefli of a living animal.

At the head of this tribe we may juftly place the fpecies ot;?-
ttintnjis, or hair worm of the Indies, a pernicious creature, re-
ferred to the genus Gordius by Linn-.eus in the latefl edition
of his .Syll. Nat., but from which it was afterwards removed
by hjs editor Gmelin to that of Filaria. This removal we
deem unneceJary, and under this perfuafion wifli to rettore
the fpecies 19 its former fituation in the genus Gordius.

Species.

MEDlNEX.'il?. Body entirely pale. Linn. Sloane Jam. &c.

TWs very remarkable creature is often from ten to twelve
or even lifteen feet in length, and in thicknefs not exceed-
ing a horfc-hair. It is well known by its difaftrous effefts
as an inhabitant of both the Indies, where it lives in marlhy
places, and is frequently obferved on the ground in the
morning dew. In this fituation it eafily creeps up, and en-
tv.wcs jtfelf round the aaked legs cf the negro Javes, or

animals, and penetrating the flvin, buries itfelf fpeedily in the
ttefli, where it caufes the moit violent pains, accompanied
with troublefome itchings, and oftentimes inflammation and
fever. The moft certain means of extricating the worm is
to make an iiiciiion in the part of the lleil; at which its en-
trance was effeited, fo as to obtain fecure hold of eitlier of
the extremities, or the head if poffible, and this being made
fail tu a fmall llick by means of a piece of filk, the animal
may be gradually drawn out of the wound by turning the
IHck round a little each day. The utmcll circumipeclion is
rcquifite in performing this operation, for if by being too
much flraincd the worm fliuuld break, the part remaining
within the flefh grows with increafed vigour, gangrene
appears alinoft immediately, and death itlelf enlues \ery
fliortly.

Aquatici'S. Pale brown, with blackifli extremities.
Linn. Gordius fda, M'ill. Vilnius uqufiliciis, Gefn.
Meer-U'ijn, Jonft. Chittin, Hill. &c.

This fo entirely refembles a hair of from four to fix
inches in length, that except by its motions it could be in no
manner dilliaguifhed from a fubllance of that kind by the ca-
fual obferver ; its internal llrufture is equally remarkable
alfo for its fimplicity, confViling merely, as it appears, of a
canal extending from one end to the other, and both the
mouth and vent are the moif iimple poifible, fince a fmall
vent conllitutes the firll, and a groove or hollow the latter.
Its ordinary places of refidence are ilagnant waters, in pools
and ditches, or in very tranquil rivers, as the agitation of
turbulent waters would deilroy its tender frame. During
winter it remains buried deep in the clay, from whence it
emerges in fpring, and is found in the water during the fum-
mer months, where it is frequently obferved, and from its ap-
pearance is vulgarly imagined to be the offspring of horj} hair
dropped by accident into the water. It twills itfelf into
various contortions ; and it is affirmed that its bite will oc-
cafion the complaint called a whitlow. A fac^ (lill more ex-
traordinary, and which appears in fome meafure to be au-
thenticated with tolerable accuracy, is the retentive power of
animation, which this creature polfeffes in a very fuperior de-
gree, though not by any means to tlie extent that certain
naturalills conceive. Some writers afSrm, indeed, that it has
been known to recover the free exercife of its vital functions
upon being fleeped for a fhort fpace of time in water, after
having remained in a dried liate for weeks, months, and even
years, and when of courfe it might be naturally conceived
the moll latent fpark of life mud be extinft. If thefe latter-
affnrances have not arifen from the re'ult of fome very
fuperficial experiments, they are at leafl to be received with
caution, fince their obfervers feem to believe that thefe animals
partook alfo in fome meafure of the reproduclive properties
of the polype, and which more recent obfcrvations prove
to be erroneous ; we cannot, therefore, upon the whole,
avoid concluding that although the animals cf this kind are
extremely tenacious of life, there is no fumndation in truth
for the very extraordinary aflertions above related.

A ntilLLACEU.*;. Body uniformly yeilowiih. Linn.

Very much refembles the lall, and like that fpecies is
found m the clay at the bottom of Ilagnant waters.

FiLUM. Body filiform and whitifh, Miill.

Extremely llender, tapering at one end, and hyaline.
Found in the bark of old wooden pipes which had been
placed in the ground for the conveyance of water.

L.'tCTEUs. Body uniformly white and opacjue. Miill.

Occurs in myriads in ilagnant water from the month of
July till September. When touched, this fpeci..'s contracts
itfelf in a moment, and then again expands immediately.

AnLN.i.iuL"s. Fulvoub .ind obtule. Miill.

luluibits

G O R

Inlianlts j!i- boHom of Chi'ifliaiis bay, in Norway.

GORDON, Bernard, in Bwgmphy, a French phyfi-
cian of the thirteenth century, is fald to liave conferred
honour on the medical faculty of MontpelHer, where he be-
gan to teach in the year I2^J. As was the cudom of the
time, he took his furnanie from tlie place of his birth, (Gor-
don in Roiivergne, ) and called hin.felf Beniardus de Gor-
donio, and not Gordoniis, as it is commonly written. Ac-
cording to the accounts of fome writers, who place the
death of this phylician in 1305, he tauglit at Montpellier
only twenty years ; but Renchin affirms, that he was living
in 1318 He left a confiderablj number of treatifes, which
were publilhed together at Ferrara in 14R7, at Venice in
1494, at Paris in IJ42, and at Lyons in 1550. Eloy.
Diet. Hift.

GoHDON', Ml!., in the year 1744 played the firft violin in
Driiry-lane play-laiuie. He was a young man, born in Nor-
folk, who had travelled to Italy for improvement. He was
very nrar-fighted, and ahvays played in fpeftacles. He fuc-
cecded Charke, had a ilrong hand, good tone, and was well
fitted to his ilation. He generally played a concerto in the
fecond mufic, as was then the practice, which was very at-
tractive. He was brother to the fubjeft of the following
article.

Gordon', , an eminent performer oti the vio-
loncello, the fon of a clergyman in Norfolk, and many yean
the firil violoncello at the opera. He uas remarkable for
the fuhiefs of his tone, and perfeft execution of whatever he
undertook, though far furpafled by fulifequent players in
the ufe of the bow, and knowledge of the finger-board.
He 'ived reputably, had many powerful friends, and iva-
lifed a competence by his profelTion.

In 17(15, MefTrs. Gordon, Vincent, and Crawford, tnider-
took the opera regency in the Haymarket, The two tiril
were experienced profeffors, and the third had been many
years treafurer under different rnanagcrs. Gordon, an ex-
cellent performer on the violoncello ; and Vincent, a (cholar
of the celebrated Martini, long a favourite on the hnutbois.
His father was a baffoon player in the Guards, and his bro-
ther, James Vincent, who died young, was joint organifl of
tl.e Temple with Stanley, and a briillant performer. Mr.
T, Vincent, the imprefario, had been in great favour with
tiie late prince of AVnles, father to his prefent mnjefty ; had
acquired a confiderable fum of money in his profeffion, which
he augmented by marriage. However, the ambition c5t com-
mand, tfiough of fo froward a family as an opf-ra, vocal, and
inftrumcntal band, turned his head and his pnrle iniidc out ;
in fliort, he foon became a bankrupt, fculked in indigence
during the re'l of his hfe ; and his colleagues, tiiough they
.tfcaped utter ruin, were not enriched by the conneftion.

Gordon', Alkx.vndkii, a learned writer of the eighteenth
century, was a native of Scotland. He was well acquaint-
ed with the Greek and Latin languages, and being a good
dranghtfnian, he was enabled to derive pecidiar advantages
from a long refidence in Italy, and from his travels in other
parts of Europe. He was engaged as fecretary to the fo-
ciety for the encouragement of learning ; and to the Egyp-
tian club, and to the Antiquarian fociety. He afterwards
accompanied governor Glen to Carolina, where he occupied
various po'fs in the province, and received a handlonie grant
of land. Here he died, leaving a good eilate to Kis family.
He was author of " Itinerarium Septentrionale,'" or a jour-
firy through moil parts of Scotland, illullrated with copper
pLtes. This was publiilied in 1726, and in 1732 he gave
additions and corrections to it, containing an account of
Rciran antiquities in Scotland, and ancient monuments in
the nortii cf England. He wiote llkewile " The Lives of

3

G O R

Tope Ale-wider VI., and his Son Cjilar Lorgia." " A .
complete Hidory of ancient Amphitheatres, tranflat.-d from
the Italian." <■' AnEflay towards explaining the liierogly.
})hical Figures on the Coffin of a Mummy.'" " Twcntv-Hvc
Plates of all the Egyptian Mummies in England, and other
Egyptian Antiquities'" Gen. Biog.

Gordon, Andrkw, was born in 171 2 near Aberdeen.
He was fcnt to Ratifbon, where he applied himfelf to polite
literature. In 1731 he made a tour throngli Aullria, Italy,
and France, and on his return in tiie following year entered
into the order of the Benedictines in the Scots monaftcry,
where he applied to philofophy, and wa.s ordained pricft.
In 1735, he went to Sal/.burg to iludy tlie law, and he at-
tended the theological ledlures till he was invited, in I 737,
to be profefTor of philofophy at Erfurt. His difcoverics Li
electricity made his name known to the pliilofophers in Hoi-
land, France, Italy, and England, and he is mentioned by Dr.
PriclUey as the iird perfon who ufed a cylinder infteaJ of a
globe in electric experiments. His firll' work on this fub-
jecf was entitled " Phenomena Elec'trititatis Expofita,''
1744 ; and in the following year he publilhed in 3 vols. Kvo.
" Philofophia utilis et jucunda." He was author of an
" Impartial .'\ccount of the Origin of the prefent War in
Great Britain,'" and of " Phylic;c Experimentalis Elc-
menta.'" Gen Biog.

Gordon, ,T.\me's, a Scotch .Jefuit, was born in the year
'543- He left his native country, and went to Rome,
where he entered the fociety of Jefus, in 1563. He became
diiUnguiflied for deep and extcnfive learning, and was fetit
on religious miffions irito Germany, Denmark, and the Bri-
tifli ides, where he is faid to have fufiered much on account
of his attachment to the Calhv,Iic faith. He died at Paris
in 1620, I'-iiving behind him a work in two volumes 8vo. en-
titled " Contfoverliarum Chridiana; Fidei Epitome."

There v.as another Scotch Jefuit of the lame name, and
contemporary w iih the above, « Ivo w rote a commentary on
the wliolc bible, which he publilhed at Paris, in three to-
iumes folio, under the title of " Biblia facra, cum Commen-
tariis ad fenfum Litcrx, et explicatione Tcmporum, Loco- .
mm, Reruniqite omnium qu-.e in lacris Codicibus habrnt ob-
fcuritatem : una cum Tcxtu Biblico." This work is well
fpokcn of by Dupin. He was author likewifc of a work on
Chronology : and of " A Sydcm of moral Tlieologv, ' &c.
Moreri.

Gordon, Tiio.mas, a native of Kirkcudbright, in Scot-
land, after having received an academical education in his
own country, came to London, and mi.intained himfelf bv
teaching the learned languages. His tidents were niade
known to people of confequencc, and he was employed by
the earl of Oxford in queen Anne's reign as a pohtical wri-
ter. He wrote in defence of bilhop I'.oadlev in the Ban-
gorian conlroverfy, and became the affillant and partner of
Mr. Trcnchard, in his literary undertakings. Thev pub-
lidied, hi conjundtion, a feries of papers, entitled '• Cato't
Letters;'' and the " Independent Whig," which Mr Gor-
don continued alone alter the death of Trenchard. When
this event took place, lir Robert W;Jpo!e engaged Gordon
as one of the writers in defence of his mcc.lures, and f ro-
cnrcd him a place, which he held as lor.g as he lived. Mr.
Gordon made himfelf known by trandations of Tacitus and
Sallud, as well as by his pohtical pieces. To tlicfe tranf-
lations lie prefixed difcourfes relative to iubjefts of each ori-
ginal author. He died in 1 750, at the age of fixiy-fix.
Some of his poillumious tracts appt-ared in two works, en-
titled " A CordiiJ for Low Spirits ;" and " The Pillars ot
Pricdcraft and Orthodoxy lliakcn.'' He was a didinguilTied
writer in fr.vcur of civil and rtligious libtriv, and is highly

eiUxmcA

G 0 R

G OTi

eflccircd by the friends of freedom for the manly fpirit with
which he fupported its Civafe agaiiift tyranny of every kind.
Gen. Biog.

GORDONA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
coiir.'y of MoUf.? ; fix miles S.W. of Mohfo.

GORDONIA, in Botany, named by Mr. EUis, in the
Philofophical Tranfadlions for 1770, in honour of Mr. James
Gordon, an eminent nurferymaji at Mile-end. near London,
who introduced many new plants to the knowledge of the
curious, or rather cultivated with great (Icill ai.d fuccefs fuch
as were communicated to him, from vai'ious quarters, by the
coUefiors and naturalifts of that day, among whom were
Bartram, CoUinfon, Ellis, and many others. He was a fre-
quent correfpondent of Linnius, and fent him feveral living
plants, efpecially of North American origin. Linn. Mant.
556. SyiL Nat. ed. 14. 631. Schreb. 471. Willd.~ Sp.
PL V. 3. 840. L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. 156. Cavan. Diff.
fafc. 6. 307. Mart. Mill. Dift. v 2. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 2. 231. Juir. 27J, Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 594.I Dift. v. 2.
770. Clafs and order, yT/o/Wf/^/'M /"o.^'^/i^/Wi^. Nat. Ord,
Columnifi-rs, Linn. Malvacett, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth limple, inferior, of five roundifh,
concave leaves. Cnr. Petals five, large, obovate, or obcor-
date, concave, cohering at their bafe, fomewhat unequal.
Stain. Filaments very numerous, tln-ead-fiiapcd, united at
their bafe into a thick cup-fliaped body ; anthers oval,
ereft. Pyi- Germen fuperior, ovate or nearly globofe ; llyle
ihort, columnar, obfcurely five-fided, fometimes five -cleft ;
iligmas five, acute, horizontal. Peric Capfule ovate or glo-
bular, of five cells and five valves, the partitions from the
middle of the valves, which are deeply cloven at their bafe.
Setdi in two rows in each cell, angular, winged, inferted into
a five-angled central column.

Efl". Cii. Calyx fimple. Style columnar. Stigma five-
cleft. Capfule of five cells. Seeds feveral, in two rows,
winged.

1. G. Lafianthis. Linn. Mant. 570. Curt. Mag.
t.668. Cavan. Did. t. 161. (Hypericum Lafianlhus; Linn.
Sp. PI. iioi. Alcca floridara quinquecapfularis, &c. ;
Pluk. Amalth. t. 352. f. 3.) Loblolly Bay. — Flower-ftalks
elongated. Leaves coriaceous, fmooth. Capfules ovate. —
Native of fwamps in South Carolina, where it forms a very
handfome tree, but is v.-ith great difficulty cultivated in Eng-
land. It blooms in Augult and September. We have feen
this plant flowering in great perfection at Kew 25 years ago.
The leaves arc fcattcred, on fliort ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate,
three to five inches long, bluntilh, v.'ith numerous fhallow fer-
ratures, veiny, fmooth on both fide.';, of a fine (liining green,
like thofe of Prurtus Lauro-cerafus above, paler beneath. Sti-
pulas none. Flowers folitary, on fimple axillary llalks, thrice
as long as the footitalks, as large as a moderate rofe, white
with yellow ftamens, very handfome b>it inodorous. A pair
of deciduous fringed bratteas, a little below the flower, are
called by Cavanilles an outer calyM. Authors iiave differed
about the clafs of this plant in the Linnsan fyilem, the fila-
ments cohering imperfertly and irregularly togetlier in par-
cels, belides being connettcd by one common flefliy bafe. If
this bafe be called a nectary, for which there is no good rea-
fon, the flower is polyadelphous, but we think, with Dr.
.Sims, and moft others, that it is monadelphous.

2. G. Humatoxyhn. Sv.'art/.. Ind. Occ. 1 1 99 — Blood-
red Wood Tree. — Flower-rtalks very fhort. Leaves ellip-
tic-lanccjlate, pointed, ferrated, fmooth. Petals inverfely
heart-fhaped. Style deeply five-cleft. — Native of dry woody
places on lofty mountains, in tlie welt fide of Jamaica ; Dr.
S wartz, from whom we have fpecimens. A tree, whofe (lem
is from twelve to fixtcen feet high, with a fmooth greyifli

I

bark, and round flender ftraight compound leafy tranches,
Leaves two or three inches long, fcattered, on footftalks.
elliptic -lanceolate, tapering at both ends, with a bluntifh re-
curved point, fmooth on both fides, Icls coriaceous than in
the former, their margin fomewhat revolute, with nun.irrous
fliallow ferratures. Flowers from the bofoms of the upper
leaves, folitary, on very fhort flalks, not fo long as the foot-
ilalks, bearing one or two unequal brafteas ; th.eir petals
pale flefli-colonred, unequal, deeply lobed, fciircely lo large
as thofe of G. Lajianthus, but flatter and more fpreading.
Germen filky, furrowed. Style, according to Dr. Swartz,
divided into five. Capfule oblong, rather pc;inted. Seeds
two in each cell, with an abrupt wing. — This tree was
omitted by Dr. Swartz in his Prodromus, and is little known
to botaniflo, having never yet been brought to Europe. It
flowers in February and March. The wood is hard and of
a blood-red, valued in Jamaica for making ornamental fur-
niture, but as yet not known, or not diftinguifhed, by Eu-
ropean workmen. The pecuhar ftrudlure of the ftyle does
not conflitute aTiy generic diftinftion here, any more than in
the neighbouring genus Sluartia. See Sm. Exot. Bot.
V. 2. loi.

3. G.ptihefcens. L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. 15^. Cavan. Did.
t. 162. Vent. Jard. de la Malmaifon, t. i. — Flowers nearly
fefllle. Leaves downy beneath. Capfules globofe. — Native
of Sonth Carolina, now not uncommon in green-houfcs,
flowering in autumn. A handfome Jljrul, whofe branches,
calyx, and the backs of its leave?, are clothed with fine
white depreffed down. Thejlonvers moft rcfemble thofe of
the firft fpecies, but one petal is confiderably more concave
than the reft, fliorter, and downy, approaching to the nature
of the calyx. The flower-ftalks are extremely fliort and
thick. Leaves obovatc-lanceolate, acute, with fhallow fer-
ratures, fmooth and of a fine green above. V entenat's
figure, drawn by Redoutc, the firft In the fplendid Jardin
do la Malmaifon, is one of the fineft reprefentations of a
plant that can any where be feen, except that the French
mode of printing in colours gives indifcriminately an idea
of a dov, ny furface, fo that in this cafe both iides of the
1 eaves look alike.

4. G. Franhlim. L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. 156. (Franklinia
Alatamaha; Marfliall. Arbuft. 49.) — " Flowers fefllle.
Leaves fmooth. Capfules globofe.'' — Native of South Ca-
rolina. Flowers fefiile, folitary, large, white, very much
admired in their native country, but we have not heard
of their being produced in Europe, nor have we feen
even a dried fpecimen. The eapfule, according to L'Hcri-
tier, is " globofe and umbilicated. Seeils numerous in each
cell, imbricated in two rows, flightly angular, much like
thofe of the Cvprefs, the angles fomewhat bordered. Leaves
alternate, on Ihort foot-ftalks, oblong, toothed, attenuated
at the bafe, and fmooth." — Marfliall and Bartram fay the
flowers fmell like a china orange, and are often five iiiches in
diameter, the lower petal hollow, enfc-jlding tlie rell till they
expand, as in G. pubefceiis. It v.-as firft obt'erved by Mr.
John Bartram in 1 760, on the borders of the Alatamaha river,
in Georgia.

GORDYGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan,
in Vifiapour ; 22 miles N.E. of Poonah.

GORE, in Heraldry, denotes one of the regular abate-
ments, ufed, according to Guillim, to denote a coward. It
confifts of two arches or curve lines, drawn, one from the
finifter chief, the other from the finillcr bafe, and meeting in
an acute angle in the middle of the feife-point.

GOREE, or Gokrke, in Geography, an ifland in the
German ocean, near the mouth of the Menfe, about 10
mile* in circuit ; two miles N. of Scllowen. N. lat. 51 ' 490

E. long.

G O R

G () R

'£. long. 3" 50'. — Alfo, a fea-port town of this iHand, near
tiie E. coaft, on a canal communicating willi the Meufe ;
rurmerly carrying on a confidfrable trade, but the harbour is
i;0'.\- choaktd with fund ; 6 miles W. of Helvoetfluys.

GoREE, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, within cannon-
fiot of tlie coaft of Africa, about two miles in circumfer-
ence. The air is cool and tempern'.e, being refrcfhed by al-
ternate breezes from the land and fea. It is almoll inacceflible
on account of its furrounding rocks; but it has two bays, and
a fort with fevcral new buildings conllruiSed by a late direftur
M. de St. Jean, who has alfo rendered it a very ftrong phicc .
Jiy his pcrfevcring affiduity, fprings of fre(h water have been
t'.iicovered, and a variety of vegetables and fruit trees have been
planted ; fo that the ifland, once barren and defpicable, is
now made one of the moft fafe, pleafant, and important fet-
tlements in Africa. Goree was ceded to the Dutch in 161 7
by a king of Cape Verd, and by them fortified. The Dutch
\,ere driven out by admiral Holmes in 1663, and the ifland
\',a> garrifoned by the Englifli. It was two years after taken
by De Ruyter, and its fortifications augmented by the
Dutch ; but in 1667 a French fquadron compelled the Dutch
t.i abandon Orange fort, and retire to fort NafTau ; but
Lore, incapable of defending themfelves, they were obliged
to furrender at difcretion. Upon the arrival of M.du
CafTe, the ifland was formally taken poflefTion of in the name
of the Senegal company, and a treaty was concluded with the
king and negroes of the neighbouring country on the fame
conditions v.ith thofe by which the Dutch had pofleiTed tlie
ifland. The conquefl was fecured to the company by the
treaty of Nimeguen. The French immediately repaired
the forts, and changed tlieir names, calling the lower fort
" Vermandois," and the higher " St. Michael.'' In 1750
Goree was taken by the Englifh. By the treaty of 1763
Goree and its dependencies were left to the French. In
177S it was taken by the Englifli. N, bt. 14 40'. W. long.

'7 30'-

GonEK, a fmall ifland on the coafl of Brazil, at the
mouth of the Rio dos Reyes Magos. S. lat. 19' 10'.

GOREING, or GoniNG, is faid of a fail when cut flant-
ing, fo that it is broader at the clew than at the caring, as
all top-fails and top-gallant-fails are.

GOREL, a name or title given to the prince of Georgia.
The gorel is always a Mahometan. The fophy of Perfia
obliges him to obferve the religion of the Alcoran, in order
to preferve the dignity of gorel in his family.

GORE's, Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S. W. coaft of
the ifland of Tavai-Poenammoo. S. lat. 43 12'. W. long.
186" 36'.

Goke'.s Ifland, an ifland in the N. Pacific ocean, fo named
by captain Cook in the year 1778. This is a narrow ifland,
particularly at the low necks of lands wliich form a iuniflion
betweci\ the hifls ; it is about 30 miles long from N.W. to
S.E. ; and it appeared barren and uninhabited. Some fea-
otters were feen. N. lat. 60 40'. W. long. 172 30'.

GORESBRIDGE, a fmall poft town of the county of
Kilkenny, Ireland, 51 miles S.W. from Dublin, on the road
to Waterford.

GORKY, a pod town of the county of Wexford, Ireland,
alfo called Ntwborough, which, before the Uiiion, was re-
prefented in parliament. It is 45^ miles S. from Dublin, and
2 I N. from Wexford.

GoHE\-Mountains of Ireland, in the county of Donegal,
near Raphoe.

GORGA, a town of Mingrtlia, on the Black fea; 30
miles S. of Anarghia.— Alfo, a river of Naples, which
■tarn into the Liban, in Calabria Citra.

QOKGE, in/"j/«nry, is the uppermoft bag cr'ftcmacli

of a hawk or falcon, beinc; that which receives tlic food the
firft.

The gorge, ingluvUs, is the fame, in birds of pr.y, with
v.'hat we call tlie cra-w or crop. When the bird is fed, he is
fdid to he gorged.

Go HOE, \n jirchiuSure, denotes a fort of concave mould-
ing, wider but not fo deep as a fcotia ; ufed chiefly iu frames,
chambranles, &c.

GoiiGii of a Ch'tmney, is that part between the cliambranle
and the crowning of the mantle. Of this there are divert
forms ; ftraight, perpendicular, in fonn of a bell, ficc.

GoKCiEis lumctimes alfo ufed for a moulding tliat is coij-
cave in the upper part, and convex at bottom; more pro-
perly called gula and cymalium.

Gorge is alfo ufed for tlie neck of a column ; more pro-
perly called colariii and gorgeriii.

GoiuJK, in ForlifiCiUiijn, the entrance of a Bojllon, or of a
Ravelin, or other Out-ivork. See each article.

The Gorge of a JJuJlion is what remains of the fides of the
polygon of a place, aiter retrenching the curtains ; in which
cafe it makes an angle in the centre of the ballion.

In flat ballions, the gorge is a right line on the curtain,
reachmg between the two flanks.

Gorge of a Half mortti, or Ravelin, is the fpace between
the two ends of their faces next the pl.^.ce.

Gorge of the other out-works is the interval betwixt their
fides next the ditch.

A'l the gorges are to be made deftitute of parapets ;
otherwile the beficgers, having taken pofleflion of a work,
might make ufe thereof to defend themfelves fi-om the fact
of the place : fo that they are only fortified with palifadocs,
to prevent a furprife.

Gorge, Half the Gorge, demi-gorge, that part of the poly-
gon between the flank and the centre of the bait ion.

GORGED, in Hirahlry, is when a crown, cf ronet, or
the like th;iig, is borne about the neck of a lion, a fwan, &c.
In that cafe they fay, the lion or cygnet is gorged with a
ducal coronet, &c.

Gouged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of a pea-
cock, fwan, or the ^ike bird, is of a dilferent colour or metal
from the red.

GolUiKD, among Farr'uri, &c. fignifies as much as
fwelLd. In which fenfe they fay, the legs of an Horfe are
gorged ; tlie pallern-joint is gorged ; you mud wclk him
out, to difgoige his flioulder.

Gouged, in Rural Economy, a term v.liith is fomctimes
applied to fignify being hoven by frefh luxuriant green food,
and reUites to cattle, &c.

GORGERIN, apart of the ancient armour, being that
which covered the throat or neck of a perfcn armed at all
points.

GoKGr.nix, or Gorge, in ylrchUeFture, the little frec7e in
the Doric capital, between the adrag:J, at the top of the
fhaft of the column, and the annn'ets.

Some call it colUirino. Vitruvius gives it the name l.yf>o-
trachelium.

GO RGET, in MilUary Jfairs, a piece of brafs or filvcr,
worn by tlie officers of foot upon their breads when on duty.
The gorget hangs round the neck by a ribband ; they are
fometimes gilded, and have commonly feme device engraved
on them, as the fovereign'f, or even the colonel's coat cf
arms, creft, or cypher.

GouGET, an inftrument ufed in S-irgery, for the purpofe
of cutting an opening into the bladdtr, fo as to enable the
operator to introduce the pair cf forceps and estraft tKe

ftone.

It

G O R

G O R

It is impoirible to give the reader a proper notion of the
form and maimer of ufmg the gorget, witliout prcfeiitiiig
him with engravings of the iiiftiumcnt, and tritcriiig into a
defcription of the operation of hthotomy. Hcnre, we nuid
at prefcnt content ourfelves with referring to the furgical
plates, and the article Lithotomy.

Belides cutting gorgets, conftniaed for the above defign,
there are alfo b'lmt ones, intended to be introduced into the
wound, wlicn their concavity ferves as a guide for the for-
ceps into tlie bladder.

The employment of gorgets for the performance of li-
thotomy has been objeftcd to by fevera! eminent furgeons
of the prcfent day, particularly by Mr. John Bell of Edin-
burgh. (Sec his Principles of Surgery, vol. 2 ) We have
feen the operation moil cafily executed by means of a com-
mon fcalpel. Mr. Aftlcy Cooper iifes, inllead of a gorget, a
common fcalpel with a beak, which ghdes along the groove
of the flaff into the bladder. Several other knives and inilru-
ments have been at different times invented to fuperfede the
Torget. The principal ones «ill be reprefented in the fur-
gical plates, and due notice will be taken of them in the
article Lithotomy.

GORGIAS, furnamed Leonlint/s, in Biography, born
at Leontium in Sicily, from whence he derived his fecond
name, was a celebrated orator and learned fophift, who
flouriflied in the fifth century before the Chriilian era.
He was a difciple of Empedocles, and is reckoned one of
the earlieil writers on the art of rhetoric. He is thought
to have introduced numbers into profe, treated of common
places, and (hewed the ufe of them for the invention of argu-
ments. Hence Plato gave the name of Gorgias to his ele-
gant dialogue on this fubjeA, which is ftill extant. He was
fo great an orator, that in public alfemblies he would under-
take to declaim extempore upon any iubjecT; propofcd to
him. In the war between Syracufe and Leontium, tlie citi-
zens of the latter applied to the Athenians for fuceour, and
employed Gorgias and Tifias as their ambaffadors, the former
of whom was peculiarly quahfied to influence popular affem-
bhes by his bold and perfuafive eloquence. On their arrival
at Athens about the year 427 B. C, Gorgias made an ora-
tion to the people on the grievances which their countrymen
fuffered from the people of Syracufe, and the advantages
which would accrue to them from fending a powerful army
into Sicily, by which he pcrfuadt-d them to rulh headlong
into a war, that proved in the end more fatal to them than
any in* which they had engaged. Afterwards lie made a
difplay of his eloquence at t!ie Olympic and Pythian games,
on account of which a golden ilatue was erefted to his
honour at Delphi. He is faid to have lived to the great
age of 107 or 108.

GORGOGLIONE, in Geography, a. town of Naples,
in the Bafilicata ; 15 miles E. of Venofa.

GORGONA, an ifland of fmall extent and of a circu-
lar form, in the Mediterranean, about 1 6 miles from the
coaft of Etruria. The mountains, fays Sonnini, feem to be
of the lame nature with thofe of the continent. This illand
is famous for the anchovy tifliery on its coatts. N. lat. 43 '
22'. E. long 9 56'. — Alfo, an ifland in the Pacific ocean,
about 18 miles from the coaft of Peru, about 10 miles in
circumference. N. lat. 3" 36'. W. long. 77 52'.

GORGONEUM, ro,ro;iio;, in ylntiquity, a kind of
mafquc ufed on the ancient theatre to repreient hideous and
frightful figures, in imitation of the Gorgons. Mem. Acad.
Infcript. tome v. p. 184.

GORGONIA, in Zoology, a genus of Zoophytes, the
flem of which is coriaceous, woody, corky, horny, or
fosnewhat bony, and in general flexible ; the texture glafly,

fibrous, or like ftone, ftriated, tapering, fixed at the baf?-,
which is dilated, and covered with vafcular or cellular flefh,
or bark of a fpongy and friable nature in a dried flate ;
the mouths or cells covering the furfacc of the flem and
bearing polypes.

Thefe marine produftions were i-egardrd by the ancient'^
as a clafs of plants, and defcribed as fuch by their botanifls ;
nor was this idea, however remote from truth, exploded till
f<i late a period as the eighteenth century, when the difco-
vcries of Peyffonel upon the nature of coral, publidu d in
1727, and thofe of Trembley on the hydra (or polype;
about fourteen years after, contributed to demonllrate, in 3
very explicit manner, that the gorgonice in common with
other /oophytes (as thefe particular bodies are now denomi-
nated), do not appertain to the vegetable, but animal king-
dom, or are at Icall the fabrication ai:d genuine habitations
of animals.

Among the various obfjrvers of this curious order of
animal produftions, few, if any, have purfucd their invefli-
gations with greater difcrimination and fuctefs than pro-
feffor Pallas, or our own coimtryman Ellis, and his friend
Dr. Solander ; nor indeed can we heiitate to confefs that
our knowledge of tlie gorgonia tribe has beea enlarged
only in a very inconflderab'e degree by any of the fubfe-
quent authors on this fubjecl. The latert: obfervations tend
principally to confirm the accuracy of thofe writers who had
before affured us the gorgonix are the habitations of various
kinds of polypiferous animals, each of which refides in a
diilinft cell ; that they lie in general dormant or contrafled
during winter, and, like the bloffcms of plants, pufli forth
buds, and expand in their proper fcafon, which is conflantly
in fuinmer. The flem and branches of the gorgonia, which
are moll commoiilv of a fomewhat horny and flexible nature,
may be confidered as the true flceleton of thefe nells of habi-
tations, being covered witli a flcfhy or pulpy fubflance, the
exterior furface of which is porous. Thefe pores are the
mouths or openings of the cells in which the polypes are
lodged, and it is the number, dilpofition, and varied ftrudlure
of thefe, in addition to the general afpcft of the plant-like
ne(l of habitations, that conlHtute the moil material differ-
ences by whicli the various fpecies are diftinguiflied ; the
figure of the animal, when it can be afcertained, forming the
fetondary or leafl important charadler. It niay be lallly ob-
ferved, that the gorgoni;e differ exceedingly in fize, being
from one to two, or perhaps three feet in lieiglit, while
other fpecies in deep bays, and fimi'ar fituatioiis of the fea,
no lefs favourable to their growth and increafe, attain to the
gigantic height of ten or twelve feet, and from ttieir number
as well as magnitude ; their remarkable ramoie, and foliated
or flabelliform appearance ; interwoven flrufture, and coral-
like texture, form a confpicuous portion of thofe vail fub-
marine " groves of coral" that are fometimes feen by navi-
gators in the hotter regions of the globe.

Species.

Lkp.\difkra. Dichotomous, with crowded, imbricated,
refletted, campanulated florets. Miill. Gorgonia rcjeila, Pal-
las. Gorgonia nffili/oniiis, Gunner. Reftda marina, Bell.

Native of the Norway teas, from eighteen inches to two
feet liigh ; flefli pale, with whitifli fl<in or fcales ; flem white,
with a flony bafe and cartilaginous branches.

Vkuticillaui.s. Pinnate, ramofe, with alternate paral-
lel fubdivifions, covered with verticillaled incurved florets.
Miill Pallas, &c. Sea-Jl-alher, Elhs.

From two to three feet high ; flem brittle and white,
with flexible branches. Native of the Mediterranean and
North leas.

Placomus-

GORGON I A.

Placomus. Branching both way:, with flexiious, and
rarely uniting or anaftomoiing branches, covered with conic
florets. Linn Warkd-feA-fan, EUis. Lithoxylon, &;c. Breyn.

Height two feet ; ilem ered, woody, and yellow, fcarlet
or reddifh cinereous. Inhabits the Indian and European
feas.

MoLLLS. Coriaceous, dicholomous, with perpendicular
tubular florets. Pallas.

Native of the Mediterranean, and about eighteen inches
in height, the colour brown violet ; ftem brown ; branches
long and (lender.

SucciNE.\. Round, amber-colour, dichotomous, rigid,
the ilem covered with tubercular gaping florets. Pallas.

A very rare fpecies, tlie native place of which is unknown ;
it is only fix inches high, the ftem teftaceous.

Ameiuc.in.a. Branched and fub-divided, the fub-divi-
fions nearly oppofite, comprelTcd, with rows of polypife-
rous cells on each margin ; fle(h yellowilh, within pale pur-
ple ; bone horny. Gmel. Gorgonia p'lnnata, Soland. and
Ellis.

Native of the Well Indies ; flefh purplifh or yellow-
i(h.

E.x.sERTA. Round, with a few alternate branches ; flo-
rets alternate, eight -valved ; flelh covered with minute white
fcales ; bone brownifh, horny. Soland.

Height two feet; branches long, flender, and white ; po-
lypes witli eight feelers and exferted. Inhabits the Weft In-
dies.

Patul A. Comprefled, with flexuous fub-pinnate branches,
crimfon, with two rows of florets each fide, each furround-
ed with a whitifli ring : bone brownifli, horny. Soland.

Native of the Mediterranean.

Ceratoi'iivta. Branched, with divaricate ereft fub-
diviiions, each marked with two furrows ; florets white,
in irregular rows ; flefli purple ; bone black and horny.
Gorgonia ceratophyta, Soland. CoraU'ma fruticofa purpurea,
C. Bauh. LUhophylon, isfc. Gefn. Corallina j'ruUcofa erec-
tior, Catefby.

Found in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and South
American feas ; height twelve inches ; flelh bright pur-
ple.

JuscEA. Stem fimple, round, and tapering both ways ;
boneduflvy, horny ; flefh orange-colour, with two furrows ;
florets longifh. Soland. &c. Junci lapidei, Plin. Falmjun-
c'j£ alius, Rumpf.

Inhabits t!ie fhores of the American iflands adhering to
flones ; height about three feet, and very flexible when
ahve.

Fl..\MMEA. ComprefTed, branched, and fub-pitwiatcd ;
bone flat and horny ; flcfh bright red, with minute florets.
Soland. and Ellis.

A beautiful fpecies, of a fiery red or flame-colour
when recent ; this kind inhabits the African coall, and ap-
pears to be found in moll abundance near the Cape of Good
Hope.

UMBnACtiLUM. Fan-fliapcd, and fomewhat reticulated :
brandies numerous, divergent and round ; flelh icddilh,
warted or covered with florets. Soland. and Ellis.

Native of tlie Indian fea ; ftem ft^ort, rifing from a broad
bafe, divided into about two or three branches, the fmallor
ones rifing from which are numerou.'i, andfo intimately con-
jiefted as to form a kind of net-work.

Pi;hi'vhk.\. Somewhat dichotomous, with divaricated
fiender branches ; flelh violet and fub-verrucofo. Pallas.

Round, finooth and blackifti, with the extremities of the
branches yellow. A South American fpecies.

Vol, XVI.

Sa.sappo. Sub-dichotomous, round, with divaricated
flender branches ; flelh red, with numcrou'! hairy riuretc.
Pallas. Accarhaar fafappof. •virga/anguinca, Rumpf.

About twelve inches in length, the texture horny, and
colour black. The bemacle is frequently obfervtd adlieririg
to this fpecies.

Pal.ma. Flat, with numerous very long ?nd fimple di-
vifions ; flefli fmooth, fprinkled with firijpk- pores. Palla».
Chamitr'tpha pirfgrina, Clufius.

Grows to the height of fix feet, though more commonly
not exceeding two or tiirce feet ; the fubltance hornv, cover-
ed with a calcareous coating, and flexible. Inhabits the In-
dian ocean.

Radicat.\. Very much branched, and corkv ; with
minute fcattered pores, and many-cLft at the bafe. Palla«,
Seba, &c.

Native of the African feas ; fub-dichotomous, grey,
with branched trunk, and in fubllance refembling
cork.

SuBEno.<iA. Woody, very much branched, dilTufe, the
branches comprelTed and grooved, and covered with fubllcl-
lated fcattered pores. Pallas.

Height three feet ; flefli rod, fpongy ; bone pale red and
corky; branches long, round and erect. Found in the In-
dian and African feas.

CoRALLOiDE.s. Woody, crcft, fub-dichotomous, and
varioufly formed ; flelh tuberous, with Itellated tuber-
culated florets. Pallas. Corallina lignum incrujlani,
Bocc.

Native of the Mediterranean ; length one foot, very
tough, pale grey, with yellow florets.

Eloxgat.\. Dichotomous, divaricated, with the flelh red,
and covered with papillous fcattered fub-imbricated pores.
Gmel. &c

Pale and brittle, with fquare branches with pores at the
angles ; grows to the height of four feet, and inhr^bits iIk?
Atlantic.

SciRPEA. Very fimple, ftraight, with a decompo.
fite leafy bafe, and foft tuberculattd flelh. Pallas.

Fufcous, tapering towards the tip ; the flefh cinereous when
dry ; inhabits the Indian feas.

Set.vcea. Simple, rigid, with calcareous white fub-
tuberculated flelh. Pallas. Tftdis plocamuw, Mercal.

Native of the American ocean.

Vl.MlNAl.Is. Very Ijng, deprefTed, branched, withrrci?t
fub-divifions ; flelh yellow ; florets feated along each mar-
gin of the branches, and rather prominent. Pallas. IjiJit
plocamum II. &c. Mercat.

Height eight inches ; brarchcs long and flender ; bone
blackilli and horny ; florets white ; the polype fiimilheJ
with eight feelers or claws. Native of the Atlantic and
Mediterranean.

Ml'FUCWTA. Round, with deprefled fub-diviJcd branches ;
flrlh thick ; pores cyhndrici! Piid fpinous. Pallas, EUis,
&c. Epieorailum, &c. Petiv. I.ilhopkyton. Tournef.

Native of the American iflands; height from two to
three feet ; coriaceous, horny, with a whitifli medullar)-
nerve.

VrnRfCOSA. Bifarious, with round, fub-Jichotomous
flexuous branche.s ; fielti calcareous, pores whitilh and pro-
minent. Pallas, Ellis, &c. I.ilhophyton marinum, Gefn.
Corallina alba nodo/a, C. Bauh. Fralix nuirinus Jl,ibtllifi.nnis,
Sec. Ray. Erica marina, &.c. Petiv.

Inhabits the Weft Indian, Mediterranean, and rarely the

Britilh feas, adhering by the broad bafe of the principal

trunk to the rocks, and rifing to the height of twelve or

3 O fifteen

G O R G O N I A.

fifteen inches, and fometimes rather more, in a fan-like form ;
coloui' when dry greyifti-white ; bone of a texture between
horn and wood.

Aktipathes. Shri'.bby, with ereci, alternate panicled
branches ; bone with flexuo'js ftriae ; f;efh thick and imooth ;
pores large and fcattcred. Palla", &c. ylntipalha, &C. Lo-
bel. Coralllum nigrum DwfcoriJis, ib. Lithophyicn tiigritm
arboreum, Tournef. jiccabaair pohon, Valcnt.

Grows to the iieip:lit of two feet, and inhabits the Indian
and Mediterranean Teas. This is the black caral of tlie
ihops.

NoBiLis. Dichotomous, the branches fomewhat taper-
ing ; flelh red, (lippery, and fcft ; the farface ipeckled with
numerous eight-valved, conic, and rather elevated, irregu-
larly difpofcd pores ; bone bright i-ed, iiriated, and (lightly
pimftured externally. S-_iand. arid Ellis, &c. Ifa Kolilis,
Linn. SyR. Nat. XII. i.Ictlrepora rubra, Linn. Sylt.Nat. X.
IJis Pallas. Corallum rubruni, Donat. Red coral, Elhs.

The bone of this fpecies conftitutes that beautiful and
much efteemed marine pfoduciion, the red, or true coral of
the jewellers. The coral is a general inhabitant of the Me-
diterranean, Adriatic, and Red feas, and appears to be no
ivhere more abundant than in the fea about Marftilles, Cor-
iica, Sicilv, and tlie coiift of Africa, in the vicinity of Bar-
hary, the coral liflieries in thofe parts being carried on with
great fpirit, and proving highly lucrative. From the ob-
fervations of Donati, an author who has devoted much
attention to this curious fnbjedl; of enquiry, we underiland
that the fleih or exterior coating of the coral K of a red
colour, varying from bright to paler hues, the tint of which
is uniformly lefs brilliant than that of the l:one or coral
itfclf. The mod; prevalent colour of the bone is red, exhi-
biting all the travifitions from a pale rofe colour to line
fcarlet, and fometimes inclining to yellowifh or fine faffron.
The coral grows in a fln-ubbv form, and not unfrequently
in an inverted form, to tlie height of a foot or eighteen inche.<!,
Vvhich latter it rarely exceeds, nor is the ciixumference of
the largeft branches more than one inch. Externally the
furface is ftriated, more or lefs nodidous or v.arted, and the
fubftance when broken appearing compofed of a number of
concentric layers. The coral of this fpecies is equal in
hardnefs and durability to the moil compact marble, and
thefe material qualities; in addition to its beautiful texture or
grain, and colour, have contributed to render it valuable in
the eftimation of the world frorn the earlier ages, as we learn
from Pliny, and other writers of remote antiquity. At this
day the true coral bears a confiderable price throughout tlie
Eaft as well as in Europe ; its fuppofed medicinal vii tiies
have, however, fewer votaries at prefent than forinerly.
The polypes, by whicli the cells are occupied, are furniihed
each with eight arms or tentacula, in the centre of which the
mouth io fituated ; thefe arms are retractile, conlraft im-
• mediately on being touciied ; the cells or pores are tilled
with a white liquor, and the polypes are likewife white.

Asci;r3. Paniculated, fiib-dichotomous ; llcm and
branches eomprciTed ; flefh calcareous ; marcrin porojs.
Gmel. Pailas, &c. Sea iviibw, Ellis. Epicorallvm virgulis
a.'atis, Petiv.

Inh;'>bits the Atr.erican, and fome of the European leas :
. Ijeight nearly two feet ; bone roundifh, tapering to the ends,
and violet when recent.

Ch.assa. Round, dichotomous, with long, thick, diva-
ricated, erecl branches ; fleflt thick, violet, with fmall pro-
minent, approximate, equidiftant pores ; boue daik brown
and horny. Sohnd. and Eilis.

Native of the American Seas.

PiNNATA. Rather compteSed and pinnated, with very

■fimple comprefTcd branches ; flefh red with oblong pore;.
Linn. Palma pilag'ica, Theophr. I.hl^oxyloii, Brcyn.

Grows to the height of from one to four fci t ; the
texture horny and brown, the branches yellowiih. Native
of the African and North feas.

S.\KGUi>;oLENT.\. Deprelled, very ramofe, and pin-
nated ; ilefh yellow, with purple pores in double rows.
Pallas. Lithopkytum Jla-vum pundalum, Touri.cf.

Native of the Atlantic and Mediterranean feas ; height
one foot.

ViOLACEA. Rather deprtfied, with pinnated branches ;
flefh violet : nearly fquarc, with lomewhat prominent pores.
Pallas. Quercus n:arinp-, Theojdir.

Inhabits the American feas, above a foot long, and
horny.

SetosA. Round and pinnated, witli diffufe branches ;
flefil pnrpUth. AiiUpnlhes h'trfutum, Pon. Lithophytur,: ,
Tournef.

Grows to the heiglit of two feet ; very upright, and in-
habits the Mediterranean and American leas.

Peteciiizaxs. Sub-dichototcous, very much branched,
with a yellow bifulcated flefli covered with red pores. Pal-
las. Gmel. &c.

Native place unknown : bone horny, black, witli amber-
coloured raniifications.

P-ectixata. Round, with parallel afcending f:r.v/_'
branches ; flefh red, with gibboas fcattered pores ; boiic
white, hard, and brittle. Gmel.

Very rare, white, with red ilefli ; found in the Indian
ocean.

Abiextixa. Ramofe pinnated ; fleih yellow, with roKS
of purple florets each fide ; bone horny and yellowifli.
Solant'.and Ellis.

Native of the African fliores, and ft-ldom exceeds a foot
in height.

Calycl'L.\T.\. Dichotomous and fabdivided, with erect
thick ramifications covered with truncated papillae ; ilcjh
cinereous, within purplilh ; cells large and cup-fnapcd ;
bene dark brown and honiy. Elhs.

Inhabits the American leas.

Briareus. Subramofe, round, thick; flefh pale or
whitifh within, externally cinertous ; bone compoied of
fmall purple glaffy needles, irregularly and clofely difpofed
longitudinally. Soland. and Elhs.

Cells large, prominent, numerous, and irregularly dif-
pofed ; the fpecies inhabits the Weft Indies.

Vextalina. Reticulated ; branches compreffed exter-
nally at the fides ; bark red. Gmel. Lilhoxylon reiifortne,.
&fr. Clifford Hort. Gorgonla vcntllabrum, Pallas. Fla-
bella marina, Rumpf.

Black or brown ; the fpecies inhabits the Indian ocean.

Reticulatv.m. Reticulated, branches with very clofe
fet round ramifications, and red tuberculated bark.

Very ponderous, of a grey colour, and inhabits the Indian
ocean.

Clatiirl's. Reticulated, woody; with round ramifica-
tions ; flefh fmooth with fimple pores. Pallas.

Native place unknown ; about eight or ten inclics in
height, pale, with a thin r;ddilh-gix>v flefli.

Flabellu.m. Reticulated ; branches compreffed inter-
nally ; flefli yellow. Gmel. Gorgonia, Pallas. Flalclhim
•veneris, Ellis. Frtitex mnriiiiis, Clufius. Froiitliporn, Bo-
nann. Keratophytum nliciilatum. Brown. Arhre de mer,
Rcchef.

The bone is black, horny, and flightly ftriated on the
Lirger branches.

Found adhering to various fubftances, and varying in
8 cok>i J

G O R

zola-ir from yellow to purple : this fpccies inhabit! moil
feas.

GORGONIUM, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the common cryngium or eryugo, the roots of
ivhich we ufc candied.

GORGOXS, ill Jn.'iquity and Myth-Aogy. Authors are
not agreed in thii account tlicy give of the Gorgons. The
poets reprefent them as throe iiftcrs, whofe names were
Stheno, Eiu-yale, and Medufa, the daughters of Phorcus
by Ceto ; the latter of whom was mortal ; and having been
deflowered by Neptune, was killed by Perfeus ; the two
former were fubjeil neither to age nor death. They arc
defcribed with wings on their Ihoulders, with ferpents round
their heads, their hands were of brafs, and their teeth of a
prodigious fize ; fo that they were objeAs of terror to
inankmd. ^fchyljs, in his P.-ornetheus, adds, that they had
but one eye and cae tooth among all the ihree, which they
made ufe of one aKer the other, and that they killed men
with a firigle gla".ce of the eye.

Pindar (Pyth. 13.) invproves upon jEfchylus, and
heightens the fable by thefe circumftauces, unknown to tiis
predecefTors. The iirfl is, that the Gorgons turned thofe
into ilone y.'hom thev looked upon, and that it was by this
kind of death that Perfeus, in prefenting Medufa's head,
defolated the iliand of Seriphus, whofe inliabitants he petri-
fied, tog;tlicr with their king. The fecoiid is, that Mi-
nerva, who aided Perfeus while he was ftruggliiig with
Medufa, bei:ig furprifed with the melody of the Gorgons'
figlis, intermingled with -the hillings of their ferpents, felt
ce.'tain charmiiu that mixed compofition of dolelul accents;
and to renew UK idea of the harmony, ihe invented a flute in
imitation of it, which (he imparted to men ; and in allufion to
its lirll model ihe called the various founds it produced " a
Harmony with many lieads." The third is, that Pegafus,
whom rieiiod i-eprefents as having taken flight to the man-
fion of the gods, was afterv.-ards broke by Minerva, and
given to Bellerophon, who mounted him to combat the
Chimera ; butr that hero having attempted to afcend to
heaven on the wings of that horfe, was thrown down to the
earth, and Pegafus placed among the ftars. ( Pindar's 01. iii.
Pyth. vii. ) The Latin poets, though faithful copiers of
tl'.e Greek ones, have yet loaded the fable of the Gorgons
with new circumilances. Homer had faid, that the Gorgon's
head was engraved upon the tremendous jEgiS of Minerva :
\'irgil adds, and upon her cuirafs too, in the place which
covered the g-oddefs's breaft :

■ Tpfanique in peftore Di

Gorgona defeclo vertentem lumina coUo." ./En. 1. viii.

After the death of Medufa, her fillers, according to
Virgi', were appointed to keep the gate of the palace of
Pluto :

" Multaque prsterea variarum monftra ferarum —
Gorgones, Harpeiique '' jEn. 1. vi.

Oiid of all the poets has more enlarged upon the fable of
the Gorgons, and added feveral particulars which are only
faund in his Metamorpliofes, 1. iv. and v.

Diodorus Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons to
have been two warlike nations of women, who inhabited
that part of Lybia which lay on the lake Tritonidis. The
e.-itermination of thefe female nations was not effecled till
Hercules undertook and performed it.

Paufanias fays, the Gorgons were the daughters of Phor-
bus, probably by miilake for Phorcus ; after whofe death,
Medufa his daughter reigned over the people dweUing near
the lake Tritontdis. The queen wa« paiTionately fond of
hunting r.nd war, fo that flie laid the neighbouring countries

G O R

qnilc \»afte. At laft, Perfeus havirp made war on them,
and killed the queen hcrfclf, when he came to take a •\\ch/
of the field of battle, found the quecu's corpfe fo c xtrcnicly
beautiful, that he ordered her head to be cut off, whici h»
tarried with liim to (how his countrymen, the Greeks, who
could not behold it wiihout being ftruck with aftcniih-
ment.

Others rcprcfcnt them as a kind of Eiondrous women,
covered witli hair, wholivcd in woods and forells. Other.,
again, make them animals, rei'T.bling wild (heep, whofe
eye.^ had a poifonous and fatal influence.

Xcnophon of Lampfacus, who 'i'; followed by Phnv and
Solinus, was of opinion, that tlv- Gorgons were fenuie fa-
vnges, who inhabited the illands Gcrgades. Hanno, the
Carthaginian gencrnl, penetrated as far as thefe ifiands, where
he found women, who, in fwirtncfs, outran the flight of birds.
Gerard Voffius, in his " Origin and Progrefs cf Idolatry,'*
is perfuaded, that the fable of the Gorgons took its rife from
the rcliUion of Hanno the Carthaginian general, above cited,
from Xenophon of Lampfacus. Le Clerc, on thecontrar)-,
in his notes upon Heiiod, takes them for the marcs of L)-
bia, v/hich the Phoenicians in a voyage to Africa had taken
away. Banier (Mythol. vol. iii.1 is oj opinion that the Gor-
gons dwelt in that part of Lybia, wliich was afterwards
called Cyrenaicum ; and that Pho.'cys, their father, had con-
quered Ithaca, which was not far from the coall of Africa,
where he refided. It is not incrediiile th.U this prince would
employ his fleet in carrying on an advantageous trade, and
that Polydeftes, king of SeripJius, in order to get rid of
Perfeus, gave him fome fliips for the purpofe of pirating on
the coails of Africa. Perfeus accordingly, thus equipped,
failed from the iile of Seriphus for the coall of Lybia, and
having fallen in with the fleet of Phorcys, made himfelf
mailer of fome of his fsiips and a part of his riches. Thefe
fliips, it is faid, bore the names of Medufa, Stheno, and Eu-
ryale. They were loaded with the teeth of elephants, the
horns cf fifaes, and the eyes of hysena'i, which Phorcys bar-
tered for other gocds. This, it is faid, is the myftery of
the tooth, horn, and eye, whicii the Gorgons borrowed by
turns ; that is, the fliips, when arrived in the port, took
each of them goods proper for the place to which they were
bound. The other fictions that accompany this bailor)',
fays the author now cited, will explain themfelves.

For a farther account of tliem, lee Mem. Acad. Infcript.
vol. iv. p. 72, feq. See Mi3rus.s; caput.

GORGONZUOLO, in Gcosrapky, a town of Italy, ia
the department of the Olona ; to miles N.E. of Milan.

GORGORA, an ifland of Abyflinia, in the lake Dembca
(which fee), where a palace was built, wliich is the ufiial re-
fidence of the emperor in \v-intcr.

GORHAM, a pod town of America, in Cumberland
couSty and Hate of Maine, on the N.E. tide of Saco river,
130 miles N.E. from Bofton : incorporated in 176+, and
containing 2053 inhabitants.

GORIO, Akthonv Fr.\kcis, in Biography, a Ic-amcd
antiquary of the eighteenth century, a native of Florence,
was author of the following works, vi%. " Mufxum Florcn-
tinum,'' or adefcription of the cabinet of the Grand Duke,
eleven volumes folio, with a great niunbcr of plates :
" Mufa?um Etrul'cum," three volumes, folio. " Mufxum
Cortonenfe,'' folio. '« Ancient Infcriptions in the Towns of
Tufcany," three volumes folio.

GORITZ, or GoHZ, in Geography a country of Ger-
many, in the circle of Aullria ; bounded to the N.E. and S.
by the duchy of Carniola, and on the \V. by the Venetian
flates. The cliief produce of the country confifts in wine
and fruit, with fome corn and filk ; the borfcs and oxen are
3 O 2 tew.

G O R

(e.v, but the goats are numerous. T!ie language ot the
country is ScUivonian, and the religion Roman Catholic.

GoKiTZ, or Gorilla, a town of Germany, fituated in the
above-mentioned country, and divided into Upper and Lower
town; the form^T is ancient, leatcd on a mountain, and de-
fe

G O R

the year \^:i^ lie took the degree of doftor of phyfic ii/
that city about 1540, and was appointed dean of the faculty
in 1548. He is faid to have polTeired both the learning and
fagacity requilite to form an accomplifhed phyfician, and to
have praftifed with great humanity and fuccefs. His works

■i»ded by a caiUe ; the latter is iitualed on a plain on the contributed to fupport this reputation. The greater part
ver Lifonzo. Btlidps the church, fmce the year 1784, not of them conlills of commentaries on different portions of the
metropolitan, it has feven convents, nine chapels, and a col- writings of Hippocrates, Galen, and Nicander. During the
leg-.-. In 1 'O- it was taken by the French : 20 miles N.N.W. civil war, which was fatal to numerous men of letters, John de
of Trielte.' N. lat. 46 5'. E. long. 13' 33'. Gorris was Hopped by a party of foldiers, when on his

GoRnz,ato\vn of i?randenburg, in the New Mark, feated journey to Melun to vifit the bifliop of Paris, and the fright
on the Oder, formerly the metropolis of the circle of which he fuftained is faid to have deprived him of his realon.

This occurred in 1,61, and he lived many years in this de-
plorable condition, having died at Paris in 1577, at the age
of 72.

His father, alfo John de Gorris, was a phyfician at

Bourges, attained confidcrable eminence, and left two works,

one on the general " praftice of medicine,'" dated 1555 ; the

The country lies between the province of Oude and Thibet, other, a " collection of formulje,'' 1560, both in Latin.

and is governed by a rain dependent of Thibet. — Alfo, a Eloy Dift.H^ft.

Lebus.

GORKA, a tov,-n of Hindooftan, iu Mewat ; 12 miles
S.S.W. of Cottilah.

GORKAH, a town of Afia, fituated in the N.E. part
of the fmall Hate fo called, on the borders of Napaul ; 35
miles NAV. of Catinaiidu. N. lat. 28 25'. E. long 84^36'

town of the duchv of Warfaw ; 40 mUes S. of Pofen.

GORLjEUS', AnRAH.AM, m Biography, a celebrated
medallill, was born at Antwerp in 1549. He devoted him-
felf entirely to the collection of ancient medals, feals, rings,
and other curiol'ities. He died at Delft, where he fpent the
greatell part of his life, in the year 1609. His works are
entitled " Dacfyliotheca feu Annuloruni Sigillorumque e
Ferro, JExe, Argento, atque Auro Promptuarium : " " The-
faurus Numifmatum familiarum Rom. :' " Paralipomena

GORRITI, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the river La
Plata.

GORSA, a fmall ifland near the S. coaft of Cuba. N.
lat. 21-45'. W. long. 81- 25'

GORSE. See FcRZE and Ulex.

GORSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Helfmg-
laiid ; 30 miles W. of Hudwickfwall.

GORT, a pod town of Ireland, in the county of Gal-
way. It Hands on an eminence, and is a dirty ftraggling

Numifmatum.'' His works are highly valued by thofe who town, but can boaft of a few good houfes. Adjoining to it

are the ruins of a caftle, and near it is Kilmacduagh, the fee ot
abifhop. Gort is 98 miles W. from Dublin.

GORTER, John de, in Biography, a phyfician, who,
after having been a difciple of the celebrated Boerhaave, be-
came a dillinguifhed teacher of medicine at Harderwick, his
native place ; in confequence of which he was elected a mem-
ber of the academies of Peterfhurg, Rome, and Hacrlem,
and obtained the title of phyfician to Elizabeth, em-
prefs of all the Ruflias. He was the author of feveral works,
which are written with excellent method, and contain many
interefting and original obfervations. He died on the nth
of September, 1762, at the age of 74. — His works, the titles
ot which are enumerated by Eloy, relate to phyiiological and
praftical fubjefts, as well as to the pratlice of the ancients.
Eloy. Dia. Hill.

GORTERIA, in Botansy named by Linnsus after Da-
vid De Gorter, profefTor of p'lyfic and botany :n the Dutch

are addirtcd to thele Ihidies. Moreri.

GORLITZ, in Geography, a town of Upper Lufatia,
feated on the river Neiife, and the firll town in the county
with regard to frze, population, and wealth. Within the
walls it has tlu-ee churches, and as many without. The
principal trade is brewing, with woollen and linen manufac-
tures. 50 miles E. of Drefden. N. lat. 51 9'. E. long.

15° 3''-

COROCHOVETZ, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-

mcnt of Vladimir ; 72 miles E. of Vladimir. N. lat. j6 10'.

E.longr. 42 34'.

GO'RODITSCHE, a town of RufTia, in the government

of Penza; 32 miles E.S.E. of Penza. N. lat. 53 20'.

E. long. 46 34'.— Alfo, a town in the government of Kiev,

ii2 miles S.E of Kiev..N. lat. 49". E. long, 32' 54'- — Alfo,

a town ill the government of Tobolflc, 20 miles E.S.E. of

Enifeifk.

GORODNIA, a town of RufTia, in the government of univerfity of Harderwick, author of feveral local Floras of

Tver, on the Volga, 2,3 miles E. of Tver.

GORODNITZSK, a tov.n of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tchernigof, oa the Snov ; 32 miles N.N.E. of
Tchcrnigof.

GORODOK, a tov.;n of Rufiia, in the government of
miles E. of Poletllc. N. lat. -^y 36'. E. long.

Poletlk ; 36

29 54'.

GORON, a town of France, in the department of May-
enne, and chief place of a canton, in the dillritt of Mayenne ;
9 miles N.W. of Mayenne. The place contains 1800, and
the canton 1^,733 inhabitants, on a territory of 2CO kiKo-
metres, in 1 1 communes.

GORONGX), a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea ; 20
miles S. of Gilolo. S. lat. 1-8'. E. long. 128 33'.

GORONJ'ALE, or Goroxtako, a town on the E.
coaft of the island of Celebes;

GORPETA, I :own of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 24
miles W. of Chandor.

GORRIS, Joa.v DE; \xi Biography, was born St Paris in

that neighbourhood, and of Elementa Botanica. He died
in 1783, aged ff6. (Dryandr. Bibl. Banks, v. 5. 256.) Linn.'
Gen. 441. Schreb. 576. Wi!ld. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2265. Mart.,
Mill. Dift. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 254. Juff. 1S2.
Gxrtn. t. 171. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 702. (Gazania: La-
marck. lUullr. t. 702. Perfonaria ; ibid. t. 716.) Clals and
order, Synger.tfia Polygam'm-fniflraHea. Nat. Ord. Compojiu,
Linn. Corymhifer/i, Juif.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx of one leaf, imbricated with fpi-
nous fcales, the innermoll gradually longer, ftraight, brillle-
Ihaped, rigid. Cor. compound, radiated. Florets of the
dillc numerous, perf^^cl, with a funnel-fliaped five-cleft co-
rolla ; thofe ofth? radius fewer, female, with a ligulate lan-
ceolate one. >.ijm. (in the perfieft florets only) Filaments
five, fliort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Fi[l.
(of the perfect flora's) Gerraen hairy; ilyle thread-fhaped,
the length of its own little corolla; iligma cloven. In the
female florets the germi-n is obfolcte and abortive ; ilvle
none; iligma none. Poic. none, except the calyx, falhng-

ctt"

G O R

oft" entire. Seeds to the perfect florets only, folitarv, round-
ilK Down fimple or woolly. Reciptuc'e naked.

EiT CIi. Receptacle naked. Down fimplc or woolly.
Florets of the radius hgulate. Calyx of one leaf, clothed
with imbricated fcales

All the plants ranged \inder this genus are natives of the
Cape of Good Hope. In the 2d edition of Linnius's Spe-
cies Plantarflm, where ilfirit appears, are five;^c.'yi;;n/j, Jacq.
Coll. V. 4. t. 2 1. f. I ; ripens, Curt. Mag. t. yo ; />jiia/ ro/a, ci-
Harts, and fruiii-ofa. The latter is the fame plant as G. ajle-
roiJts, Linn. Suppl. 38 1, but different horn Atrailylis oppnfi-
tifoliii, under which it is quoted in Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 730.
To the above are added, in the Mautifla, p. 287, G. fdoj'a ;
and in the Supplementum ii.K more, hcrbacea, h}fl>i(la, fpinofa,
crnua, unlflora, and bnrlala. Of thele the uv.'ijhra is there
fufpefted, we believe julHy, to be a mere variety of rigors.

Tiie genus thus underilood undoubtedly forms a very iin-
natuml afleniblage, Linn^uf having chiefly confidered the
fimple-leavcd calyx, as Gxrtiier long ago remarked. Willde-
now accordingly has but feven Gorienir, the perfoiwta, rigens,
and ceinua of Linnaeus, with dijfiifa, int . grifolia, petlinalci, and
c Hiita of Thuiiberg. Others are fent to his genera oi I\Ttif-
Ji lia, whofe receptacle is villous, and feed-down formed of
limple hairs ; and Berckheya, whofe receptacle and feed-down
are chaffy Among the latter are the beautiful and truly
wonderful G ciliailt, and the fpinofa ; the latter figured in
Jacq. Hort. .Schonbr. t. 372 Tliis is doubtlefs a great
improvement, but it feems to us that the genus mult, after
all, chiefly depend en G. perfonatay which is an annual plant,
of no beauty, with many fpreading^cmj, about a foot liigh.
Z,frji>f.r alternate, fpatulate, revolute, pinnatifidor undivided ;
very white and cottony beneath ; and green and brillly, like
the ftems, above. Flozvers folitary, terminal, fmall, yellow,
with numerous prominent fpines to the calyx. The Jeetis are
crowned with wool, but have no ^XQ^r pappus or feed-down.
The leaves of G. rigens bear fome anrrfogy with this, but
the large orange bloffoms, unarmed calyx, and long fimple
feed-down, urge the propriety of feparating it. Tlie latter
is Lamarck's Gazania, above quoted.

GORTYN.A., or Goutvv, in Ancient Geography, an in-
land cicy of Crete, being, according to Strabo, near 90
furlongs dillant from the African fea, or that part of the
Mediterranean which waflied the fouthern part of the ifiand.
Its oi-igin is oblcure, fome afcribing it to Gortyn, the
fon of Rhadamantlms, and others to Taurus, who carried
off Europa. In procefs of time, however, it eclipfed all the
other cities of Crete, efpecially after the illand was reduced by
the Romans. Of its ancient fplendour and magnificence we
may form fome judgment from its ruins, which are ilill
v.iible about fix mi!es from mount Ida ; though many of
them have been carried away by the Turks. In ancient
times it was famous for the temples of Apollo, Diana, and
.Tupiter Hecatombxus, fo called becaule Menelaus there
facrificed to Jupiter 100 oxen, v.hen he received information
of Helena's flight. Its walls were wafhed by the river
Letlie. Theophraflus, Varro, and Pliny fpeak of a plane
tree near Gortyna, which" never ihed its old leaves till new
ones fprouted forth.

GORTYNI \, a town of Greece, in the northern pr.rt
of Macedonia.

GORUAH, in Geojrr^pfjf, a town of Hindoollan, in
Bahar ; 62 miles W.S.W of Bahar.

GORY, a town of Georgia, in the province of Carduel,
on the Kur ; 47 m.iles W. of Tetlis. N. kit. 41' 55'.
E. long. 44' 30'.

GORZE, a town of Fr.nnce, 'in the department of thd
MofcUe, and cliief place of a canton, in ihe diiliiCt of MeSz j.

G 0 S

jniilcs S.W. of Metz. N. lat. 49' 3'. E. long. 6' 4 .
The place contains 1535, and the canton 14,278 irihabitantt,
on .1 territory of 220 kiliometres, in 31 communes.

GORZEGNO, a town of France, in the department of
the Stura, on the Bormida ; 13 miles .S E. of Alba. N.
lat. 44^ 38. E long. 8 17'.

GORZKE, a town of the principality of Magdeburg ;
34 miles E of Magdeburg.

GOSAYPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaliabad ;
13 miles N.W. of Jionpour.

GOSCHGOSCHUENK, a town of America, in the
Delaware, confilting of three villages htuatcd on the banks
of the Ohio. Its np.!;e fignilies " the habitation of owls,"
from the number of thofe birds that refort hither.

GOSCHUTZ, a town of Sileiia, in the principality of-
Oels; 25 miles N.N.E. of Breflaw. N. lat. ji 23'. E.
long. /7° 30'.

GOSELINI, Jl'J.i.\k, in Biography, an Italian writer,
was born at Rome in 1525, where he purlued his maturcr
fludies in the lioufe of the cardinal de Santa I'iora. When
he was feventeen years of age he was taken into the fervice
of Ferdinand Gon/aga, tlien viceroy of Sicily. He accom-
panied that nobleman to Milan in IJ46, and became his
fecretary, and was aftcrv.ards taken to the court of Spain,
where he obtained the eileem and favour of Philip II.
Under the duke of Albuquerque he was iniprifoned on a '
charge of confpiracy againil the life of Giambatifla Monti.
He vindicated his own caufe, was releafed, and ad.mitted fo '
public employment. He died in 1587, leaving behind him '
fevcral works, tiiat obtained for him high refiutofio'n : of
thefe the principal are, " The Life of Ferdinan<l Gonzaga."
" Three Confpiracies, &c." " Rime," or a c-illectioa of
poems, feveral times reprinted. " Difcourfes." *' Letters,"
&c. Bayle.

GOSFIELD, in Geography, a townftiip of E.Tex county,
in Upper Canada, fituated upon lake Erie.

GOSHAWK, in Ornithology, the EngHih name of the-
Falcci pa/umiariuj ; which fee.

GOSHEN, in yfriei.nt Geography, a territory of Eg»"pt,
fituated between the Red fea and the Nile, upon the borders
of Canaan, not far from On or Hieropolis, which Jofeph
obtained of Pharaoh for the refidence of his father Jacob
and family. This was a fertile fpot of ground, and lit for
cattle : and, therefore, as Jofepluis tells us, I'liamoli kept
his own in that diftriot. It was alfo feparate from Eg\pt,
and therefore fittefl for Jacob and his family, wliich would
be out of all danger of interfering with the Egyptians.

Go.siiEV, in Geography, a tdwnfhip of America, in
the county of Hamjifhire, and flate of Maifaehutetts, be-
tween Cummington and Conway : 14 miles N ot Northamp.
ton ; incorporated in 1781, and containing 724 inh.ibitanls.
— Alio, a townfhip in Vermont, lying partly in Addil'on
county, ajd partly in Calcdoiii.i, adjoinrng to Salisbury on
the welL — Alfo, a townlhip in Cheller caunty, Pennfyl-
vania, containing 966 inh.ibitants — .Alfrt, a town in I>itch-
field county, Conneclicut, famous for the prodnflion of
excellent cheefe, containing 1493 inhabitant? ; 7 miles N.W.
of Litchlald. — .Alfo, the nioll conliderabk- town in Orange
county. New York ; about 58 miles N. of New York city.
Its fituation is plcalant, anil it contains about 60 or 70 com-
pact houfes, an academy, court -liouie, gaol, and Pre(bytrri»n
church. The tovnihi]) contains 2563 inh.-il.irants. — Alio,
a place in Londoi; county, Virginia, where is a potl-ofiicc ;
«- miles from AVafliin^toii — Alio, a town in Kennebcck
county, Maine, containing 270 inhabitants.

Gt)Mi:;N- Cr.ci, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into
Delaware bav. N. lat. 39 10'. W.long. 74- 54'.

'7 GOSHGOS- -

G O S

GOSHGOSBINK, a Moravian fettlement in Pcniifyl-
vania, iitu^ited on Alleghany river, about 15 miles above
fort Franklin.

GOSIR, a town of Arabia, in Hadramaut, near the
coaft ; 75 miles S.Vv'. of Kefchim.

GOSLING, a town of Aultria ; 1 2 miles S.E. of Bava-
rian Waidhoven.

GOSLINGS, the name given to young geefe.

GOSPEL, a hiftory of the life, aclion-s death, refurrec-
tion, afcenfion, and doiftrine of Jefiis Chriil.

The word is Saxon, and of the lame import with tlie Latin
term evans^l'utr., or the Grtek ,u-Ayyi>M, which figuiiies glad
tidings, ov good news ; the hillory of our Saviour being the

G O S

of feme Catholic Chriftians in Egypt, before either of the
four canonical gofpel; new received. The (irft Chniban
writer who cites it is Clemens Alcxandnnus, who, however,
i-ejcfts it, though fome have fuppofed that a paflage in the
fecond epiftle ct Clemer.s Romanus tJ the Corinthiant is
taken from this gofpel. It is mentioned by Origcn, Jcroni,
and Epiphanius among apocryphal books. Many mcdena
writers, as Erafmus, Grctius, Grabe, MjIIs, fnppofo, ihst
it is referred to in the ititrodufticn to St. Luke's gofpel,
and therefore that it was prior to his ; and Dupin and F.
Simon tliink, that though it is net oi the iime authority
with the four canonical gofpels, it ought not to be rejeftod.
Mr. Jones is of opinion, that it was compofed by feme very

" Eve" has been mentioned by fevcral modern writers, but
only by Epiphanius among the ancients ; it was, withotrt
doii!)l, a forgery of the Gnoftics. The gofpel of the
" Hebrews" was the fame with that of the Nazare;;e5.

is mentioned by Ireneeus and Epiphanius as peculiar to oi.e
of the moil monftrous and ineonfillent feels that ever
affumed the Chriftian name. The falfe gofpe's of " Lucia-
nus," who Vv'as a famous critic and martyr under Diocleilan,
were, hke thofe lall -mentioned, corrupted, interpolated copies
not mentioned by any writer before Jerom, who places it of our prefent gofpels. -The gofpel oi " Matthias," of w^hich
antong the apocryphal pieces of the New Tetlament. there are now no remains, is mentioned by feveral of the

beft^hiflory ever publillied to mankind. This hillory is early heretics to fupport their doariwes of ccUbacy and
contained in the writings of St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. abftemioufnefs, and very probably by thofe of Egypt ; and
Luke, and St. Jch:i, who from thence are called Evan- Br. Lardner thinks that it was noc written before the third
gelills'. (See each of thefe articles.) The Chriilian church century. The gofpel of the '^ Ebionifes" was either alto-
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels as gether, or very nearly, the gofpel of the Nazarenes. Tlie
canonical; notwithllanding which, feveral apocryphal gcf- gofpel of the " Encratites" has been mentioned by Fabricius
pels are handed down to us, and others are entirely loft. and fome others, but there is reafon for doubting wliether

We fnall here fubioin the titles of fome of the principal an;r gofpel was ever called by this name. ^ The gofpel of
of thefe apocryphal gofpels, as we lind them in .Tones's
Canon, and Lardner's Works, with remarks that will ferve
to enable us to dillinguiih them from oin- four gofpels, the
authenticity of v.hieh is evinced under other articles in thifi
work. (See Bisle, Caxox, and Te.stamfnt.) Several The gofpels of" Hefychuis" were fome interpellated copies
of thefe fpurious gofpels arc mentioned in the decree, of our received gofpels. The .gofpel of " Judas Ifcariot"
aferibed to pope Gelafuis, in the council of Rome, A. D. ' . . t t-

494, which pronounced tliem to be apocryphal. The gof-
pel of "Andrew the Apollle," is only mentioned in tins
decree. No fragments of it are extant, nor are there any
tellinionies concerning it. The gofpel of " Apelles" is
not mentioned by any writer before Jerom, who places it
antong the apocryphal pieces of the New Tetlament.

Apelles was a difciple of Marcion, flourilhed about the mofc celebrated writers among the ancients, -viz. Origen,

year of Chrifl I So, and is fflppofed to have fCrmed this Eufebius, Ambrofe, and Jerom; but they all reprefent it

<rofpel out of the true and genuine gofpels for the ufe of as apocryphal. The gofpel of "Marcion" is taken notice

nis followers at the clofe of the fecond century. Tlic of by TertwUian and Epiphanius, but it appears to have

gofpel, " according to the twelve apollles," is mentioned been oiie of our own golpels, mutilated and altered ; pro-

by Orit^en, Ambrofe, and Jerom, but they unanimoufly bably that of St. Luke, from v.hieh he took away entirely

concur m rejefting it, and in exprefsly afferting that tht the two liril chapters, and many other parts, inferting many

church receives only four gofpels. Jerom fuppofes this to things of his own, with a view to favour the opinions he had

have been the fame with the gofpel according to the Naza- adopted. The gofpel of the " Nazarenes" or "Hebrews"

renes The gofjicl " according to St. Barnabas" is not is the moft famous of all the ancient gofpels. Some have

poticedby any of the Chriilian writers of the lirll four cen- fuppofed that St. Paul refers to this gofpel. Gal. i. 6. It

tuiies ; nor do there feem to be any fragments extant, that is cited by Ignatius, as fome have luppofed, by Clemens

unquellionably belong to it. Mr. Jones apprehends that Alexandrinus, by Origen, by Eufebius, ty Epiphanius, by

this was merely lome interpolated corrupted gofpel of St. Jerom ; and it is mentioned by Bede, Sixtus Senenlis, Laro-

Matthcw. The gofpel of " Bartholomew" is mentioned aius, Cafanbon, Grotius, F. Simon, Dupin, Grabe, Toland,

by Jerum as apocryplial, and Jones, for reafons which he Nye, Richard Mill, Fabricius, Mangey, and other modern

alletre.-s, inclines to think, tiiat it was the fame with the writers. However it is alleged, that this gofpel was never

gofpel of St. Matth.vv, ufed by the Hebrews or Nazarenes. received by any primitive writer as canonical, nor was it

M. Daille is of opinion that it was forged but a very little time cited or appealed to, as of any authority, by any one writer

before Gelafuis. The gofpel of " Batihdes" is named by of the iirft four centuries ; and moreover that it was compofed

Origen, Ambrofe, and Jerum, am.ong the apocryphal books out of St. Matthew's and the other authentic gofpels, with

of the New Tetlament ; but no fragments of it remain, additions of fome other things received by oral tradition.

The gofpel of " Cerinthus" is mentioned only by Epipha- It is allowed, that it was an early compofure, and Mr.

nius in comiedion with an expolition of the iirft words of Jones fays, that it was undoubtedly extant in the beginning

St. Luke's gofpel, as many other Chriftian writers notice
the apocryphal books ; and it feems probable, from the
iimilarity of the opinions adopted by Cerinthus and the
Eblonites, that the gofpel of Cerinthus and his followers

of the fecond century, and fecms to have been made by fome
converted Jews, to favour their notion of blending judaifm
and chriilianity together. "As many millakes," fays Dr.
Lardner, " have been entertained about the " goipel ac-

was no other than the Ebionlte or Nazaiene gofpel, i. e. the cording to the Hebrews," it may not be unfeaionable to
gofpel of St. Matthew corrupted and interpolated, in He- obferve here, that probably it was an Hebrew tranilation of
brew. The gofpel "according to the Egyptians," was one St. Matthew's original Greek gofpel, with additions from
of the moft celebrated apocryphal books, and fuppofed even the other gofpels ; to which polilbly might be added fome
by feveral modern critics to have been a fsithful compofure Lnv particulars received by tradition from the early Jewifli

believers."

G O S

COS

t)p]iovere." (See EEiON-iTrs and Nazaren-es ) This rx- ivgularly fortifiL-d on the land fide by a line of baftiors re-

cc'llent writer elfewhere obfervcs, it is not necefTr.ry for doubts, coiinterfcarp', &c. that exti'nds from Weo'vi'l to

us to fuppofe, that the ancient fathers wlio mention other Stoke, or more properly, Alverlloke lake. Within the

gofpels, thought, "that all, if any of thofe gofpcls, were works on the Weovil fide,' are the king's brewery and coonf-r-

written bofore St. I.ukes, or that he fpokc of them ; for age, with an imn-.enfc ranfr.j of ftorehoiifcs for wine, m'ah

Bufaides and Apell« could not write gofpels before the hops, &c. Tliis place communicates with the fca by 'means

focond century: and they might fuppofe, that feveral, if of a large baCn and canal, with cxtenfivc

I by

iiol all the others, mentioned by them, were written after veffels of confiderable biirlhcn can take in iheir' (lores.

St. Luke's. The meaning of what thefe ancient writers Many fmall floops belonging to Weovil are employed in the

lay i.s that the ' chureh recei-.es four gofpels only. There conveyance of wine, beer, and water, to the (hips in the harl

■ were many others. But t<;> them may be applied the words hour. On the Weovil fide are alfo the new barracks, an

of St. I,uke ; they only took in hand, or attempted. They
did not jjjrform, as Matthew, and Mark, and Luke, and
.lolin did. And they niiglit exprtTs themrelvcsin that man-
y.^r eonceruing gofpels written after St. Luke's, as well as
bcJr.re it."

extcnfive range of buildings, with ever)' convenience for a
great number of foldicrs. Gofport, confidercd as a fea-port,
is handfomely built, and the police w;ll regulated. The
town is a chapcli-y to the neighbouring village of Alvcrftoke:
the chapel is a fpacious edifice, (landing in a large wcll-

rii3 gofpel of " Peter" has been taken notice of by many planted cemetery, to the foulh of the town ; the interior is

of tke ancient writers, as Serapion, Tertullian, Origen, Eu
febius, and Jerom. Some have fiippoied, that this was the
gofpel of St. Mark, who was the companion of Peter, and
W!-ote the gofpel now extant under his name. But there is
reafon For believing that the gofpel of Peter was different
from that of St. Mark. It is not very certain by v.-hom it
v\'as forged. Dr. Grabe, and after him, Dr. Mill, fuppofe
it to have been maJe by Lcucius, v.-hom they reckon to
have been a heretic of the fecond century ; but Leucius did

neat, and difpofed into a middle and two fide ai.lcs. The
work-houfe for the poor is a large, airy, and commodious
building. Here are alio feveral charity -fchools ; and feme
alms-houfes for dillreffed widows. The markets arc held
three days weekly, and are nuieh frequented : fi(h and vege-
tables are f;!d in great abundance ; the latter being brought,
not only from a confiderable diflance inland, but alfo from
f!ie Ifie of Wight. Two fairs are held annually. Several
breweries are ellabiifhed ; and a very extenfive iron foundcry.

not live till the latter end of the third, or the beginning of where numerous articles are manufafturcd for government,
the fourth century ; whereas this gofpel appears to have been Gofport is 78 miles di(!r.nt from London : the population
extant in the fecond century, as we may infer from the ac- of the parilh of AlverlLokc, including the inhabitants of
cojnt of it by Serapion, who v.as bifliop of Antiocli in the this town, was returned, under the aft of 1 801, at 11,29;;
I Ith year of the emperor Commodus, ?. f. A.D. 190. Mr. the number of houfes being 1906. The connexion betweea
Jones apprehends, tliat this gofpel was compofed by thofe Gofport and Portfniouth is preferved by numerous ferr}'-
ancient heretics in the fecond century, called Docete (fee boats that ply acrofs the harbour, which in thii place is about
that article) ; and he conjetlures that the gofpel of Bafllides tliree quarters of a m.ile in width,
above-mentioned, was either wholly, or in a great meafiire,
tlie fame with this apocryphal gofpel under the name of
Peter. The gofpel of " Perfedlion" was one of the nume-
rous forgeries of the Gnoftics, who pretended to a greater
perfection in knowledge and virtue than all oti-.ers, raid hence
took their name. (See Gn'Ostics. ) The gofpel of " Phi-
lip" was another forgery of the fame perfons. The gofpel
of " Scythianus" was compofed by him who was the fource
and author of the Manichean herefy. The gofpel of
" Tatian" was no other but a harmony of four gofpels, or a
fort of epitome of the whole liiftory contained in our four
gofpel?. The golpel of " Tli,\ddcas" is merely mentioned
in the decree of pope Gelafius. The gofpel of " Thomas,"
or the gofpel of the " Infancy of our Saviour," is men-
tioned by Origen, Eufebius, Cyril, Am.brofe, Athanafius,
and .Terom, and is unqueftioiiably apocryphal ; though this
is different from the gofpel of Thomas, one of the followers
of Manes, the head of the Manichees, for Origen, who men-
tions the former, lived a confiderable time before the Mani-
chean herefy was divulged. The gofpel of "Truth" was a
forgery of the Valentinians in the fecond century. This
is fuppofedby fome to be the fame with the gofpel of " Va-

At a fmall diftance fouth of Gofport, is the Royal Hof-
pital of Hafler, built between the years 1746 and 1762, for
the reception of fick and wounded feamen, on the earned
recommendation of the late earl of Sandwich. It is fituatcd
within 400 yards of the extremity of the point of land
which bounds the weft fide of the entrance to Portfmouth
harbour ; and confifls of an extenfive front, and two wing.s,,
each comprifing two dillind ranges of buildings. In this
hofpital upwards of 2000 patients can be accommodated ;.
the regular cxpence of the e(labh(hmcnt in falaries, &c. ii
above 5000.'. annually.

Nearly a mile fouth-weft from Hafler hofpital is Fort
Monkton, a modern and reguLir fortification, exceedingly
(Irong, and defended by thirty-two pieces of heavy
ordnance ; to the wefiward, ranges a llrong redoubt ; and
this, together with the fort, effectually fecures this part of
the coall. On the fhore, to the eaftward, a high and matTive
ftone wall has been erected, to preferve the land from the
ravages of the fea.

Near the extremity of the neck of land which terminates
the entrance of the harbour on the eaft fide, is the Bl.^ck
houfe, a very ftrong fort, defended by a formidable battery.

lentinus," but others are of opinion that he had a gofpel of Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi.

his own, different from that called the gofpel of Truth ufed Go.si'oiir, formerly called Appicikre^ a fifliing town of

by his followers. For further particulars we refer to Jones's America, on Star i.(}and, belonging to Rockingham countv.

of the ifland of Sar-

Canon and Lardncr's Works

G03P1NI, in Geography, a town
dinia ; 24 miles S. of Onltagni.

GOSPOlvT, is a fea-port tov/nof Hampfliirc, England.
In th? time of king Henry VIII., v.heu Leland vifited this
part of the ifland, Gofport was only a poor village inhabited
by fifliermen, but it has gradually become a town of confi-
derable extent and importance ; and of late years has been

New Ilampfhire, containing 85 inhabitants; about 12 miles-
E.S E- of Pifcataqua harbour.

GOSS, in RurnI Economy, a term cccafionally applied to
the common v, liin in different places, and which is fonielimcs.
written gcrfe. See Fvuze.

GOSSAINGUNGE, in G.-ogrjbhy, a town of His,
dooflan. in Oud,- ; 15 miles S.E. of Lucknow.

GOSSAMER is the name of a fine filmy fabftance, like-
cobwebs,

G O S

cotwcbs, which is feen to float in the air, in cleai- days in
autumn, and is more ohfervable in itubble-fields, and upon
furze and other low bufhcs. This is probably formed by the
flying Ipider, which, in traverfing the air for food, flioots
out thcfe threads from its anus, which are borne down by the
dew, &c.

GOSSAMPINUS, a name given by Pliny and the an-
cients to a tree growing in the Eaft Indies, which produced
a fort of cotton, the threads of which were too fliort to be
fpun or carded ; fo that it ferved only for the fl^uffings of
beds and the like, for which it was very proper, being very
light and foft. It was in fome cfteem in medicine alio, to
recal the heat and fpirits into parts to which it was applied.
It IS called by Pifo arbor l^iii^era, the wool-tree, and had its
ancient name from the words gojppium, cotton, and^H/i/j-, the
pine-tree, being fomewhat like the pine in external appear-
ance, yet bearing a fort of cotton.

GOSSE-Abdiaii, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on
the Taca/.c ; 90 miles S. of Jalac.

GOSSEC, M. in Biography, a voluminous French mufi-
cal compofer of the old fchool, almofl the only lineal dc-
fcendant of Lulli and Rameau. He had force, fire, and
knowledge ; but his llyle was not that of the prefenl day,
either in Italy or Germany, nor could his friend, M. La-
borde, perfuade us, tliat " true genius is in n?ed of no fchool
or model. In wliatever nation a man of genius may be
born, he will make himfelf known, and not march with lefs
firmnefs, though without a guide, in the road to glory.
Celebrated fchools cannot give genius, that is the boon of
nature, and nature wants tio fchool.' Effais fur la Mus.

Unluckily, nature alone lias never made an artiil. A good
painter, poet, or mufician, can never be made without edu-
cation, ftudy, and models. Ingenious works have been pro-
duced by dint of genins, but never faultlefs. The awk-
wardnefs of felf teaching will always appear; and taftc, ele-
gance, facihty, grace, and often learning, will be wanting to
render them perfeft.

GOSSEINS, in Geography, a town of Thibet, on the
Dewah. N. lat. 30' 30'. E. long. 81=" 24'.

GOSSELIES, a town of France, in the department of
Jemmape, and chief place of a canton, in tlie diftridl of
Charleroy. The place contains 2872, and the canton
12,894 inhabitants, on a territory of 100 kiUometres, in 17
communes.

GOSSIPIUM. See Gossvpium.

GOSSLAR, in Geography, a town of the kingdom of
Weftphalia, on the Gofe, which runs near this place into the
Ockar. It was a free and imperial town, having on one fide
the bifliopric of Hildefheim, and on the other tlie principa-
lity of Wolfenbuttle. It was founded in the year 922, by
Henry the Fowler, and part of it re -built after being de-
ftroyed by fire in 1728. It has four parifh churches, two
chapels, and two Lutheran convents. Its principal trade
arifes from the mines of iron and lead in the Rammcl moun-
tain near it; 30 miles S. of Brunfwick. N. lat. 51'- 55'.
E. long. 10^' 26'.

GOSSUM, a fwelling of the thyroid gland. See Bron-

.CUOCELE.

GOSSWEINSTEIN, or Gos.sm.vn.steix, in Geography,
a town of the bifhopric of Bamberg, on the Putlach, 20
miles E. S. E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 49" 45'. E. long.
vi° iq'.

GOSSYPIUM, in Botany, the Cotton plant. The
name i^ fuppofed by the learned to be of Egyptian origin,
and if fo, is akin to Cotnemfegiar, or Gotnemfegiar, the evi-
dent fource of our word Cotton, which is given as the
Egyptian appellation of the plant in Alpinus, de Plantis

G O S

TEgypti, 71. Pliny makes it a Latin word, though the
more common name he fays is Xylon ; the Greek |i/ao». —
Linn. Gen. 355. Schreb. 468. Willd. Sp PI. v. 3 803.
Cavan. DifT. fafc. 6. 309. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 2. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2.453. ^^^- ^74* Lamarck. lUuftr. t. 586.
Gxrtn. t. 134. (Xylon ; Tourn. t. 27.) ■ Clafs and order,
Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifer<i, Linn,
Malvaceie, Jufl".

Gen Ch. Ca!. Perianth double : the outer of one leaf,
three-cleft, flattifh, largeft : inner of one leaf, cup-fliaped,
with five blunt notches. Cor. Petals five, inverfely heart-
fliaped, flat, fpreading, attached to the tube of the ftamens
by their bafe. Stam. Filaments numerous, connefted in
their lower part into a tube, feparatc and lax above, inferted
into the corolla ; anthers kidney-fliaped. Pijl. Germen fu-
perior, roundifli ; ftyle columnar, as long as the ft;amens ;
iligmas three or four, oblong, tliickilh. Perk. Capfyle
roundifli, pointed, with three or four cells and as many
valves, with contrary partitions. Seeds numerous, oval,
fringed and enveloped with long wool.

Efl". Ch. Calyx double ; the outer three-cleft. Capfule
with three or four cells. Seeds enveloped in wool.

The fpecies of Cotton, hke thofe of all plants cultivated
from the moft remote antiquity, in various countries, for
economical purpofes, are extremely difficult to define, and
obfcured by numerous varieties.

Linnaeus in Sp. PI. cd. i, defines three fpecies only,

1. G. herbaeeum. Camer. Epit. 203. Cavan. t. 164.
f. 2, fuppofed to be a native of the Levant, Eaft Indies, and
Africa, and generally cultivated in thofe countries for its
produce. — Leaves fivc-lobed, pointed, with one gland be-
neath. Stem herbaceous, nearly fmooth. — This is annual,
with a bufhy, branched, often zig-zag^fn;, fmooth or only
flightly downy. Leaves cut half-way down into three priii-
cipal, and two fmaller lateral, pointed rounded lobes. Tlie
mid-rib bears one gland at its back, about half an inch from
the ilalk. Flowers yeWovi, purple at the bafe. Cupfide the
iize of a walnut, enveloped in the calyx like a filberd.

2. G. barbadenfe, taken up from Plukenet, t. 188. f. i.
Leaves three-lobed, entire, with three glands beneath. —
Suppofed to be a native of Barbadoes. It is at Icaft one of
thofe cultivated in the AVefl: Indies. The plant is in all its
parts larger than the foregoing ; lobes of the leaves not near
fo deep.

3. G. arboreum. Cavan. t. 165. Pluk. t. 188. f. 3.
(Cudu-pariti ; Rheede Hort. Mai. v. i. jj. t. 31.) —
Leaves palmate, five-lobed ; lobes lanceolate. Stem flirubby.
— Native of the Eafl; Indies in a fandy foil. The woody
perennial Jlem, and deep-cut long-lobed leaves, whofe mid-
rib bears one gland, diltinguith this. The Jlowers are red-
difli. Tlie cotton is ufed in manufaftures. Willdenow er-
roneoufly quotes Alpinus here.

His Cotnemfegiar is in the Plant. jEgypt. t. 71, not his
Exot. t. 38, and does not agree with the Eaft. Indian
plant.

To thefe is added in Sp. PI. ed. 2. 975,

4. G. hirfutum. Cavan. t. 167. Leaves with three or
five acute lobes. Stem branched, hairy. — The fynonym of
Tournefort is wrong. — This is faid to come from America.
It appears to us a hairy vai iety of the firll, for the gland on
the mid-rib, which Linnsus thought an exclufive mark of
hirfutum, is found in both.

What Linnaeus intended by G. re/lgiofum, Syft. Nat.

ed. 12. V. 2. 462, is rather doubtful. He defines it

" Leaves three-lobed, acute, with one gland beneath.
Branches dotted with black."— We have an Eaft Indian
plant which anfwers to this definition, but it does not exactly

agrv-e

G O T

G o r

agrtt with what be has marked relifiofum i.i hi? own hcrha-
riiim, whicli appears to us larhad.nj'f ; though it maybe
what he had in his garden.

With the /i7.'//o//;™ of Murray, Comm. Gott. for 1-76.
t, I, we are iniAcquainted — Cavanillcs ligurcs and defcrihes
fevoral more fpecir;;, efpecially G ■wllfrjiuiii, t. 166, a noble
plant, from Commcrfon's herbarium, gathered in tlie Mau-
ritius.— Willdenow, adopting thefe, reckons ten fpccics in
all, but the fyuonyms of the whole genus require revilion.

GOSl'ADT, JoTTSTAnT, or Jofiphjladl, in Geo^raph\,
a town of S.ixony, in the circle of Erzgeberg; 23 miles S.
of Chemnitz. N.lat. 50^26. E. long. 13 '2'.

GOSTIN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 48 miles
N.N.W. of Rawa.

GOSYTULLA, a town of Bengal; 22 miles E. of
Kilhenagur.

GOTARA, a town of Hiudooftan, in Bahar; 57 r.iilcs
S.S.W. of Patna.

GOTERON, a valley of Switzerland, in the canton of
Friburgh, on the N.W. of the town of Friburgh, near the
bridge leading to Bern, takes it name from ti.e Goteron, a
fmall rivulet ; it is extremely narrov,-, and above two miles
in length, and is bounded on each fide by overhanging rocks
of fandilone. Vernet, tlie celebrated landfcape painter,
ftudied thefe rocks with great attention, and frequently de-
clared that, excepting thofe of Tivoli, he ne%-er faw any
whofe varying tints had a more pleafing and harmonious
efFeft. The" valley contains fevera! mills, an iron foundery,
where the ore brought from Franch^ Comtc is forged, and
a raanufafture of linen and cotton, cftablithed by fome mer-
chants of Neuchatel, under the protection and encouragement
of government.

GOTH, Stephen', in Biography, arehbilhop of Upfal,
in Sweden, in the i6th century, concurred in the meaiures
adopted by king John, to reftore and re-eflablilTi popery in
that kingdom. With this view he fanctioned a new Lturgy,
which, under the pretence of bringing the Lutheran church
nearer to the fimplicity of the earlier ages of the gofpel,
artfidly alTimihited th; doctrines and ceremonies of wonhip
to thofe of Rome, with the omiffion of fome particular forms
and expreffions which would have too plainly difclofed the
object in view. This liturgy was ordered to be ufed in all
the churches. The king's brother Charles, and the clergy
within his jurifdiclion, were alarmed at this attempt, and
t?iey fo efietlually roufed the jealouiy and excited the fears
of the people, and of the ftates, that after repeated efforts
to carry his point, which introduced great confuiion into
the kingdom, and had nearly produced a civil war, the king
was obliged to relinquifli his fchcmc, and the liturgy was
fupprefled. It has long fince become an objecl; of curiofity
among colleftors, and is entitled " Liturgia Sueceanie Ec-
clefnE cum prajfatione et notis Laurentii Upialienhs Epil-
copi,'' 1576. Univer. Hill.

GOTHA, in Geogrnphy, a principality of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, bounded on the N. by the
eieCtorate of Saxony, on the E. by the ducliy of Weimar,
on the S. by the county of Henneherg, and on the W. by
the principality of Eifenach. The duchy contains 12 towns,
and more than 200 churches: it abounds in grain and fruit,
and the fouthern diviCion contains part of the forell of Thu-
ringia, and fome mine works. Tiie Hate cimiills oi three
ctalfes, 11/z. counts, nobility, and iome barons, convoked by
the prince. The reigning duke maintains a guard ol 160
men, two regiments, each of which is compofed of 80c men,
and a corps of artillery. The chief rivers arc the Leine and
the Neiffe.
The capital of the principality of the fame nnmc is featcd
WoL. XVT.

on an eminence near the I.eine, whicli fuppliei tlif touo
with vv-atcr, conveyed by ibine-canals, and is among t)ie
beft and handfomeli towns in Thuririgia. It lia.^ a-i huT]>ital
for the foldiers, two fchools for tlicir children, and barrack-,
in which the military art is taught: it has likewife a fouii-
dery for cannon, balls, &c. two churches, a goud acadi-n:y,
a houfe of corrcftion, an hofpital for widoW';, and anotlicr
for orphans. The inhabitantn carry on a coiifulcrable tra.:-
in wool and woollen raanufaftures, and beer; and thev de-
rive benefit, not only from the agriculture of the vicinity,
but from the paffcngers that traverfe ihrougli it from Loip-
fick to Upper Germany. The reiidencc of tlie duke, called
Friedenftein, ftaiids «n a hill above the town, and contains
an armoury, a valuable library, a miifcum of natural curio-
fities, and an excellent cabinet of medals: 13 miles S.W. ot
Erfurt. N. lat. 50" 5;'; E. long. 10 40'.

GoTUA, a riTT of Sv.eden, v.-liich ilfucs from the foutlieni
extremity of the lake ^Venner, rear Wennrrfborg, and after
a courfe of 70 miles, falls into the fea near Gotiieborg. In
moil places this river Hows with a gentle current and in a
narrow channel, and is navigable only in foirie parts of iti
courfe for fmall craft of 20 tons burden. If it could be
rendered navigable througti its whole courfe, the Wenner
lake might be joined with the German ocean ; but as nuni".
rous (hoals and cataracts intervene, the coinmunication ha-,
been attempted by the Carlfgraf canal, the canal of Trol-
hsetta, and the fluices of Akerllrcem and Edet. About la
miles from Gotheborg the river Gotha divides into three
branches: two imitc again after encircling a fmall rockv
iilaiid, crowned with the fort of Bohus, form.eily deemed
impregnable; the llream formed by the union of the two
branches is called tlic Northern river, and falls into the fea
after a courfe of 10 miles. The third branch retains the
original name of Gotha ; and the fpace included between
the Northern river and the Gotha is named the iJland of
Hilingen.

GOTHARD, St., a town of Hungary, near which the.
Turks were defeated by the Chriilians, in tl:e year 16O4 ;
21 miles W. of St. Crot.

GoTriAiiD, Si. a chain of mountains of .Swifferland, in the
canton of Uri, the fumniit of which rifcs above the fea
9075 feet, though fome liave ellimated its heiglit to be much
greater. The particular parts of this chain are called bv
different names ; of which the principal arc the Salla, Profa,
and Surccha, to tl;e call ; the Feudo, the Patina, and the
Locendro, to the weft ; to the north, the Uriino ; and to the
fouth, the ridge of naked and piked rocks of the Val-Mag-
gia. Of thefe, the Feudo is the higliell. There br- fix pai'-
turcs on the neighbouring heights, on which arc fed 2C3
cows, I JO goats, and 30 horfcs. The river Tt-rino-has thre-
principal fources in the chain of St. Gothard : the lirll \i .-.
ipring near the foot of the Profii, the fecond is the lake o!
La Salla, in another part of the eallem chain, and the third
is furnilhed by the Inows of mount Feudo. Thcle tliree-
fources uniting with another branch, that f^ow^ from the Fu; -
ca, through the valley of Dcdiieto, form or>e great torrem,
which takes its courfe towards the fouth, enter-, the lake of
Locerno, and traverfing part of tiie Md.u.efe, talis into the
Po. The lource of tiie Rcufs is tJie lake of Loceiidni,
an oblong piece of water, about three miles m circumference, •
ilrctchiiig between tlie mountains of Patina and Loceodro, •
and almoil entire! v fupplied by tiie imiueiifc glaciers wbic.i
crown tile fumniit of ilic Locendro. The iSaam iljuiinj
from this lake ruliies down tiie ralley of St. Gothajd, and
joining in the vale ot Urfencn, tiie t«o branches wiuch come
from the Furca on one llde, and Iroin tlie Grifoa nieuntain.,
on the other, llo\? towards tiie north into tlw lake of I.u- ^

,• r

G O T

ccrn, and fi-om thence throws itfeif into the Aar. The val-
ley of St. Gothard is exceedingjly dreary. It does not
contain a fingle {hed, nor produce a lingle tree ; and the
fules of the mountains are barely fprinkled with fliort her-
bage.

Mount St. Gothard affords one of the beft Alpine paf-
fages from Germany and SwiiTerland to Italy. The Romans
were acquainted only with that over the Great Bcrnhard and
Keptimer. The Gothard was called by them fonvjtijnes
Adula, fometimes the Illgh and Lcpeiithie Alps. The prefcnt
road over this mountain begins at the village Hofpital, in the
Urfern valley, and terminates on the foulh fide, at Airolo :
its breadth is from ten to tu-clve lect, and it is covered with
large pieces of granite.

I'he firll attempt of pafTing over the Gothard in a travel-
ling carriage, was iuccefotuUy made in the month of July,
'775' ^y ''^'-' '^'^^ ^'"- ('I'eville, the gentleman to whole eai'ly
exertion in colletling and in employing perfons well qualified
to alhfl him, we owe the extenlive afTemblage of minerals
lately purchafedby government for the Britiih mufeum.

Though, in the high Gothard valley, the temperature is
feldom below 19^ of Reaumur, yet, on tlie N. fide of tl:e
mountain, the climate is fufficiently rough to make the growth
of trees ceafe at the height of 4566 feet. Among a vail
number of plants common to the Alps in general, we find
here, as peculiar to mount Gothard, the Viola minima, and
Campanula palula.

But moll interefting is this mountain in regard to its mi-
neral fubilanccs, and its geognoftic ftrudlure in general : for,
rel'pecling the former, it mav be laid, that there is Icarcely
any where a traft of country known, that, within the fame
extent of fpace, affords fo coniiderable a variety of them.
This is not the place for enumerating all thefe foffils ; we
fhould, Ivowever, not omit mentioning, that the ireniiUte,
which has received its name from the valley of Tremola, is,
according to Ebel, not *"'ound there, but deeper down the
monntain, in the Leventine valley. See Tremolite.

The St. Gothard confilts entirely of primitive rocks, which,
however, dllplay great variety in their mixture. On the
N. fide veined granite, gneifd, mica-date; in theplainof the
rocky valley, where the Hofpitium Hands, granite of large
grain, traverfed by beds of veined granite and mica-date ;
from the fummit down\v.irds, on the S. fide, maffive granite
of large and fmall grain alternately, veined granite, mica-
date ; in the Treraola valley, on the Fieado and Sorefeia,
hornblende- date commences, mixed in fome places with fine
granular quartz, in others with feldfpar, and lower down
with fine reddiih-brown, dodecahedral garnets ; over which
b'eautiful rock the road winds, through llie Pioftella foreil,
down to Airolo. On the N. fide, in the Urfern valley, among
the juil mentioned rocks, runs pot-ftonc on the S.S:E. part
of the valley, and on the N.N.W. primitive iiins-llone and
clay-date ; v/hile the S. fide in the Leventine, Canaria, arid
Flora valhes, exhibits primitive limc-ftone and gypfum.
■ All rocks of the Gothard are di'pofed in flrata, having a
direftion from E.N.E. to W.S.W., and from N.E. to S.W.
v.hich is bell obferved between Hofpital and Airolo, where
the road makes a tranfverfal feftion, almoll through the
■\^-hole of the central chain. The regularity of the llratiii-
tation of the granite is mod ftriking in the neighbourhood
ef the RuduHt bridge : the llrata are from three to four
inches thick, and have titeir dlreftion from N.E. to S W.
Likeu'ife, on the Profa and Ficudo, and fouthwaid from
j^ofpital do«n the valley of Tremola, the primitive limc-
ftone and gvpfum, which pafs on the S. fide of the moun-
tain through tiie Leventine, Canaria, and Piora valleys, and
tik:. lim;.-llooe, clay-Hate, and pot-Hone, ften on its N. fide,

GOT

in the Urfern valley, are the continuations of the fame
formations that range through the whole of the Pays de
Vaud.

The ridges of mountains conftituting the Gothard are ex-
ceedingly broken, and bear the marks of caufes the moft de-
flru(itivc ; nor is it iinprobable that they were infinitely higher
in ancient times, and that, at the period of the Romans, they
were not unaptly called the Highejl yllps. The upper rocky
valley, where the Hofpitium is fituated, is covefcd with
nuniberlefs pieces of rocks, which are all precipitated from
the furrounding peaks. The great proportion of a fmall
grained granite, among the rocks of the Gothard, are the .
probable caufes of this extraordinary devaftation. The up-
per, nearly circular, rocky valley, was in former times co:r.-
pletelv fliut on all fides: the remains of the recks that for-
merly filled the chafms are ftill <ii!linttly feen on the N. fide,
near the bridge over the Rudunt, where the Reufs forms a
beautiful fall ; and on the S. fide, below ttie Hofpitium, the
rocks approach each other fo clofcly, that th.e violent aelion
which produced the prelent chalms is iulHeiently evident.
Before that revolution happened, it is highly probable that
this confiderable valley formed a deep lake ; nor is it lefs fo,
that the Urfern-valley, before the Devil's mountain was ■
broken through, and the upper Leventine valley, before tlie
Platifer, near Dazeo Grande, was rent afunder, reprcfented
deep feas of confiderable extent. ,

GOTHEBORG, a town of Sweden, in Weft Goth-
land, dillinguilhed by a commodious port, and ffanding
near the fcite of Lodefe, a town built by Gullavus Vafa,
which, being endowed willi fingul.ir privileges, foon be-
came the great emporium for the trade of the weilern:
provinces. Charles IX., when duke of Gothland, having,
in 1604, laid the foundations of a new; town in the idaiid of
Hifingen, not far from LodelVj called it Gotheborg, in
honour of his duchy. On his acccflion to the throne, he
creeled in his new town a trading company; drew thither
many foreigners, particularlv the Dutch, to whom he allow-
ed an exemption from all duties of export and import during,
twenty years ; eilablilhed a corps .of Englilh and Scots
troops, and granted to the Calviiiills the free excrcife o{
their religion, the firll place in Sweden where this to' .-rat ion
was permitted. By theie means Gotheborg foon became a.
flouridiing port, and, next to Stockholm, the moll coninier-.
cial t^wn in Sweden. In 161 1 it was reduced to adies b/
the Danes, and afterwards rebuilt in the reign of Guftavus
Adolphus on the prefent fcite, and obtained a confirm.ation
of its ancient rights, v.'itli a grant of feveral new privilege.'.
Gotheborg is built in a fingular .fituation. At a frnall
diflance from the fea is a mardiy plain, not more than lialf a,
mile in breadth, watered by the river.', Gotha and Moldal, and
almoil iuclofed with high ridges of hare and rugged rocks,
Gotheborg (lands partly on the ridges, and partly in the
plain, and is divided into the upper and lower town. The,
latter is entirely level, interfeiled by feveral canals, and the
houfcs are conilrutied on piles: the upper part liangs oil;
the declivities, and rows of buildings rife one above the
other like the feats of an amphitheatre. The whole is regu-
larly fortified; and the cireamference is near three miles, ex-
cluiive of the fuburbs, called " Haga," which lie towards
the harbour. The Itrecls -arc uniformly ftraight; fome few
of the houfcs arc of brick, brit moll of them are conilruclcd
of wood, painted red. 1 iie liarboim, formed by two cliai: s
of rocks, is about a q-itaicer of a mile in breadth; and the
entrance is defended by the fort of New Elfiborg, which
Hands on .a fmall rocky idand, and contains a garrilon of
250 meji,

A royal fociety of fcieiiccs and literature has been lately

ciUbhlhcd

G O T

cftabliflicd in this town, on the phn of that of Upfal. Tlic
aifts, written in the Sw.-dirti tongue, and printed in Svo.
contain difquilitions on various fubjefts, in the fovcral
branches of fcieticc, nr^tural hiilory, antiquities, hidory,
and pol'#f lettt-rs. Th'* population amounts to 20,oco
perfons, in conlequence of an iiicrcafe, occafioned by the
cKlt-nlion of its commer,-?, particularly on account of the
K:ui India comp:my, and ilie fuccefs of the herring fifliory.
The Eall India company was ellablilhed in 1731, and on
account of the ice, which clofes the port of Stockholm, in
tho gulf of Boll'.nia, at the proper feafon of the departure
of {hips for the Eaft Indies, the company carries on its
commerce from Gotheborg, whofe harbour, lying in the
German ocean, is moi-e open. In 1740, the herrings, which
had not hitherto ufuaUy approached the weftern (liore of
Sweden, flocking in ikoaln, the inhabitants of Gothcborg
cflablidiei a filh.'ry, which has been very lucrative. The
fiihery begins in November, vid though it continues fcarcely
three vveeks, it fiippli?s the fidicrmen of Gotheborg with
not lefs than 6oo,oco b:.rrels. Of thefe, 200,000 are i'alted,
and train-oil is drawn from the remainder; fifteen barrels
of herrings yielding one of oil, v.hich is principally export-
ed to Holland and Spain. One barrel of fait, procured
■from Spain, cures three barrels of herrings: the average
exportation of farted herrings may be eftimated at 150,000
barrelf, and the inland coniunr.ption of Sweden at 50,000.
An Engiifli conful and factory refide at Gotheborg; and a
chapel, with a regular cluolain, is appropriated for their
ufe. The fortifications ot Gotheborg are fo weak, that in
ths year 1788 it mull have fidlen into the hands of the
Danes, if foreign powers had not interfered. N. lat. 57' 40'.
E. long. 11'' 44'. Coxe's Travels in Sweden.

GOTHIC, or GoTlllcx, fofnething that has a relation
40 the Goths, an ancient people, originally inhabiting that
part of Sweden called Gothland; whence they fprer.d them-
iclves over Greece, Dalmatia, Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, &c.
See GoTiis.

GoTiuc Archltrr.urr, a term of reproach to dsnote one
or more kinds of architecture whicli prevailed during the
middle ages. It fcems to have been invented by the rellorers
of the Grecian orders in Italy, about the middle of the i6th
century, to iignify every preceding fpccics of European
arcliiteclure not conformable to them, and it was imported
in the fame fenfe into England by Mr. Evelyn and iir
Chrillopher Wren, tlioiigh the latter appears fometimcs to
confine the term to the pointed ilylc, in which particular he
is followed by the greater part oi late writers. Mr. Evelyn,
quoted by fir Chrillopher Wren, in his " Parentalia,'' lays:
•' Gothic architecture is a congeltion of heavy, dark, mclan-
•choly, monkifli piles." In the fmie fenfe, fir Chrillopher
iiimfelf, fpeaking generally of what he terms Gothic archi-
teclure, calls it " Mountains of ilone; vaft, gigantic build-
ings, but not worthy the name of architerturc. This we
now call the Gothic mauner: fo the Italians called what
was not after the Roman ftyle." In oppofition to t!ie idea
which this eminent architect here gives of the architecture
in queilion, he, in another part of his Parentalia, defcribes
tlie inventors of it as " letting up flcnder and mis-(hapcn
•pillars, or rather btuidles of itaves and other incongruous
props, to fupport ponderous arched roofs without entabla-
ture." In conformity with this latter notion of fir Chrlf-
topher, Mr. Rious, a profefTional writer, fays: " Modern
Gothic is diftingmflied by the lightnefs of its work, the cx-
■ceilivc boldnefs of its elevations and of its IcCfions, by the
delicacy, profuiion, and extravagant fancy of its ornaments.''
The fame confufion of language, if not of ideas, prevails
r.mongll the admirers of the Gothic ftyle, fo called, as

G O T

amongfl the declared foes of it. The late poet hur'at,
Thomas Warton, who has written a great deal on the fub-
jeft, and who had planned a- " Hiftory of Gothic Archi-
tefture," fpeaking of Salilhury catlicdral, expreUly denies
that it is in the Gothic ftyle, while two other celebrated
writers in the fame line, the Rev. James Bentham and Capt
Grofs, as pofitively aliirm that this cathedral is " entirely
in^thc Gothic ftyle." The perplexity and uncertainty of
an ordinary read'jr muft necelfarily be encreafed by the dif-
ferent fenfos in which the terms, ancient architecture, mo-
dern architefture, Saxon architethire, Norman architecture,
and Enghili arcliitec^ure, are now ufed by different writers.
To clear up this confufion, and to prefent dillinft and clear
ideas on thefe much agitated fubjeiits, it feeins beft to treat
them in an hillorical manner.

It is dtmonllrable that the regular orders of Gr?ci;e»
architecture were upon the decline throughout the Roman
empire after the reign of the Cxfars, and ftill more fo after
that of Conllantine the Great. A centurv lattr the Ollro-
goths over-ran and fubdued Italy, the Vifigoths, Spain,
the Huns, Germany, the Vandals, the Roman provinces of
Africa, the Franks, France, and the Saxons, Britain.
Thefe ieveral barbarians deftroyed innumerable monu-
ments of architefture as well as of the other arts, but
they none of thcin intro-'uccd a llyle of building differenl
from jhat which they found p-aftifed in the conquered coun-
tries. They did not iiiftruft the ancient inhabitants to
build in a new manner ; on the contrary, they learnt of then-
fo much of the art as they aftuallv acquired. But the arf
itfelf being vallly degraded in the fifth and fisth centurjr!,
and thofe warlike hordes not being very apt fcholars, i^
wonder their firil ftruftures were executed in a rude and
heavy ftyle. Still nothing is more groundlefs than to fpeak
of Gothic architefture in the manner of Mr. Evelyn and
fir Chrillopher Wren, as of a ftyle of building -invented
or introduced by the Goths. The fadt is, the heavy circu-
lar manner of building which prevailed throughout Chrif-
tcndom, from the fall of the Ronian empire, in the fifth cen-
tury, down to the twelfth centurv, was the Roman, or, what
is the fame thing, the Grecian ftyle, incorretlly and rudely
executed. Amongft us it is called tlie Saxon Ilylc, bccaufe
it prevailed during what is called the Saxon perio<l or dynafty
in South Britain ; but the firil teachers and the modeU ot
it were both of them ftriClly Roman.

On the firft introduClion of Chriftiaiiity amongft our
Saxon anceftors, at the conclufion of the fixth century, they
confecratcd many of the exifting Pagan temples to the
Chriftian worlhip, according to the inftruclions uhuh
they received to this efi'ecl from pope Gregory tie
Great, and they ran up other temporarv oratories of wood
or whattles, as we learn from Bede, and other original \\\(-
toriarks. Very foon, however, the fame Roman milfionariL-s,
who converted them, taught them to build churches of
ftoiie after the Roman manner ; for this denomination of ii,
the Rowan manna; {wire Romano,) is always mentioned by
the aforefaid hiftorians. The firft archbiftiop of the Nor-
thuntbrians, Pauliuus, who was a Roman n.oi.k, apjH-ar.--
to have been the chief architert amongft the Englilh Sas-
oiisat the beginning of the fevcuthceiitury Hebuilt churches
of ftone at York, Lincoln, and other pl.ices. His next
fucceflbr but one, ^Vilfrid, was an Englilhman, who not
only equalled but greatly furpaffed his mailer in architci'luro.
For the churches which he built at Rippon and at Hexham
were long celebrated for being the finell buildings of their
kind nor'th of the Alps : but then it is exprefslv recorded,
both of him, and his rival in architeclure, Benedict Bilcop.
abbot and founder of the church and monaftery of ^Vcre.
3 .P 2 mouihj

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE,

mouth, thai they tr.ndc differont journies to Rome, and (ludicd
the architcdiiire of the churchof .St. Peter's and otherchurchcs
there, and that they even hired workmen from thence to
f xecute their works in England. Thus it evidently appears,
that the ilylc of architecture, which is called the Saxon ftyle,
was not the invention of our anceftors, but was imported
from Italy in the feventh century ; and it is equally evident,
from various mommients, that the Italians in this and the fub-
fcquent ages built in the fame heavy manner, and made ufe
of the fame members and ornaments, that the Englilh Saxons
did. Still the architefture of our anceftors, previoufly to
the conqueft, thougli very heavy and rude, has been too
much depretiated by many Englifh writers. The Rev. Mr.
Bentham, in his " Hiftory of the Churcli of Ely," orrath-r
the poet Gray, who drew up the arehiteftural part ol that
work, refutes Somner,Staveley, and oilier authors, who deny
that the Saxon builders made ufe of llone for their buildings,
or knew how to turn an arch ; but tlien this very writer fails
to do them the juftice due to them, where he fignifies that
they were unacquainted with the ufe of towers, bells, and
• tranfepts, previoufly to the tenth century. It would have
.baen ttrange if they had not imported thefe amongll other
ecclehailical inventions from Italy during the preceding
centuries ; but we havcotherwife fufilcient proofs that they
had adopted each of them long before the tenth century.

During a great part of the ninth and tenth centuries, Eng-
land and France were as much harafTed by invafions of the
Niu'thern barbarians, as their former inhabitants, the Gauls
and Britons, had been in the fifth century, by the anceftors
of the now civilized Saxons and French. Thefe turbulent
invaders, who were indiiTerently called Danes or Normans,
were guilty of much greater devaftalion upon the exifting
religious monumeqts, at leaft, than the Goths and Vandals
liad committed ; becaufe the latter were Chriftians, though
Arians, when they over-ran the civihzed world ; whereas the
. Danes and Normans, when they invaded England and France,
were perfecuting Pagans. So great was tiie dread of their
violence throughout the laft mentioned country, that the fol-
lowing petition was there added to the litany : " From the
fury of the Normans, O Lord deliverus." In fact, the Almigh-
ty was pleafed to deliver firft France and then England, from
the fcourge which had fo long and fo forely afthfted them ;
but_in a very different manner from whatthe Chr.flian inhabit-
ant^ expefted. Inftead of witncftlng tlic extermination or lub-
jugation of their barbarous enemies, they faw them bend their
necks to the yoke of Chrift, and become models of piety
and morality to themfelves and the other Chriftian nations.
Jvichat leail was tlie cafe with the Northern men, \\'ho fet-
tled iu that part of France, which from them has fuice been
railed Normandy. A lafting peace and tranquillity being,
llirough this happy event, retlored to the French provinces,
its princes and nobles began to rebuild their demolilhed
churches, and to ereft others witli incredible diligence. But
no people Ihewed lo much zeal in this undertaking as the
jirwiy converted Normans. The reader will be convinced of
this, when he is given to underftand that William the Con-
q-.ieror, during the few years that he reigned in Normandy,
previoully tohis invafion of England, built two noble churches
and abbeys, and his nobles, not fewer than thirty-eight, each
of them vieing with the reft, to make his building the moft
magniflcent and fplendid. Such were the Normans, the
.hraveft, moll indulirious, and nioft religious people, and the
u-'.oil adilifled, in particular, to ecclefiaftical architetf ure of
all Chriftian people, when William, their prince, with the
Rower of his nobles, his army, and his eccleliaftics, came to
fettle in p'ngland foon after the middle of the eleventh century.
It is to be obferved, that the moft celtbrated fchocls uf
4

literature and the arts, and more particularly of arcliiteifluvp
in Europe, at this pA'riod, were the abbeys of Bee and
Caen in Normandy, the former of \%-hIch produced thof*
three great architefts, Lanfranc and Anftim, fucceftively
archbhliops of Canterbury, and Gundulph, biflnip of Ro-
chefter. But indeed all the Norman prelates and abbots ap-
pear to have been able architects ; for there was hardly a
Cathedral or abbey church in England which was not re-
built by one or other of them, in the courfe of thirty or forty
years after the conqueft. The charafters which they aimed
at in tliefe ftruftures were evidently the iubliir.e and beauti-
ful. To produce the former cffcfl, they built tlieir churches
asking and as lofty as poffible ; to produce the latter effetf,
they not only built in a much more neat and perlecf manner
than the Saxons had done, but alio th.ey made ufe of certain
new invented ornaments in their ftrudtures. Of thefe tlie
moft oftenlible and ordinary was the arcade or ferles ot arches
which, in one or other of its various forms, is to be met
with in all the exifting Norman churches. From the con-
tinued eflbrts of thefe indefatigable and ingenious architefta,
to make their churches as awful and as beautiful as poflible,
before tlie middle of the twelfth century, a new ftyle tvf
building was produced, calkd " the Pointed Style." It
certainly appeared, for the firft time, cither in England or
in France ; neverthelefs, the firft afcertaiiied inftance of it
which has hitherto been produced, claims the honour of tf«
invention fortius country. But before we proceed to give a
more particular account of the rife and progrefs of this lingu-
lar ftyle of building, it will be proper to detail the various
other fyilenis which have been publKhed refpefting it.

It has been fccn above, that Mr. Evelyn and fir Chrifto-
pher Wren defcribe the architefture of the middk ages, in
general, whetlKr circular or pointed, under the opprobrious
term of Gothic, as being the real invention of the Goths and
other barbarians. The former of thefe wnttrs, as quoted
with applaule by the latter, fays, in his " Parentalia :''
" The Goths and Vandals having demoliftied the Greek and
Roman architefture, /H/zW/zcf;/, in its ftead, a certain fantaill-
cal and licentious manner of building, which we have finne
called modern Gothic, of the greateft induftry and expen-
five carving, full of fret and lamentable imagery, fparing
neither pains norcoft." We fee that the writer here fpeaks
of the light pointed ornamental ftyle of our anceftors no
lels clearly than he does in another paftage, quoted above,
of the plain heavy circular ftyle, called the Saxon ; and
that he iuppoies the foi-mer bo lefs than the latter to have
been really introduced into the countries, which had formed
the Roman empire, by the Goths and Vandals, who fubdued
them. How little reafon there is for afcribing the Saxon
fiyle to thefe barbarians has been (liewn above ; and, with
refpecl to the pointed ftyle, it is fuff.cient to obferve that
this appeared in no part of Chrlftendom before the twelfth
century ; whereas the Goths and Vandals committed what-
ever depredations on the monuments of Roman art, which
they did commit, in the fifth century, and that their pov.'er
was every wheiT crullied, and their very name extinguifticd
in the courfe of the iixth century, except, indeed, in Spain,
where the name of Gothic remained attached to the reigning
family, till the beginning of the eighth century and no longer.
So groundlels and ab.urd, in every refpcit, is the term
Gothic, as applied to pointed architefture !

At the fame time that fir Chrlllopher commends the fyftem
of his friend Mr. Evelyn, he himfelf departs from it, fince
he prefers the word Saracenic to denote the pointed ftyle.
" What we now vulgarly call the Gothic," he fays, " ought
properly and truly to be named Siiraceulc architefture, refined
by the Chriftians. which firft vf all began in the Eaft, after

the

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

llic fall of the Greek empire. The holy war gave tlic
Chfiftians who had been there an idea of the Saracen works,
which were afterwards imitated by them in the Well,''

This fyftcm concerning the pointed llyle, namely, that it
originated with the Saracen;^, has, out of mere rcfi)ecl to the
name of its author, I'r Chrillopher Wren, been followed by
bifhop Lowth, in h\s life of Wykeham, by Rious, by War-
ton, by Grofc, and, in (liort, by the generality of modern
writers who have had occafion to enter upon the fubjeft. In
refutation, however, of this fyilcm, we have to remark that
the firft, or Grand Crufade, in which the conqueror's fon,
Robert, and many other Normans and Engliflimen embarked,
making part of above a million of pcrfons, who were en-
gaged in it, began in 1096, and terminated hv the capture
of Jerufalem in IC99. Now it is certain from hiftory that the
cathedrals of Exeter, Roeheller, and Chichefter, with many
abbey churches, were built wholly in the circular llyle after
the laft-mentioned year. Amongll tliefe the inllance which is
mo'l: to the preleiit purpofe is that of Rocheiler cathedral,
which was built by that greateil architett of his age, Gun-
dulph, formerly a monk of Bee abbey, then bilhop of Ro-
cheftcr, as well as the callle of that city, the chapel in the
white tower of London, &c. without the leaft mixture of
the pointed llyle. The reaCon of this is, becaufe Gundulph
had travelled through the Eaft on a pilgrimage to Jerufaleir,
a little before the crufade took place, when he had an oppor-
tunity of furveyingthe churches and other bui'dings of tliofe
countries at his leiiure. Again, it has been remarked by
Grofe, Bentham, and other writers on the fubject, that in all
the defcriptions and drawings of buildings in the Holv Land
and other parts of the Eall, given us by Pocock, Norden,
Shaw, Le Bruyn, &c. there is but one church, namely, that
of St. John d'Acre, in th- proper pointed ilyle (which
church the writer of this article has dilcovered to have been
built by William, an Euglitliman,at the time when our Richard
L made himfclf mailer of that city) ; and that very rarely
fuch a thing as a pointed arch is repreiented as exilling
in thofe countries. It is true a late writer, the Rev.
Mr. Whiitington, in his " Survey of the Ecclcliallical
Antiquities of France,'' has pro{)ofed to difcover from
thefe and other drawings pointed architetlure in every
part of the Eail, from the Euxinc lea to Egypt ; but
then it appears that he calls the mis-lhapen obeliiks and
minarets ^f the Mahomedanmofquespointed architetlure. He
has another argument for his allertion, namely, that " it is
improbable the dark ages of the Well fhould have given a
model of architedlure to the Eail.'' If there is any force
in this argument, it would folio v/ that themulical fcale of bells,
optical glaffes, the mariner's compafs, gun-powder, and print-
ing were difcovered in the Eail inltead oi the Weil, contrary
to the knov.;n fad.

Mr. Murphy, to whom the admirers of pointed arehitec-
ture are indebted for his elegant views of the church of Ba-
talha in Foi-tugal, conjeclures that this llyle v.-as borrowed
trom the pyramids, and that of courle Egypt w.is its native
foil. But in almo'.l every country and age men have built
their habitations with (h)ping roofs to carry off the falling
rain ; hence they mull have feeji the figure ot a triangle at the
gable ends of them, no lefs than the Egyptians did in their
pyramids. Denon's, Meyer's, and other views of ancient
builJings in Egypt, arc by no means favourable to Mr. Mur-
phy's I'yllem. Tiiere is indeed an ancient hall in the cafllj
. of Cairo, called Jofeph's Hail, which is a great deal in the
pointed manner, and w.iieh is fuppoled by the vulgar to
hdve beer) built by the patriarch of that name ; but Niebuhr
and lord Vafentia give fufficient reafon to believe that it was

built by Saladin, the enemy of our Ricliard I, whofc tr.e
name was Jofcph. In fact, it is in the llyle of that period.
According to this fuppofition, wc are wairanted in believing
tliat this hail was the workmanlhip of Chrillian prifoners, or
fugitives, after the third crufade. Mr. Murphy's theory ik
equally deltitute of hiilorical gronnds and moral proba-
bility.

Biiliop Warburton, in his " Notes on Pope's EpilUes,"
endeavours to unite together two of the above-mentioned re-
futed fy Hems, that which derives pointed architecture from
the Northern Goths, and that which brings it from tlic
Eaftern Saracens, at the fame time that he alligns the wcllem
pcninfnla of Europe for the real place of its birth. The
lollowing is an abridgment of his account. " When tl)e
Goths had conquered Spain, and the religion of the old
(Chrillian) inhabitants had inflamed their piety, they (Iruck
out a new fpecies of arcliiteclurc miknown to Greece ar.d
Rome. For this northern people having been accullomet!,
during t)ie gloom of Paganilm, to worlhip the Deity in
groves, when their new religion required covered edifice,
they ingenioudy projected to make them rcfemble proves ;
at once indulging their old prejudices, and providing f(,r tlieir
prefent conveniences by a cool receptacle in a fultry climate,
with the allillance of Saracen architects, whofe exotic ilvie
of building fuited their purpofe." All this is a mere rcverv.
The Goths and Vandals entered Spain in the year 409 Tliev
did not, hov. ever, acquire there a new religion from the oh!
iah;'l)itants, for they were already Chriilianj, and habituatid
to the ufe of churches. On tlie other hand, tlic MocTijli
Saracens did not enter Spain till three hundred years after-
wards, namely, till the year 712, when havir.g cooped 'ip
tlie Chrillians n the mountains of Allurias, there conti-
nued ever aftervvards the moll relentlefs warfare between the
two people. It is impofTible to conceive more monftrous ideas
than that the Chrillian Goths fliould have brought wiih them
into Sjiain a partiality for the Pagan wonliip which Uiey hjd
praftii'ed in the foreils of Germany, and t'aal they fhould
have retained it for the fpace of three hundred vears after-
wards, till they had the means of employing th.eir implacable
enemies, the Mahomedan Moors, to buiid Chrillian churches
for their ufe; and that when this was effecled, ihey fhould
have kept /ne fecret of pointed architecture to themfelves
for the ipace of 400 years longer ! Were all this pofTible,
or were it a fad that this llyle had been imported into oiir
country from any other, where it had been praclifed for a
confiderable tm.e before, it would have made its appeaniKci-
amongil us all at once, with its feveral ilriking characters ;
contrary to what we actually fee was tl;e facL After all, if
the aifle of an ancient cathedral refembles an avenue of tret-rJ
in fome refpecls, it differs from it in many others, which are
obvious to the fight.

Having followed different guides, north, eaft, and weft,
in fearcli of the original pointed architeclure, we have latter-
ly been invited by an ingenious artill to accompanv him to
tlie fouth, namely, into Italy, the cradle of' modern
arts, with a promife that he vvid there poi' t out to us miicli
earlier fpecimens of this llyle than are to be met with in this
northern climate. In the ye<'.r 1S05 Mr. Smirke jun., then
returned from Italy, laid Ijcfore the Society of Antiquanis
a certain drawing, iince engraved in the " -Archsologia,"
vol. XV., of the drelfmgs of a window belonging to the ca-
thedral of MefTuia, in the richc;l (lyle of the third pointe il
order, being fuch as we have no exasnjile of in this country-
before the middle of the 15th century. Thefe drelfmgs Le
would have us believe are -oeval with the cathedral ;tfclt,
which was built bv the Norman chicftaia Roger, earl cf Sici-

GOTHIC ARCIIITECTURF.

ly, in i\\: ck-ventH century. He pvefented another drawing,
publillied by the fociety as aforefaid, vvliicli appeared to be
much more' for his purpofe, bccaufe of the known dates of
theorij;inal. This drawing reprcfents a portion of the out-
fideof thebnptillery of the cathedral church at Pifa, whichbap-
tilierv was certainly built by Dioti Salvi in ii 52. Tiic drawing
exhibits what we (liouldcall Roman and Saxon work, with in-
termixed croeketted pediments and pinnacles, fueh as we
were unacquainted with for more than a hundred years after-
wards. Laftly, this gentleman fliewed a view of the cloif-
ter of Campo Santo, adjoining the lail mentioned cathedral,
built in 1278. Here we fee the richeft tracery mtdhons
under femi-circular arches, the whole of wliich he confider-
ed as being the fame original work. Thefe fpeeimena gained
many converts to his fyltem, that of Italy being the parent
countrv of pointed architedure.

But there is no error which we have fo much to gv.ard
ai-ainft in ihidying architeftnral antiquity as the confound-
ing of fubfequ'ent alterations with the original work. There
are few adepts in this fcience who would not dart at the lirit
fi^'ht of Mr. Smirke's drawings, and who would not pro-
nounce the works tkey repreieiit as an incongruous mixture
of the architefture of different ages ; but it was referved
for fir Henry Englefield's profound knowledge of tlie fub-
■,cft and critical acumen to detetl and exhibit in detail the
"pointed enrichments with vvljich later architects had deco-
r.ited the plain circular works of their predcceflbrs. To the
juftice of this learned antiquary's remarks the accurate hiflo-
rv c-f the cathedral of Pifa, written by Martini a canon
of that church, bears ample teftimony. In a word, the
very fpecimens which Mr. Smirke has produced in favour of
Italy's claim to the invention of pointed architeftnre, as
well as all the other buildings, tombs, and altars at Rome,
aiidine'-ery other part of Italy, demonllrate its great infe-
riority botii in date and in execution, to England, France,
and Germany, with refpeft to this particular ityle.

Aflied, in one refpedlto the fyftem of biilioj) Warburton,
is that of fir James Hall, bart , who, in " An Eflny on
■ Gotl ij Architefture,'' now publiflied, endeavoiu-s to Uiew
tl at the pointed ilyle was borrowed from the idea of upright
polls furroundtd with ofiers, the heads of which are to
meet like thole of trees in an avenue. But the utmoll that
the ingenious baronet proves is that baflcet-work may be made
to r--femble pointed architecture, not that pointed architecture
was borrowed from exifting models of ballcet-work. Lord
Orford, heretofore fir Horace Walpole, in his " Obferva-
tions on Englidi Architecture,'' fays, that the architecture
in queftion was copied from (hrine-work ; juil as if the mak-
ing of boxes preceded the building of ho\ifes ! After all,
this is only placing the tortoife under the elephant ; for
where did artills learn to falhion their llirinesin the pointed
ityle ■! Lallly, Mr. Payne Knight derives this ftyle from
all the three parts of the world, heretofore known, Europe,
Afiaand Africa, where he decides, in his" Principles of
Talle,'' that " the llyle of architecture which we call ca-
thedral or monaftic, is manifellly a corruption of the facred
architefture of the Greeks or Romans, by a mixture of the
Mooridi or Saracenic, which is formed out of a combination
of the Egyptian, Perfian, and Hindoo.''

But why fhould v,e wander into every remote corner of the
world, and even into the regions of fancy in fearch of an in-
vention wliich belongs to our own climate ? And for what
purpofe diould we take fo much pains to prove a plant to be
an imported exotic which we havefeen fproOting up, and at-
taining its full growth in our own gvden ? Let us now go
Mck to the point from which we llarted in purfuit of va-

rious falfe fyftems. We have feen above that the grcateft

people, without difpute, of the eleventh and twelfth c^-ntr.-
ries, namely, the Normans, the conquerors of Enghuid,
France, Italy, Sicily, and various regions in the Eall, were
at the fame time a moll indullrious and ingenious people,
andpoffelfcd of the moil ardent paffion forecclefiailical archi-
teCtiu-e of a^ly people we read of, and that they vied
with each other in the grandeur and beauty of their
refpefth'e llruftures. To produce the effeCl of gran-
deur, as it has been before obferved, they gave the greateft
pofdble length and height to their churches ; for that of
beauty tliey devifed feveral architeiftural ornaments ; the
moil common of which was the arcade or feries of fmall
round arches, which appear on fome part or other of all
their churches built in this country fubiequent to their con-
queft of it, and which fometim.es cover the whole of them
over ; as we fee on the outfide of St. Botolph's priory, and
St. Olyth's abbey in EiTex, and in the bafement flory of
the infide of Durham cathedral. Thefe arcades the archi-
tcfts diverfitied in a great vai'ictv of ways, as may be feen
upon the tower of St. Auguiline's monailery in Canterbury,
built by the Norman abbot Scoltandus in to8o. One of
tl'.e varieties coniiiled in making the circular arches inter-
feft each other. The portion thus interfefted formed a
new kind of arch, more graceful in its appearance, and far
better calculated to give an idea of height than the round
one, which, however, had hiil-.erto been adopted by all
natior..;, whether Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, or Saxons.
In faCl, every one muil be fehllble that a pyramid or obcliil<,
from its aipiring form, appears to be taller than a femi-
circular arch, the diameter of which is equal in height to
it. Theie plain and interfcCling arcades were fometimes
irregularly intermixed, as in Carileplio's and Flambard's
work on the north fide of Durham cathedral ; and fome-
times placed in alternate rows, as in that of Remigius on
the facade of his church at Lincoln. The pointed arch
tlius formed appeared iirtl in mere l/iiffa rdlnw, as in the
above mentioned inllances, amongil leveral others ; but
foon it vrixs likewife feen in alio relievo over niches and rc-
cefTesy in the walls of churches, as in the i-emains of arch-
bidiop Lanfranc's work in Canterbury cathedral, and in
the abbey churches of Glailonbury and Rumfey. It is
probable that fome of the firft, if not quite the firil open
arches in the pointed ftyle now exifting, are the twenty win-
dows in the intcrfeCled portions of fuch eroding arches in
the choir of St. Crofs near Winchefter, made by that great
encoiu-ager of the arts, and particularly of architecture,
bilhop Henry de Blois, king Stephen's brother. The date
of this work is 1 132, according to Godwin, Grofe, and
others, or elfe 1130, according to bilhop Lowth, who had
examined the records of this foundation, and Rudborne, the
monk of Wincheilcr, in liis " Hiiloria Major Wintonienfis.''
Moil probably the choir was begun in tlie former year, and
finidied in the latter. As the prelate proceeded in his
work, from the choir to the tranfcpt and tower of his
church, he made feveral other pointed arches without any
interfecling circles over them, notwithftanding the greater
part of his work, as ftill appears, was the circular Saxon.
In 1 138, as we are adured by the above-mentioned monk of
Winchefter, and another monk who wrole the " Annalcs
Wintonienfes," bifhop De Blois rebuilt his epifcnpal manfion
of Farnham in Surrey, where his fuccelTors ilill ordinarily
refide. Now in the ancient part of this building, we fee
at the prefent day pointed arches reiling upon circular
Saxon columns, juil as we do at St. Crofs : and no archi-
teftural critic, with tlicie documents before h.im, will hefi.

tate

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

tate a moment in pronoum;ing them part of the work in
qucflio!!, executed by De Blois in 1138. As the fame pre-
late reftored the abbatial church at Rumfey, where his
niece Mary was a nun, and as he himfcif had been abbot
of Glaftonbury, before he was bifliop of Winctieiler, we
may fafely attribute the pointed arclies, intermixed witli
the circular ones in thefe two ilruclurcs, to his direAion,
fome time in the latter end of the reign of his coufui
Henry I.

After all, it wouLl be rafli to pronounce abfolutely that
bifhop De Blois of Winchefter was the author of pointed ar-
chitedlurc, fince we have convincing evidence, that churches
were built bv other architects about this peri-od, in tlie fame
mixed ilyleof pointed and circular work. We niulL I'.ov.ever,
incidentally obferve, that before the conclufion of this twelfth
century, the circular ftyle was entirely laid alide, as well
witii refpect to columns as to arches. We have evidence,
for example, in the annals both of St. Warburg's abbey
Chefter, and of Peterborough abbey, quoted by Uiigdale,
that Bildwas abbey in Shroplhire, where the feven pointed
arches of the nave, furmounted by fmall circular arches, in
the upper ilory, are ilill feen, was founded either in 1136
or 1139; probably it was begun in the former year, and
fiuiilied in the latter. We might argue in the fame manner
from the dates and actual ftate of Kirkftal abbey, Lantony
abbey, and feveral other ancient ftruftures. If we may give
implicit credit to the teftimony and the plates of captain
Grofe, the Scotch architects were not long in adopting the
Uyle of their Englifn neighbours. It is rem.arkable that the
ecclefiallical buildings erected by David king of Scotland,
and his aobhs, before he came into England in order to com-
mand ihi armies of his niece, the emprefs Maud, were
purely in the Saxon ftyle ; whereas thafe founded there,
after that event, prefent the fame mixture of circular and
pointed arcliiteclure vrhich prevailed at tliat period in
England.

A late WTiter, the Rev. Mr. V/hittington, whofe pro-
f.;{red object it was to transfer the credit of the difcovery
in que'.llon from the Norman Engliih and Englilh to the
French, which credit tlie latter feem difpofed, from tradi-
tio.nary accounts, to attribute to om- countrymen, has al-
ferted that examples of pointed arches, of a more ancient
date than any cxilling in England, are to be met with at
tlie abbey church of St. Deals near Paris, which church
was fmil'hed in 1144. It appears, however, that this
writer was unacquainted with the hillorical evidence on
which the above-mentioned early inftances of the pointed
arch in England reft, and that he was even at a lofs to de-
termine which of the works at St. Denis really belonged
to t!ie period he huS affigncd. If we examine the pointed
windows of this abbey, exhibiting diffcFent tranfaclions of
th- firll crufade in Montfaucon's " Monarchie FFaii9oile,''
which windows are faid by this great antiquary to have been
executed by abbot Suger in 1140, we fhall not find tlie
api>ea:-ance of a pointed arch in any one of them. It may
be added, that in the famous tapeftry of Bayeux, reprefent-
ing the conquell of England, and faid to have been wrought
bv the conqueror's mother, there is no appearance either
oi a pointed, or fo much as of an interfeCted arch, in the
feveral churches, llirlncs, and other architecinral works there
difplayed. In a word, throughout the whole of Montfas-.con's
flates, we every where fmd the French pointed architedure
much inferior to that of a currefponding date in our own
country.

To return to the fubjeft of interfcfting arches : we ob-
ferve thefe fometimcs to confill of plain femicircles croduig
each other, as on the outfidc of the fouth tianli pt of Wal-

cf

kelyn's wo'rk at Winchefter, and on the north trand-pt c
Warle waft's work at Exeter, forming in the interfef-ioi,
fimple pohited arches ; and fomeiim(s we rcm.?rk ttin; i' •
interfections reft upon pillars, each of them being fur.-,
ed with a capital, or at leaft with an abacus. e« ■ ., •
north tranfept of Durham, and the weft front cf Eiftcl-i
cathedrals. In the latter cafe, we have the appearance ,{
poHited arcRs with lateral points, or cufps wiihin the hradj
of them, as fir James Hall has very aptlv termed '■'.■■^1
This addition to the pointed arch was occafion'allv ufed
hrft period or order of pointed architecture, biit aftci ..„.t. .
It became univtrfal. The addition of another ct:fp on rvxh
fide of the pointed arch turned its trefoil head into a ei' ■
foil. In like manner, fjur of thefe cufps beino- r,h
cqu?l diilances within that circle or " l,'CEi\ de'Sa..:.
which the Roman and Saxon architefls had been in t!;-
habit of placing in the tympanum of their pediments, turn-
ed It into an elegant quatrefoil or crofs. Bv means of
additional cufps, and circles within circles, the Catharine
wheel, cr Marygold window, as it is called in En^laiid, o-
" La Rofe du Poitail," as the French term it, wa-: ■ '
produced. In all the works executed during the n
and latter part of the twelfth century, a confufed anc ,:.-
terogencotis mixture of ftyles is every' where difcemible, as
might be expected where circular faihion began to be left
oii, and the pointed one to be ufed inftead of it.

In a general way, tlie arches were altered before the
column.«. Hence nothing is fo common as to fmd in
the ftruclures erected between 11 40 and 1180, arches of
the ftiarpelt points, refting on circular Saxon pillars of
the greateft circumference. It could not, however, long
efcape the obfervation of our indefatigable aichitefts, that
fach heavy fupporters ill accorded with the lightnefs of
the afpiring arch. Accordingly, towards the latter end of
this twelfth century, in fome inftances the circular Saxon
column began to be ftiaped like the Arabic numerical
figure 8, fo m to ivtain its former ftrength, and to appear
gracefully flcrider ; and where coliur.ns were made ufe of
more for decoration than for ftrength, as for example to
fupport ornamental arcades, or the cornices of windows
or doors, very thin detached colr.mns were employed,
and tkofe for the moll part made of Purbeck or Peiworth
marble. We have a ftrikiug and moft interefting example of
tliefe and other improvements which took place in tlie point-
ed ftyle, towai-ds the latter part of the twelfth ci-nturv,
in the eaft end of Canterbury cathedral. Pcrfons who
cannot fee the original, will find it accunitelv rcprcfented in
Mr. Carter's trcafury of original fpecimens, called '• The
Ancient Aichitedure of England.'' This portion of our
Metropohtan church was rebuilt, after an accidental fire h:A
deltroyed the upper part, ar.d weakened the remainder cf
it, between the years 1175 and 1 180. As we have the
incomparable advantage of poffelTing a circ-.imftantial ac-
count of this building, and cf tlie diflerenccs K-lwecn it
and the former ftruCture, niifed a hundrcil years before by
archbilliop Lanfranc, which account is drawn up by the
intelligent monk Gervafe of Canterbury, who was an eve-
witnels of what he relates, we fhall fubioii> fome of the
moll material parts of it ; he tells us thcii", that the pillars
of the new choir were of the fame form and tl..<.!<nefs wiili
tliofe of the old choir, but that they wx>re twelve fo-t
longer ; that the former capitals were plain, while thr
latter were delicately carved ; that there were no marble
columns in Lanfranc's work, but that there was au
incredible number of them in the work of iLo two
Williams ; that the ftones which f.rjRed tlie ancient
arches were cut witli an axe, but thoft 01 ucw arches witli
I a chifl^l i

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

a cliifTcl; that the vaultiiif; of the fiJo aides of the choir
MMs plain, whllft that of the new choir was- groined and
iixed vvitli key-lloiivs ; that the former choir had a flat
c-iUng orua;iK-ntally pointed ; but that the fnccecding choir
was elegantly vaulted with hard rtone for its ribs, and hglit
l(iph ito'.ie for the interilices ; finally, that there was oiily
oue tnjor'uivi, or g.dlery, round the ancient choir, whilll
there were two fuch in the modern choir. The call end of
this venerable cathedral, as it is feen at the prelent day,
iuid as It is reprefented by Mr. Carter, exaftly correfponds
in tiiefe and in other particulars with this delcription ot it,
given 600 years ago. It is all in the firil order ot the
poiiited llyle, except the main pillars, which are (to the eye)
round, with a fort of Corinthian capital, and except the
arches fpringlng from thefe pillars, which are alio circular
iii; far as the concha abficlis or altar end, thefe being point-
ed, as likewife with the exception of certaiT hlocicings
and mouldings, where the Saxon billet ornament is Hill
leen.

Tlie improved architeclure of this, the moil dignified
church in the ifland, could not fail of being adopted in our
other churches, when there was occafion for rebuilding or
repairing them. I.,incoln cathedral feems to have led the
way in this particular about the year 1 195, under the di-
rection of its bilhop St. Hugh, who was riot lefs renowned
for his (l<ill in architefture than for the fanftity of his life.
This prelate undertook to rebuild the whole of his vail ca-
thedral, and he was fo intent upon the work, that, as Mat-
thew Paris tells us, he carried mortar and ftones on his own
(boulders for the ufe of the malons. The building was fo
far advanced at the time of his death, which happened in
the year 1 200, that he is confidered and called its founder,
thougli his work was not finilhed till about fifty years after-
wards, in the epifcopacy of Robert Grofetete. Excepting
the welt front, which is ahnoll all the work of the Norman
prelate Remigius, and the towers, the groining, the flcreens,
and certain other decorations added in the fourteenth cen-
tiu-y, the whole vail pile of St. Mary's church and Chapter-
lioufe at I..incoln is in the fimple ilyle of the firfl or lancet
order ot ponited architedture ; but awful and beauteous be-
yond the conception of thofe who have not feen it, and
greatly luperior to any church of the fame order and period
to be found in France. In 1202, the rich and powerful
bifliop Godfrey de Lucy, amongll his other great works,
began to rebuild the eallern part of his cathedral at Win-
cheiler, wliich he executed in the llyle of tlie Metropolitical
choir, but without the lead mixture of the Saxon. His
extenfive work is ftill to be feen there, confiding of long
narrow fliarp-pointed windows and other arches, detached
pillars of Purbec marble, qnatre-foil mouldings, and light
groining of fimple interfecting ribs. And, whereas, it
became very ulual, for the fake of gracefulnefs and
alfo of ufe, where they were ufed as windows, to place two
or thefe narrow arches clofe together under another pointed
arch of greater width, in conlequence of which a vacant
fpace occurred between their heads; a trefoil, qnatrefoil, or
cniqaefoil was frequently introduced, with the happiell
f fleet, to fill up this fpace. In 1227 archbilliop Walter
de Grey began to rebuild the northern Metropolitan church
of York in the prevailing flyle, and he aflually finilhed the
iouth crofs aide as it is now feen. The fame kind of work
was going on at this time at Worcefler, Sahlhurv, and other
cathedral and abbey churches!^ The lail-meiitioned church,
which was an entire new foundation, begun by bifliop De
Foore in 1220, and finilhed by bilhop Bridport in 1258, ex-
hibits, in its front and other parts, the double lancet aix'h,
wjth the intermediate quatretoil role, and al! the other clia-

" rafters defcribcd above. There being occafion, however,
to place tlu-ee lancet arches together in the windows of the
upper llory, the head of the middle one was gracefully
raifed above the other two, an iijipmvement wliich was fooii
adopted in many other churches. A ilill more llriking im-
provement which took place, if not at Salilhury for the
iirll time, at leall about the time of its completion, was
the elevation of the cornice, pediment, or canopy which had
hitherto adhered, or at leall had been very near to the archi-
trave of the arch. This was now raif.-d, like the two fides
of a triangle, to a confidcrable height above it. The jambs
of the pediment were at firll rather fliort, not reaching, by
any means, fo low as the fpringijig ot the arch, and gene-
rally relling on fome fmall flower or otlier flight ornament.
The point of the canopy always terminated in a trefoil or
other graceful ornament, but was not, as yet, adorned with
crockets or foliage down the jambs. Biihop De Poorc,
being tranllated to Durham, began to ornament the call end
of his prefent cathedral in the llyle which he had introduced
into the one he liad left. Whilll the work at Salilhury was
drawing towards a conclufion, that at Wellminller abbey
was beginning, namely, in the year 1245. The north trau-
fept, and part of the adjoining nave ot the church, remain
in almoft the fame flate they were left in by their founder
Henry III. The windows of the lall-mentioncd portion
of the abbey, together with the correfjjonding aifle, are
larger and better Droportioned than any -.vhich had hitherto
been feen in this ifland. Here alfo we meet with the cinque-
foil rofe between the heads of the two lights ; while the ex-
terior windows of the triforium or gallery confill entirely af
a triple cinquefoil under a pointed arch. Thefe two models
for the upper part of church windows were long followed.
On the other hand, the arches and windows of the tranfept,
being placed in a regular order, a.:d very near to each other,
prefented an appearance of thofe large muliioned windows
which, in the fuccceding period of this llyle, came into
fafliion. In this part alfo of the abbey church, namely,
the infide of the tranfept, we begin to meet with good
ilatuary.

During the reign of Henry's fon, Edward I., wliich be-
gan in 1272, the architefture of tliis countrv, through the
ingenuity and indullry of its artills. acqvured a new charac-
ter, and may be faid to haie grown into a new order of the
pointed fliyle. The firil and diilinguilhing feature of this
was the general adoption of the well proportioned and well
turned alpiring arch. The arches which had hitherto been
conilrudled, though fometimes accidentally perfect, were,
for the moft part, too acute. But the arches built at the
latter end of the thirteenth century generally approached
to the perfeA proportion. This proportion, according
to the bell judges, is when an equilateral triangle can be
infcribed within the crown and impolls of the arch. The
arches alfo were gracefully turned. Befides all this, they
were now invariably ornamented in their heads with cufps,
fo as to form trefoils, cinquefoils, or feptfoils. In like
manner the pediments or canopies over the arches were uni-
verlally purfled, that is to fay, adorned with the reprefenta-
tion of foliage called crockets, from the corbel on which
they reftcd up to the rich flower or other elaborate finial in-
which they terminated. Thefe corbels or brackets now
correfponded in iieight with the fpringing of the arch, and.
mollly exhibited bulls of the founders or other benefaclors
of the ellablifiiment. Pinnacles, which hitherto had been
both very fimple and very rare, were, in this improved order,
placed at the fides of alinoil every arch, and on the top of
ahnoll every buttreis, being invariably purfled and fur-
mounted with rich finials, A pinnacle of a proportionable

fi.'.e

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

Ctc being pWed on a tower, inftead of a butlrcfs, hrcame
a broach or f'pire. Accordingly the ufc of fpirus became
ahnoll general in the fourtecntli century. We even read of
a new built towi-r being pulled down, becaufe it was unequal
to bear the weight of this grand ornament, when a new
one was built, which, with its fpire, was as high as the
church was long. In the fame fpirit of ornamental grandeur,
the buttrefi'es, fupporting tlu- upper part of the nave, in-
ftead of being concealed in the roofs of the (ide aides, were
brought into view with fuitable decorations, and made to ilreteh
over the tops of thofe ai(!es, in what are called Hying but-
trefles. The window no longer confilted of an arch divided
by a iimple nuiUion, and funnounted with a fingle or a tri-
ple rofe, but was henceforward, in all grand churches, por-
tioned out by mullions into three, four, five, fix, and foine-
tiracs into nine diflerent bays or days, as the feparate lights
ii\ a window were then called; and thel'e again were frequent-
ly fubdivided by one or more tranfoms ruiuiiiig acrofs tliem.
Their heads alio were varied by tracery work into a variety
of architeiElural defigns, and fonietimes, as at the weft end
of York, into the form of a beautiful flower. The plain
niches of the thirteenth century became, in the fourteenth,
gorgeous tabernacles, in which as much architeftural llcill
was often difplayed as in the whole church to which they
belonged. Tliefe tabernacles, as well as various other parts
of th.e iacred edifice, were filled with llatucs, which fiequciilly
ftiewed equal fpirit in the defign and art in the execution.
Finally, the ribs fupporting the groined ceiling were no
longer fimple interfcding arches ; but they branched out
into tracery work, ftill richer and more elegant than that in
the grand windows of this period ; and wherever the ribs
met, they were tied together by an architedlwral knot or
bofs, which generally exhibited fome inftrnftive device. It
rtiuft not be torgotten, that during the latter part of this
period, the pediments which before had been llraight, began
to humour tl\e fweep of the arch, by which means they
became lefs higli and more graceful.

We have inilances of thefe improvements, or rather of
this new order of the pointed ftyle, in the three remaining
architeiilural crofles, erecled by Edward I. thofe of Nor-
thampton, Geddington, and Waltham, to the memory of
his queen Eleanor, who died in 1290; likewife in the Tiiag-
iiificent tomb of his brother Edmund Crouchback in Welt-
minfter abbey, who departed this life in 1296. But the
moil complete fpccimen of the v/hole detail of thcle improve-
ments is York Miniler, the nave of whicli, as it Hands, was
built between the years 1290 and 1330, and the choir fome
thirty years after the latter period. If any fimilar llruClure
in the fame llyle, but upon a fmaller fcale, could, in its
time, have vied with this in beauty and grandeur, it was St.
Stephen's chapel, Wellminller, now the houfe of commons,
which Edward III. began to ereft in 1348. Of the inimi-
table beauties of the latter ereftion, only a few fcattered
veftiges remain, to fliew the architectural antiquary wliat it
was in its glory. There are few, if any, of our cathedrals
and remaining abbey churches which were not rebuilt or re-
ftored in fome conliderable part or other of them, according
to this improved order. Before 132 I, biihop Langton had
added the Lady chapel to his catliedral of Litchfield, had
groined the nave and choir, and had erecled the magnificent
weftern fai;ade. About the fame, lime the greater part of
the nave of Wellmiufter abbey church \\.'»3 rebuilt. Be-
tM'een the years 1327 and 1 340, Exeter cathedral was
groined, and its heavy Norman arches and pillars were
changed into liglit and graceful pointed arches and cluitcr-
columns, by its munificent pv.-lale Grandifou. During the

Vol. XVI.

pontificate of archbifliop Courtney, wliich began in I3<!r,
and that of his fncceilbr Arundel, the nave of Catilcrbury
cathedral was rebuilt. During the fame period that eminent
prelate and architcft, William of Wykcham, was employed
in performing the fame difTicult tranfmutation of the nave
ot Wincheiler cathedral, which had been pcrfonr.ed in
that of Exeter. The circular calumns and arihcs were not
taken down, as has been generally fuppofcd, but the former
were cafed and t!ie latter reduced to a point. This may be .
afccrtained by an attentive examination of the work within
the roofs of thofe rtruftures; and without this trouble, by
fimply looking at the nave of Gtoixcfter, St. Albann, or
Rumfey great church, where the operation here defcribcd
will appear to have been performed, on two or three of
the circular pillars and arches at the well end, and to have
been left off with refpcft to the other pillars and arches.
The talle for thefe improvements defccndcd even to country
parifh chr.rchco, few of wliich did not fooHcr or later ex-
change their ancient windows, at leaft, for thofe of the
pointed ilyle.

But human arts, like the human body, when they have at-
tained to t'-.e perfeftioii of their Hate, tend towards their de-
cline. This was the cafe with that fingnlar invention, point-
ed architecture. Its rife, progrefa, and decline, occupy lit-
tle more in the chronology of the world than fo-ir centiiric*.
As its charafteriilical pcrfciSion confu'.cd in the due elevation
of the arch, fo its decline commenced by an undue deprefiion
of it. This nev/ flyle, or third order of pointed architefture,
took place in the latter part of the fifteenth century, and ii
to be feeii in the royal chapels of St. George, Windfor, of
King's college, Cambridge, and of Henry VII., Wcftmin-
fler. It eannot be denied, that the builders of thefe fplen-
did and julUy admired flruClures difplayed more art and
more profefiional fcicnce than even their predcccfibrs had
done ; but then they di played this at the cxpence of the
llylc itlelf, which they cultivated, and of the awful and de-
vout iniprcfTions which this ilyle was invented to excite.
The fpeiilator was now amaz.ed to fee huge maffes of ftotie,
called pendent capitals, each one of more than a ton weight,
hanging in the air, which, inftcad of fuprorting the vaft
groins they were fixed in, were fupportf j by them ; the
confequcnce of this, however, was to brin.g the flat arches of
the ceiling ftill nearer to the eye, fo that their curvature was
henceforward dilccrnible at thoir fpringi:ig rather fliaji at
their point. Finally, ingenuity was at tliis period much
more aifeiSled than awfulnefs : hence thofe royal chapels, and .
teveral mortuary ones built in Winchefter, Peterborough,
and our other grand churches, during the time of the two
la!l Henries, are feen covered over with tracery, and loaded
in their groins and friezes with buftp, armorml bearings, and
rcbufes, beyoiul all due proportion, fo that, however ele-
gant the doiign, and cxquifite the execi t on of them (^nc-
rally is, a judicious fpeflator, after admiring them, fails net
to prefer to them the chafle grandeur of York Minllcr, or
even the unadorned majefty of Salilbury cathedral. The
church-windows of this period were fo multiplied and en-
larged, as to become what a late writer, Mr. Whittingto*.
profell'es to admire " all window,'' but which they certainly
could not become without great detriment to the character
of awfulnefs in the church itfelf. The fas-.e deprelTion of
the poiuted arch took place on the outfide as in the inlide of
the building.s of this period. Inftead of the tapering pin-
nacles and lofty fpires v.Iiich had hitherto adorned the towers
of churches, thele ftruoluivs were now generally covered
with round cupulas, and tlie portals, inltcad of being fur-
mountcu witli erucketed pediments and graceful piongclcs,
3 y wen:

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

wefe generally enclofed within fquare architraves, the chief arch, which grew into fafliion about the latl-mentioned pe-
ornamentg of which were feen in the fpandrels. All this, riod, and lafkd to the downfal of pointed architecture itft-lf
Kov. ever, is to be undcrftood with fome exceptions. For in the middle of the fixtecnth century. The fniell Ipeciiriens^
example, bifliop Oliver King erected his cliurch at Batli, ot this, doubtlels, are the above-mentioned roy;il chapel;,
about the V'~ar ( joo, in a very finiplc fafhion of pointed ar- With refpedt to the proper denomination of this ftylc, fotnt-
titedture, and biibop Fox repaired thepreihytery and cluin- of the learned, as well as the vulgar in general, ilill cfill it.
eel of Winclu-llcr catliedral with a challe and talleiul the Gothic, others tlie Saraceniu-, a third clalV, the Norman,
elegance. a fourth, the Fnglini, and a fitdi, the pointed. From the

But the downfal of pointed architeclure in this kingdom wliole ot what has been faid above, it will be readily coir-
iiecame inevitable from various caufc.s, chieily, how ever, cl»ided, that the prefent writer conceives the lalt of tlielc
from the lofs of its charafters of majefty and awfulnefs, terms to be the beil adapted to the ilyle, as being the molt
the neceifary tonfequenec of the deprefTion of its fublime llrittly defcriptive of its characlcrilliciil quality.
:ind graceful arch. The deftrnftion of it was complete This article is the abridgment of a much longtr trcatif;
at the b.-ginning of the reign of Edivard VI., from which on pointed arcliilecliure, which is Hiortly expeaed to appear
period, till the introduftion of the pure Grecian llyle in the f^m the prefo of Mr. Tavlor's Architectural Lilirarv ; m
reign of Charles I., a real Gothic, ';r at leait a truly barba- ,vhich treatife manv hillori'cal documents in fupr.ort of t!ie
ric llyle took place, conlilling of a confufed medley of all prefent fyltem, and certain plates to illui>rate*it, will brj

feen. M.

Gothic BiMe. See Bible, and Akgen-teis Cocfex.

Gothic CharaSer^ or IVr'iUn^, is a charailer or manner
writing, which, in the main, is the fame with the Roman,

of

only that it is very full of angles, turns, and bendings, efpe
cially at the beginning and ending of each letter.

The manufcripts in Gothic characters are not very ancient-
Ulpiiilas, bhhop of the Goths, was the firft. inventor of the
Gothic charafters, or the tiril who compofed the Gothic
alphabet, in imitation of the Greek, and the tirll that tranf-

ihe known itvlcs and orders of llvles, intermixed with globe
triangles, pyramids, obeliiks, frets, and other wliimilcal and
ugly devices, as may lUU be feen in the fepulchral and other
monuments of the period in queftion.

From what has been faid, it appears that the term
Gothic architecture is an improper one, as applied to any
fpecies of archltedlure whatfoever ; that the mode of build-
ing which prevailed amnngll our ancellors before the con-
<juell, called the Saxon ilyle, confifting of round pillars with
rude capitals and bafes, and of circular arches, was llriftly

Roman, beinoi copied, even to its minute ornaments, from '"P"'" , , ^ , .

, ■ • 1 f T) J 1 • 1 J- n. . u. 1 J^.ted the bible mto the Gothic tonffue.

coeval origma4s at Rome, and having been nrit taught and r,,, , vj v. j,

praftifed m tins iiland by Roman mailers ; that this ftyle ^ ^^ W^Xtvi. ufed in the Gothic gofpels are twenty-five ia

was fucceedtd, before the' middle of the twelfth century, by ""mD>^7, and formed, with flight venations, from the capi-

a llyle of archltedure perfeftly new, the elfentlal charafter "^'"^ *'* ^"e Greek and Latin alphabet.

of which is the pointed arch, from which, by a natural pro- As thefe charafters, in which the CaJex Argfxtecs, or

cefs, the flender duller colum.n, the afpiring cornice or pedi- Gothic verlion of the bible, was \\Titten by Ulphilas, their

mcnt, the crocketed pinnacle and lofty fpire-, with the other inventor, were derived partly from the Greek and partly

ornaments mentioned above, aftually grew ; that this ftyle fiom the Latin, Michaelis (Introd, to the N. T.) thinks IC

was not borrowed from Northern Goths, nor Eallern Sara- natural to afcribe the laid verfion not to the Franks or Ger-

cens, nor Weftern Moors, nor Southern Italians (for in this mans, but to the Goths, who lived on the borders of the

ftyle the Italians themfelves were but novices, and not very F):niube ; or in Wallachia, where they at that time refided,

apt ones), but that it was difcovered in this climate, moll the Latin was ipoken, and their ncarell neighbours were the

probably by the Englilli Normans, the grcateil people of Greeks. A mixed alphabet, fuch as tliat which is found ia

the 12th age, and the fondeil of eceleiiailical architecture the Codex Argenteus, is fuch as might reafonably be ex-

that ever exifled ; that the ftyle was improved by the ioint peeled. Some of the words in this verlion are ftill ufed in the

efforts of the Normans, Englilh, and French, at a time when Lefier Tartary, the ancient feat of the Goths ; t- ^. fiv'ihan,

our kings were mailers of the fairell provinces of France, " to die,'' from j-valt, " death,'' a ward that is qeoted by

and brouglit to its perfeftlon, chiefly by the ingenuity and Buibeck, from the language of the Crlm Tartars. In this

indullry of the Englilh, during a period in wliicli Englai d verlion, many words are adopted immediately from the

was in prolperity by her conquells, and France in defola-
tion from her defeats ; that there are three dhtliict orders in
this ilyle, ll:e members and proportions of which can be dlf-
tinclly pointed out by profeffional men, (fuch as the author
of the " Ancient Architecl.ure of England") with almoil as

Greek; i>/-s. o.~-y, aita, father; ams, iyy-, the {houlder,
where even the j is retained from the Greek termination, &c.
Hence it is inferred, that the dialeft, in which fuch word.o.
occur, was that of a nation that lived in the neighbourhood
of the Greeks. This verlion has alfo Sclavonlan word'?, fuch

much accuracy as thofe of tiie nve Grecian orders ; on which as_/i;n, a mafter, which prove it to have been written in the
itibiccl it may be obferved, that thefe Grecian orders were dialedl of a nation that bordered on Sarmatia. The fame
praftifed long before tlseir members and proportions were ac- niay be faid of many Latin words : Inch as anacumhjan, ac-
curately laiddov.-n, that the charatleriltic of the firft order is cumbere, to fit at table, mililondans, mllltantes, foldiers, agha,
the acute arch, and that the period. of its duration may, in water, &c. This argument is the more decifive, v.'ht n we
■A general way, be faid to have lafted from the middle of the confider, that the Goths, in the time of Ulphilas (fee his
twelfth to tlie end of the thirteenth century : of this order, biographical article,) lived in Wallachia, a country in which

Lincoln, Beverley, and Sallibury churches are examples ;
that the chief characterlftic of the fecond order, is the per-
fecl cr equilateral aich, the reign of which was from the
*nd of the thirteenth, till after the middle of the fifteenth
^ntur)-, to which order York Mlnller, and the naves of
Winciieiler and Canterbury cathedrals belong ; and that
•ftaallf, the eharailerjllic of the third order is tlie obtufe

2

Roman colonies had been planted, and where a corrupt Latin
is fpoken at this very day. Ulphilas himfelf lived in Wal-
lachia, and had it in his power at leall to make ufe of Latin
letters, as well as thofe of the Greeks, with whom he had
continual intercourfe. See Gothic Language.

The Runic charadlers are alfo frequently called Gothic
characlers. See Mabillon, De Re Diplomat, lib. i. cap. 2.

Bui

GOTHIC LANGUAGE.

But they who take the Gothic chavafters to be the fame with
the Runic, are miitakcD ; as is (hewn by 01. AVormius, Junius
in his preface to the Gofpels written in Gothic letters, and Dr.
Hicks on tlie Runic Tongue.

Gothic Column is any'round pillar in a Gothic building,
either too thick or too fmall for its height.

There are fome found even twenty diameters high, with-
out either diminution or fw elling.

GoT/ltc Language, the language of the Goths. This lan-
guage, as the acknowli;dged parent of the Englilh, is of con-
liderable importance ; while its remote antiquity, the fcanti-
nefs of its records, and the circumilance of its having been ftu-
died only by few among the learned, have rendered it a matter
of great uncertainty as to its character and origin. The quef-
tions refpecting its antiquity and genius are refolvable into
thole in regard to the people who ufed it. Monf. Mallet,
in his " Northern Antiquities,'' fuppofes that the ancient
Gauls and Germans, the Britons and the Saxons, were all
originally one and the fame people : and thus he makes the
Gothic the fame with the Celtic tongue. This opinion,
Xvhich was firft taken up by Cluverius in his " German An-
tiquities," has been fince adopted by Keyfler in his " Nor-
thern and Celtic Antiquities,'' andPellouticr in his " Hillory
of the Celts," and maintained by them with uncommon eru-
dition. According to thefe writer?, the ancient and original
inhabitants of Europe confiftcd only of two dilHnct races
of men, v'fz. t'le Celts and Sarmatians ; and from one or
other of tlafe, but chiefly from the former, all the ancient
nations of Europe are defcendcd. The Sarmatians, or Sau-
romat.r, were the anceftors of all the Sclavonian tribes, viz.
the Poles, Ruffians, Bohemians, Wallachians, &c. who con-
tinue to this day a dilHnft and feparatc people, extremely
different in their chai-acter, manners, law 5, and language trom
the other race, which was that of the Celts ; from whom, as
they fuppofe, were defcended the old inhabitants of Gaul,
Germany, Scandinavia, Britain, and Spain, who were all in-
cluded by the ancients luidtr the general name of Hyper-
boreans, Scythians, and Celts, being all originally of one
race and nation, and having all the fame common language,
religion, laws, cuftoms, and manners.

This opinion, though fupported with an uncommon dif-
play of deep erudition and a great variety of fpecious argu-
ments, is controverted by the late learned and ingenious Dr.
Percy, in a preface to Monf Mallet's Northern Antiquities,
which he has tranflated and enriched with notes. This pro-
found antiquarian, in oppofition to the French writers, ftatcs
that ancient Germany, Scandinavia, Gaul, and Britain, were
not inhabited by the defcendanls of one fincjle race ; but,
on the contrary, divided betw een two very different jieople ;
the one of whom he calls with moll of the Ro;nan authors
Celtic, who were the anceilors of the Gauls, Britons, and
Irilh ; the other Gothic or Teutonic, from whom the Ger-
mans, Belgians, Saxons, and Scandinavians derived tlieir
origin ; and that thefe were ab origine two dillinct people,
very unlike in their manners, cuiloms, religion, and laws.

The Gothic, then, is radically different from tlie Cfltic ac-
cording to Dr. Percy, who, on the authority of Hicks, as
ilated in the preface to his " Inrtitutiones Grammatici An-
glofaxonicj;," gives the following genealogy of the two lan-
guages. Gothic is the parent of i. Old Saxon, or Anglo-
Saxon; 2. i'Vaiicic or Franco-Theotifc ; 3. Cinibric, or Old
Icelandic. From the lirll, -viz. the Anglo-Saxon, an- again
derived Englilh, Broad Scotch, Belgic, or Low Dutch, and
Frific. From the Francic, are derived German, or Higli
Dutch, German of Swabia, and Swifs ; ^vllile the Cimbric, in

its turn, gave birth 10 t!ic Icelandic, Norwegian or Norfe.
Danifti, and SwcdiOi. On the other hand, the Celtic i j rrpre-
fented by the fame writer as the parent of the ancient Gau-
lifh, the ancient Britidi, (ramified into the Cornilh, Armori-
can, or Bas-Bretagne, and Wellh,) and the ancient Inihi
whicii was fubdivided into Manks, or language of the Ifle of
Man, into Erfe, or Highland Scotch, and Irilh. To thir
old original mother tongue of all the Gotluc Uialefts, it ha.'
been ulual to ijivi; the name of Teutonic, r.(A fo much as Dt.
Percy affcrts from its being the language of Tuiilo, tbr
great father and deity of tl c Gcrinan trib<t,as from the Teu-
tones, the people who ufed it : the fame probably with" tL-
Cimbri, or as the Greeks called tlscm Kivu.ji'.., who inha-
bited the northern regions, and more particular!) the Dan.i':
illands. Now, in oppofition to this writer, we arc fi-ee t-i
affirm, there is no ground for believing that this mother
tongue, whether called Gothic or Teutonic, was in its pri-
mxval form different from the Celtic. And this propolitiotj
we fliall endeavour to make maiiifeft from the very fpecixen»
by which Dr. Percy has attempted to (hew their cff-nUaJ
difference. But before we enter on this qucftion, it is r.ccef-
farj- to remark, that learned men, in their enquiries concern-
ing t'lie arigin of nations, have not fufficiently attended to
the confideration which we learn from, the Mofaic Iiillory,
that all nations originated in a common family, and at finl
fpoke a common language. /Let us lupj ofe that fome mem-
ber'^ or dt fcendants of this family, (as we read of Gomcr,)
emigrated from Afiato Europe. If they fettled in Gnrce,
they introduced with tlicm the primaval cuftoms, and lai--
guage, though fomewhat corrupted no doubt from its ori-
ginal purity. Others, aftuaud by the fame fpirit cf crri-
gration, would loon follow ; and, if n.ore powerful, would
diflodge their predeccfibrs, who had no other refource but t«
feek new hibitations in remoter regions,'

As thefe wanderers multiplied, they advanced, till, in tjie
courfe of years, all the countries on the north and wcA, as
well as on the call cf Europe, were completely peoj-LJ.
But this population of courfe could not take place bef.MC
they had been divided into independent tribes, mnd diltir.-
guiihed by correfpondent difference in dialects and manuci.~.
But ftill a very great refemblance mull have as yet been \i-
fible am.ong them in both thefe refpecls, however feparated
from each (>t!ier : for in the earlier periods of fociety, lan-
guage, though widely ufed, muil long have continued tlic
fame, with 1 ttle variations, it being corrupted and diverfilied
into dillinci tongue.^ only by the progrcfs of civiUzation, by
the refinements of literature, by improvements in art and in
government, and by thofe political convulllons which th?
love of conquell, infpired by confcious fuperiority in thofe
arts, produces. All the nations of Europe, therefore, in tlic
ruder and more early ages, may be confidercd as uhng only
the fame great primordial fpecch, grown indeed into dikinct
brandies, and affuming in one country the appearance of
being independent of, and unconnected with thole ufed Li
other couHtries. Now, if we fuppofe that the Celtx were
the firll emigrants from Afia, who, pervading Europe, letlled
in Gaul, Old Spain, Britain and Ireland ; while their bre-
thren, under the iiaanes of Getx (Goths'), Scytlix, Cimbr:,
&c. directing their courfe to the North, occupied Thrair..
Scandinsvia, and other northern territories ; it w ould toLovv,
that thefe tribes, however remote, ufed at firll either tlie
fame language, or languages which had a dole aifimty tron
their relation to the common prima-val loiiguc. Nor would
there be material differciiee in this co'.iclufion, t'uough we
fliould fuppofe, with many learned men, that the iahabilaiu".
of tijc North of Europe came, not from Uie Eail but fr>/m
3 Q - ^^

GOTHIC LANGUAGE.

the North of Afia, as they rnuft ftill have been defcendants
of the fame primitive family, which, according to Mofes,
peopled the world. Thus the Celtic and the Gothic or
Teutonic muft have been, in their origin, the fume or hilcr
tongues.

But further, while the ancient Celts and Goths continued
in the darknefs for which they became proverbial, the inha-
bitants of Greece rapidly improved in laws and the arts of
'ife. In tViis improved ftate, Greece became, in regard to the
'efs favoured inhabitants of the North and Weft, what Afia
'>ad hitherto been in refpeCl to Greece; a frelh fource of ci-
^'li/.ation and letters. Its language, growing m.ore cojiaus
•ind refined with the people, diffufed itfelf with the
^leffings of knowledge and fociety, which their exam-
Pie or inftruftion imparted to the Northern and Weftern
i'^habitants of Europe. Thus Greek, with the arts of
Greece imported into Italy, gave birth to the Latin
I'JnTue; and tllis at a later period necclTarlly affected the
Celtic language, in confequence of the viftories which the
'Roman arms atchieved in Gaul and ia Britain. This revolu-
tion greatly widened the line of diftinition which for ages had
been extending between the Celtic and the Gothic tongues;
the former being afllniilated to the Latin, the latter to the
Greek, bv a copious influx of new terms. It were indeed
matter of great curiofity if fome records of the Celtic and
Gothic toagues had been preferved before they were yet
modified by the afeendant languages of Greece and Rome ;
but no fuch records unfortunately have furvived the wrecks
of time. And we can jvidge of tlie ancient Celtic only from
the Welfh, its acknowledged daughter ; while we are left
to form our judgment of the prima:val Gothic from the rem-
nants of a verfion of tlie New Teftament, effected by Ulphi-
la.s, into the dialeA ufed by the Goths in Mcefia, and hence
called Moefo-Gothic.

Having made this preface to Ihew that the Celtic and Go-
tluc had one common bafis, -viz. the primordial tongue im-
ported from Afia, we proceed to prove, as far as we are able
from their refpeftive offspring, that they had in common
many Afiatic words, and were modified by a great portion
of Latin and Greek terms : and that from thefe two caufes
they effentially refembled each other. The Lord's prayer
is thus rendered in the ancient Gothic of Ulphilas.

1 Atta unfar thu in himi-
nam

2 Veilmai namo thein

3 Quimai thiudinaffus the-
ias

4 Vairthai Vilga theius fiie

in hlmina, gah ana air-
LJiai

5 Klaif unferana thana fein-
t,inan glf uns himmidaga

6 Gah afiet uns thatei fcu-
lans figaima, fiui fue gah
veis atletam. tham fculam
unferam

7 Gail t\i brmgais uns in
fraillubngai

S Ak lautei uns aflharama
ubilin. Amen.

Literal tranflation :

Father our thou in hea-
ven

Be fanftihed thy name
Come thy kingdom

4 Be done thy will fo in
heaven, alfo on earth

5 Give us this day the
bread eternal

6 And forgive us that we
are debtors, as alfo we
forgive thofe our debt-
ors

7 And bring us not into
temptation

S But deliver, us from evil,
Amen.

1 Ein Taad, yr h>vn wyt
yn y Nefoeth

2 Santeiddier dy enw

3 Dcved dy dcyrnas

4 Bydded dy Ew)llys ar
y ddaiar megis y mae
yn y nevoeth

5 Dyro i ni heddyw ein
bara beynyddiol

6 A madde i ni ein Dy-
ledion fel y maddenwn
ni ein dvledwyr

7 Ag nae arv.«aiu ni i
brofedigaeth

8 Eithr gwared ni rhag
drwg, Amen.

1 Ourfathcr, tlie one who
art in heaven

2 Be hallowed thy name

3 Come thy kingdom

4 Be thy will on the earth
as it is in the heaven

5 Give to us this day ovr
daily bread

6 And remit to us our
debts as that we remit
to our debtors

7 And lead us not into
trial

8 But deliver us fi-om evil.
Amen.

The following is a fpecimen of the Celtic, as exifting in
the Wellh tongue :

We propofe next to lay before our readers a brief analyfis
of thefetwo fpecimens, which it is prefumed wilj fhewthatthe
two lang\iages in quellion have much nearer refemblance to
each other, than Dr. Percy, or any pcrfon who has not a
thorough knowledge of both, could poifibly imagine. The
Hebrew -\~\,M, pronounced with an initial and cluilng vowel,
is aMn, and fignifies k'hvcd, and this is the fource of the
Gothic a/ta, and the Greek i;-;Tx, with the utnioCt propriety
apphed to a parent as the dearcil objeft of love. The fame
wordin Hebrew is written "1 ^1, doo^l, ;md is no other than the
Celtic iaatl, under a difference of char.'.fter. In the Cornilh
it is /(7s, in the Frific huUn, in the Lapland alLi, and the old
Cantabrian or Bifcayan c'lt a, father, Unfar is the Greek r,^.'.-
•7!;o;, thus ftrangely corrupted, mjxt:;, iintar, jmfar ; , and
hence the Englifli our. In the fame manner, l^^i; has dege-
nerated into iitiu, uns, us. The Celtic ni is the Hebrew and
Arabic pronoun 'J;-^, ani, which, founded witli only the
clofing vewel, is //.', us, and with only the initial ein, our.-
The Gothic in and the Welfh yn have originated in the
Greek !■•-, or the Latin in ; but- it is obfervable that both
thefe languages ufe this prepofition as it is ufed in Latin,
when followed by an accufative noun in the fenfe of into,
unto, or to : thus in frtttftubngai, into temptation ; inni, or
i ni, to us. The Welfli language is remarkable for the atten-
tion paid to harmony in the arrangcuxnt of its terms. To
produce this effect the termination of a preceding word, in
order to coalefce with the fucceeding one, is foTnewhat
changed, and thus made to unite both into one. Thusr/i'ii'fr
is yr itzun, the one, where r or r/j (afplrated after the manner
of the Greek f) is prefixed to -zfn, the Latin unus, or the An-
glo-Saxon an. Wyt, moreover, is a coalition of ii<y ly, art
thou, or thou art ; ivy being the fubftantive Greek verb iii or
ti/ji, whence the Goths derived their im, and tlie Englhli
our am. The Greek x;i,uir, tempefl or chuds, by foftening
the guttural into an afpirate, of which we fhall prefently
give fome more examples, has in the Gothic degenerated into
/.'(W«, the place where the tempefls or clouds refide, I'.am.ely,
\}.\zfhy or heaven. In the Franco-Theotifc the fame word is
htuiil, and in the Cimbric Amw/. Itexi'.ls alfo in the Celtic ;
but there it has retained its original found and fenfe, under
tlie form of cwmivl, a cloud. It is finguiar that the fame
affociation of ideas, founded on the nature cf things, has tranf-
ferred the Greek vjjo,-, or the Latin nube^, to figuify in Wcllh
ht\Tven, under the fllape ointof or nefoidd.

2. Veihuai is the verb of leiha or vtihs, hoh, which is but
the Greek atm:, with the labial -u fubllitulcd for the afpi-
rate, as the old Latins have done in numerous inftances, fome
of which we fliall prefently .produce. On the other hand,
fantiddier is fanSui, converted bv the AVelfli into a verb ; w hile

dy

GOTHIC LANGUAGE.

<fj is the fame t^ ith the Gothic ihu, and no other than the La-
tin tu, or tlie j'Eolic tv, or the EnghiTi thou. The Gothic
than, it is obvious, has giv;;n birt'i to the Ertcfhlh font
of thin:. Namo, wlience our name, retains the Perfian cha-
racter of naatr., thoujrh perhaps it is rr.ore immediately de-
rived from nomcn, and ij a kindred noun \\ ith the \Ve!c!i cniu,
which probably dcgcueratcd from wo^x, by dropping the lull
fy 11 able.

3- The Arabic CD^^^TJ' qur.tm, !e{;i, has given birth to tlic
Gothic quintiin, to 'ife the legs, i. e. to come, and to the An-
glo-Saxon c\'r.-:jr., and our com : The fame word has been im-
p jrted into the Celtic in t!;e fliape of cnmmu, fignifying to hop
ovjlcp. The fame wordexifts in the Shanfcrit, guriiun, to go.
The correfpon ding Weldi (fei'eil or dyivad, is the Greek, txi-,
Ta^i-, or Tsjii', tojirelch to an ohjecl, which laft defcended from
the Arabic '>y\^, ala, by dropping the initial vov.el.
The fame verb exifts in Welfli, under the difFcru-nt figure
of tho-x'y or thowys, and is no other than the Englilh tow, to
condud. The Gothic thiudiufiffiis, a Lingdoni, icems origin-
ally to have meant the emperor of a fuldued nation, from the
Greek ii-.i-v; and :tva|, or x.aj-ra, as the offspring of the for-
mer exirts in this tongue thiudii, gens, popnlus. On the other
hand, the Welfli tkyrnas is the Greek Sjo™.-, coirupted, by the
tranfpofition of r, into thornos or dyrnas. Our Englilh ihrov. ■
conforms to the original in found and fenfe. In the
Anglo-Saxon the correfponding word is rye, which ftill ex-
ifts in fuch Enghfli compolitions, as lijixpric, i. e. the domi-
nion of a bilhop. In the Great Indian language above-
mentioned, this term fubfiiiS under the character of reyh,
meaning luealth, and which is nearly the fame in foimd and
fenfe with the Anglo-Saxon rvf, or o\\y rich, and the Latin
res, property.

4. As light or air i; the chief medium of exiftencc, the
Hebrew term ~i1SJ> f!'i^'<Jr, gave birth to the Latin eram,
era, and the Gothic wa/'r or ivairthan, ia he, to become. The
Welih hydded, which exills alfo in the form of bytv, and
which i.-. the fame with the Greek &ivx, and the Latin •viiso,
defcended from the Periian hodan, to be. IVilga is /3',^Xi-, or
iti/o, with ga annexed, by an analogy common in tlie Gothic
tongue. The Welch tvoUys, or with e prefixed, eicyllxs, has
flowed from the fame foiirce ; and under the former of thefe
forms is nearly alhed to the Englifh w.7/. Sue is our yc, or
the Greek !■: reverfed, a fate very common with monofyllables
in the ancient languages. Cah came from zai, and ana from
Kja, which, in compofitien, means up, and has given birth
to the Gothic fenfe of upon, ylirthai is the Arabic nrdd,
from the Hebrew y~{<, arets; v^hile the Welili diii.ir, or
as it is otherwife written, tyr, originated in tura. The
Hebrew n^^i aber, the parent of torf^ in Greek, of 'jber
in German, ifer in Gothic, and over in Englilh, has con-
trafted in Celtic into ar, in the fenfe of upon.

5. The Arabic 0*1", dlsph, food, is the origin of the
Gothic hlaif, and the Englilh locf. Thana, or than, is the
accufative article toj. Sintinein is formed from the noun

finth, "uicipfitude, change, which is no other than the Hebrew
njti' "^ r\l\i}^ f-"^^'' ^^'^^ change or period of time called
a year : hence Jinlincln came to fignify ccntinital, or perpetual.
Our Lord, we believe, by the clnufe ro/ x^tov tov (novo-isi,
meant not, as it is generally rendered, daily bread; but the
bread belonging to u?, and effcntial to us as immortal
beings, namely, the bread of the foul. (See " Mr. Jones's
IUultratior.3 of the ;\jur Gofpels,'' p. 123.) In this fenfe
the claufe v.as underllood by the early commentators, and
by the Gothic tninfiator, viho has rendered it hlaif thana

Jiniinein, the eternal breai'. In Hebrew^ Arabic, and Per-
fian, pi^j kcph. denotes the palm of tlic hand;, hence it

came to fignify the aiTlion of the hand, which eonfJls either
in imparting or receiving. In the former fenfe it gave birth
to the Gothic gif, nnd in the latt-r to the Latin cnpto.
Hir,:midaga means this day ; himma, or as we write it, him,
being the perfonal pronoun ufed definilively, and diga, or
dacg, according to the Anglo-Saxon, being the Latin dits ;
him day for this day, which is more common in the plural
form among the vulgar them days.

The Welch dyro, in the fame verfe, is the Greek \f.7, a
gift, converted into a verb. Heddyju is a difguifed form of
hodie, which kill is only a contraction o{ hoc die, this dav.
Btira is a word which exifts in all languages. Its origin is
tlie Hebrew X^~\r^, fljarah,fr;iit: and hence rT\n: in Grctkv
far, and pario in Latin, brodh in Cimbric, brot in Francic,
broodi in Gennan, branta in Norfe, bread in Englifh, bred in
Danilli, and bra; in Frific. Brynhyddid, rendered daily,
appear-, to be compoffd of bryn, a f.p or fummi;, and yddiol,
the Latin dies adjectived, and means a top of each dav, or a
head of each day, /. e. daily. The word is alio ufed leyr..
yddinl, beyn being a corruption of pen, a head. The Weldi
are fond of this expreflion, and have a phrafe, poei dyih-
ar y pen, each, day on his head, meaning every day in fuc»
cellion.

6. ylfet uns, i. e. of-!:t, or /.,' 0^, difmifs .'» i:s. Thatei is a
corruption of the Greek toktc, tl.is or that thisg, and is thus
the parent of the Englilh tha/: hence the reaibnablenefs of
the explanation which the celebrated Mr. Tooke has given
of fuch phrafes — remit to us that thing, viz. fcuhins (igaima,
we are debtors. Sculans were perfons under command,
under obligation or debt, from the Greek o->ci,>.>:ij, to labour:
hence appears to have been derived our fcuUion, a mean
domeftic iervant. In ancient times labourers ufuallv paid
their rents in kind from the produfts of their fields: hence,
in Greek, the tenant was called xi'"''^'''-'''-- On the fame
principle, in Gothic, the word fignifying to labour, came to
iignity to onve, or to be in diht. Sigaima is only the Latin

Jimus corrupted by the infertion oi ga, a particle of frequent
ufe in Gothic. The Wtlfti a mathc, or as it m.ay be
wTitten, ammaddai, is a compofite of ag madde, and remit,
the firll being the Latin conjnnClion ac, the fecond the
Greek us^i?!, the fame with ,u.!5i>if/i, to difmift or rimit.
Dyledion, the plural of dyled, is the Latin deleta, things to
be erafed, or to be cancelled by being paid, i. e. debts. The
noun -wr, or the plural wyr, which in this tongue is fo
often added to the name of a thing, is but the Latin vir —
ilylcdivyr, debtmen or debtors.

7. The Goths and Anglo-Saxons corrupted 5ijii» into
beoran and iringan, and hence our to bear, aod to bring — ni
Iringai, do not bring us. The Latin ne in Gothic is ni,
in Anglo-Saxon and Engli/h no, in Welfh na or n.^g. Frai/'-
/uinjT^/ is the correfponding noun oi fraifin, to tempt, and
appears to have been borrowed from the Latin prefjfus, and
th-jrefore primarily meant preffure, flraightr.efs. The Wclili
ar.-wain is the French rem with the vowel a prefixed, and is
the fame with our rein: its proper fenfe is to lead a horfe
with a bridle. The French, in deriving words from the
Latin, generally rejeft the guttiUTil in the middle or at the
end; and on this principle the root of rene is regno, to rult,
direH. Prcfedigaeth ftrictly denotes experience, and its ori-
gin is lie 1^3Xia probo, which lall is irfelf taken from the
Greek v0;9>', pajlure, or the correfponding verb ?!•,£»■. to
tafle or chew.

8. Tlie Gothic .^h is the Latin a:, though ufed by the-
latter in a conjunftive, by the former in a disjundive fenfe —
but. The root is aijj, or the thence derived augeo, whence
the Gothic augan: and al, cpoformably to the form of this

GOTHIC LANGUAGE.

laft verb, is alFo written anl ift the fenfe of nam-, etiim. The
correfponding Wi-lfti word is eilhr, derived from etejo-, ati-
olher. The explanation of it is this — lead us not into trial;
another thing, ;'. c. do another thing, namelj-, deliver us
from evil: on this ])rinciple the conjunction a.Wa., but, origi-
nated in y.Wo: Lniifci, which has given birth to various
words in Anglo-Saxon and in Engliih, and among the num-
ber to loofe, Infe, Icafe, rclaifi, let, is apparently the offspring
of the riebrew ^'i'^, /«z, dcceJo, recedo: to deliver from
evil is but to caufe to recede from evil, and thus laiifen cor-
vefponds in fenfe' as well as in found to the original. A
loofe chai-aAer is a charafter freed or loofened from tlie
rules of fobriety and jullice, and this deviation from refti-
tude is implied in the original 11^; while the compound
releafe comes clofe to tlie CxOthic fignification of Ituifun, to
deliver. The Wcllb which anfwers to this is givared, and
is no other than the Latin gero, (properly pronounced
guero,) to manage, to carry. The Arabic j;"iri, pbara, is
the origin of our word free, its primary fenfe. Being
thence applied to men, it came to fignify thofe who were
the heads of families, or who went before them: hence it
was ufed to convey tlie more general and abllracl ideas of
precedence or heghm'irg; in this fenfe it is the origin of ^^ii
in Greek, pric in Latin, fra or fram in Gothic, ifra in
Cimbric. In the Anglo-Saxon in is annexed, and hence
our word fram, thoui^h the Scotch ufe it in the original
purity of frae. The correiponding Wellb rhag, vrliieh
means far, djjlancc, has retained with great exattnefs tlie
found and fenfe of pn"l> rhah, its Hebrew original. The
Gothic ubd, German uhel, Anglo-Saxon ife, and Englilh
evU, is the Perfian and Arabic »7;i, lala, with a vowel
prefixed. The Perfian tar'ik, is the parent of the Englifli
dark: and as darknefs was the fymbol of evU, or of the
fiippofed d;emon which created it, the Celts received it to
exprefs ri'// under the form oidrzt'g: and it is remarkable
that the fame word with alpha prlvatk-um is ufed by the
Greeks to denote a contrary ienfe — y.-^y.y.r,:, not dark, trige-
niious, firtcere, true. In the fame language ■v^-i.-x.ir,: means an
impojlor, which tlie lexicographers, mifled by mere fimila-
ritv of found, have erroneoufly referred to rsuiyj:, to eat.

From this analvfis, which we hope is worthy the atten-
tion of the learned, we fhall draw a few conclufions re-
fpefting the CJothic tongue. Firft, it appears to refemble
the Celtic, in having a common Afiatic bafis, and in con-
taining a copious influx of Greek and I^atin words. As
the two languages were not effentially different, there is no
foundation for fnppoling, with Dr. Percy, that the Celts
and the Goths were originally dillinft races of men. And
here we cannot help fpeeifying a feature in thefe tongues,
which, in a remarkable manner, bcfpeaks their original
identity, or their immediate defcent from a common parent.

The Gothic, with its offspring the Anglo-Saxon and the
German, ufes the particle ga or ge prefixed to words, and
efpecially to verbs. The Gothic fometimes inferts g in the
middle of words, and frequently before the infinitive termi-
nation of verbs: at;uv, or aiigere, is ivahfgan, and yj^vj-^i",
to deride, hlabgan, to laugh. In confequence of thi.? analog)-,
words borrowed from Greek and Latin are remarkably dif-
gnifed, and they muil be llripped of this peculiarity before
they can be traced to tlieir true origin. The Celtic, if we
may judge from the Welfh, was diltinguinicd by the fame
characlerillic feature: thus, the Latin vir is givr; ivnum,
^:t\n ; i-a^us, g'u.'aeg, &c. On this principle ly-x-. Hie, as,
in Welch is me^is, which bears the fenfe of tlie original.
Tiie identitv or limilitude of the two languages will account
for the Goths and Celts being called by the common name

of Cimmerians or CImbri. which the true Britons, the int.
doubted defcendants of the Celts, Hill inherit under the
name of Cymri.

Sir W. Jones, in his fixtli difcourfe delivered to the foclety
at Calcutta on the antiquities of Afia, has the following
paffage well worthy of our attention, as tending to confirm,
in a remarkable manner, the rcfult of the preceding inquiry.
The paffage is this : " It has been proved by clear evidence
and plain reafoning, that a powerful nuMiarchy was cllablifhed
in Iran long before the Affyrian government ; that it wa.'J
in truth a Hindoo monarch)', though, if any chufe to call
it Cufcan, Cafdcan, or Scythian, we fliall not enter into a
debate on mere names ; that it fubfilled many centuries,
and that its hillory has been ingrafted on that of the Hin-
doos, who founded the monarchies of Ayodhya and Indra-
prellha ; that 1 he language of the tirft Perfian empire was the
mother of the Sanfcrit, and, confequently, of the Zend and
Parfi, as well as of Greek, Latin, and Gothic ; that the
language of the AlTyrians was the parent of Chaldaic and
Pahlavi, and that the primary Tartarian language alfo had
been current in the fame empire ; although, as the Tartars
had no books, or even letters, we cannot, with certainty,
trace their unpoliflied and variable idioms. We difcover,
therefore, in Perfia, at the eailiell dawn of hlftory, the three
dillinc\ races of men, whom we defcribed on former occafions
as poffefl'ors of India, Arabia, and Tartary ; and wliether
they were collected in Iran from diflant regions, or diverged
from it, as from a common centre, we ihall eafily determine
from the following coniideratior.s. I^et us obferve, in the
firft i)lace, the central pofition of Iran, which is bounded
by Arabia, by Tartary, and by India ; whilft Arabia Ues
contiguous to Iran only, but is remote from Tartary, and
divided even from the fl;irts of India by a confiderable gulf.
No country, therefore, but Perlia feems likely to have lent
forth its colonies to all the kingdom- of Afia : the Brahmans
could never liave migrated from India to Iran, becaule th.ey
are cxprefsly forbidden by their oldefl exifting laws to leave
the region, which they inhabit at this day ; the Arabs have
not even a tradition of an emigration into Perfia before Mo-
hammed ; nor had they, indeed, any inducement to quit
their beautiful and extenfivc domains : and as to the Tartars,
we have no trace in hiltory of their departure from their
plains and forells till the invafion of the Medes, v.'ho, ac-
cording to ctymologiils, were the fons of Madai, and even
they were condufted by princes of an Affyrian tamily.
The three races, therefore, whom v.'e lia\e already men-
tioned, (and more than three we have not yet found,)
migrated from Iran, as from their common country : and
thus the Saxon Chronicle, I jjrefume on good authority,
brings the firft inhabitants of Britain from Armenia ; while
a late very learned writer conclude?, after all his laborious
refearches, that the Goths or Scythians came from Perfia ;
and another contends, with great force, that both the Iriflt
and Old Britons proceeded feveralLy from the borders of
the Cafpian ; a coincidence of conclufions from different
media, bv perfone wholly unconnected, which could fcarce
have happened, if they were not grounded on folid principles.
We may, therefore, hold this propofition firmly ellablilhed,
that Iran or Perfia, in its largelt fenfe, was the centre of
population, of knowledge, of languages, and of arts ;
which, inllead of travelling wefl.ward only, as it has been
fancifully fuppofed, in- eattward, as with equal reafon might
have been aflerted, expanded in all diredions to all the regions
of the world." Here we fee it Itated, as the refult of fir
William .Jones's inquiry, that the Goth::, the Irilb, aiid the
Old Britons, or the Celtje, were originally th'. fame people,

and

GOTHIC LANGUAGE.

and' of Afiatic ongiii ; fliat they I'fcJ the fume langua^rc
derived from the piiinival language of Afia : and thii he
gives not merely a^ the confequence of hisown jiiveftigatioH,
Imt as a coincidence of concluiions, through diflerent media,
by perfons uliolly unconnected.'' We knew not v.hether
this great man was aware of the great finiilitude fublilting
between the Gothic and the Celtic tongues. From his
filence we may conclude that he was not : and if lie had
feen fpccimcns of them, analyfed fimilur to th it above, he
would have deemed the relcmblance a furpriilng conlirm-
ation of his theory.

We conclude, in the fecond place, from the above analyfis,
that the Gothic had a clofe affinity to the Greek and Latin.
And in- William .foncs gives it as his opinion, that the
Greek, Litin, and Gothic originated in one and the fame
language ; namely, the ancient language of Perlia. Thefe
three languages, therefore, originally refembled each other,
not merely becaufe they borrowed fonie words one from the
other, but becaufe they had the fame words, plirales, and
even conllruition, in confequence of having derived them
from a common tongue. And here we camiot help men-
tioning one feature in wiiich the ancient Gothic bore a very
lingular refemblance to the Greek in the time of Homer, or
that dialed of the Greek (namely, the jEolic ), from which the
Latin was principally derived : we mean the mucli difputcd
yEolic dijamma. In the Oriental languages gutturals
abounded ; theie, by degrees, loftened into a mere afpn^ate ;
and for this afpirate was, in very numerous inftancos, fub-
Ifituted a laihil letter tu or %<, or J', or *. Tiius khdfin, a
iin^, degenerated into hdn f and being introduced into Greek
in the form of a.-/-f, or Kixa-i-, was pronounced yxvcsj,
i^xvxTj-i'. While the oral Greek was thu,, corrupted, the
written retained tha afpirate ; and as the works of Homer
became the fubjed: of univerfal lludy, the true orthography
triumphed over the caprice of oral founds. But the Latins
had no fuch monument of genius as the Iliad to itudy : the
corruptions of pronunciation, therefore, prevailed, and the
digair.ma was univerfally fubtlituted for the afpirate. Thus
ir>-', i't/.'.7, W^-^x, -vefpira. The digamma was alfo pre-
fixed to a broader open vowel, and always inferted between
a diphthong, as oi , pronounced o'wis, ovis ; or/o.-, ivoinos,
miium ; o.<o , woiios, v'uus. Now, this fame digamma runs
through the Gothic language, which ihews that a great
part of it, through fome channel or other, was derived from
the Greek, about the early age in which the Lutin fparated
into a diftiucl dialect. We Ihall give a few- examples of
this facl. The Greek a»^;i, in Gothic, is written conft)rm-
ably to the corrupt pronouuciatlon of ix;i>:^,f:in ; c.(f,ff>ir,ire,
is iviiian i Ksjiiv, (which is equivalent to asx-.-Jiv) is '■jj.ihfgiin,
trtjcen ; -oyai^fia, nuaurlgan ; hence the Englifh, to work.

But though the Greek may have the fame form and
bafis with the Gothic ; and though by fome communica-
tions, now unknovvu, it may have enriched liie Gothic with
its own early improvements, yet the dialect dignified with
this name is only the remains of the Gothic tongue, debafed
by a llrong mixture of Greek and Latin terms, a century
or two after the cominencem.ent of the Chri'lian era. The
Goths who ufed it lived in Wallachia, a country in which
Roman colonies had been planted, and which was conti-
guous to the provinces of Greece. A3 the verfion of Ul-
philas, contained in the " Codex Argenteus," is the only
repofitory of this dialed, it is worth while to hear what
Michaells fays of it in his " Remai'ks on the Ancient Ver-
fions," Marlh's triuidation, vol. ii. p. 142. " In the " Co-
dex Argenteus," m.iny words are adopted immediately
fitom the Greek. Here I underftand, not fuch us La\e been

common to the Gcnr.an and the Greek from the earllefl
ages of antiquity, and <hcw either an original relation, or
original connection between the two nations, but fuch
Greek words as arc found in no other German dialedt titan
that of the " Codex Argenteus," and have been transfcrrcfi
from the Greek, after the complete formation of both
languages : for inllancc, cst^l, father, ams, ihr Jhoul/ler, -«-, .
v\here even the j is retained from llu- Greek terminatio:;.
Spyre'iJans, bnJJuls, 7~v:il:: ; rhalizo, cajler, fxiio; j maito,
greater, ^uf..» ; ujLiJ'ais, (K-ora<r<o:,) liotot, bill of divonr.
This betrays not a dialecl that was ufed in Germany, or ii
the North, but that of a nation that lived in the ncighbou."-
hood of the Greeks. Even the mode of exprcfljn^r tl.»-
found of «_j, in the " Codex Argenteus," is purely Gree':,
aid never ufed in Germany, where the Latin orthography
has been received ; for finger is written in that manufcript
fsgi; as the Greeks would have cxprefli-d it by a douLie
gamma.'' Ulphilas is faid to have invented the character*
of this dialed ; which are evidently a mixture of the
Greek and Latin, alphabet. The ufe of fuch character*
was natural, if the dialect which they exfjrcflcd contained a
great mixture of the languages to which they properly-
belonged.

This reprefentation muil greatly diniinifh our veneration
for the Gothic, as far as it can be known by us ; yet, in
this light, it demands our attention and refpect as the un-
doubted parent of the Eng'.ilh tongue. Neverthelef?,
we are hence compelled to regard the Gothic and the
Anglo-Saxon as but corrupt channels by wliich the term*
of Greece and Rome have been imported into our own
language. There are, indeed, thofe who confider them in
this humble and degraded llatc, as claiming the dignitv of
original, ancient, and independent languages. And Mr.
Home Tooke, in particular, in his celebrated work on
grammar, has attempted to induce the public to receive
corruptions from Greek and Latin in the dark apes, as the
original words of a Northern language ; whence Greek
and Latin have, according to him, themfelves been derived.
The merits of this quellion will more properly be difcufTcd
under the articles Gua.mmaii and GucF.K. But if the;
account we have given of the Gothic be jiiit, we (hall want
no other evidence to convince us that the theory of Mr.
Tooke, as far as this quellion is concerned, (and it forms
a very leading feature of his fyftem,) is not only erroneous,
but ridiculous and abfurd.

GoTitir Med<dj. See MK.r).\L.

Gothic Muf:c. When fig. Eximcno calls fugues and
canons Gothic compofitions, he does not difgrace their ilruc-
ture any more than he would our cathedral.s bv calling then*
Gothic buildings. Let fujjues hebaniihed from the theatre-
and private concerts, if he i>leafes, but let them remain in
the church as ;^dillinct Ipecics of comjiotitioii, where they
were firft generated, and where tliey can never become
vulgar or obfolete. The ftylc is naturally grave, requires
mufical learning, and will, by the folemnity of the words
antl place of [jertormance, continue to be reverenced and
refpccted. It is allowed that variety is more wai-.tcd in n-.uliG
than in any other art, and by totally excon.muiiicaling
canons and fugues from the church, the art would lofe one
capital fource of vametv, as well as ingenuity ; and intelli-
gent hearers be bereaved of a folenm Ityle of mulic, to b«
heard no w heix- elfe.

GOTHINI, or GoTHVNl, in AtxunS Cecgmpky, a n.iir,e
given to the Goths. They were called Getor.es by Taci-
tus and .luftin, and Cuttones by Pliny. Claudian calls them
GothunL

GOTHLAND,

GOT

GOTHLAND, a country of Sweden, bound,od on the
N. by Sweden Proper, on the E. and S. by the Bahic,
and on the W. by the Sound, the German ocean, and Nor-
way. This country is inhabited by a people, w^ho derived
their origin from the Gct:E, or Tartars of the Crimea. The
Goths had kinps of their own, till the year 1 1 32, when
ihev were united to Sweden. The country is pleafant and
fertile, conlilling of paiUire and arable land-, and abounding
in lakes and rivers plentifully llored with fiih, and alfo %yith
forelts and mines. It contains 48 towns, and is divided into
Eait,.\Vell, and South Gothland.

Eajl GothLwd is bounded on the N. by the provinces of
Nerieia or Ncrikc, aiid Sudcrmanlaijd, on the E. by the
]3altic, on the S. by Hinoland or Sinaland, and on the W.
bv the Wetter lake, whieh feparatcs it from Weft Gothland.
It is about 80 miles long, and 70 broad. It produces wheat,
r-vc, barley, oats, pcafe, &c. in fuch abundance as to fupply
the neighbouring provinces. It has likewife many fine
orchards, v, ith meadows, paflurcs, lakes, and rivers abound-
ing with fifli, extenfive forefts, iron-mines and founderies,
aiid quarries of Hone and marble. The inhabitants are occu-
pied in huftandry, hunting, and fifhing, and alfo in fome
places in the mines. The chief towns of this proi'ince are
Nordkioping, Soderkioping, Linkioping, and Wadllena ;
which fee rei'peftively.

South Gothland is divided into three provinces, •viz. Scho-
nen or Skone, Halland, and Blekingen, which have at
fundry tim.es changed their mailers, till at length Charles
Guftavus annexed them for perpetuity to the Swedidi domi-
nions, by the treaty of Rofchild, in the year 1658.

Wejl Gothland is bounded on the N. by Warmeland, on
the E. by Nerieia, the Wetter lake, and Sm.aland, on the
S. by Sm:dand and H.illar.d, and on the W. by the Scag-
gerac. It is about 1 15 miles long, and 15 broad; like Eatl
Gothland it was under the adminiilration of its own kings
and laws. The foil produces corn, vegetables, and fruit ;
and affords excellent paftures, which enable the occupiers
to fupply other provinces with butter and cheefe. The
rivers, lakes, and fea-coaft abound with lifli ; and in feveral
places arc erefted iron -forges, alum-works, paper mills.
The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture and
filhlng. The chief towns are Gothtborg, AVenneftorg,
Lidkioping, and Falkloping ; which fee refpeftively.

Gothland, or Gottli:nJ, an ifland belonging to Sweden,
fituated in the Baltic, between N. lat. 56 54'. and 57 ' 56',
and E. long. 18' 6', and 19" 6'; about 70 miles long and
25 in its greateft breadth. It was formerly an independent
kingdom, but is now fubjeft to the fupreme court of juftico
at Stockhohri. Its iituation has gained for it the appropriate
denomination of the " Eye of the Baltic.'' The ioil is
fertile, and affords fine woods of oak and pine, and good
paftures ; and its breed of Iheep is accounted excellent.
It has large quarries of Hone, which is exported to Stock-
holm and other places, and fome curious fpecies of ilone
lorals, carnelians, agates, and beautiful petrifaClions. It
turnifnes likcv.-ife good lime-ftones, tar, and deal-boards.
Although it is not infelled with bears or wolves, it abounds
with foxes, deer, and hares. The inhabitants gain their
fubfiftence by tilling the ground, grazing, fifhing, working
in the quarries, burning lime, and other forts ot mechanic
trades, and navigation. The peafants are in a (late of ab-
folute dependence on the burghers, who fupply them with
neceffaries, and with money for paying their taxes, and to
whom they furrender the whole produce of their indullry,
jN'ithout ilipulating any pi ice. This iiland was at firfl fub-

G O T

ieft to the crown of Sweden, and afterwards to the Danes
for near two centuries, till the year 1645, when by the
treaty of Bromfebro, it was reftorcd to Sweden. The
capital of the iiland is Wifby, on the weflern coaft.

GOTHS, a people, who came originally, accordincr to
Jornandcs (Rer. Get.) who abridges the Goihic hillory o£
the learned Cafliodorus, coinprifed in 12 books, from the
vail iiland, or rather peninfula, called Scandinavia, and in-
cluding the prefeut Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Fin-
mark. The learned Grotius, and after him Sheringham,
and moll of the northern writers, maintain by arguments,
which, as many conceive, have not been refuted, but which
are not convincing to others, that the Cimbrians (fee
CiMiiUf, Getes (fee Getx.), and Goths, were the fame
nation ; that Scandinavia was firll peopled by them ; and
that from thence they detached colonies into the iftands in
the Baltic, the Chcrfoncfus, and the adjacent places, yet
deftitute of inhabitants. Many velliges, which cannot be
aferibed to the arts of popular vanity, attell the ancient
refidence of the Goths in the countries beyond t!ie Baltic.
From the time of the geograplier Ptoleni)-, the fouthern
part of Sweden feems to have continued in the poirelTion of
the lefs enterprifing remnant of the nation, and a large ter-
ritory is even at prefent divided into Eall and Well Gothland.
(See Gothland.) The time wlien the Gotlis full fettled-
in Scandinavia, and the period at which they firll peopled with
their colonics the illands, the Cherfoiiefus, and the nei<^h-
bouring places, have not been afcertaincd. Some have faid,
that their firll ftttlem.ent was condui^ted by Eric, contempo-
rary with Sarach, grandfather of Abraham. However tliisbe,
the peopling of the ifiands in the Baltic lea,of theCherfonefus,
and of the adjacent places on the continent, is called by the
Northern writer.'^, the _;?;_// emigration of the Goths or Getes,
The attempt to crofs the Baltic was natural and eafy. The in-
habitants of Sweden (as we learn from Tacitus) were mailers
of a fufficient number of large vefl'els with oars ; and the
dillance is httle more than 100 miles from Carlfcroon to
the nearell ports of Pomcrania and Prnffia. At Icaft as
early as the Chrillian era, and as late as the age of the Anto-
nines, the Goths were cllablillied towards the mouth of the .'
Villula, and in that fertile province, where the commercial
cities of Thorn, Elbing, Koninglberg, and Dantzick were
hmg afterwards founded. Weflward of the Goths, the nu-
merous tribes of the Vandals were fprcad along the banks of
the Oder, and the fea-coail of Pomerania and Mecklenburg.
A llriking refemblance of manners, complexion, religion,
and language, leemed to indicate that the Vandals and Goth.s
were originally one great people. (See Vandals.) in
the age of the Antonines the Goths were ftill feated in
Pruflia. About the reign of Alexander Severus, th.ey made
frequent and dellruftive inroads into the Roman province of
Dacia. In this interval, therefore, of about fevcnty years,
we mull place the y^i-on^/ emigration of the Goths, from the
Baltic to the Euxine. To what caule this was owing is
matter of mere conjecture. Perhiips a pcftilencc or a famine,
a vidtory or a defeat, an oracle ot the gods, or the eloquence
of a daring leader, were fufficient to impel the Gothic amis
on tlie milder climates of the fouth. Befidcs the influence
of a martial religion, the nimibtr and fpirit of the Goths
were equal to the moll hazardoiis adventures. The ufe of
round bucklers and Ihort fwords rendered them formidable in '
a clofe engagement ; the manly obedience whiihtliey yielded
to hereditary kings gave unconim.on uniim and liability to
their councils ; and the renowned Amala, the hero of that
age, and the tenth anceftor of Theodoric, king of Italy,
enforced, by the alccndant of perlonal merit, the prerogative

of

GOTH s.

of 1-iis t)irth, which he derived from vhe mifes, or demigods
of the Gothic nation.

Whatever was the motive of their migration, they took
their route eaftward, entered Scytliia, advanced to the Cim-
merian Bofphorus, and, driving out the Cimmerians, fet-
tled in the neighbourhood of the Mxotic lake. Thence, in
procefs of time, they icnt out numerous colonics into Thrace,
Dacia, Mosfia, or Italy, and laftly into the countries bor-
dering on the Euxine fea, forcing every where the ancient
inhabitants to abandon their native abodes. Such is the ac-
coimt given by Jornandcs, and Ablavius, a celebrated writer
among the Goths, who lived long before him. In the vici-
nity of the M.cotic lake, they had, it is faid, Filimir for
their king, who was a warlike prince ; in Thrace, Mueiia,
and Dacia, Xamolxis, a great pliilofopher : and in the coun-
tries on the Euxine fea, princes of the illuftrious families of
the Dalthi and the Amall, the Viligoths being fubjedt to tlie
former, and the Ollrogoths to the latter. In all thefe coun-
tries they were the fame people, though fubjetl to diffei'ent
princes, andkno.vnby various appellations. As for the
denominations of Weilrogotlis, foftened by the Latins into
that of Vifigoths, and Oilrogoths, they were diftinguifhed
by thofe names before they left Scandinavia, being called
Wellrogoths and Oilrogoths, or weftern and eaftern Goths,
from their fituation to the weft and eaft, the former inha-
biting that part of Scandinavia which borders on Denmai'k,
and the latter the more eaftern parts, near tlie Baltic. The
information we derive from Jornandes concerning the various
migrations and fettlements of the Goths is conformable to
the accounts that are given by the ancient Greek and Latin
authors with refpeiil to the different colonies and fett!ements
of the Getes. That the Goths and Getes were the fame
people, is fuppofed by all the writers who flourilhed in or
near the limes in which both empii'es were overrun by tliem.
Thofe authors, without doubt well acquainted with their
origin, call them fometimcs Goths, fometimes Getes, and
fometimes Scythians ; and feveral authors tell us, that
tlie Getes and Goths had been long known to the Romans,
and alfo to the Greeks by the former names, but not by the
latter, till their incurfions into the empire.

When the Goths greatly increaled in Scythia, they re-
folved to feek new fettlements ; and accordingly, puriuing
their route eaftward, and travelling through leveral
countries, they returned at length into Germany. Their
leader in this migration was the celebrated ^Voden or
Odin, of whom many ftrange things are related. It is faid
by the northern writers, that he was king of the Afgar-
dians, fuppofed to be the fame people with the Alpurgians
mentioned by Ptolemy and Strabo. Afgardia and Aipur-
gia aie laid to be a common name of their city, fituated, ac-
cording to Strabo, near Bofphorus Cimmerius ; and Afpur-
gia was the metropolis of a country whicii Strabo calls Alia ;
hence Woden and his followers are ilyled by the ancient
Gothic writers Afre, Allani, and Aiiatic. The kings of
Afpurgia are reprefented as being mailers of all that part of
Scythia that lay weft of momit Imaus, and which the
Latins called " Scythia intra Imaum," or Scythia within
mount Imaus. Of this Afgardia or Afpurgia, Woden is
faid to have been king ; and hence he emigrated with a great
multitude of his follov.'ers in quell of new fettlements ; or, as
fome fay, with the great defign of forming in Sweden,
confidered as the inacceflible retreat of freedom, a rcUgion
and a people, which, in fome remote age, might be fubfer-
vient to his purpofes ; when his invincible Goths, armed
with martial fanaticifra, Ihould iifue in numerous iwarms from
the vicinity of the Pular circle to challife theopprelfors of man-
kir.d. Havnig paffed llirough dilTerent countries, aud perforra-

VoL. XVI.

ed a variety of exploits, lie at length arrived in Sweden, wherd
he was allowed to fettle, and where he reigned till his death.
His name became fo famous that the northern nations ranked
him among tht- gods, and wor(l)ippid him with divine ho-
nours. He is fuppof.;d to have brought with him out of
Afia the Runic ciiaracters (fi-e Kfsjcl, and to have taught
the northern nations the art of poetry ; whence he is ilvK-d
the father of the Scaldi or Scaldri. See Sf.ALD.s.

That the Goths, under the conduft of Wotlen, came from
Scythia into the northern parts of Germany, is a received
opinion among the northern writerf, and, as they allege,
confirmed by an immemorial tradition, by tin- ancient eliro-
nicles of thofe countries, and by many momiments and in-
fcriptions in Runic characters, fome of which are ilill to he
feen in Sweden, Denmark, and the neighbouring ifland':
That there were fucli migrations can hardly Ik- qiiciliored.
fince we (ind the fame names common to the inhabitants of
Scandia and Aiiatic Scythia, and likewlfelhe fame language,
as Grotiub, and after him Sheringhani, have fliewn. The
ancient language of the Goths is now fpukeii bv the Tartar.i
of Precop, whence, and from other collateral circumlbiices.
It has been concluded tlint the Scandiaii Goths and Afiatic
Scythians had one and the fame original. As to the time of
this migration of Scythians under Woden into the northern
parts of Germany, thofe who maintain it have not been able
to determine. Some refer it to a period about 24 years J3. C;
for at that time, they fay, Pompey laid v.-alle' Syria, and
great part of Afia, and menaced tlie north «itli fervitude.
After all, this wonderful expedition of Woden or Odin is
admitted with great hehtalion, or indeed fcarcely admitted
at all by many, into authentic hillory. According to the
obvious fenfe of t!ie Edda (fee Edda), and the interpre-
tation of the moll ikilful critics, Af-gard, inllead of de-
noting a real city of the Afiatic Sarmatia, is the (iclitious
appellation of the myftic abode of the gods, the Olympus
of Scandinavia ; from whence the prophet was fuppofed to
defcend, when he am-.onnced his new religion to the Gothic
nations, who were already feated in the'fouthern piuls of
Sweden.

Before we proceed with our brief abftraft of the hiftory of
the Goths, we (hall give fon e account of their chnradler,
culloms, laws, and religion, before they embraced Chrifiianity.
With regard to their general difpolition and character, they
were celebrated for their hofpitaiity and kindnefs to Grangers ;
and it is faid that they derived tiieir name from then" being
eminently good ; the name of Goth being derived, accord-
ing to Grotius and other writers, from tlie German word
gotiii, lignilying^ow/. TUey encouraged, fays Dio, the lludv
of philolophy more than any other barbarous or foreign na-
tion, and often leleded their kings from among their philo-
fophers. Polygamy was not only allowed, but encouraged,
and every one was refpec^ed aecurding lo the number ot liis
wives, and of courle his cliildreii. Adidterv with them wa«
a capital crime, and invariably ininllhed with death. Thi-i
feverity, and likewife polyiramy, prevailed among them,
when they were known to the Greeks and Romans onlv bv
the name of Getes, as appears from the poet Meiiander,
who was h.imfelf a Gcte, and from Horace (I. ill. od. 2.^.)
who bellows great encomiums on the virtue and chatlity of
their women; Of their laws we ftiall have occalhin to fjieak
in the fequel of this article. Their goveniment was monar-
chical. Their religion fecms to have been the fame wit!»
that of the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia and Saxonv ;
which fee refpecitively. Till the end of the eleventh ccnturv,
a celebrated temple uibiifted at Upfal, the rtioft conlltier-
able town of the Swedes and Goths. This tempre was en-
riched with the gold which the S^Miidinavians had acquired

3 l^ i'!

G O T H S.

ill their piratical adventures, and fanililied by the uncouth
veprefentations of the three prnicipal deities, the god of
war, the goddefs of generation, and the god of thunder.
In the general fedival that was fulemnized every ninth year,
nine animals of every fpecies (without excepting the human)
were facrificed, and tiieir bleeding bodies fufpeuded in the
("acred grove adjacent to the temple. The only traces that
now fubfilt of this barbaric fiiperllition are contained in the
Edda; which fee. See iilfo Ooix.

Caracalla was the full Roman emperor who quarrelled
with tlic Goths, and niarcV.ed againil them into that part of
Dacia, north of the Danube, of which they had taken pof-
■<Vflion ; but the advantages which he feems to have gained
over them in a few ikir-miilies were very inconfiderable. It
appears, that the Romans were alarmed at an early period
by the progTcfs of this warlike nation ; for in the reign of
Alexander, which began in 222, confiderablc fums of mo-
ney were fent to them from Rome, in order to prevent tl\eir
dillurblng the peace of the empire. Notwithilanding thefe
bribes, as foun as thev heard of the aiTaffination of the em-
piTor Maximin, who was of Ciothic cxtraftion, they re-
i'olved to revenge it, and accordingly entering JNItefia, tiiey
totally laid wafte that prorince. Not long after they made
therai'elves maftcrs of Thrace, from which they were driven
by Gordian. Under Philip, his fuccelfoi-, they committed
dreadful ravages both in Tiirace and Mu;fia. Soon alter
their retreat from the fiege of Marcianopolis, the capital of
the fecond Moefia, and after having compelled tlie inhabit-
ants to ranfom their lives and property, they pafTed the
Danube" a fecond time, under t'le command ot their king,
Cniva, with a more confiderablc force ; and having obliged
Darius the fon of the Roman emperor, to fave himfelf by
fligiit, they were oppofed by the emperor himfelf. Darius,
having compelled tiiern to raife the fiege of Nicopolis, they
retired towards Pliiloppolis, took it by ilorm, and mafl'a-
cred, as is faid, 100,000 perfons in the fack of that city.
The time, however, which was confumed in this tedious
ficge, enabled Darius to revive the courage, rellore the
dilcipliue, and recruit the number of his troops, after the
defeat they had fullaiiied in their purfuit of the G'lths.
Thus recruited, the emperor exerted his utmofl vigilance to
oppofo cither the progrefs or the retreat of the barbvu'ians.
The Goths were now, on every fide, furrounded arid pur-
fiied by the Roman arm? ; and exhaufted by the long fiege
of Philoppolis, they v/ould gladly have purehafed, by tlie
furrender of all their booty and prifoners, the permiiTion of
an undiftiubed retreat. The emperor, confident of victory,
rcfufed to lilcen to any terms of accommodation ; and the
high-fpirited barbarians preferred death to flavery. The
two armies, therefore, prepared for an engagement. The
confliil was fevere ; two lines of the Gothic ai-my were
thrown into diforder ; and the third only remained entire,
prepared to difpute the paffage of a morals, which was im-
prudently attempted by the Roman troops. Here tlie for-
tune of the day alTumcd a new afpeft. In this morals the
Roman army, borne down by the weight of their armour,
after an ineffeilual ftruggle, was irrecoverably loft ; nor
could the body of the emperor ever be found. Upon tlie
elecT;ion of Gallus A. D. 251, the firll objeft of hi.i at-
tention was to deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intole-
rable weight of the vidtorious Goths. He offered them
every inducement in.his power to withdraw their forces ; and
he even prornifed to pay them annually a large fum of gold,
on condition they flioald never afttrwards infeft the Roman
territories by their, incurfions. This tribute, however,
though grafted at the expence of the honour of the Ro-
mans, was infufScieut to feeure their permanent repofe.

New fwarms of barbarians, encouraged by the fuccefs, and
conceiving themfelves not bound by the obligation of their
brethren, fpread devaftation through the Illyrian provinces,
and terror as far as the gates of Rome. In this period of
alarm and diftrefs, ^niilianus, governor of Pannonia and
Mo^fia, rallied the fcattered forces of the empire ; and tlie
barbarians were unexpettedly attacked, routed, chafed, and
purfucd beyond the Danube. Under the reigns of Valerian
and Gallienus, the frontier of the lail-mentioned river was
perpetually infelled by the inroads of the Germans and Sarma-
tians ; but it was defended by the Romans with more than
ufual firmnefs and fuccefs. Neverlhelefs, the great ilream
of the Gotiiic hollilities was diverted into a very dilferent
channel. The Gotlis, in their new lettlement of the Uk-
raine, foon became mailers of the northern coaft of the
Euxine : to the fouth of that inland fea were fituated the
wealthy provinces of Alia Minor, which poflefled all that
could attraft, and nothing that could refill, a barbarian
conqueror. The httle kingdom of Boiphorus, whole capi-
tal was fituated on the llraits, through which the Maotis
communicates itfelf to the Euxine, was compofed of dege-
nerate Greeks, and half-civdized barbarians. In this fmall
kingdom, domellic factions, and the fears, or intered, of
obfcure ufurpers, wlio ieizcd on the vacant throne, admitted
the Gotlis into the lieart of Bofphorus.

Here tliey acquired a naval force fufiicient to tranfport iheir
troops to the coall of Afia. For this purpofe, they eon-
llrurted a fort of fiat -bottomed boats, called " Camarsp,"
framed of timber only, without any iron, and occafionally
covered with a fiielving roof, on the appearance of a tempell.
With this kind of fleet, they firll appeared before Pityus,
at the utmoft limit of the Roman provinces, with a con-
venient port, and fortified with a ilrong walk Their firll
attack was repulfed ; but, renewing their attempts, they
dellroyed this city. Then circling round the eaftcrn ex-
tremity of the Euxine iea, tlieir navigation from Pityus to
Trebifond was a courfe of about 3C0 miles. This city was
large and populous, defended by a double inclofure of
walle, and had its ufual garrifon llrengtliened by a rein-
forcement of io,coo men. But this numerous garrifoa w-as
difiolved in riot and luxuiy, and thus rendered carelefs in
guarding their impregnable fortifications. The Goths,
availing themfelves of the fupine negligence of the befiegtd,
eredled a lofty pile of fafciiies, afcended the walls in tiie
filence of the night, entered the defencelefs city, fword in
hand, maffacred the inhabitants, dellroyed the temples and
fplendid edifices, and gained an immenfe booty. With the
rich fpoils of the city they filled a great fleet of fhips, whiclv
they found in the i>ort, and, fatisfied with the fuccefs of
their firil naval expedition, returned in triumph to their
new eftablilliments in the kingdom of the Bofphorus. In
their fecond naval expedition, poifelfed of greater powers
botli of men and tliips, they took a new courfe, followed
the weftern coall of the Euxine, pnfled before the wide
mouths of the Boryllhenes, the Niel-ler, and the Danube ;
and increafing their ileet by a great number of filliing barks,
tliey approached the narrow outlet through which the
Euxine fea pours its waters into the Mediterranean. In
this expedition they plundered the cities of Bithynia, Clial-
cedon, Nice, Prufa, Apamea, Clus, and Nicomedia. From
the recent attack of Prufa, t!ie Goths advanced within 18
miles of Cyzicus ; but their progrefs was ftopped by the
fmall river Rhyndacus, which ili'ues from the lake Apollio-
nates, and winch was then fwelled into a broad and rapid
llream. Their retreat to the maritime city of Hernclea,
where their fleet was probably ilationed, was attended by a
long tram of waggons, laden with the fpoils of Bithynia,
3 and

G O

and was marlccJ by tlic flames of Nice ami Nicomrdia,
v.Uicli they wantonly burnt. Tlic tliird naval cxpcclitiim
of the Goths conlilk-d of 500 fail of tnuifports, containin;^
about 15,000 warriors. Tliey now itetTed tluir dollrnctivc
coiirfe from the Cimmerian to the Thracian Bofphorus ;
and were carried to the lake of the Proponti<;. Their
landing un the little ifland of Cyzicns was followed by tlie
rnin of that ancient and noble city. They thenee ifTned
through the narrow palfage of the Hellefpont, and purfiicd
their winding navigation amidil the numerous idands fcat-
tered over the Archipelago, or ^gcan fea. At length the
Gotliic fleet ancliored in the port of Piraus, five miles from
Athens, ravaged Greece, and caufed the rage of war, both
by land and ita, to fpread from the caftern point of Sunium,
t,i the wcilenicoaft of Epirus, advancing within fight of Italy.
The indolent Gall enus was rouftd ; the emperor appeared in
a.ms; and his pref.nce contributed to check the ardour
•.f the enemy. Some of the numerous Gothic hoft broke
::ito Moeiia, for the purpofc of forcing their way over the
i)anube to their fettlements in the Ukraine. Others re-
turned on board their ^efiels, and re-tracing their courfe
through the Hellefpont and the Bofphorus, and findnig them-
felves fecure within the bafun of the Euxine, landed at
Anchialus, in Thrace, near the loot of mount Hxmiuis, ;:nd
refrof.icd themfelves by the ufc of thofe pleafant and falutary
hot -baths. AmiJll their devaftations, we may felecl the
deftruttion of the famous temple of Diana at Ephefus,
■which they burnt in their third naval invafion. It is alfo
faid, that they threatened to dellroy all the libraries of
Athens, but were prevented from executing their menace
by the profound obfervation of one of their chiefs, that as
long as the Greeks were addicted to the fl;udy of books,
they would never a;)ply themielves to the exercife of arms.
Under the reign of Claudius, A. D. 269, the Gotl'.s eul-
Icfted an armament more formidable than any that had )'et
iffued from the Euxine. On the banks of the Niefter they
conftrucled a fleet of 2000, or even of 6000 veflcls, which,
in their patlage through the Bofphorus, encountered various
difailcrs. However, they made feveral defcents on the
coafts, both of Europe and Afia. But difcontent and
divjfion arofe in the fleet, and fome of their chiefs deferted
them, and failed away towards Crete and Cyprus : the
main body, neverthelels, purlued their courie, anchored at
the foot of mount Atlios, and aflaulted the city of Theffa-
lonica. Tlieir attacks were foon interrupted by the rapid
approach of Claudius. The Goths, eager for a general
engagement, relinquiflied the fiege of ThcfTalonica ; and
with this view, leaving their navy at the foot of mount
Athos, traverfed the hills of Macedonia. Claudius was
dillrefled, but at the fame time firm and determined. The
event exceeded even his own expectations, as well as thofe
of the world ; and having gained fignal victories, and deli-
vered the empire from this holl of barbarians, he was diilin-
guilhed by pollerity under the glorious appellation of the
Gothic Claudius. The decifive battle was fought near
NailTus, a city of Dardania. The war was afterwards
diffufed over the provinces of Mocfia, Thrace, and Mace-
donia, and the luperior talents of tlie emjieror generally
enfured the fuccefs of his arms. The Goths fuifered to
fueh a degree, that a felect body of their youth was received
among the Imperial troops, the remainder was fold into
fervitude, and the female captives were io numerous, that
every foldier appropriated to himfelf two or three women.
To complete the difailcrs of the Goths, their fleet was
either taken or funk, fo that their retreat was thus inter-
cepted. Aurelian, the fuccefl'or of Claudius, dillinguilhed
liimleM" dining the Gothic war, and, at lait, put an end to

T II S.

it by a lading and beneficial treaty The Gothic nation
engaged to iupply the armies of Rome with a body of
2000 auxiliaries, conlilli?i;T entirely of cavalry, and, in return.
Hi] ulatcd an uiidillurhcfd retreat, v.ith a regular market zi
far as the Danube, provided by the emjicror's care, but at
th:ir own cxpence. But the moll important rondition of
peace was undcrilood rather than exprelftd in the treaty.
j\urelian withdrew the Roman forces from Dacia, and
tacitly rLlinquilTicd that grvat province to the Go'.hs and
Va!idalj. I'liis proved, in the event, a wife meafure ; for,
after Dacia became an iBdcpciideiit Hate, it fecmed ai the
firmed barrier of the empire againll the invalions of tlie
favages of the North.

About the year 27 ^, the fecond of the reign of Probus, the
Goths entered Thrace, andad\aiiced a.^fara;. lllyricum,layin^
vvalle thecountry with fire and fword; lintasfuon as they heard
that tile emperor was marching againll them, they retreated
and left their booty behind them. In Illyricum, Probus wa»
met by deputies trom the Gothic n.itioiis, fuing for peace,
and lubmitting to his power. No further mention is made
of the Goths till the year 289, at whicli time Dioclcfian is
faid to have gained a complete victory over them. From
tliia viclury Dioclefian affumid the name of " Sarmaticus,'"
as appears from feveral ancient coins and ir:fcriptions. From
this year to tlie ijtii of Conihnitine. the Goths gave no dif-
turbance to the empire, being engaged in wars with
the neighbouring nations. As foon as the Goths- were dif-
engaged from other wars, they invaded the Roman empire;
but they were overcome by Contlantine in feveral battle?,
fought at Campana, in Paimonia, and at Margus and Bono-
nia, in Upper Mirfia. The emperor determined to chaflife
as well as to repuHe the infolent barbarians who had dared
to attack the territories of Rome, pafled the Danube, and
penetrated into the inmoil reccfles of Dacia ; and when he
had inflicted a fevere revenge, condelcended to give peace to
the fuppliant Goths, on condition that as often as they wcrR
required, tl.ey fliould fupply his army with a body of 40,303
foldiers. In the year 331, a war broke out between the
Goths and Sarmatians ; on which occation the latter had rc-
courfe to Conftantine, who was glad to embrace an oppor-
tunity of humbling that ferocious nation. In the firft a:tion
the barbarians gained the advantage; but the event of a
fecond and more fnccefsfnl artion, in April 332, retrieved
the honour of the Roman name. Near 100,000 of the enemy
were either put to the {w ord, or perilhed after th.e battle with
hunger and cold ; and this defeat was fo fignal, as to oblige
Alaric, king of the Goths, to fne for peace, and to deliver
hoilagcs to the eniperor, one of whom was his own fon.
The Goths not only continued quiet, but ferved the Ro-
mans with great fidehty, during the ivmaining part of Con-
ilantine's reign ; and in the reigns of Conllans, .lulian,
Trajan, and Valcntinian I. But iu the firft of Valcns, they
made inroads into Thrace, and laid walle that province. The
emperor purchafed their retreat for a ium of money. In
the following rear news was brought him to Bithynia, that
the Goths were again ready to break into I'ha-ace. When
Procopius revolted, and an"umcd the title of emperor, tlio
Goths efponfed liis caufe, and fent a body of troops to lii>
afTillance ; but before their arrival, he was defeated and put
to death. They, however, continued in t!ie territories of
the empire, committing great ravages in Thrace and Mccfia.
Valcns fent a lUong detachment againll them, and their re-
treat being cut off, they were obliged 10 lay down their
arms, and yield themfelves prifonors. After hoililitios which
lalled three years from 366 to 369, the barbarians fubmitted,
and thus appealed the irfentment of ^■alen;. After the ra-
tification of the treaty, Vnlens returned in triumph to Con-
2 i^ 2 llanlinople,

GOTHS,

llai.linopk', and the Go'hs remained in a {late of tranquillity conquerors of the Roman empire. As the impatient
about fix yt>ars ; till they were violently impelled iigaiull Goths could only be redrained by the firm and temperate
the Roman empire by an innumerable hoil of Scythians, who charafter of Theodoiins, the public fafety feemed to dc-
appearcd to. iffue from the frozen regions of the North. In pend on the life and abilities of a fnigle man. He died in
the year 375 the HiinS invaded the territories of the Goths, the month of January A.D. 395, and before the end of the
arid fpread amontr them fuch a general conilernation, that winter of the fame year, the Gothic nation was in arms,
they fled for refiige to the Roman dominions. Valensliikned The interruption, or at leatl the diminution, of the fubfidy
to their fupplications, and granted them protedion. The which the Goths had received from the prudent liberality of
liberality of the eir.peror, however, was accompanied with Theodolius, was the fpecious pretence of their revolt. In-
t,oo Iwrfli and rigorous conditions. Before they pafTed the ftead of being impelled by the blind and headftrong paflions
Danube, they were required to deliver their arms ; and it of tlieir chiefs, they were now direfted by the bold and
was uiuiled that their children fhould be taken from them, artful genius of Alaric. In the year 396 Alaric marches
aud dlfperfed through the provinces of Aha ; where they into Greece ; and he hallened to occupy the city of Athens
mio-ht be civihzed by the arts of education, and lerve as hof- and the important harbour of^ the Tintus. Corinth, Argos,
la°es to fecure the iidehty of their parents. A probable and Sparta yielded without refiftance to the arms of the Goths,
tellimony has fixed the number of the Gothic warriors at From Thermopylx to Sparta, the leader of the Golhs
2GC,oco men ; and if we can venture to add the jull pro- purfucd his viiitorious march, without encountering any
portion of women, of children, and of flavet, the whole mortal antagonills ; and the Chridian faith, which he had
;jiafs of people which compofed this formidable emigration devoutly embraced, taught him to defpife the imaginary dei-
nuill have amounted to near a million of perfons, of both ties of Rome and Athens. In 397 Stilicho, the general
le>:e3 and of all ages. The Goths, iulUy provoked at the of the Weft, advanced to chaftife the invaders of Greece,
cruel treatment they met with from the Roman officers, who The Ik ill and perfeverance of the Roman at length prevailed :
were to fupply them with provilions, had fcarcely entered and the Goths, after fuftaining a confiderable lofs by dlfeafe
Thraee> under the conditions impofed upon them, when and defervion, gradually retreated to the lofty mountains of
they began to mutiny and plunder the country. Ihisoe- Pholoe, near the fourees of the Pencus, and on the frontiers
cafioned a lonir and ' bloody \sar betv.ccn them and the of Elis ; a facred country, which had formerly been exempted ■
Romans. They were joined by the Huns, Alani, Taifalx, from the calamities of war. Their camp was immediately
and other fivarms of" their countrymen. In the battle befieged ; and reduced to great diRrefs by thirft and hunger,
of Hadrianople, A. D. 378, the Roman cavalry fled ; A ftrong line of circumvallation was formed to prevent
and the infantry was abandoned, furrounded, and cut their cfcape. Alaric was fecret, prudent, and rapid in his
in pieces ; and though the Goths were obliged to raife operations : he immediately negotiated a treaty with the
the iieiTe of Hadrianople, the tide of the Gothic inundation minifters of Conftantinople ; and Stilicho was compelled to
rolled'tVom the walls of this city to the fuburbs of Con- retire from the dominions of Arcadius ; and he refpefted, in
ilantinople ; and the Roman provinces were ravaged by the enemy of Rome, the honourable character of the ally and
the barbarians. At this time a fafpicien prevailed, that fervant of the emperor of the Eaft. Alaric is declared mallcr-
the Goths of Afia had formed a fecret and dangerous con- general of the Eallern Illyricum: and the ufe to which he
fpiracv againft the pubhc fafety. An order was promul- apphed his new command diftinguilhes the firm and judicious
gated that, on a (lited day, the Gothic youth Ihould aflem- charafter of liis pohcy. He ilfues his orders to the four
bie in the capital cities of their refpettive provinces ; and magazines of ofcufive and defenfive arms, Margus, Ratiaria,
as a report was induifrioufly circidated, that they were Nailfus, and Thed'alonica, to provide his troops with an ex-
fummoned to receive a liberal gift of land and money, the traordinary fupjjly of fliields, helmets, fwords, and fpears.
plealino- hope allayed the fury of their refentment, and per- With the unanimous confent of the barbarian chreftains,
haps fufpended the motions of the confpiracy. On the ap- the mailer-general of Illyricum was elevated, according to
pointed day, the unarmed crowd of the Gothic youth aflt^m- ancient cuftom, on a fliield, and folemnly proclaimed king
bled in the fquare, or forum ; the ilrects and avenues were of the Vifigoths. Thus armed with do: ble power,
occupied by the Roman troops ; and the roofs of the houfes and feated on the verge of the two empires, he amufed
were covered with archers and {lingers. At the fame time the two emperors Arcadius and Honorius, till he declared
iji all the cities of the Eafl, the fignal was given of indifcri-, and executed his ref dution of invading the dominions of the
minate flaughter ; and the provinces of Afia were delivered Weil. He was tempted by the fame, the beauty, and the
by tlie cruel prudence of Juhus, who was mailer-general of wealth of Italy, which he had twice vifited ; and hefccrctly
the troops, from a domellic enemy, who, in a few months, afpired to plant the Gothic ilandard on the walls of Rome,
might have carried fire and fword from the Hcllefpont to the and to enrich his army with the accunudated fpoils of three
Euphrates. At length the Goths fubmitted to Theodofius I., hundred triumphs. Alaric lofes no time in executing his
■ and were allowed by him to fettle ' in Thrace and Ivlccfia, purpofe of invading Italy, and advances, againfl much
which two provinces had been almoll depopulated by the fre- oppofition, towards the capital of the empire. It was in
quent iucurfions of tlie neighbouring barbarians, and the late the year 400 that he firft entered Italy, making dreadful
deilrutclve war. jV numerous colony of the Vifigoths was ravages in his progrefs. His march, probably Irom Tlief-
tettled in Thrace; the remains of the Oflrogotlis v\ ere planted falonica, through the warlike .ind hoflile country of Pan-
in Phrygia and Lydia ; their immediate wants were fupplied nonla, as far as the foot of the Julian Alps ; his paffagc
bv a dillribution of corn and cattle ; and their future iuduitry of thole mountains, i\ liich were flrongly guarded by troops
was encouraged by an exemption from tribute for a ctrtain and entrenchments ; the liege of Aquikia, and the con-
number of years. Plopes were entertained that the manners quell of the provinces of Illria and Venetui, appear to have
of the barbarians would in time be pollflied, and that their employed a confiderable time. In the year 403, AL-.ric
poilerity would be infenfibly blended with the body of the approaclied Milan, and the emperor Honorius, dreading
Roman people. Nolwithllandlng thefe flattering expefta- his arrival, fled to Ravenna. Stihcho, however, prepared
tions, it was apparent to every ddcerning eye, that the Goths to march agaiall the enemy, whom he found encamped at
would Icng remain the enemies, and might loon become the I'jUentia, on the Tanaroj iu Piedmont. \Vh;!e rfic

7 Chrifliaii

GOTH S.

I

Cliriftian Gotli5 were devoutly celebrating Eader, tliey
were attacked by Slilic'io, and after a very ievcre engage-
ment, they retreated irom the field of battle, after the tctal
defeat of the infantry, with their cavalry entire, under
the cominand of Alaric, vvh« polTed'ed a mind, tliat was
invincible and fuperior to misfortune, and that derived new
relources from adverfity. The Gothic fovereign, wifliing to
dilliuguilh his retreat by fome illuftrious exploit, attacked
Verona, but in the battle that eiifued he fuffercd a defeat
no lefs difallrous than tliat at Pollentia. In the year 408
Alaric marched again towards Rome ; witli bold and rapid
marches lie paffed the Alps and the Po ; liallily pillaged
the cities of Aquilcia, Altinum, Concordia, and Cremona ;
increafrd his forces by the acceliion of ?,o,ooo auxiliaries ;
and, without meeting a fuigle enemy in the field, advanced
as far as the edge of the morafs, which protefted the im-
l>regnable relldence of the emperor of the Weft. He foon
after pitclied his camp under the walls of Rome. A ran-
fom liaving being offered and accepted, he raifes the fiegc
A.D. 409. Alaric's next attack was directed againll the
])ort of Oilia, one of the boldeft and moll ttupendous
works of Roman magnificence ; and as foon as he was in
o(le)li(m of thl:? important place, ho fummoned the city to
arrender at diferelion ; but lie contented himfelf with
fuperleJing Honorius, and bellcrwlng the purple on Attains,
pretecl. of the city. Attains w.iS foon after degraded, and
Ills degradation was followed bv the third fiege and fack
of Rome, Aug. 24, A. D. 410. At the hour of mid-
night the Salarian gate was filently opened, and the inha-
bitants were av.-akened by the tremendous found of the
Gothic trumpet. Eleven hundred and fixty-three years
alter the foundation of Rome, the Imperial city, whicli had
Inbdued and civilized fo confiderable a part of mankind, was
delivered to the licentious fury of the tribes of Germany
and Scythla. After fix days' pillage and devallation, the
vli\orlous Goths evacuated Rome, and their intrepid leader
advanced into Campania, and having ravaged that and
the neighbouring provinces of Lucania, Samnium, Apulia,
and Calabria, he approaciied the ilraits of Sicily, with a
defign to pafs over into tliat ifland, and thence into Africa ;
but he was feized in the neighbourhood of Rhegium with
a tit of illnefs, of which he died in a few days. (See
Alaric.) lie was fucceeded in the Gothic throne by his
brother-in-law Ataulphus, or Adolphus, who concluded a
peace with the empire, and marched into Gaul A. D. 412.
Being driven out of Gaul A. D. 415, he retired to Spain,
where he was foon after afTalTinated. .lingerie, his fuccefFor
on the Gothic throne, iliared the fame fate. After his death
the free choice of the nation bellowed the Gothic fceptre on
Valiia or Wallia, wiio concluded a peace v.-ith the Romans,
and commenced a fanguinarv, but fuccefsful war with the
barbarians, who had fettled in Spain. His victorious Goths,
A. D. 419, forty-three years after they had paffed the
Danube, were ellablilhed, according to the laith ot treaties,
in the poffefTion of the fecoud .•\quitain, a maritime pro-
vince between the Garonne and tlie Loire, under the civil
and ecclefiadical jurifdiclion of Bourdeaux. The Gothic
limits were afterwards enlarged bv the additional grant of
fome neighbouring diocefes ; and the fuccefTors of Alaric
fixed their royal refidence at Thouloiife. Thus, about the
fame time, in the lail year of the reign of Honorius,
tiie Gotiis, the Burgundians, and the Franks, obtained a
permanent feat and dominion in the provinces of Gaul.
Valiia -.vai fucceeded by Theodoric, who firit made \\ar
w-ith the Romans, and gained feveral places in Gaid belong-
ing to them, ar;d afterwards concluded a peace with them.
The Goths continued quiet in tli>» countries that had been
allotted them in Gaul for the fpuce of ten years, ov till the

year 436, when, the Romans being engaged in a war witJi
the Inirgundians, Theodoric availed himfelf of tl.atoppor-
tunity to enlarge his don.inioi.s. At length the Gothic
king made peace with the Romans; and in the year 4c 1
engaged by an alliance «ilh them to -Mii th. n. agaiuft the
Huns who had entered Gaul. Thorifmund. his fon and
iucceffor, breaks with the Romans; but his brother Thco-
done, who next occupied llie Gothic throne, and who was
emmently d.ftmguilhed by his talents and attainments, cul-
mated the fnendlh.p of the Romans, and contributed by his
martial exploits to the fupport of the Roman empire.
Theodonc entered Spain with a large army of Goths and
Burgundians : and havnig almoil reduced the Suevians i.,
Cxahca, A U. 457, he paffed from thence into Lufitania,
and reduced feveral places. Upon his return to Gaul, he
ook Icveral cit.es belonging to the Romans, but was at
length checked in his career and defeated by ./Eiridius,
commander in chief of the Roman forces in that comitry!
In 6pam the Goths were more fuccefsful than th-y were in
Gaul, and became mailers of the greater part of the- country.
Under huric, who afcended the throne A.D. 466, the
Goths drove the Romans out of Spain ; and all The pro-
vinces, except Galicia, and part of Lufitania, which were
lubjec-l to the S.evians, acknowledged him for their king.
who refidmg at Thouloufe, governed them bv his lieutenants!
Luric, having alio made himfelf mailer of the bell p:u-t of
Oaul, comprihng the whole traft between the Rhone and
lie Loire, and oi the greatell part of Spain, was llill de^
hrous ot reducing the remaining parts of both countries,
waen h,s death at Aries, A. D. 484, put a flop to hi*
great deligns. Euric is faid to have been the firfl who
gave written laws to the Goths, for till his reign thev had
been governed by culloms only; and for thi. purpjfc he
cmpl<,yed Leo, his prime miniller, one of the moft learned
men and bell civilians of that period. Tliefe laws were
called the " 1 heodorician" laws ; and were obtruded bv
Eunc upon the people of Gaul and Spain, who had b;-.n
longaccuftomed to the Roman l.iws; but Alaric, his fon
and fuccefior, reftored the Roman laws to their fonrer
authority, and caufed them to be obferved tlirci. 'hout
his dominions. About this period the kir.gdom of the
\ il.goths in Gaul terminated ; and they, being driven from
thence, fixed their royal feat at Toledo, iu Spain. (S—
VisiGOTHs.) For the hillory of the Oilrogoths ; fer
O.sTROGoTir.s. Under Theodoric, who, A. D. 49 ,, caufed
lumlelt to be proclaimed by his Goths king of Italy, and
was acknowledged as fuch bv the emperor Anaftafiiis, the
fuccefior of Zeno, Theodoric fecured his new kingdom
by alliances with neighbouring powers : he quarterinl all
his Goths in the callles and ftrong holds, with their officers
who were to command them in time of war, .ind go-
vera them in time of peace ; he retained the Roman laws,
the fame form of government, the fame dilbibution of pro-
vinces, ;he fame magillrates and dignities ; and, bcfidcs,
according to the cullom of the Goths, he appointed
for each city inferior judges, diftinguilhed bv the title
of counts, who were to adir.inillcr jnllice, and' decide .ill
difputes; and. in this refpec\ the "polity of the Gollis,
as Grotius obferves, far excelled that 'of the Romans.
Thus Italy, from the dominion of the Romans, fell under
that of the Goth.s, ainioll without any p^-rccptible change.
See Tiiicononic.

At hibfequent periods attempts were made to recover the
country from fubjeftion to their goveninient ; particuUrly
in the rclgn of .lultini.iu. Under ihe weak n-ign of Theo-
datus, the Gothic king of lta!y, Belifarius iuvr.ded Italv,
entered Rome A. D. ^^6, aiid rediicd Naples A. D.
557. He defended Rome againll the whole armv of the

GOT

Goths, who bi'fiL-;xcd it A. D. 537, and continued it above
a year till their iinal departure. During' this fiege, which
was raifed in March, A. D. 538, one-third of their enor-
mous holl was dellroyed in frequent and bloody combats
undi-r the walls of the city, and the evils of famine and
pcftlleiice were aprgravatcd by their own licentioufnefs, and
the unfriendly difpofition of the covmlry. Vitiger, their
king, retired for Iheltcr within the walls and morunes of
Ravenna. At length Belifarius bcfiegcd the city, and took
it in tlie latter end of the year 539. The fubmifTion of the
capital was imitated in the town-, and villages of Italy ; and
the independent Gotlis who remained in arms at Pavia and
Verona, were ambitious only to become the fubjefts of
Belifarius. But his inflexible loyalty rejeded, except as
the fubllitute of Jullinian, their oaths of allegiance. In the
year 540, the Goths revolted, and Totila, the nephew of
their late king, undertook the relloration of the kingdom of
Italy. His firll movements were rapid and fuccefsful; and
after reducing by force, or treaty, the towns of inferior note
in the midland provinces of Italy, Totila proceeded, A.D.
C46, to encompafs Rome, and to ftarve its inhabitants.
Famine had rela.xed the ftrength and dii'cipline of the garri-
fon, and Rome was taken by the Gotlis in December,
A. D. 546. After the departure of Totila, it was recovered
by Belifarius in February, A. D. 547. (See Belisakius.)
When Totila returned to avenge tlie injury and difgrace,
the Goths were thrice rcpulfcd ; they loll the flower of
their troops ; the royal ilandard had almort fallen into
the hands of the enemy, and the fane of Totila fmik,
as it had rifen, with the fortune of h's arms. Rome was
again taken by the Goths, A. D. 549. Juliinian made
"•reat preparations for the Gothic war, the conduct of which
was committed to Narfes, who defeated Totila in a bloody
engagement, July, A. D. 552, and Toti'a himfelf wns
ftruck through the body witb a lance. Narfes then pro-
' ceeded to the ccwq^eH of Rome j and JuiHnian once more
received the keys of the imperial city, which, under his
reign, had been fii-e times taken and recovered. The lalt
kin" of the Goths was Teias, who was unanimoufly chofen
to fucceed and revenge their departed hero, Marcli, A.D.
CC3. Sixty days weie confumed in dillant and fruitlefs
combats, between the Gothic and Roman armies, but at
length, after an engagement of many hours, Teias fell,
and his head, exalted on a fpear, proclaimed to the nations,
that the Gothic kingdom was no more. After a reign of 60
years, the throne of the Gothic kings was filled by the
exarchs of Ravenna (fee Exarch); and the remains of the
Gothic nation evacuated the country or mingled with the
people. (Anc. Un. Hill. vol. xvii. Gibbon's Hill. vol. vii.
paP.im.)

The Goths fpread themfelves very widely in their various
min-rations, and formed part of the population of the
feverai nations of Europe. In England the Celtic popula-
tion was fucceeded by tlie Gothic, and about two-thivds of
En'J-land were poffefled by the Belgic Goths. (See Bki.ci.k
and E.\CiL.\ND.) About the time that the Belgx fei/,ed on
the fouth of England, it appears that a hundred Gothic tribes
pafled to the fouth of Ireland. (See Ireland.") In France,
or Gaul, the Goths, or warlike Gernuui tribes, under the
denomination ofCelgx', fei/.ed on a third part of the country
into which they introduced the Gothic language and man-
ners. (See BEr,c..>; and Gaul.) The original population
of tlie Netlierlands was Celtic ; but it was afterwards fuiJ-
plantcd by the Belgse. vSec Belg.k and Netiif.ulasds.)
In Germany, the Scythiaui or Goths, proceeding either
from Scandinavia, or, as others fay, from their original feats
on the Euxine, expelled the Cimbri and Fins, and thefe,
intermixed with the German nations, dellroyed the Romaji

G o r

empire in the weft. (See GehmAnv, and the precidiiig
part of this article.) Pruflia appears to have been peopled
by the Peuclni and jEilii, Gothic tribes bordering on tlic
Venedi, who were Slavonians. (See PllLssiA.) The
Vandal;;, who conquered Spain in the fifth century, •^Tre
fubdued by the Vifigoths under Euric, who found^'d th'-
modern kiiigdom of Spain. (See Spain.) The original
population of Turkey in Europe chiefly fprung from ihc
ancient Scythians on the Euxine, the progenitors of the
Dacians, Thracians, S:c. and even of the Greeks. The
regions of Turkey in Afia were peopled by Scythic nation;-,
intermixed with a few AfTyrians from the fouth. (See
TuuiCEY.) The Batavi of Holland were the mofl nortlierii
people of Belgic Gaul, and without doubt a German or
Gothic progeny. . (SecB.\TAVi, Gaul and Holla.no.)
The Cimbri or northern Celts, Avho originally peopled
Denmark, were expelled by the Goths, if they were not, as
fome conceive, tribes of the fame nation ; and the Fins or
Laps of Norway, which, with Sweden, couftitutes the
ancient Scandinavia, were driven to the northern e.xtreniities
by the Gothic invafion. (See Denmark, Nohwav, Scan-
Dix.vviA, and Sweden'.) The Helvetians, or original Swifs,
are fuppofed by fome writers to have i;cen Celts ; but
others, with greater probabiUty, confider lliem as a Gothic
race, or very ancient colony of Germans.

It has been a general opinion, ftrcniioufly maintained by
Cluverius and Pelloutier, and adopted by Mallet in his
" Northern Antiquities,'' that the Gothic and Celtic nations
were the fame ; but the ingenious Englilh trpnllator of
Mr. Mallet's " Northern Antiquities" has produced a va-
riety of teftimonies from ancient authors, to prove that the
Celtic and Teutonic or Gothic nations were, ab origine,
dilliuct, and that they differed conhderably in perfon, man-
ners, laws, religion, and language. The former were the
ancellors of the Gauls, Britons, and Irifli ; and the Germans,
Saxons, and Scandinavians derived their origin from the
latter. The Celtic tribes \\ere probably the tirll that tra-
velled welhvard ; and the Goths, or Gets of the ancients,
v.lio emigrated at different times from the eaflern countries
after tluni, miglit borrow fome of their opinions and prac-
tices, which will account for the relemblancc that has been
obferved between them, without admitting that they were
defcended from them, or that they iliould be coiUidered as
the fame ])eople. In the fame way we may account for
tliofe relics both of Celtic and Gothic fuperllitions, wliich
are difcernible in Gaul and Britain, and many other coun-
tries, the inhabitants of which derive their defcent equally
from the Celts and Goths, who were at different times
mailers of thefe kingdoms, and whofe defcendants are now
blended together ; thus, the iirfl inhabitants of Gaul and
I'jritain being of Celtic race, followed the Druidical fuper-
llition. The ancient Germans, Scandinavians, &:c. being
of Gothic race, profefTed that fyllem of polytheifm whicli
was afterwards delivered in the Edda ; and the Franks and
Saxons, who afterwards fettled in Gaul and Britain, being-
of Gothic race, introduced the polytheilm of their own
nation, which was in general tlie fame that prevailed among
all the other Gothic or Teutoriie people. See, hcwever,
the article Gothic Icingiuige, where the original identity of
tlie Celts and Goths is maintained partly by general reafon-
ing, and partly by etymological invelligation.

GOTLUNDA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Nericia; nine miles N. N. E. of Orcbro.

GOTOMB, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublia ; 2S miles N. W. of Lublin.

GO-TON, a town of Cjiina, in the province of Se-lehuen ;
4S wiles N. W. of Ou-moiig.

GOT-

G O T

OOTSEELA, a town of Bengal; 48 miles W. of
Midnap'Uir.

GOTTA, or GoTTO IJlarids, a cluftci- of fmall Japanefe
ilbnds. N. lilt. 50° 40'. E. loiijr. 13K40'.

GOTTAUL, a town of Bengal ; 33 miles S. of Bnid-
wai-. N. lat. 22 42'. E. long, yy"" 5'.

GOTTESBEIIG, a town of Sik-fia, in the pi-inci;)ality
oF Sehwoidnitz, near which arc two mines, one of gold, not
now worked, and another of coals. The manufacture of
tins town confitis of knit worlled ftockings. It contains
two churches; 12 miles S.W. of iSchweidnitz. N. lat. 50"
35'. E. long. 15- 54'.

COTTEtiGAB, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saat/. K. lat. 30'^ 22'. E. long. I2' 54'.

GC3TTI,'ViNCKNT-LKWis, in Biiigfdphy, was born at Bo-
h)gi:u in the vcar 1664. At ii>vteen years of age he embraced
the erclefialHcul life among the Dominican monks, and when
!ie had completed his coi.rle of pliilofopliy at Bologna, he was
fent to llitdy theology for fonr years at Salaniar.ca in Spain.
Upon his return to Italy in 16S8, he was appointed pro-
felibr of pliilofopliy in tiie univerfity ot Bologna ; vnA ioon
recommended Idmfelf hv his talents and virtues to the polls
of prior and provincial of liis order. In 172S, pope Bene-
clift Xill. raifed him to the dignity of the purple ; and
three years afterwards ai)pointed him member of the con-
gregation for examining bidiops. So highly was he elleemed,
that in the lall conclave, which was held during his time,
lie had the fuffrages of a great number of the college for
las being raifed to the papal throne. He died at Rome in
1742, in his 79th year. His works, which are much valued
( y the Catholics, particularly by thofe iii Italy, dilj)lay con-
f.deriible erudition and abilities. Of thele the principal are
" De vera Chrilli Ecclella," in three volumes ; " Thcologia
Schokdlico-doginatica, juxta Mentem divi Thomx Aqui-
natis, S:c." in i;x volumes 410,; " Colloquia Theologica-pole-
nu'ca, in tres claifes dillributa, &c." 4to. ; ''De Eligenda inter
DiffidentesChriftianosSentcntia," written in anfwertoa piece
with the fame title, by the celebrated .lohn le Clerc ; and
,u. cl^'

L'.jorate v\ork in defence of the truth of the Chrillian
r. ligion againit Atheiits, Idol.ittrs, Mahometans, Jews, S;c.
Ml 1 2 volumes. He was employed at the time of his death
':-, writing " A Commentary on the book of Genefis."
Moreri.

GOTTIGNIES, Gile.s-Fh.wcis, was born at BrufTels
'" the year 1 630, and entered into the order <>: tlie Jefuits
.-.[ Mechlin in 1653, whence he was fent to Rome, to purfue
);is tlieological Ihidies ; here he fpent the reil of his life
employed m teaching the mathematics, and writing different
work^ in that fcience. He died in 1689, when he was about
:i:<ty years of age. He was a coniiderable mathematician !
.i r^r-at lover of pirre geometry, and had a diitalle to the
;i!n-ebraic method of refolving problemiS; his works are very
laimerous, and have been highly commended for perfpicuity
..nd prccifion. They relate to arithmetic and geometry ; to
I lie various parts of aflroiiomy, and other branches ot fpecu-
.i.tri-e and pri-.aic-.il mathematics. Moreri.

GOTTIKGEN, or CJoetiisc.en, in Geography, a town
of the kingdom of \Ve!lpiialia, and p: iiicipal place of adillritl,
. :im'jd from it, is fituated in a fpacn>u3, pleafant, fertile valley,
un ii canal, branching from tiie river l.eine, and dividing the
own into t.Ke New town and Marfch. Tlie number of
'.ijufes is about icoo, containing about Scoo porfona ; the
.rreets are large and paved; it has five pariih churches, and
I :w for Calvimlls ; the Roman Catholics perform their reli-
g.ous fervice in a private lionie. The town is govvrmd by
;. provolt, named by the fovcreign, burgo-mafters, and a
tvnod cbofen by the regency, aliilled by a councd. The
i.aiveriiiy of Goltiiigen claiajs peculiar notice ; it was founded

G O U

in 1734 by George II, king of England, and confccrated
on the 17th of September 1737, and by llic attention of it«
full curator, baron Mimchaufen, it has rifen to dillinguifhcd
reputation. It has a fplendid church, with its own pallor;
and it is accommodated with a ftately edifice of lloiie, the
gr(,unQ.fioor of which ferves as a hall for public leAures,
and the upper apartments are appropriated to the library-,
council-cliambcr, and other neceflary purpofts. Its library
is very large and \aluable, and it is called Uie " Bulowtan,'
froni a coUettiou of about io,030 volumes, with which it
originated, bequentli.d by baron Bulow for public ufe, and
granted by his heirs to the univerfity. A royal fociety of
fciences, foiinded in 1 75 1, and a royal German locii'ty,
form part of the umverlity. It has likewife a tine obfen'a-
tory, crcAed on a tower on the ramparts, witli a phyfic
garden, anatomical theatre, S:c. Tlie territory belonging
to the town is very confiderable ; 22 miles N. E. of Caffef
N.lat 51 31'. E. long. 9 52'.

GOI'TO, a country of Africa, fituatcd to the foutli of
.Tinbali and Tombucloo, and the river Niger or .loliba, about
15° N. lat., and from o to 2^ E. long. It was formerly
divided into feveral petty ftates, under their own chiefs, but
it is now under the government of a king. Its chief town
is called MoofTceddoo, from the n;uiie of their firft mo-
narch.

GOTTOLENGO, a town of Italy, in the department
oftheM, la; 15 miles S. of Brefcia.
GOTTO RP. See S1.ESWIC.

GOTTSCHEE, a town of Middle Carniola ; 20 milee
S.S.E. of Laybach. N lat. 45 53'. E. long. 14° 48'.

GOTZEL, a town of Bavaria; 36 miles E. of Ra-
tifbon.

GO VAN, a town of Scotland, in LaHarkfhirc ; the po- .
pulation of wkich, in I'^oi, was 6701, of which 13 14 wen-
employed in trade and manufaftures ; four m.iks W. ot
Glalgow.

GCVANDORE, a bay on tlie coaft of Chili.
GOUANIA, in Botany, was named by .Tacquin in ho-
nour of Anlliony Gouaii, a phylician and celebmtcd bo-
tanill of Montpellier, where he has long filled the botanical
chair, and, as far as we know, is ftill living, though at <i
very advanced age. He was the friend and correfpoiident of
Linnicus, and is the author of a Flora Moiifp/iluu, arranged'
according to what he himfeif calls a hvbrid fyllcm, the
outlines being on the principles of Tournefort, the fiibordi-
iKite fec^ions taken fro;ii the Linnian feMial fyflem. Tl.id
work appeared in 1765. Hehad pivvioi;ilv. in 1762, ptil -
lillied a Hxirliis M:ri/f>c!it:i/!s according to the lalt-mentiori( d
fyltem. Each work forms an oftavo volume. They are
chiefly remarkable for the fecoudary generic characters, tak< ci
from the habit, fiibjoined to the ellcntial ones which are
founded on the fruit iticat Ion. ProfefFor Gouan pjblifhcd.
alto a folio volume of Obfervatioiies Botanicx, with plates,.
illullrative of the plants of his neighbourhood ; ?<• \.e\\ as
a quarto in Latin and French on the metliodical arrangf-
ment, and generic charaAcrs at lengtli, of liihe'. — .lac^.
Amcr. 263. Linn. (rcn. 547. Schreb. -33. Mart. Mil'.

Dia. v. 2. JulT. 3S1. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. S45 Clafs

and order, Poly^.m.'ui ATonaLi, or rather Penlnnilria Mcno-
Syii'h Nat. Ord. Dunicf.c, Linn. Rlj,:mm, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth of 0110 leaf, lupcrior, funnel-
fliaped, tive-clett ; tube p •rmanent ; fegments of the limb
ovate, acute, ipreading, d'cid.ious. Cor. Petals five, oppo-
fite to the flamcns, hood-lliaped, elaftic. Stam. l-'ilaracnts
five, awl-lhaped, the length of the fegments of the calv.>{,
and alternate with them, infertcd into the tube; anthers
ronndiih, incumbent, lliekered by the petals. Pjjl. Ger-
men inferior, roundiih ; flyle awl-fl>aped, dividrd half-way

dowa

G O U

down iuio ihrec fegments; ftigmas obtufe. Pc-r'ic. Ciiplule
wiUi three angles, Icparable into three parts, of one cell
each, not burlUng. feA lolitary, ovate, compreffed, po-

liflied. There arc fome male tlowers, furniihcd with a

llyle, bnt deftitute of germeu and ftigma.

' Eir. Ch. Calyx five-clcft. Petals live, hooded, covering
the anthers. Style three-cleft. Capfule inferior, feparat-
ing into three fin'gle-feeded parts. — Some flowers male.

'jacquin originally defcribed two fpecies, of which Lin-
nseus adopted but one. Lamarck has added three more,
all in our pofieflion, to which we are enabled to furnilh
three non-deicript fpecies, making eight in all.

1. G.ilomhif'etifs. Linn. Sp. PI. 1663. Lamarck Did.
V. ■i,, 4. (G. glabra; Jacq. Amer. 264. t. 179. f. 40. Lu-
puius fylveftris amcricana, &c. Pluk. t. 201. f. 4. )_— Leaves
ovate, pointed, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Wings of the fruit
dilated, kidney-lliaped. — Native of woods in Hifpaniola
and the Bahama illands. A climbing much branched_/?'n/.*,
the young branches downy, ending in long funple fpiral
tendrils. Leaves alternate, on (liort hairy iialks, ovate, a
little unequal, an inch and half long, bluntly ferrated, iv.v-
niflted with a blunt entire point, and with feveral llraight
parallel veins diredted forward. The young leaves are rather
downy, old ones nearly fmooth. Stlpnlas imall, half arrow-
ihapeii. Flo-ivers in long terminal clufters, fmall, greenifh
and unornumental. Capfuhs of a light fpongy texture,
their central part as big as a fmall' pea, the wings thrice
as lonii-, fpreading, pale brown, Imooth and fomevvhat po-
lilhed. Seeds hard, of a (liining brown.

2. G. tomentofa. Jacq. Amer. 263. Linn. MSS. in Sp. PI.
{G. crenata; Lamarck Did. v. 3. 5?) — " Leaves ovate,
crenate, downy.'' — Native of woods in Hifpaniola, climb-
intr to the tops of lofty trees. Jncqu'in. Of this we have
feen no fpecimen. Jacquin fays the leaves are four inches
long. Seeds black and fliining. Lamarck fuppofes his
plant to be the fame on account of the great iize of its
leaves, and he fays it is diflinguidied from all others by
their crenatures. .Tacquin defcribcs his as flightly crenate.

3. G. cyclocarpa. — Leaves elliptic -oblong, pointed, ob-
foletelv ferrated, roughilli, naked on both fides. Wings
of the fruit narrow, orbicular. — Native, we believe, of the
Well Indies. The very young Jlioots and leaves only are
filky and ferruginous. The tuU-grown leaves are near three
inches long and one broad, fomewhat ovate, either almoft
entire, or furnidied with (liallow diftant ferratures, and a
fliort entire blunt point; they are green and quite naked on
both iides, but harfli to the touch oh the upper furface.
Veins diltant. Fcotjlalls, Jloiverjlalhs, and Jlipulas hairy.
FlovJtTs fomewhat filky. /Vh/V orbicular at each lide, eacli
wing forming a hemifphere, and, not being much dilated.

4. G. d.'nticulatii. — Leaves ovate, pale and downy be-
neath, entire, with a finely-toothed point. — Gatliered by
the late Mr. Clu-iftopher Smith in the ifland of Honimoa,
Eaft Indies. — ^\\s leaves are about an inch and half long,
with llraight veins, connefted by numerous minute reticu-
lations, and are remarkable for the numerous little iharp
teeth which border their upper part and terminal point,
while the reft of their margin is entire. Their upper fide
is roughifli to the touch, but green and naked; while the
lower is hoary with very denfe fiiort down, the veins only
being naked Stipulas fmall and deciduous. A fimple
curled tendril terminates each lateral branch, as in all the
foregoing. Floiuers in axillary downy clufters, with lan-
ceolate deciduous brafteas. The fruit we have not feen.

5. G. mauritiana. Lamarck Dicl. v. 35. — Leaves ovate,
pointed, v.irioufly ferrated, downy on both fides. — Native
of the heights called the Col, in the defert, of the ;lle dc

G O U

Bourbon, where it was gathered by Commerfon, and fent
to the botanic garden at Paris. The leaves are the fize of
the laft, but green and clothed with filky down on both
fides. Their figure is ovate, rarely fomewhat cordate.

often unequal, fharp-pointed, their margin fingularly varia-
ble, being fometimes nearly entire, having only fcatte/ed
(liallow ferratures, fometimes very deeply and doubly fer-
rated, not unlike the Roman nettle, Urtica piluUfera. Sti-
pulas ovate, acute, clothed with Ihining reddilh iilky hairs,
as well as the young twigs and tendrils. The fnidijieation
is wanting in our fpecimens. Lamarck fays the capjules
have rounded thin and membranous wings.

6. G. tiUxJoUa. Lamarck Dift. v. 3. j. (G. StadtmannI ;
Willem. Herb. Maurit. 58?) — Leaves heart-lhaped, bluntly
pointed, fmooth on both fides, bluntly and flightly ferrated.
Native of the ifle de Bourbon, near la Villelague. Commer-
fon. The_/?i.'ffi is much branched and divaricated, fmooth,,
except the very young fiioots. Leaves an inch or inch and
half long, and nearly as broad, heart-lliaped, with fliallow
ferratures and a fhort blunt point. They are light green
and naked on both fides, fmootli above; minutely chagrined
beneath. i'/z^uAu glandular. Flower-flails vu^y and. downy.
The tendrils become very thick and ftrong by age.

7. G. integrifolia. Lamarck Did. v. 3. 5. — Leaves ovate,
bluntilh, entire, fmooth on both lides. Stipulas awl-(haped.
Long cultivated in the Paris garden, but its native country
is not remembered. We have a fpecimen from thence, de!-
titute oi Jloivers and fruit, yet we readily agree with La-
marck that there can be no doubt refpefting its genus.
The habit, ilem, tendrils, folded young leaves, and their
pale parallel veins, all indicate a Couauia, tor no genus can
be more natural than this. The leaves are ufnalh- about an
inch long, cxaftly ovate, (not oval) without any elongated
point, though tipped with a gland; tlicir margin quite en-
tire, their midrib fometimes llightly hairy at the back. Sti-
pulas awl-lhaped, deciduous. Fcotjlalls hairy only while
young.

8. G.fuiilaciua. — Leaves heart-fliaped, minittcly feiTated,
acute, fomewhat hairy. Stipulas awl-fhaped. I'lower-llaikh
umbellated, fcarcely fo long as the leaves. Brought by the
late fir G. L. Staunton, Bart. v\e believe from the Brafils.
The zig-zag branches, with fmall heart-lhaped leaves, and
numerous axillary umbels o{ Jlo-wers, give it the afped of a
Smila.v. The tendrils grow from the firll joint of each branch,
and are elegantly fpiral ; rully and hairy, like the_^c-7('f/'-
flalis and calyx. The principal
inch long, green on both fide.s,
very Iiairy, their furface more
fliaped, hairy. S.

GOUAREC, in Geograply, a town of France, in tlie
department of the North Coalls, and chief place ot a can-
ton, in the dillrid of Loudeac ; 24 miles S. W. of St. Brieuc.
The place contains 678, and the canton 6,093 inhabitants,
on a territory of 207-5 kiliometres, in 5 communes.

GOUD, or Gaud. See Weld.

GOUDA, orTKitfwrw, in Geography, a city of Hol-
land, feated on a branch of the Rhine, called Ifl'cl, where it
receives the Gouw, from which it derives its name. The
great church of this town is one of the largell and liandlom-
ell in the country, and is particularly famous for its painted
glals windows, which were executed principally by Theodore
and Walter Crabcth of this town, and wliich are carefully pre-
ferred. The town is advantageoufly fitnatcd, on account
ot the fluices and canals, which are running llreams, and
its convenient port on the Ilfel. It has five gates, and is lo
circunillanced by realoii of the fluices, which may inundate
the adjacent country, the breadth and depth of its ditche,«,

and

leaves are ufually about an
their ribs and veins always
or lefs fo. Stipulas awl-

G O U

GOV

and the ftrong fortifications on the banks of the Iflel, that
it cannot ealily be befieged. Its chief trade confiUs in
cordage, chcefe, and tobacco-pipes ; and it has a regular com-
munication by boats with Amilerdam, the Hague, Rotter-
dam, Utreclit, &c ; 22 miles S. of Amllcrdaai. N. lat.
52^1'. E. long. 436.

GOUDHURST, a poft-town of England, in the county
«f Kent, containing 1782 inhabitants ; 1 1 miles S. of Maid-
ftone, and44S.E. of London.

GOUDOZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
72 miles E.N.E. of Kiutaja.

GOUDIMEL, Claude, in Blogrnphyf one of the
early and moll celebrated compofcrs of mulic to the
metrical French tranllations of the pfalms for the
ufe of the Calvinills. He was a native of Franche-
Comte, who feems to have loil liis life at Lyons, on the
day of the mafFacre of Paris, for having fet to mutlc the
pfalms of Clement Marut. Goudimel has been much cele-
brated by the Calvinills In France for this muilc, which was
never ufed in the church of Geneva, and by tlie Catho-
lics in Italy for inilruiSting Paleilrina in the art of compofi-
tion, theugh it is doubtful whether this great harmonill
and Goudimel had ever the lead acquaintance or intercourfe
together. He fet the" Chanfons Spirituelks" of the cele-
brated Marc-Ant. De Muret, in four parts, which were
printed at Paris, 1555. We may fuppofe Goudimel, at
tliis time, to have been a Catholic, as the learned Miiret
is never ranked among heretics by French biogra-
phers. Ten years after, when he fet the pfalms of Clement
Marot, this verfion was Hill regarded with lefs horror by the
Catholics than in later times; for the mulic which Goudimel
had fet to it was printed at Paris by Adrian Le Roy, and
Robert Dallard, with a privilege, 1565. It was reprinted
in Holland, in 1607, for the uie of the Calvinills, but feems
to have been too difficult ; for we are told by tlie editor of
the pfalms of Claude le Jeune, which were printed at Ley-
den, 1633, and dedicated to tiie States-General, that, "in
publilhing the pfalms in parts, he had preferred the mufic
of Claudl- Le Jeune to that of Goudimel ; for as the coun-
terpoint was limply note for note, the naoll ignorant in mulic,
if poffefledof a voice, and acquainted with the pfalm-tune,
might join in the performance of any one of them ; which is im-
practicable in the compotitions of Goudimel, many of whole
pfalms being compofed in fugue, can only be performed by
perfons well Ikilled in mufic.

The works of Goudimel, who was certainly the greatefl
mufician in France, during the reign of Charles IX., are
become fo fcarce, that his name and reputation are preferved
by Protellant hillorians, more in pity of his misfortunes, than
by any knowledge of their excellence. With relpeft to his
havingbeen the mailer of Paleilrina, that point will be dilcuff-
ed elfewhere.

The eariiell mention of Goudimel, as a compofcr, that we
have been able to dilcover, is in a work entitled " Liber
quartus Ecclefiafticarum Cantionum quatuwr vocum vulgo
Motctx vocant," printed at Antwerp, by Suiato, 1554,
fighteen years before his death. On Icoring feveral of thefe
inotetx, we found the harr—onv pure and correct, but con-
:tru6led entirely on the principles of the ccclellallical tones :
probably before he became a dilciple of Calviu. The title
of all his compofitions may be feen in Draudius, Bibl.
Claffic. and Bibl. Exot. (See Franc, Ci. aide le Jeune,
r.nd P.VLE.STKINA. ) The motets of Goudimel, in four parts,
refemble in gravity of llyle, fimphcity in the fubjtcts of
fugue, and purity of harmony, ihe eccleliallicul compofi-
tions of our venerable countryman Bird.

Vol. XVI.

GOGDSWAARTE, in Gw^rj/Ay, a fmall ifland at tht
mouth of the Meufe, S. of the illand of Putttn.

GOUEGA, a town of Africa, in Whidah : 10 rail«
W.S.W. of Sabi,

GOVENDING, a town of Bengal;. 32 miles E. of
Calcutta.

GOVERDAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat..; 10
miles E.S.E. of Dig. — Alio, a town in Oude, near the De-
wali ; 20 miles N. of A/.imgur.

GOVERDUNPOUR, a town of Hindooftan ; 44 mUn
N. of Allahabad.

GOVERNDUNGURRY,-a town of Hindooftan, in
Canara ; [4 miles SE. of Onore.

GOVERNMENT, a quality or office which gives a man
power or right to command or rule over a place, a city, a
province, a kingdom, or the like, either fup*cmcly or by
deputation.

Government is cither gen-rat and fiipremc, as that of a
whole kingdom, empire, fovereign Hate, &c or particular
and fubordinate ; which, again, is fubdividcd into dvU, miJi-
tnry, and eccleJiaJVicaL

Our cities, corporations, and boroughs, are ufually go-
verned by mayors, with aldermen and con»mon<ouncil»
men.

Government is alio ufed for the country, city, or place
to which the power of governing or commanding is ex-
tended.

Government, again, is ufed for the manner or form of
governing, /. e. for the police of a country, ftatc, &c.

In this ienfe the various forms of government have gene-
rally received their denominations from the number of per-
fons to whom the fupreme power has been cntruiled. If it
be in one perfon, it is called a monarchy, efpecially if the chief
magiftrate lies under conliderable rellridions, or governs by
fixed and eftablilhed law s ; whereas, if this finglc perfon lie
under fewer rellraints, or directs every thing by his own will
and caprice, the government is called dcj'polic. If the fu-
preme power be lodged in a limited number of perfons, the
government is called an oligarchy, or arijlocracy ; and if all
the citizens have an equal vote in making laws, and appoint-
ing magiftrates, or the fupreme power is lodged in the whole
body of the people, it is called a democracy or republic. See
thefe feveral articles.

Civil government and fociety originate in tht wants and
fears of individuals, who, being naturally free, equal, and
independent, affociate together, either by cxprefs or, tacit
confent, for the mutual prefervation of their lives, liberties,
and ellates, on this fundamental principle, th.it the wiiole
(liould protctl all its parts, and that every part fliould par
obedience to the will of the whole. However the feveral
forms of government, that now fubfill, aftually begun, there
is and mult be in all of them a fupreme, irrvfiilihle, abfo-
lute, uncontrouled authority, in which the jura J'miimi imperii,
or the rights of fovereignty, relide ; and this authority it
placed in thofe hands, wherein, according to the opinion of
the founders of fuch refpeClive Itates, either exprefsly given,
or collected from their tacit approbation, the quahties requi-
fite for fupremacy, vis. wifdom, goodnefs, and power, arc
the moft likely to be found.

Individuals unite for mutual protection and benefit ; and,
therefore, the legillative and executive authority of govern-
ment, originally derived from themfelves, fhould be invaria-
bly directed to no other end but tlu-ir fafety and welfare ;
and that form of government is moil eligible, which is beft
adapted to thefe purpofes. Cicero declares liimlelf of opi-
nion, in his fragmeiHs De Rep. lib. ii. H efle optiniam con-
3 S . Aiiutam

GOVERNMENT.

ftitutam rempublicam, qiire e^f tribiis generibus illis, re-
gal!, optiino ct populari, fit niodice contufa.'' Of this kind
}$ the Britidi conllitution, which lodges the executive pewer
of the laws in a fingle perfon, and the legiflative in three
ditlinfl powers, entirely independent of each other ; viz.
the king ; the lords fpiritual and temporal, forming an arifto-
craticnl affembly ; and the houfe of commons, freely chofen
by the people, which renders it a kind of democracy ; and
each brancii of this aggregate body, aftuated by different
views, and attentive to different interefts, is armed with a
negative power, fiifficient to repel any innovation which it
Ihall think inexpedient or dangerous. Nothing can endan-
ger or hurt the conftitutional government of Britain, but
dellroying the equilibrium of power between one branch of
the legiflature and the reft : for if ever it (liould happen that
the independence of any one of the three flioukl be loll, or that
it (liould become fubfervient to the views of the other two,
there would foon be aH end of our conllitution: thelegilla-
ture would be changed from that which wasoriginallyfetupby
the general confent and fundamental aft of the fociety ; and
fuch a change, however effcfted, is, according to Mr.
Locke, at once an entire dilfolution of the bands of govern-
ment, and the people are thereby reduced to a flate of anar-
chy, with hbcrty to conlf itute to themfelves a new legiflative
power. Locke on Government, book ii. chap. 19. Blacktl.
Com. vol. i. Intriid.

Another excellent writer gives a different account of the
prigin of civil government from that which has been above
Ihued. Accordingly, he obferves, that government, at
lirft, was either patriarchal or mihtary ; that of a parent
over his fapiily, or of a commander over his fellow-warriors,
r'aternal authority, and the order of domeftic life, fays Dr.
Paky, (Moral Philofophy, vol. ii.) fupplied the foundation
of civil government. The condition of human infancy pre-
pares men for fociety, by combining individuals into imall
comniuniticG, and by placing them frtim the beginning under
dired^ion and controul. A family contains the rudiments of
an empire. The authority of one over many, and the dif-
pofitiou to govern aid to be governed, are in this way inci-
dental to the very nature, and coeval, no doubt, with the
*xillence, of the human fpecies. Befules, a parent would
retain a confiderable part of his autiiority after his children
■were grown up, and had formed families of their own. Tliis
is the fecond llage in the progrefs of dominion. The tirll
was that of a parent over his young children ; this that of
an antpflor prefiding over his adult defcendarts The afiocia-
tion, thus formed, would naturally be continued after the
death of the original progenitor ; and the members of it,
accuftomed to the beneiits refulting from it, might be induced
to fupply his place by a formal choice ot a fuccefTor, or
ihey might voluntarily, and almoft imperceptibly, transfer
their obedience to one of the family, which had claimed
their refpeft and confidence, or, again, they might receive
■with due deference a fucceflbr, appointed by the firfl ancef-
tor. Thus we have a tribe or clan, incorporated under one
chief, and fulfilling the purpofes of civil union, without any
other or more regular convention, conftitution, or fc.rrm of
government than what has now been defcribed. Two or
tiiree of thefe clans would frequently, by marriage, cnnqueit,
mutual defence, common diltrefs, or fome otlier accidental
circumftances, be united into a fociety of larger extent.
Another fource of perfonal authority, which might extend,
or fuperfedc, the patriarchal, is that which refuks from mi-
litary arrangemtnt. A popular and fuccefsful leader, in
•very aftion of aggreffion or defence, would gain a powerful
and permanent influence among his followers. This advan-

tage, added to the authority of the patriarchal chief, or fa.'
voured by any previous diflinC^xion of anceftry, would enable
the perfon who pofleffed it to acquire the almoit abfolute di-
reftion of the affairs of the community ; more efpecially if
he took care to affociate to himfelf proper auxiliaries, and
to gratify or remove thofe who oppofed his pretenfions.

The caufes which have contributed to introduce heredi-
tary doiTiinion, are principally the influence of aflbciation*
which communicates to the fon a portion of the refpect that
was paid to the virtues or flation of the father, the nnituai
jealouiy of other competitors, the greater envy with which
all behold the exaltation of an equal, than the continuance
of an acknowledged fuperiority, and the number of adhe-
rents left by a reigning prince, wlio preferve their own im-
portance, merely by fupporting the fucceffion of his children,
and the apprelieniion of calamities that are incidental to
contefted elections. The ancient ftate of fociety in moft
countries, fays our author, and the modern condition of
fome uncivilized parts of the world, exhibit that appearance,
which this account of the original of civil government would
lead us to expeft. The earlieft hiftories of Paleftir.c,
Greece, Italy, Gaul, and Britain, inform us that thele
countries were occupied by many fmall independent nations,
refembling thofe which are now found among the favage in-
habitants of North America, and upon the coait of Africa.
Tliis theory, it is added, affords a prefumption, that the
earlied; governments were monarchies, bccaufe the govern-
ment of families, and of armies, from which, according to
the preceding llatement, civil government derived its inllitu-
tion, and probably its form, is univerfally monarchical.

Our readers will obferve tiiat tiiis theory is very different
from fir Robert Filmer's patriarchal fcheme, now, indeed,
almoft forgotten and fcarcely deferving to be recorded ; the
refutation of which conftitutes the firft part of the admirable
Locke's Treatife on Government. According to this fcheme,
all government is abfolute monarchy, w hich tlie anther founds
on this previous principle, that no man is born free. The
abfolute fovereignty of Adam was the refult of a divine ap-
pointment and donation, and this fovereignty has been re-
gularly conveyed by a divine hereditary right to all fucceeding
monarchs. Tlie notion, that kings reign by a divine right, in-
dependently of the defignation of the people, and not account-
able to them for theexercife of their power, abfurd as it will
now very generally be thought, was, however, for a long
time not only admitted, but prevalent even in this country.
It is ftrongly inculcated in the Homilies of cur eftablilbed
church, and was ftrenuoufly maintained by feveral of its
refpeftable divines. Dr. Tillotfon, enlightened and excellent
as he was in other refpefts, could not, in the middle part of
his life, emancipate himfelf from the idea, that it was finful
to refill government, as is evident from his letter to lord
Ruffel. That power originates with the people was con-
demned as an abominable tenet by the famous Oxford decree
of 1683 ; but this is a topic on which it is ncedlefs to en-
large.

In the moft popular forms of government, fays Dr. Paley,
the phyfical ftrength refides in the governed ; and it therefore
becomes an inquiry of confiderable importance, among poli-
ticians, wliat motives induce the many to fubmit to the few.
In the difcuffion of this queftion our author diftributes the
fubjefts of a ftate into three different claffes, -viz. 1. Thofe
who obey from prejudice, or who are determined by an opi-
nion of right in their governors, which opinion is founded
upon prefcripiioii : this prefcriptive title, in hereditary mo-
narchies, is corroborated, and its influence confiderably aug-
mented, by an acccffion of religious fentinients, and by ihaf

facredncts

GOVERNMENT.

lacrednefa which wen are apt to afcribe to the perfon8 of
princes. 2. Thof- whoobey from reafon, by a confidcration
et the iijcefilty or fome government or oth^-r, and of the
certain mifchief of civil comtnotions. 3. Tliofe who obey
from felf-intereft, and who are kept in order by a variety of
ecnltderationa that immediately afFedl themfelves.

Concerning the moral obligation of fubmidlon to civil pro-
Ternment, thofe who adopt the principles of Mr. Locke,
and many other political writers, allege a compact between
the citizen and the ftate, as the ground of the relation
between them ; and this compafl binding the parties, like
private contracts, refolves the duty of fubmifiion into the
uiiiverfal obhgation of fidelity in the performance of pro-
rnilcs. This compaA is either, i. Exprefs, on the part of
the primitive founders of the ftate, who are fuppofed to have
met together for the declared purpofe of fettling the terras
of their political union, and a future conftitution Of govern-
ment. The whole body is fuppoied to have unanimoufly
confented to be bound by the refolutions sf the majority ;
and that majority is luppofed to have fixed certain fumia-
mental regulations, and thus to have conllituted, either in
one perfon, or in an aiTembly, ^Ji.mdir.g legijlalnre, to wliicli,
under thefe pre-eftabli(lied reftrictions, the government of
the ifate was thenceforward committed, and w hofe laws the
feveral members of tlie convention were, by their firll under-
taking, thus perfonally engaged to obey. — This tranfaclion
is fometimes called the " Social compact," and thefe fup-
pofed original regulations compofe what are meant by the
"conftitution," the "fundamental laws of the conftitution ;"
and form, on one fide, the " inherent indefeafible prerogative
of the crown,'' and, on the otlicr, the unahenable " birth-
right" of the fubjecl ; /. «. a tacit or implied compaA by all fuc-
ceeding members of the ftate, who, by accepting its pro-
teftion, confent to be bound by its laws. " This account of
the fubjeft," fays Dr. P;Jey, " although fpecious, and pa-
tronized by names the moil refpeftable, appears to labour
under the following objections ; that it is founded upon
a fuppofition falfe in fa(ft ; and leading to dangerous confe-
quences." No fuch focial compaft was ever really made,
nor any fuch original convention of the people ever aftually
held, or could be held in any country, antecedent to the ex-
iilence of civil government in that country. It is to fup-
pofe it poflible to caU favages out of caves and defarts, to
deliberate and vote upon topics, which the experience, and
lludies, and refinements of civil life, alone fuggell : therefore
no government in the univerfeif^^in from this original. At
a Revolution fome imitation of a focial compacl may have
taken place. The eftabhfhmeiit of the United States of
North America bears the neareft referablance of it. Should
it be laid, that the original compaft is not propofed as a fact,
but as a fiction, for tiie commodious exphcation of the mutual
rights and duties of tovereigns and fubjects ; to this reprefen-
tation it may be replied, that the original compaft, if it be
not a faft, is nothing ; it can confer no aftual authority upon
laws or raagiftrates, nor afford any foundation to rights,
which are fuppofed to be real and exiiling. But in the books,
and alfo in the apprehenfion of thofe who deduce our civil
riglits and obhgations ti padis, the original convention is ap-
pealed to, and treated of, as a reality.

Moreover, it is alleged, that the theory of government,
which affirms the exillence and the obligation of a focial
compact, leads to conclufions unfavourable to the improve-
ment, and to the peace, of human fociety. Upon tliis
theorv- it may be prefunieJ that many points, called " funda-
.lenlals" of the conftitution, were fettled by a convention of
ihe people, anterior to the eftablilhmeiit tii the fubfifting

legidature.and which the legiflature has no right to alter, or
interfere with. This circumftance affords a dar.;rerous pre-
tence for difputing the authority of the laws, ftence arofe
the doubt, which fo much agitated the mindj of men in the
reign of Charles II., whether an aft of parUamcnt could of
right alter or limit the fuccelTion of the crown. Ecfidcs, if it
be by virtue of a compact that the fubjed owes obedience
to civil government, he ought to abide by the power of
government which he finds eftabliflied, however abfurd or
inconvenient it may be. Moreover, every violation of the
compaft on the part of the governor releafcs the fubjedt from
his allegiance, and diffolves the government.

Dr. Paley, rejecting the intervention of a compact, a< un-
founded in Its principle, and dangerous in the application,
afilgns for the only ground of the fubjed's obligation,
" the will of God as collected from expediency." Accor-
dingly the author reafons in tlie following manner. It is the
"!'■.' °^ ^°^ '''^^ ''"^ happinefs of human life be promoted ;
civil fociety conduces to that end ; civil focieties cannot be
upheld, unlefs in each, the intereit of the whole fociety be
binding upon every part and member of it ; and thi»
ftep of the argument conducts us to the conclufion,
namely, that fo long as the intereft of the whole fociety
requires it, that is, fo long as the eftablifhed government
cannot be refitted or changed without public inconvcniency,
it is the will of God (which •U'/// univcrfally determines our
duty) that the eilabhihed government be obeyed; and no
longer. This principle being admitted, the jufticc of every
particular cafe of refiftance is reduced to a computation o£
the quantity of the danger and grievance on the one fide,
and of the probability and expence of redrelFing it on the
other. If it be alked, who (hall judge of this I tiie an-
fwer is, " Every man for himfclf." In contentions be-
tween the fovereign and ilie fubjecl:, the parties acknowledge
no common arbitrator ; and it would be abfurd to refer the
decifion to ihofe whofe conduct has provoked the queftion,
and whofe own intereft, authority, and fate, are immedi-
ately concerned in it. From the fubftitution of " public
expediency" into the place of all imphed compacts,
promifes, or conventions wliatfoevcr, our author infers,
I. That it may be as much a duty at one time to refift go-
vernment as to obey it, -viz. when more advantage will i>
our opinion accrue to the community from rcfiilance, thaa
mifchief. 2. That the lawfulnefs of refiftance, or the lawful-
nefs of a revak, does not depend alone upon the grievance
which is fultained or found, but alfo upon the probable
expence and event of the conteih Hence thofe who con-
certed the revolution in England were juftifiable in tiieir cotin-
fels. 3. That irregularity in tlie firft foundnlioii of a
ftate, or fubfequent violence, fraud, or injufticc in getting
pofiefiion of the fupieme power, arc not fufficient reafont
for refiftance, after the government is once peaceably
fettled. 4. Tliat refiftance is not juftified by every iin-afioa
of the fubjcdl's lights, or hberty, or of the conftituliun ;
by every breach of promife, or of oath ; by every ftretch
of prerogative, abufe of power, or neglect of duty on
the part of thu chief m.igifti-ate ; unlefs thefe crimes draw
after them pubhc confequenccs of fufBcient magnitude to
outweigh the evils ot civil ditturbance. j. That no ufage,
law, or autiiority whatever, is fo binding, that it need or
ought to be continued, when it may be changed with ad-
vantage to the comnuinity. 6. As all civil obligation is
refolved into expediency, what, it may be afkcd, is tiie dif-
ference between tlie obligation of an Engliftiman and a
Frenchman, or why Ls a Frenchman bound 1:; conictence t«
bear any tiling from hi* king, which an En^lilhrnan would
3 S : Bot

GOV

not be bound to bear, iince the obligation of bott\ ie found-
ed in the fame reafon ? Although their conditions may
diiTer, their rights fhould feem to be equal; i'.nd yet we
are accuftomed to fpeak of the rights as well as the happinefs
of a free peojile, compared with what belong to the fub-
jefts of abfolute monarchies ; and how, it may be reafon-
ablv inquired, can this comparifon be exp'ained, unlels we
refer to a difference in the compacts by which they are re-
fpetlivtly bound I In order to obviate this difficulty, it is
allowed that a Frenchman is in confeience bound to enduie
many tilings from his prince, to which an Englllhman woidd
not be bound to fiibmit for the following reafons ; iiiz.
becaufe the fame aft of the prince is not the lame grievance
•where- it is agreeable to the coiiiiitution, and where it in-
fringes it ; and becaufe redrefs in the two cafes is not equally
attainable. The duty of obedience is defined by different
boundaries, and the point of juftifiable refilVance is placed at
different parts of the J riile of fuffering — all which is fiiffi-
cicntly intelligible witliout a focial compaft. 7. The interetl
of the whole fociety is binding upon every part of it. If we
appeal to the Chrillian fcripturcs witli regard to the duty of
civil obedience or the extent oi our civil rights and obligations,
Chriftianity hath left us where (lie found us ; ihe has neither
altered, nor afcertained it. The two paiTages to which
writers have generally referred in their inveftigation of this
fubjeft are Romans xiii. i — 7, and i Peter ii. 13 — 18. In
order to comprehend the proper import of the inftruftions
contained in thefe paffages, there are two qucftions relating
to the fubjeft of civil obedience, which (hould be conlider-
ed, viz. whether to obey government be a moral duty and
obligation upon the confeience at all, and how far, and to
what cafes, that obedience ought to extend ? Tliefe paf-
fages, it may be obfervcd, inculcate the duly ; but they do
not defcribe the extent of it. The due conlideration of this
diftinftion is fufficient to vindicate thefe paffages of fcrip-
ture from any explanation of them that Ihall favour an un-
limited pafTive obedience. But admitting what many com-
mentators have itated, that an opinion was privately che-
rifhed by the firft Chrillians, which led them to conceive,
that their convcrfion to Chriftianity entitled them to new
immunities, to an exemption as of right (however they
might give way to neceffity) from the authority of the
Roman fovereign, we are fiirnilhed with a ftill more apt
and fatisfaftory interpretation of the Apoftle's words. The
two paffages apply with great propriety to the refutation
of this error. Little need be added in explanation of par-
ticular claufes. St. Paul has faid, " whofoever refifteth the
power, rciiftcth the ordiijance of God.'' This phrafe, "the
ordinance of God,'' is by many fo interpreted as to autho-
rize the moft exalted and fuperflitious ideas of the regal
character. But furely fuch interpreters have facriiiced
truth to adulation. For, in the firil place, the exprefTion,
ji9 ufed by St. Paul, is juft as applicable to one kind of
government, and to one kind of fucceflion, as to another, —
to the elective magiftratcs of a pure republic, as to an ab-
folute hereditary monarch. In the next place, it is not af-
firmed of the fupreme magiflrate exchifively, that he is the
ordinance of God ; the title, whatever it imports, belongs
to every inferior officer of the ftate as much as to the highcil.
The divine right of Hags is, like the divine right of conjla-
Ues, in the law of the land, or even aftual and quiet poifeiiion
of their office; a right ratified, we humbly prefume, by
the divine approbation, fo long as obedier.ce to their autho-
rity appears to be nccefiary or conducive to the common
%velfare. Princes are ordained of God by virtue only of
that general decree, by which he afTents, and adds the

G O U

fancllon of his will, to every law of fociety, which pro^
motes his own purpofe, the communication of human hap.
pinefs : according to which idea of their origin and confli»
tution, and without any repugnancy to the words of St.
Paul, they are by St. Peter denominated the " ordinance of
vi'in." Paley, ubifupra. See King, L.A.W, Liberty, Mo-
NAitcnv, Parliament, Pas.sive obedience, &c.

Government, in Grammar, is underftood of that con-
ftruttion of nouns and verbs, wherein they require fome
alteration to be made in others joined or conltruc^ed witii
them.

Conftrudfion is divided into two parts ; that of concord,
and that of government, called alio regimen. See CoNCQRO
and Re(;imen.

GOVERNOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Mincio ; 12 miles S. E. of Mantua.

GOVERNOR, an officer veiled by a king, or fovereign
prince, with the command and adminillration of a province,
place, &c.

A governor reprefents the king ; and not only commands
the garrifon, troops, &c. but the citizens, &c. A gover-
nor of a fortified place was anciently required to hold out
three attacks, before he furrendered.

GovERNOK is alfo frequently ufed for a prefidcut or fu-
perintendant.

Thus we fay, the governor of the bank ; the governor
and directors of the South Sea company ; the governor of
an hofpital, &c.

GOVERY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Rajamundry ; 10 miles W. N.W. of Raiamundry.

GOUF. See Golf.

GOUFRE, in Geography, a town of Canada, in the
river St. Lawrence ; 50 miles E. of Quebec.

GOUGANE-B.VNKA, a lake of Ireland, in the county
of Cork, not far from Inchigeele. The river Lee rifes in
a mountain above this lake, through which it flows. It was
formerly the refidence of St. Fin-Bar, and is vifited by
great numbers of pilgrims, whilll its romantic beauties
attratf a few travellers, notwithftanding the ruggednefs of
the road.

GOUGE, William, in Biography, who flourifhed in
the former part of the feventeenth century, was born in the
parilh of Bow, in the year 1575. He was educated partly
at St. Paul's fchool, and partly at Eton, and, in 1595, he
was elected to King's college, Cambridge. Here, in due
time, he performed with mucli applaufe all the exercifes re-
quired by the ftatutes, and took his degrees. In 1607, ^^
was admitted into orders, and in the following year obtained
the redtory of Blackfriars, London. In this fituation he
continued during the remainder of his life, difcharging the
palloral functions with great diligence and fidehty, and
letting before his parifhioners an example worthy of imita-
tion. The zeal with which he performed the duties of his
office, led him to eltablifh a weekly lefture, which was
frequented not only by his own people but by many of
the London clergy, the members of the Inns of Court,
and the more refpettable and ferious citizens. In 1628, he
was admitted to the degree of dottor of divinity, and about
the fame period he became one of the truftees ot the fociety
that had united for the purpofe of buying up impropria-
tions, to bellow them on fuch unpatronized clergymen as
were dillinguilhed for piety and other minilterial qualifica-
tions, whicli occafioned his being profecuted in the ftar-
chamber. In 1653, he was nominated one of the affem-
bly of divines, and was held in fuch reputation by that
body, that he was often called to fill the moderator's chair

6 during

G O U

during lu's abfence. He was felefted as a proper perfoii
to write notes on the bible, and took, for his fliare of the
work, from the beginning of the firll book of Kings to
that of Job. He died in the year 1653, foon after he had
completed his 78th year. He had, for ieveral years, been
efteemed the father of the London miniftors. In his de-
portment, lie was modeft, hinr.blc, and afTabie ; he had a
pious and benevolent fpirit, and continued to preach as long
as he had ilrength to walk into the pulpit. Befides the
" Annotations" already referred to, Dr. Gouge publifhed
many other theological pieces, as " A Commentary on the
ZpiiUe to the Hebrews ;'' " An Expofition of the Lord's
Pravcr ;"' " The whole Armom- of God," Sec.

Gouge, Tiiom.vs, fon of the preceding, was bom at
Bow, in the year 1605 ; and having, in his academical
courle, followed the iteps of his father, he was firft chofen
fellow of his college, and afterwards prefented with a living
at Colfden, near Croydon, in Surrey, where he continued
but a fhort time ; and, in 1638, he undertook the more im-
portant charge of St. Sepulchre's parifh, London. During
a period of twenty-four years he difchargcd the duties of
his profeffion with the mod exemplary zeal. Befides
preaching twice every Sunday, and often on week days,
he vifited his flock, catechited their children, enquired into
and relieved the wants of the poor, and devifed plans for
their employment. He is faid to have given the hint which
produced the humane and benevolent inflitutions of Mr.
Firmin, which have been referred to in the memoir of that
excellent citizen. When the act of Uniformity took place,
he was too confcientious to facritice his principles on the
fhrine of power, and was ejedled from his living. His time
was now zealoufly devoted to afts of beneficence and cha-
rity. He employed his own fortune, which was confiderable,
in relieving the wants of his poorer brethren, who, on ac-
count of their non-conformity, were deprived of their
means of fubfillence ; and he was a fucceisful applicant to the
rich, from whom lie received large fums, which were applied
to that humane purpefe. In the year 1671, he fet about
a plan for introducing knowledge and religion into the dif-
ferent parts of Wales, which at that period were in the
moil deplorable darknefs. He eftablillied fchools in dif-
ferent towns where the poor were willing that their chil-
dren (hould be taught the elements of learning, and he un-
dertook to pay all the expences which were incurred in
the outfet of the buiinefs. By degrees thefe fchools amounted
to between three and four hundred, and they were all an-
nually vifited by Mr. Gouge, when he carefully enquired
into the progrefs made by the young people, before whom
he occalionally preached in a ilyle adapted to their age
and circumllances in life, until he was obhged to defill by
profecutions carried on againll him in the eccleliaftical
courts. With the afllilance of his friends, whofe purfes
were ever open at his command, he printed eiglit thoufand
copies of the bible in the Welfh language, a thouiand of
thefe were diftributed freely among thofe who could not
afford to purchafe them, and the reft were fent to the cities
and chief towns in the principality, to be fold at reafon-
able rates. He procured likewife the church catechifm,
and otlier praftical pieces, to be printed in the WeHli lan-
guage, and diflributed among the poor. To thefe and
fuch like charitable undertakings did Mr. Gouge devote his
time, his talents, and his fortune, when precluded by the
intolerance of the laws from officiating in the capacity of
a preacher He was accuflomed to fay with pleafurc,
" that he had two livings which he would not exchange
for two of the greateft in England'' Thefe were Wales,
where he travelled every year to diffufe the principles of

G O U

knowledge, piety, and charity: and Chrift's Hofpj'tar,
where he catechifcd and inftr-jctcd the children in the funda-
mental principles of religion. He died faddenly in 1681,
in the feventy-ftventh year of his aee. His death was re-
garded as a public lofs. A faneral ferinon was preached
on the occafion by Dr. Tillotfon, afterwards archbifhopof
Canterbury ; who, at the conclufion of an animated eulo-
gium on his piety and virtue, obfervcs, that " all things
confidered, there have not, fince the primitive times of
Cliriftianity, been many among the fons of men, to whom
that glorious charafter of the fon of God might be better
applied, that «' he went about doing good." And Mr.
Baxter, in his Narrative of liis own Life and Times, favs
of Mr. Gouge, " I never heard any one perfon, of what-
ever rank, fort, or feft foever, fpeak one word to his dif-
honour, or name any fault that they charged on his life
or doftrine ; no, not the prelatilh themfelves, fave onlv
that he conformed not to their impofitions ; and that he did
fo much good witli fo much induilry." This eminent Chrif-
tian divine publifhed a few pradical pioces, of wiiich the
following may be mentioned ; " The Principles of Religion
Explained:' "A Word to Sinners:" " Chriftian Direc-
tions to walk with God :" " The furcft and fafcll Way
of Thri\-ing, viz. by Charity to the Poor ;'' " The Young
Man's Guide through the Wildernefs of this World."
Gen. Biog. Neal's Hift. of the Puritans.

GOUGE, an inflrnmeiit ufed by divers artificers; being
a fort of round, hollow chifFcl ; ferving to cut holes, chan-
nels, grooves, &c. in wood. Hone, &c.

GOUGEON, Joux, in Biography, a French fculptor
and architecl in the reigns of Francis I. and his fuccclfors, is
reckoned the firll who introduced a true tafte for fculplure
in France, :.nd freed it from the barbarifm of former times.
He was employed in many of the public works with which
Paris began to be decorated in the reign of Francis I. Of
thefe the mofl confiderable is the fountain of the Nvmphs,
called the Innocents, tiniflied in tlie year i ^50. Among the
other remains of his workmanfliip is a tribune in the hall des
Cent-Suilfes, at the Louvre, enriched with fculptures, and
lupportcd by four gigantic Caryatides. He was an able
medalitl, and ftruck Ieveral pieces for Catharine de Medicis,
which are fought by the curious. He generally worked in
fmall, and there are no detached figures or groups by hi»
hand. His reliefs are executed with tallc, his draper)' is
light and elegant, his figures graceful and flexible, but their
attitudes fomewhat forced. He was a Huguenot, and was
Ihot as he was working on a fcaffold, on tiie infamous St.
Bartholomew's day, 1570. Gen. Biog.

GOUGH's IsL.\SD, in Geography, a fmall iflasd in the
Southern Atlantic ocean, difcovered by captain Gough in
1715. It is very high land, in S. lat. 40 15'. W. long.
81° 57'. Some doubt being entertained with n-fpcA to its
true longitude, it was reconmiended to M. de la Peroufe to
afcertain its true polition, as it lies in the way of Ihips going
directly to India, or China> early in tlie feafon, without
touching at the Cape.

GOUJET, Ci-.\UDE PETEn, in Biography, was bom at
Paris in 1697. His father, a taylor by trade, in \-ain op-
pofed his inclination for a (ludious hfc. He >vas educated
among tlie Jefuits, and, having taken orders, became a canon
of the cliurch of St. Jacques de I'Hopital in Paris. He
was an affociatc of feveral academics in France, and was ge-
nerally eilcemed for his learning, am' alfo on account of the
mildnefs of his temper and the purity of his morals. He
died in 1767, and had collected a library of ten thouiand
well chofen vokimes, which was the bafis of his numerous
works. Of thefe, tlie following may be UKntioned, »• 'Vies

des

G O U

ii'S Saints," ill two vols. 410. " Supplement to Moreri'S
Didiouai-y," two vols, folio. " Bibliotheque dts Ecrivaiiis
Ecclclialliqucs,'' three vols. 8vo. " Difcours fur le Renou-
vcUcmi-nt Jl'S Etudes depuis le xiv Siecle." " De I'Etat
tL"S Sciences en France depuis la Mort de Charlemagne
infqu'a cellc du Roi Robert." This difFcrtatiun obtained
for the author the prize of the Academy of Belles Lettres,
and he was complimented by a deputation from that body,
defiring permilfion to nominate him to the vacant place of
the deceafed abbe Vertot. Goujet was likcwife author of
" Bibliotheque Fran9oife, ou Hilloiredela Litterature Fran-
(joife," 18 volumes i2mo. which is reckoned lis moll valua-
ble work. Moreri.

GOUJIN, ill Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira ; 12 miles S.W. of St. Joao de Pef-
qucir.i.

GOVINPOUR, a town of Hindooftaa, in Bahar ; 26
miles S. of Bahar. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 10 miles W.
of Nuldingah.

GOULAMCONDA.atownof Hindooftan,in the My-
fore; 9 miles S. of Gooty.

GOULART, Sl.MON, in Biography, a French Proteftant
divine, was born at Senlis in 1543. He began his iludies
late in life, but by perfevering induilry, he made a great pro-
ficiency in the learned languages, and was chofen paftor of
the church of which Calvin had been miniller. Here he
difcharged the duties of his office with much diligence and
fnccefs, till within a few years of his death, which took
place in 1628, when he was about 85 years of age. He
edited many works, performing at the fame time the bufinefs
wf a commentator. Among thefe were the " Works of
Plutarch ;'' " St. Cyprian's Works;" " Seneca's Works,"
&c. He made a collettion of " Remarkable Hiftories" in
2 vols. 8vo., and wrote feveral pieces relating to the hif-
tory of his own times. The melt intorefting and curious of
the latter defcription is his " CoUeftion of the moll memo-
rable events which occurred during the League, with notes
and original documents,'' in fix vols. 410. Many of his
pieces were anonymous, but to thefe he nfually affixed the
initials S. G. S. fignifying " Simon Goulart Scnlilien.'^
He liad fuch an cxtenfive acquaintance with the hteratiire of
his time, and knew fo well to whom different publications,
that were printed without the writer's name, were to be at-
tributed, that Henry III. of France, being dehrous of
knowing who was the author of a piece publidied under the
aii'umed name of Stephanus Junius Brutus, and intended to
propagate republican doftrines, fent a perfon to Geneva to
enquire into the matter of Goulart, but the latter refufed to
communicate the faft, for fear of expofing the author to fe-
riows injury. Moreri. Bayle.

GOULDSBOROUGH Harbour, in Geography, a
harbour of the United States of America, in the dilirift of
Main. N. hit. 44" 25'. W. long. 67" 53'.

GOULERGAUT, a town of Thibet; 28 miles S. of
Deuprag.

GOULOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sanore ; 18 miles N. of Sanore.

GOULSTON, Theodore, in Biography, was the fon
of William, reelor of Wymondham, and was born in
Nurlhanriptonftiire. He became probationer fcUow of Mer-
ton -ollege, Oxford, in 1596: and, afler applying himfilf to
the Itudy or phyfic in this univerfity, he pratlifed for a time
with confidera'ble reputation at Wymondham and its
neighbourhood. At length, after taking his dodlor's degree
in 1610, h? removed to London, and became a fellow of the
College of Phyficians, and afterwards cenfor. He relided
Id the parifii of St. Mai-tiu's, near Ludgate, and was in

o o u

great efteem, as well for clafTical learning and theology, «l
tor the practice of his profcfiion. He died in the year 1632 ;
and by an article in his will tellified fuch regard to the inte-
rells of medicine, as entitles him to grateful commemoration.
This was a bequell of 200 pounds, to purchafe a rent charge
for the maintenance of an annual pathological lefture within
the College of Phyficians, to be read by one of the four
youngeft doftors of the College. The public has been in-
debted on feveral occafions to this inilitution for ingenious
dilfertations, delivered as Gulftonian Leftnres ; as thofe of
Dr. Mufgrave ; Dr. Fordycc's Treatife on Digeftioa ;
&c.

Dr. Goulfton publiflied the following works. " Verfio
Latina et Paraphrafis in Ariftotelis Rhetoricam." Lond.
1 619, &c. " Ariftotehs de Poetica Liber, Latine conver-
fus et AnnlyticaMethodo illuftratiis." Lond 1623. And
after his death, his intimate friend Thomas Gataker, B. D.
publillied his " Veriio, varix Leftioaes ei Annotationes
Criticfc in opufcula varia Galeni." Lond, 1640. Aikin,
Biograph. Mem. of Med.

GOUMEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital
jof the country of the Foulahs, and refidence ot the Siratik.
N. lat. 16' 16'. W. long, n^ 32'.

GOUNDA, a town of Hindooilan, in Oude ; 32 miles
E.N.E. of Manickpour.

GO\]Vlh.,'m Botany. See Glossopetalum.

GOUPIL, James, in Biography, a phyfician of the
fixteenth century, was born in the province of Poitou. He
acquired a conliderable knowledge of the ancient languages,
and afterwards directed his Iludies to medicine, in the fchools
of Paris, where he graduated in 1547. His talents attratled
the attention of the court, and he was appointed by Henry
H. to the profelforfliip of medicine in the royal college, ia
'555' ^ vacancy being occafioned by the death of Sylvius.
He is principally known as an editor and annotator of the
writings of Diofcorides, Alexander Trallian, Aftuarius,
and fome other Greek writers ; and he was engaged in the
fame labour, in refpetl to fome of the writings of Hippo-
crates, vilien his iludies were terminated by death, in ij68.

Eloy.

GOUR, called alfo Lucknouii, in Geography, the an-
cient capital of Bengal, luppofed to be the " Gangia
Regia" of Ptolemy, which flood on the left bank of the
Ganges, about 25 miles below Rajemul. N. lat. 24^ 53'.
E. long. 88-^ 14'. It was the capital of Bengal 730 years
B.C. and was repaired and beautified by Acbar, A. D.-
1575, who gave it the name of " Jennuteabad," which
name part of the circar in which it was iituated ftill bears.
It was defertcd, as it is faid, on account of the infalubrity
of its air. Taking the extent of the ruins of Gour at the
moll reafonable calculation, it is not lefs than 15 miles in
length, along the old bank of the Ganges, and from two to
three in breadth. Several villages Hand on part of its fcite ;
the remainder is either covered with thick forefts, the habi-
tations of tygers and other bealls of prey, or become arable
land, vvhofe foil is chiefly compofed of brick-duft. The
principal ruins are a mofque lined with black marble, elabo-
rately wrought ; and two gates of the citadel, which are
grand and lofty. The bricks, which continue to be an
article of merchandize, are of a peculiarly fohd and dura-
ble texture.

GOURA, or Gura, a town of the duchy of Warfaw
on the Villula; 12 miles from Warfaw. '

GO"VRA, a town oi I'erfia, in the province of Irak ; 35
miles E. of Ifpahan.

GOURAY, a cape on the E. coall of the ifland of

Jerfey ; 4 miles E- of St. Helier. — Alfo, a town of Frauce,

J in

G O U

in the departmenrof the North Coafts ; 8 miles S. of Lam-
ballc,

GOURD, in Botany. Sec CucuRr.iTA.
Gourd, Bitter. See Colocynthis.
Gourd, Indian tree. See CresCENtia.
GoLHD, Sour. See Baobab.

GouRD-TOOr/;;, the EngliiTi name of a fpccies of worm
found in the inteftines of feveral animals. It has this name
from its refembling the feed of the gourd in figure.

GOURDON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot, and principal place of a diilrift, 1 6
miles N. of Cahors. N.lat. 46*" 44'. E. long. 1° 28'. The
place contains 3703, and the canton 12,115 inhabitants, on
a- territorv of 150 kiiiometres, in ly communes.
GOURD Y, Legs ,,f Horfcs. See Grease.
GOUREY, in Geography., a town of Hindooftan, in
Omie ; 10 miles N. W of Lucknow.

GOURGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad;
10 miles N. of Corah.

GOURGOUTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
36 miles W. S. W. of Rachore.

GOURIN, a towH of France, in the department of the
Morbihan, and chief pl?,ce of a canton, in the diftritt of
Pontivy ; 26 miles W. N. 'W. of Pontivy. The place
contains 3674, and the canton 11,819 i'lhabitants, on a
territory of 242^ kiiiometres, in five communes.

GOURMA, a town of Abyflinia, on the coaft of the
Red fea. N. lat 14 52'.

GOURMUNGUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda; 12 miles S.W. of Malkar.

GOURMELEN, Etiexne, in Biography, was a na-
tive of Brittany, and was fent at an early age to Paris,
where he ftudied furgery, and afterwards medicine ; in the
latter of wliich he took the degree of doctor in the year
1559, and was elefted dean of the faculty in November,
1574. Surgery, however, continued to be the favourite
objeft of his attention, aiid he was appointed by Henry IH.
profeffor of furgery in the Royal College in the year 1588.
But he did not long fill his chair, for lie died in 1594 His
writings, which were valuable in their dav, have now loft
their intereft, in confequence of the great improvements of
modern furgery : they confift of a " Synophs Chirurgia?,"
printed in 1566, and afterwards tranfla'ed into French; —
a Latin tranflation of Hippocrates " De Alimento," with
a commentary ; —and a treatife, entitled " C!iirurgi.e Artis
ex Hippocrr.tis et Vctcrum decretis ad rationis normam
redafta?, Libri tres,'' 1580. Eloy. Dift. Hift.

GOURNAl, Le Jar.s de, Mary, wasbornat Paris in
I 506, She was, while very young, deprived of her father,
.ind acquired an adoptive one intlie celebrated Michael Mon-
tagne, who became the objeift of her enthufiaftic admira-
tion. After the death of Montague ftie became heirefs of
his writings, and publiflied an edition of his " EfTay?," de-
dicated to cardinal Richelieu. She had well improved the
lelfons of youth, and was intimately acquainted u ith the
learned languages. She maintained a correfponde;:ee with
many of the moft eminent literary characlers of the age, by
feme of whom Hie was honoured with the title of the " Tenth
Mnfe;" by others ihe was denominated the "French Sy-
ren ;" it is not, however, improbable, that the uncommon-
jiefs of female learning at that time in France, rather than
the intrinfic m.rit of her writings, excited admiration. In
her own language (lie wrote a lliff^ and awkward ilyle, and
ht-r tafte in reading was ufually turned to the compilations and
commentaries of paft ages. She paffcd her life in celibacy,
contenttd with a fmall pcHfion from the court, and much

G O U

efteemed by her particular friends, foinc of wFiom were
perfens of high rank. She died at Paris in 1645, in her
79th year, and was honoured with many epitapiis from li-
terary charadtcrs. Her works were collected in a quarto
volume, under the title of " Lcs Avis ou Ics prefensde M
Demoifelle de Gournai." Her temper was apt to be vio-
lent, and flie was very refentful of real or fuppofrd injuries ;
by th?fe means Ihe made herfelf many enemies, who attacked
her in their writings, in which neither her perfon, nor the
defects in her charadter were fpared. Bayle. Moreri.

GOURNAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton
in the diftritt of Neufchatel, 24 miles E. of Rouen. N.
lat. 49- 29'. E. long. I 47'. The place contains 3543,
and the canton 11,301 inhabitants, on a territory of 180 ki»
liometres, in 19 com.munes.

GOURNEI, a town of Egypt, on the fcite of the an-
cient Thebes.

GOUROCK. See Greenock.

GOURRI, a town of Abyffinia; 3c miles S.W. of
Afliib.

GOURVILLE, John Herauld de, in Biographx, born
at Rochefoucauld in 1625, was taken by the celebr.iled duke
of that title into his ler\ice as valet de chambre, but in 3.
fliort time he became his conlldential friend. He was pa-
tronized by the great Condc, and was employed by tli« fii-
perinrendant Fouquet, in pubUc bufmefs. So well did he
approve himlelf to his employers for political talents and in-
tegrity that he was propofed to the king as fuccefl'or to Col-
bert in the miniftry. He died in 1705, leaving behind him
" Memoirs of his Life from 1642 to 1698," in two volumes
i2mo. Thefe memoirs- are written witii franknefs and fim-.
plicity, in a lively, though incorrect ilyle, and they con-
tain many curious and well authenticated anecdotes of tht?
miniftcrs and principal perfons of his time, of which, it i*
faid, Voltaire made much ufe. Moreri.

GOURY Pa.shnl'.m, in Natural Hijlory, a namcgiven
by the people of the Eail Indies to a kind of orpiment of a
deep yellow colour, veined with red in feveral places, and.
in fome with white. It is found principally at the bottoms-
of mountains. They calcine it fevei-al times, and afterwards
give it internally after intermitting fevers, and ufe it txtcr-
niiUy in ointments for the itch.

GOUSSET, James, in Biography, was born at Bloir
in the year 1635. He was educated for the miuiliry, and
was chofen pallor of the Proteftant church at Poitiers in the
year 1662. He was thrice invited to undertake the pri>-
feftbrftiip of divinity at Saumur, but refufed to <)uit his flock
till compelled to become a fugitive from the kingdom, in con-
fequence of the revocation of the edlti of Nantz. On this
occafion he took refuge in Holl;;Dd, and afterwards \va»
fettled, as French minifter, at Groningen, where he likewife
exercifed the otlices of profelTor of divinity, and of the He-
brew language in the univerfity of that city. He died there
in 1704, in his fixty-ninth year. His principal works were
" Dilfertations in Controverfy with the Jews," 1699.
" Commentarii Linguic Hebraica;," 17C2, which forma
valuable Hebrew didtionary, of which the beft edition was
publilhed at Leipficin 1743. " Diftertationes in Epiftolam
Pauli ad Hebrsos," &c. 1712. At his death he left be-
hind him numerous MSS., among which are commcntarie*
upon the whole of the facrcd fcriptures. Moreri.

GOUST, Gout, a French term, for what the Italians
call guJJo, and w e tajle.

GOUT, in Jtlet/icine, a difeafe principally charaAerized.
by inflammatory attacks of the joints, more cfpccially of the

foot^

GOUT.

foot, wliich return at intervals, and are connefted with
dcraiigfincnt of the digeftive organs. Tlie term, liowever,
includes fuch a variety of morbid aJeftions, in its extended
fcnfe, that it is not eafy to give a concife definition of it ;
and we mull: have recourfe to a more ample defcription of
thofc affedtions, in order to convey a jull notion of its figiii-,
jication.

The ancient phyficians included all the varieties of inflam-
mation, that are liable to occur in the joints, under the ge-
neral term, ArthMs, ( from af 3 jo,-, aynnt, witli the termina-
tion tits, denoting inflammation,) for the dillinclions, made
by modern phyficians, between the two modifications of im-
fiammation in the joints, now denominated ^nul and rheii'
miliftn, had not then been attended to. Tlie term /liih-
rilis, however, was ufed both as a generic and fpecific term,
and fignilied, not only inflammation of the joints generally,
but the ordinary form of gout by way of excellence. But
the Greeks alfo gave fpecific names to the varieties of ar-
thritis, according to tlie particular joints which tlie difeafe
occupied : thus, tor the ordinary form of gout in the foot
the term troliy^x, podiigra, was employed, whicli alfo be-
came a generic title ; for gout in the liand, the word xiifwye^,
chiragra ; and for gout in the knee, yo-ziy^ot, gonagra ; and
io on. Among the fpecies of arthritis was alfo included the
ifchias, fcintica, or htp-gont, which is now deemed a fpecies
of rheumatifm. "I'hefe terms the Romans adopted ; and
they are llill^retained in medical language. Our vernacular
term gout, which came to us probably through the French,
lagoiitte, originated in the dark ages among tlie humoral patho-
logies, who confidei-ed the difeafe as arifing from the How
depofltion of a morbid humour, gutlatim, as it were, upon
the joints ;, hence, the name giitta, or drop, was applied to
the difeafe. Tiiis term, according to Du Cange, was ufed
by Radulfus, a Dominictn of the 13th century, who writes,
" cum gulta, quam podagram vel arthreticam vocant, fre-

, quenter vexaretur." Mufgrave de Arthritide.

' In confequence of the various forms whicii gout affumes,
phyficians have divided it under two heads, ngti/nr and ii-ir-
gtilar gout, or, as fome have termed it, tonic and atotiic gout ;
the former occurring in the earlier periods of life, while the
ftrength or tone of the fyllem remains unbroken ; the
latter, after a certain degree of weaknefs, or atony of the
conflitution, has been produced by the frequent attacks of
the diieafe, advanced age, or other caufes. We (hall firft
defcribe the fymptoms by which thefe forms of the difeafe
are cliaradleriied, and afterwards flate the caufes and inethod
of treatment, together with the fpeculations of pathologills,
rtfpefting the nature of the difeafe, beginning with an ac-
•count of the paroxyfm of

Regular Gout — It is an inflammatory affeftion of the
joints of the foiit, which conftitutes what is called a fit or
paroxyfm of the regular gout. Tiiis fometimes comes on fud-
denly witliout any warning of its approach ; but it is gene-
rally preceded by feveral fymptoms, efpecially by thofe of
indigcltion, as heart-burn, flatulence, and heavinefs after
meals, with eruftations of acid or bitter matters, and fome
decree of languor and torpor of the body ; but immediately
before the fit the appetite is fometimes imufually fliarp.
There is all'o often an unufual coldsiefa of the feet and legs
for 3 few days preceding the fit, with the eefl"ation of the
perfpiration about the former ; a frequent numbnefs, alter-
nating with a fenfe of prickling, alon» the whole of the

, lewer extremities ; occafional cramps of tlie mufcles of the
legs J and an unufual turgefcence of the veins, are occa-
Aonally ohferved.
The attack is fometimes felt in the evening, but more

commonly about two or threi^ o'clock in the morning [ ■
when the patient is awakened from a quiet deep by a pain-
affefting one foot, generally tlie ball or firll joint of the
great toe, but fometimes the other parts of the foot, or the
ankle. Tiiis pain is accompanied with more or lef? of
cliiUinefs and (liivering, which, as the pani increafes, gradually
ceale, and are fucceeded by a hot (lage ot pyrexia, or fymp-
tomatic fever, v.'hich continues during the iame time as the
pain. The pain becomes by degrees more and more violent ;
at tirll it is attended with a fenfation, as if warm water were
poured upon tlie membranes afi'eCted, and is laid to refemblc
the pain of a diilocated joint ; as it becomes fevcre it is
fometimes defcribed as refembling the pain of a tenfion, or
laceration of the ligaments, fometimes as like that from the
gnawing of a dog, and fometimes as a feeling of weight and
conllridtion of the membranes of the part, whicli becomes
io exquifitcly tender, as not to endure the weight of the bed-
clothes, nor even the (liaking of the room from a perfon
walking brilkly in it. Hence, great reillefsnefs of the
whole body, and efpecially of the part aiTected, always
accompanies the fit ; the patient conftantly changing hii
pofture, with a view to eafe the pain, which, neverthelefs,
continues fevere all the following day, until mid-night,
after which it gradually remits ; and about two or three in
the morning, that is, after twenty-four hours from the firft
attack, it commonly ceafes almoll entirely ; and this freedom,
with the breaking out of a free perfpiration, allows the
patient to fall afleep. On waking, he finds the pain flight,
and the part affefted with fome rednefs anl fwelling.

When a paroxyfm has thus come on, although the violent
pain, after the period of twenty-four hours, be confiderably
diminilhed, yet the patient is not entirely without pain.
For fome days he has a return every evening of pain and
fever, which continue, with more or lefs violence, till
morning. After continuing in this manner for feveral days,
the diieafe fometimes goes off entirely, not to return till
after a long interval ; and in fuch cales it generally leaves
the perfon in very perfeft health, enjoying greater eafe and
alacrity in the functions both of body and' mind, than he
had for a long time before experienced.

It often happens, however, that the difeafe does not thus
fpeedily quit the patient, efpecially when lie has previoufly
fi.flTered confiderably from its attacks. For, inllead of
ceafing altogether after a few days, it feizes the other
foot in the iame manner as it did the former, both in refpeft
to the vehemence and duration of the pain. Moll com-
monly the foot firfl. affetted becomes quite eafy, in fuch a
cafe, and even as llrong and healthy as if it had not been dif-
eafed ; but fometimes both feet are affeAed together, and
with equal violence. When this happens, the fucceeding
exacerbations, as Sydenham remarks, are lefs regular both
as to the time of coming on, and as to their continuance ;
but the pain always increafes in the evening and remits
in the morning; and what is called a fit of the gout,
which goes oflf fooner or later, according to the age and
conllitution of the patient, is made up of a number
of thefe little fits. For when this difeafe lails two or
three months, it is not to be elleemed one continued fit,
but rather a feries or alfemblage of fmall fits, the laft of
which proves milder and fhorter, until the whole is termi-
nated. In ilrong conilitutions, and fuch as have the gout
feldom, the attack is commonly finifhed in fourteen days ;
but iji thofe of advanced life, or who have frequent returns
of the difeafe, thefe feries of fits will continue for two
months ; and in fuch perfons as are more debilitated, either
by age or the long continuance of the diforder, it will not

G O U T.

gii off till tlip fiimnn-r advunccs, (beginning, as is mod c1"!it., which Sydenliam compares to crab's cvts ; but fome.
cosnnioii, in January, or early in February,) which fcems to times thvy appear about tlic lar^jer joints, as' the elbow and
drive it away. knee, Oi ca/ioning a whitifli fwelling aiinoll ai large as an

When the fit is going oft", a violent itcliing feizcs the egg, which becomes gradually iii'lanied and red. Mr. Wat.
foot, efpecially between the toes, ajid the cuticle peels off. fon has rel-itcd an example of a very cxtenfivc depolftion of
The appetite and ftrength return fooner or later, accordi'g urate of ioda, in a g-mty man, who was a martvr to the
ti> the greater or lefs feverity of the preceding {it, and the difeafe. Chalk-dojie-; not' only enveloped the joint's of hii
interval of health between the paro::y!V.is is generally nearly gr^at toes, formed tun-:ours upon liis legs, and, being mixed
in the fame ratio ; /. e. longer in proportion to the greater with the fynovia of the large joints, rendered this fluid as
violence of the lall fit. At the beginning of the difc.iie, thick as cream ; but " the joints of the ringers were fwclled
Dr. Cullen obfer\'es, the returns of it are fometimcs oiily and knotty, every knot being a lump of chalk ; and I was
once in three or four years ; but after fome time the inter- told," he adds, <' that when he jjlayed at cards, he ufed frc-
vjls become fliorter, and the attacks become annual : after- quently to fcore up the game with his knuckles." (See

v.-aids they come twice each year, and at length recur iVIedical Cumnii.nications, vol. i. art. ^. See alfo Parkin-

feveral times during the whole courfe of autumn, winter, fon's Obf. on the Nature and Cure of Gout, p. 5.)
and fpring ; and as it happens that, when the fits are Such is the progrefs of gout, as it affects the joints, and
frequent, the paroxyfms become alfo lonirer, fo, in the while it may, therefore, be called regular gout. Svden-
advanced Hate of the difeafe, the patient is hardly ever ham, indeed, and fome other v. riters, confine the appcliatioa
tolerably free from it, except, perhaps, for two or three of reguhir to gout in the I'eet only ; and confider it as irregit-
months in fummer. lar, when it attacks the hands or othi-r joints. But Dr. Cul-

Before the difeafe becomes thus inveterate, however, it len, Warner, and the pli) ficians of the prcfent dav, in "ene-
lias gradually affumed other appearances, and attacked ral, agree in calling the difeafe, when it confills only of an
other parts of the body. At firli it commonly affecls one inflammatory afler'tioii of the joints, the regular gout : " and,"
foot only ; but afterwards every paroxyfm affefts both Dr. Cullen obferved, " whatever fymptoms we can per-
fect, the one after tlie other, and then both together ; and ceive to be connided with, or to depend upon, the difpo-
its changes of place, as it continues to recur, are not only iition which produces that inflammatory aftection, but with-
from one foot to th.e other, but alfo from the feet into other out its taking place, or being prefeiit at the fame time, we
joints, as the hands, wrills, elbows, knees, &c. ; fo that name the irregular gout." Firfl Lines, 1) ji8.
there is fcarcely a joint in the body that is not, on one Irregular gout, anomalous, internal or atonic gout, as it
occafion or other, affefted. It fometimes feizes on two has been alfo called, coiilills of various fymptoms of difor-
diffcrent joints at the fame time ; but more commonly it is der in the internal organs of the bodv, which do not differ
fevere in a fingle joint only, and paffes fuccefhvely from from the fymptoms affecting the fame organs under other
one joint to another ; fo that the patient's affliftion is often circumffanees ; it is, therefore, f'iifpe<Eled tliat thefe fvmp-
protracled for a long time. The pains, indeed, are com- toins are of gouty origin, wIk-u they occur in jierfons bcar-
raonly lefs violent, in this ftatc of tiie difeafe, than they ing the marks of a gouty diathelis or difpolllion : and cfpe-
wcre at firft ; but, in addition to them, lols of appetite, cially wlien, in fuch habits, either a manifell tendency to
ficknefs, and other fymptoms of the atonic gout, now the inflammatory affection of the joints has formerly appeared,
afHLi!:t him. Bel'ides, in the intervals between the iirfl or when the fymptoms alluded to are intermixed with, and
paroxyfms of the diforder, the joints which had been affected art> relieved by, fome degree of the inflammatory affeclion.
were entirely reftored to their former fupplencfs and llrength, The morbid fymptoms which appear, in fuch cafes, and an-
and were free from pain or uneafineis, and all the functions confidered as figns of alcnic gout, are principally alTeftion?:
of life were well performed. But in this protracted con- of the flomach ; Inch as lofs of appetite, indigeftion, and
dltion of the difeafe, the joints remain not only weak and fliff, its various concomitants of ficknefs, naufia, vomiting,
after the termination of the fit, but they become at length fo flatulency, acid eruiflations, and pains in the region of the
contrac'ted and dlfablcd, that although the patient can flomach. Thefe fymptoms are frequently accompanied
fland, and perhaps walk a little, yet it is very flowly, and with pains and cramps in the upper CNtremitics of the body,
with great lamenefs and difficulty, fo that he is fcarcely able which are relieved by the difcharge of wind from the flo-
to move from room to room ; and fometimes the joints mach. 'I'ogether with thefe atlcf tions of the rtemach,
lofe their motion altogether. ■ coflivcncfs alfo commonly occurs; but fometimes a loofe-

In many perfons, though not in all, when the difeafe has nefs with colic pains. Thefe afTeftions of the alimentary
frequently recurred, this immobility of the joints is farther canal are ofteu attended with all the fymptems of hypochon-
increafed by the formation of concretions, of a chalky ap- driafis ; as dejedioii of mind, a conflant and anxious atten-
pearance, upon the outfide of them, and for the mo ft part tion to the flightell feelings, an imaginary aggravation of thefe,
immediately under the Ikin. The fecretion or depofition of and an apprehenfion of danger from tlnm. In the fame ato-
this matter is characteriftic of the difeafe, being the confe- nic gout, the vifccra of the thorax .^rt alfo fonulimes affed-

qucnce of gouty inftamir.ation alone. It feems to be depo-
Jjted at firlb in a fluid form, but afterwards becomes dry
and firm ; in which ilate the concretions have the appear-
ance of a friable earthy fubftance, and have been called
Cil.\l.Ky/on« (which fee). From the inveftigations of Dr.
WoUafton, however, and oilier modern chcniills, it has been
afcertained that t!'cy contaii. :;o calcareous or earthy matter.

cd, and palpitations, faintings, and allhma occur. And the
head alfo is often difordercd, with pains, giddinel's, fumno-
lency, and even apopleftic and paralytic affections. (Cul-
leii. See alio Mulgrave " De .Vrthritide Anomala," w)«ere
thefe various modifications of irregular gout are delcribtd at
length ; and Warner's " Full and Plain Account of the
Gout,' where his obfervations are tranflatcd, pp. 7c — 9c,

but confift of a neutral ftl' . fivpicd by the combination of fecond edit.)

tlie lithic or uric acid, wit!, the fixed alkali, foda, — coalUtut- We may here remark, in pafTing, that many errors have

ing a llthate or urate of foda. Thefe concretions form prin- probably been committed, in conlidering almoli ever)- fpc-

cipally about the joints of the toes and fingers, in little no- cies of indifpofition, that occurs in gouty habits, as arifmj

Vol XVI. 3 '^ ^""*

GOUT.

iVom the gouty diiitliL-fis. We rememher to have heard llii5
point Ihvmioiilly infilled upon by tlie iible profeffor yf phyiic,
in the iiniveriity of Edinburgh, Dr. Gregory. Many of
the fvmptoms above enumerated are obvioudy conneifted with
the impaired fundions of the ftomach, and occur in dyfpep-
iia, or indigellion, in liabits not gouty ; fuch are the various
hvpocliondriac fenfations ; tlic palpitations of the heart, otteu
arifnig from over-dillenfion of tlie llomach with flatus, by
whicli the heart is mechanically prcffed upwards : the cramps
in different parts of the body, which are often relieved by a
difcharge of wind from the liomach ; the difficulty ol breath-
ing, often occalioned by great dilteniion of the ilomaeh,
whicli impedes the defeent of the diaphragm ; and the
head-ache, giddinefs, &c. which are daily cbfervcd to be
connedled with impaired digellion. On the other hand, ui-
flammatory diforders of the lungs and other vifcera, con-
geftions in the head, inducing head-ache, fomnolency, verti-
go, &c., and ultimately various degi-ees of paralytic and
apopleftic difcafe, not effentially different, in any refpeft,
from the fame afteftions in habits not tainted with gout, have
probably been fuffered to go on, and to prove fatal, undcr
a notion that tliey were gouty, and the proper remedies
have been therefore neglcdled.

The irre^iili7r gout occurs in a lefs equivocal form, when
the inflammatory Hate of the joints has come on in the ufual
manner, but when, without arifmg to the ordinary degree,
or atleaft without continuirgfor the ufual time, and receding
gradually, as is common, the pain and inflammation fudden-
ly and entirely ceafe, while fome internal part becomes dif-
ordered. This has been called the retrocedent or repelled gout.
When the "-out is thus retrocedent, the fame internal parts are
attacked, and the fame diforders produced, as in the n-regu-
lar or atonic gout, where no previous imperfeft attack upon
the joints had fliewn itfelf. The ftomach is for the moll
part commonly affetled, whence violent pain, ficknefs, vo-
miting, anxiety, &c.: the heart and lungs are alfo occaiion-
allv attacked ; and fometimcs the occurrence of apoplexy,
paify, or delirium, mark the head as the feat of the retro-
cedent difeafe.

Another variety of irregular gout has been denominated
m'ifplaced gout ; namely, when, inllead of the joints of the
extremities, the ftomach, brain, lungs, intcftines, kidnies,
or bladder, become affedled with fymptoms of inflammation,
which give way upon the appearance of the inflammation
in the extremities, when that takes place. This inflamma-
tion of the internal organs, however, is indicated by the fame
fymptoms which accompany inflammation of the iame parts,
arifing under other circumttances, and in conllitutinns not
o-outy : audit has probably been fometimes fuppoled to be
of gouty origin, when it arofe from the ordinary cauies.
Dr. Cullen affirms, that he never met with any inilances of
mifplaced gout in his practice, and that no cafe has been dif-
tinftly made out by medical writers, except that of pulmo-
nary inflammation. But he had known two varieties of in-
ternal difeafe alternate with external gouty inflammation;
1V2. the one an aftedion of the neck of the bladder, pro-
ducing pain, ftrangurv, and catarrhus vefica^ ; the other an
affection of the reclum, fometimes marked by pam alone in
that part, and fometimes bv hemorrhoidal Iwelling?.

Such are the phenomena, by which the various forms of
regular and irregular gout are chiefly characlcrized. The
noxtobjctl; of our inquiry will be the

Ciutfes uf Gout. — Among the pred'ifpofing caufes of gout,
an original peculiarity of conftitution, often tranfmitted from
the parent to the offspring, appears to be the inoft common ;
in other words, the difcafe is faid to be hereditary. This
pofition, indeed, has beeu controverted^ efpecially by Dr.

Cadogan (fee his DifT. on ^the Gout, and all Chronic Dif-
cafes, p. 7.) ; but the difcufhon has iurned upon a mere dif-
putc about words. For it it> admitted, on all hands, that
the predifpqfitloii of the conftitution to be affefted by gout is
traniiuittcd from father to fon, hke other pecidiarities of
habit; hke the family-likencfs, forinftauce, in features, in
voii^o, complexion, S:c. It is true, indeed, as Dr. Cadogan
contends, that fome perfons acquire this gouty difpofition, who
have it not by hereditary traulmilTiou ; and, on the other haudv
tliat the hereditary predifpofition may be countcratted by
various caufes, but particularly by certain modes of life, fo
that the difeafe itfelf fliall never appear. Yet it is equally
true, that the fame occafional cauies, which will excite the
difeafe in thole who are hereditarily predifptjfed to it, will
not produce it in others, although applied in greater force ;
and, therefore, the exiftence of an origina'l conftitutional
predifpofition muft neceffarily b'' inferred. The middle and
advanced periods of life are alfo more difpofcd to gout,
than the early periods : thus it does not commonly attack
men until after the age of thirty-five, and generally not till
a ftill later period. When the gout does appear, in more
early hfe, of which there are inftances, it feems to be iix
thofe in whom the hereditary difpofition is very ftrong, and
to whom the exciting caufes have been applied in a con-
liderable degree. Hippocrates remarks, that eunuchs are
not liable to be affecled by gout, nor boys previous to vene-
ry : but the intimation included in the remai-k is probably
unfounded ; fince, with reipect to the latter, the dileafe, as
we have already ftated, is almoft peculiar to an advanced
period of life ; and the eunuchs, who, in the time of Hip-
pocrates, were chiefly Perfian flaves, v.ere doubtlels confined
to the ftrift difcipline and the frugal and temperate life,
which the rigorous laws enjoined to all, and therefore not
expofed to the moft active caufes of gout. For Galen, in
his commentary upon this obfervation of Hippocrates, ob-
ferves that, in his time, the remark was no longer true,
" owing to too much indulgence on their part in an indolent,
as well as intemperate mode of life :" and the remark is
confirmed by modern experience. (Van Swieten. loc. cit.)
It has been fully afcertained, indeed, that the principal
fiiurce of the gouty habit confitts of high feeding and indo-
lence conjoined. Sydenham (who, upon the fubjeft of gout,
ftauds unrivalled in accuracy of obfervation, and the model
of all fuccecding writers, many of whom have done little-
more than copy his hillory- of it) begins his account of the
difeafe with thele remarks. " The gout generally attacks
thofe elderly perfons who have fpejit the greater part of
their lives m eafe and iiidulsience, both in tlie ufe of hiah
feeding and of wine, or other fpirituous and fermented
liquors ; and who, in confequence of the lluggiflinefs of ad-
vanced life, have ceafed from all thofe exercifes to w'hich
they were accuftomed in their youth. The gout, however,''
he adds, " does not always wait till an advanced age ; it
fometimes attacks thofe who are in the prime of life. But
thc.Q; perfons have unfortunately received the feeds of the
difeafe from their parents ; or, if not, they have indulged in
premature and exceiiive venery, or left off entirely thofe ex-
ercifes which they had previoufly ufed with great adlivity,
and have been belides moll indulgent to the appetite, and
drank to excefs of vinous and fpirituous liquors, afterwards
fuddenly turning to thole that are thin and cold." (Syden-
ham, TraClatus de Podagra.) Thefe fafts have been long
known. There is a Greek epigram literally figuifying,
" of limb-relaxing Bacchus and limb-relaxing Venus is born,
a daughter, the limb-relaxing Gout." And a fimilar ob-
fervation is contained in the adage, " Bacclius pater, Venus
mater, et Ira obftctrix Arthritidis." While this faft is

«on£rmcd^

G o u r.

c^nfirmeJ, on the one kand, by tlie tcllimoiiy of isgcs in tlie
affirmative, it is corroboiated alfo, on the; other hand, by
obicrvation in the nec!;ative. Dr. CuIIcn remarks that gout
feldom attacks thoie wlw are employed in bodily labour,
or who live much upon vegetable aliment, orthofe who make
no life of wine or other fermented liquor?. Indeed, the gout
is faid to be altotrether unknown where thefe licjuors are not
iifed, as among the common people of Turkey. Among the
lower orders of people, even in this countrv, the difeafe is
very rare, and llill more rare in Seotland and Ireland, where
animal food and ftrong ale and beer are leis ufed. Van
.Swicten obierves, that iome people who, from comfortable
circumllances, have been reduced to labour for their fulle-
iiauce, and to exchange a luxurious table and indolence for a
ipare diet and activity, have loll their gout. He mentions
particularly the inftancc of a certain priell, who enjovcd a
rich living, and had been an old and conftant fufl'erer from
the gout ; but happening to be taken by the pirates of Bar-
bary, he was kept conftantlv at work in the galleys for the
fpace of two years : " which had this good etfecl, that after-
wards, when he was ranfomed from captivity, having loll
all his troublefome and moijllrous fatnefs, he never once had
a fit, though he lived feveral years after the event." (Van
Swieten, Comment, ad Aph. 1255.) Several anecdotes of
a fimilar natiu-e are related by the indullrious Schenckius.
(Obf. Med. Rarior. lib. v. p. 657. edit. 1644.) In a word,
much exercife, wl\ich will often counteract tlie influeuco of
intemperance, will, when combined with temj)erance, coun-
tera6l even the hereditary difpolltion to the difeafe.

The cfteft of full living and indolence, in producing the
gouty diathelis, is alfo manifell from the form and tempera-
ment of the perfons in whom it occurs. Tliefe are cfpecially
men of robufl and large bodies with large heads, and of full
and corpulent habits. They have commonly alio a coarfer
(kin ; and if, with the ancients, we might denote the tem-
peraments of men by certain terms, we Ihould fay that the
gout efpccially ahails men of a clmUncn-faii^u'mc tempera-
ment, and feldom attacks the purely fanguine or melancholic.
"Women are not very liable to the t;ont, prohaljly from their
lefs intemperate mode of life, in general, than that of men :
but thofe females whom it attacks are g;enerally of robuil
and full habits. It is faid not to occur in them commonly
till after tlie ceffation of mcnftruation ; which perhaps only
implies that it is a difeafe of advanced life. For as Dr. Cul-
len jullly remarks, " it often happens to fuch 1 the robuil)
long before the menflrual evacuation has ceafcd," and lie
had "found it occurring in feveral females, whole menllrual
evacuations were more abundiuit than ufual." (Firll
Lines, J 494) A fail, which we may explain, with Dr.
Gregory, by obfcrving, that thofe women wlio indulge
much in vinous and fermented liquors, are more liable to
inenorrhagia than others.

It is obvious, tlien, that the experience of all ages con-
'Urs in aiiigning intemperance and indolence as the principal
"unves of tiiat habit of body, in which the gout is liable to
lecur. This habit, or predifpoiltion, feems to be tufricient,
1 many cafes, to produce the difeafe itlelf, or at leail to re-
quire the application of flight and imperceptible exciting
. aufes to bring it forth. The difeafe, indeed, depends fo
much upon predifpofition, that it is difficult to allign the
oecafional caufes ; the fame agents api)ear to be lometimes
the generators of a predifpolition to it only, and at other
times aclually to excite the difeafe.

Tlie c.xc'it'ui^ciuifcs which often fuddenly bring on a fit of
the gout, in thofe who are predifpofed to it, are, in the firil
place, thofe circumllances which induce a fudden debility,
elpecially of the llomach. The concurrence of imli^fjlion,

and the local tnflummalion in goiit, is one of the clia>.
racterillics of the difeafe ; and, as we lia\c already dated,
the latter is iifiial'y preceded for fome time by the' former.
Hence whatever fuddenly deitreffes the ihgeftivc power, i*
liable to induce the local and conlHtutional difeafe. Thus *
paroxyfm of gout lias frequently been exeiicd by an occa-
fional excefs in the ufe of wine or fpirits ; by overloading the
llomach with food, or by eating fuch as is not eafily digellible
in its nature ; by the co))ious ufe of vcgctalilc acids or
acefcent matter, efiK'cially by weak accfcent wines, punch,
&c. ; all of which tend to debilitate the digc(li\e organs cither
diredly or indirectly. In the fame way, excefs of vcncr%-,
which powerfully influeiiccs the flomacli, (Van Swieten,
Aph. 586, and 125J,) has often brought (ni a fit. This feem^
to liave been univerfally underftood by the ancients. Wc
have alrea ly noticed the obfervalion of Hippocrates ; an4
Actius, in recounting the general caufes of gout, fays, thefe
are, " abounding crudities, frequent drunkenncfs, and, above
all, an immoderate ule of venery." (Sermon xii. Cap. 6.)'
Sydenham and Van Swieten add their tellirnony to tlie faft.
Inieiife lludy, night-watching, exceffive anxiety and atten-
tion to bulinefs, all of which greatly deprefs the power of
the body in general, and of the llomach in particular, de-
llroying the appetite, and producing a fenfe of uiieafinefs,
linking, or weight about the region of the llomach, arc
likewile enumerated among the occafional caufes of the
gouty paroxyfm. The fame is true w ith refpeC^ to the vio-
lent emotions and paffions of the mind, more particularly of
anger. " Ira oblletrix arthritidis" is part of the adage above
(|uoted : and the three caufes of gout, infilled on by Dr.
Cadogan, are intemperance, indolence, and ViWtilion. The influ-
ence of violent mental emotions on the funclions of the body
is, indeed, very manifell, and more cipecially on the function
of digellion ; the dillurbance ot which, we have alreadr
obferved, is exceedingly inllrunieiital in the production of
gout. " The firll immediate ciVecl of violent grief or vex-
ation," lavs Dr Cadogan, " is to take off the aclion of
the ihnnach entirely. Let us fiippole a man in the b.."ft.
health, the hlghell good humour and fpirits, as well as good
llomach, fitting down to dinner with liis friends, receive*
fuddenly fome very afflicting news. Inllantly his appetite
is gone, and he can neither eat nor fwallow a morlel. Let
the fame tiling happen after he has made a hearty cliecrful
meal, as fuddenly the aJlion of his llomach, the whole
])ouer of digellion is cut off totally, as if it were become
jKiralvtic, and what he has eaten lies a moll onpredive h)ad.
I'eriiaps as the excefs of weaknels is often convulfion, it
may be rejected by a violent vomit, or do greater miiciiief :
for which reafon fuch Ihokes of dillrefs are lefs hurtful
received upon an empty than a full tloinach." 5;c. (Loc. cit.
p. 55.) The gouty liabit, indeed, is often an irritable habit ;
and Sydenham obferves, that a lit of gout may be called a
fit of anger. (See alfo \'an Swieten. }" 1258.)

.Among other exciting caufes of'gout, the fudden ceallng
from the cullomary cxercifes or labour is commonly men-
tioned, and its principal effect is probably upon the funclioa
of digellion, whicli is fo much under the influence of exorcifc.
Indolence, in general, as contributing to induce th"? gouty
difpolltion, is well iniderllood ; and tlie fudden ceffation of
aclivily, like all other fudden changes, is apt to produce a
fudden acceffion of the paroxyfm, in thofe who are pre-<lif-
pofed to the difeafe. In a fiinilar manner, a fudden change
in the mode of hving, the oppofite to excels, namely, from
hio-Ii feeding to a very fpare and abilemions diet, is liable to
induce the paroxyfm of gout. That fuch a fudden abllrac-
tion of the powerful lUmulus of a copious fujiply of food
and ftrong liquors, mnll neceffarily induce a coufiderable
2 T 2 dirocl

GOUT.

Aive&. debility in the organs of dlgeftion, is well undcrftood
by thofc who are acquainted with the laws of flimulants on
the animal body. (See DF.niLiTY and Excitability.)
This faft, however, although fometimes adduced as an argft-
mcnt againfl the advantages of an abftemious regimen, in
preventing the gout, affords no fuch legitimate inference.
It is too obvious, indeed, to req\iire an elaborate dilcuflion,
that all extremes, haftily adopted, are liable to derange the
animal economy ; and that habit alone can render extreme
moderation invariably beneficial, on the one hand, and
enable us to bear excefs with a confiderable degree of im-
punity on the other. Anotlier mode of debilitating the
fyftem, which fometimes brings the paroxyfm ot gout, is
cxceffivc evacuation of any kind ; fr.ch as by ha;morrhage,
brillc purging, vomiting, &c,; efpeciaily in aged pcrfons,
ivhofe conlHtutions are already much broken down by the
tiifeafe.

Ruddi-n viciffitudes of weather, efpeciaily when connefted
with nioilhire, as from mild to cold, or from fevere cold to
damp and mild weather, often excite the gout ; hence,
Sydenham remarked, that the molf frequent occurrence of
the gouty paroxyfm takes place in the latter end of J?.nuary,
or the beginning of February. The fit may be produced
either by the local application of cold and moillure to the
feet, or by a general expofure to it ; for fuch expofure,
which in moll people will oecafion rhenmatifm, a catarrh,
er a fore throat, will, in a gouty fubjecl:, excite a lit of the
pout. In like manner, bruifes or Iprains of the leg or foot,
or mere over-exercife ot the mufcles and ligaments of thole
parts, as in long walking, will fometinnes bring on a pa-
roxyfm.

There is another alleged caufe of the gout, wliieli it
would not now be necelfary to mention, were it not noticed
by Botrhaave, Van Swieten, and others, tv'z. conlnglon.
Van Swieten confiders the difeafe as analogous to dylentery
and other maladies, which, although originating from very-
obvious caufes, neverthelefs propagate themfelves afterwards
by contagion. But the llories, by which this dottrine is
fupported, are fomewhat ridiculous ; fuch as this, that a dog
lying at his mailer's feet during a paroxyfm of the gout,
fiiddenly ran howling and barking round the room, ex-
prefling the pain which he had caught from his mailer,
whofe torture at the fame time became greatly alleviated,
&c. (Swieten Com. ad (J 1255.)

Of the D'lagr.ofis. — The attack of the regulur ^ovX is readily
diftinguifliable from the only difeafe which refembles it, vii.
acute rheumatifm, if all the fymptoms are taken into con-
fideration. In the firil place, gout is commonly a difeafe
of advanced life ; acute rheumatifm is rr.oll frequent from
the age of 18 to 30. Nor does rheumatifm, like the gout,
feize the feet in preference to the other joints, or remain for
a confiderable time in the fame joint ; but at the firft attack
it often attacks every joint of the body in fucceflion, and
fometimes continues for feveral months. The colour of the
fkin of the part affefted in rheumatifm, if it be changed, is
only fiightly red, whereas it becom.es of a deep bright red
in the gout. The paiji in th3 rheumatifm is not extremely
acute, uhile the part is at reft, but becomes violent when it
is moved only ; which is not the cafe in the gout. And the
fymptoms of indigeftion and difordered Itomach, which
precede the paroxyfm of the gout, together with the marks
of diftinftlon juft mentioned, will ferve particularlv to deter-
mine the nature of the paroxyfm. It muft be admitted,
however, there are inllances of the combination of the fymp-
toms of the two difeafes, which renders it difficult to decide
to which of them the individual examples belong. (Hcber-
Ccii, Comment, de Morb. p. 58.)

Again, the fymptoms which the irregular gout prefcnts, are
extremely numerous and proteifonii. appearing frequently
as dyfpeplia, hyfteria, hypochondriafis, aiUur.a, palpitation,
fyncope, vertigo, apoplexy, paralylis, &c. aceording to
the original or acquired tendency of the conllitutioii to thole
difeafes. Hence the dilcrimiiiation between thele modifica-
tions of gout, and the difeafe which it mimics, is occafionally
very difficult.

Of the nature or proximate caiife rf Gout. — This is a part (>f
the fubject upon which, if we were to confine ourfeives to
the communication of atlual and ufeful knowledge, v.-c
(lioiild be altogether filent, or fay but a few words. The
obfervation, indeed, will apply to many other dileafes, as
w-ell as to gout ; but as gout is an affection almoft er.clu-
fively occurring in the higher claffes of iociety, among liie
wealtliy and intelligent, it has claimed a more general at-
tention, and become the objeft of more general difciiflidn.
It is greatly to be lamented, however, that the moll mif-
taken notions have prevailed, from the earliell times, in
regard to the nature and extent of the infight, which we are
capable of obtaining, into the operations of the animal eco-
nomy, and to the means by which we can obtain it. InSead
of confining themfelves to the obfervation of the phenomena
of health and difeafe, faithfully recording tliefe plienomena,
and arranging them ai cording to their moll obvious anak.-
gies,' phyllcians have been bufy in fearching after their
hidden caufes ; and, fancying a refemblance between tiie
moft diffimilar things, have fucceflively called to aid the
analogies of every human fcience, as it advanced in cultiva-
tion, to explain the phenomena ot animal life. The ancient
doilrines of numbers and elements, and their qualities, and
the modern difcoveries and luppofitions of the chemical,
mathematical, and mechanical philofophers, have in turn
been afiumcd as affording the moil perfect elucidation of tlie
operations of the living body ; and, as they have, of courfe,
been in turn exploded, we need not recur to any other argu-
ment in proof of their want of foundation. By thtfe remarks
we wilh only to ihew the futility of realuning on the fubjecl
of proximate caufes of difeafe, which, as we are and mull
remain entirely ignorant of the proximate caufe of health
and life, mull be equ;;lly infcrutable. " Nam qu;e demum
cauf^E,'' as Celfus juiUy obferves, " vel fecundam valetudi-
n em prajllent, vi 1 morbos excitent, &c. ne fapienti^ quideiii
profellores fcientia comprehendunt, fed conjeclura profe-
quuiitur,' (De Med. Prief. lib. i.) Tiie inquiry relpefting^
the proximate caule of difeafes is as futile as the fpeculations
of the Cartcfidus to explain the efTcnce of gravitation, and
have as little to do with the advancement of true medical
fcience, as the hypothelis of an ether affilled Newton in his
obfervations and calculations refpcdling the phenomena of
that agent.

If thefe obfervations flinuld not be fufficiently intelligible
to the general reader, a brief enumeration of the hypothefes,
which have been invented by medical writers, in order to
explain the effential nature of gout, will probably be fulti-
cient to prove the abfurdity of inch attempts. Moft of t lie
Greek and Roman phvficians, with the exception of the
methodifts, confidered the prefence of a corrupted humour
in the fmall veftels as the effential caufe of gout. Hippo-
crates believed this humour to confiil of bile and phlegm,
which flowed upon the joints. Galen followed him in lup-
poling the defluxion upon the joints to be chiefly pituitous
or phlegm, or bile mixed with phlegm. Paiilus iEgineta
attributed the di-feafe to a redundancy of blood, black hWp,
and phlegm. Trallian and Caflius imagined, that it arofe
from the blood itleit being forced into the joints ; and Ori-
bafius aiEnned that the blood in gouty people was vilcid,

refemblinn-

G O U T.

irfembliiig melted gl:ifs, which remaining in the joints, pro-
duced the cretaceous matter. Aretxus, one of the moft
able of the Greek writers, is the only one who pafies over
the efiential caufe of the difeafe, a knowledge of which he
airigns to the gods alone ; the evident caufes, he fays, are
apparent to man. Themifon, Crelius Anrelianns, and the
methodic feci, attributed gout to relaxation or Urieture of
the parts ; fume, however, imputed it to the one ilate, and
others to tiie oppofite. The Arabians followed clofely in
the path of their maflers, and taught that one or other of
the humours was predominant, or that thev were varioudv
combined, in cafes of gout. >So luminous and inllrudtive
were the doctrines of tiie ancients !

In the dawn of modern fcience, the humours were almoft
baniflied by the liypothefes of the chemilts ; but although
we hear httle more of bile, phlegm, and melancholv, or
black bile, all dileafe was neverthelefs attributed to a mor-
bific or peccant matter, and falts, earth, or tar.'ar, were
de?:red th.- immediate cuufe of gout and other maladies ;
and Paracelfus, Van Helmont, and others, arc very abufive
of tlie ancients for pronudgating lo many abfurd docftrines !
When the mathematical and mechanical phyilciaiis arofe,
they took up the hypothetical dortrines of their predecef-
fors, and reafoned concerning the adlion of thefe fuppofi-
titious humours, lalts, tve. upon mechanical principles; the
chemical doctrines predominated, however, over the ancient
humours. Thus, to ufe the.words of Dr. Wirner, " accord-
ing to Sydenham tlie arthritic matter confiils of the putrc-
f)";ng heat and acrimony of indigelled juices: Boerhaave
gives it the appellation of an acrimony or over-tougluiefs of
the liquid which waters the nervous parts: Liller makes it
to be a crude and vilcid ferum become ichorous and corro-
five: Bennet defines it an acrimony that is invariably of the
putrid, volatile alkaline nature: Quincy fays that it con-
lills of rigid particles, fuch as approach near to tlie faline,
of the nature of tartar, and not much unlike that which
forms itfelf into concretions in the urinary paiTages: Chcyne
in one place calls it tartarous, urinous, or otlitr falts: In-
gram will have it to be a coagulation made by a mixture of
ialine particles with the oil of the adipofe membrane. As
every one of thefe writers makes the gouty matter to be an
acrimony taken in with our aliment, which tliey call either
putrid, vifcid, corrofive, Ialine, urinous, or tartarous, to
Dr. James, wiiole name needs no addition, diiagreeing with
them all, hath judged this acrimony to be earthy." (Sec
Warner on the Gout, p. 91. — See alfo a fi nlible and learned
difijuiiition on this topic, in " An Hiltorical, Critical, and
Praftical Treatife of the Gout, by Thomas 'I'homfon, M D.
Lond. 1742.) But fuch liypothefes did nut die with Dr.
James; for in a treatife on the gout, publiihed in 1SC5, we
lind the following itatement: "The proximate cauie of
gon' appears to be, a peculiar faline acrimony cxilHng in
the blood, in fuch a proportion, as to irritate and excite to
morbid action, the minute terminations of the arteries, in
certain parts of the body:" (See Obfervations on the
Nature and Cure of Gout, &c. by James Parkinfon,) a
ftatement, which is equally indelinite, iiypothetical, and
prai'tically ufelefs, with thofe that liave preceded it.

On reviewing theie opinions of men, nho have been de-
fervedly efteeiv.ed the ornament of their profefiion, fome
readers may exprcfs their furprife that fuch an extraordinary
difference fhould be found among them, and tliat lo much
error (for of oppofite opinions one half at leall mull be
wrong) ihould exiil in the fcience. But the only r.itional
ground for wmder is, that fo many men of lound under-
rtanding Ihould have employed themfelves in inquiries beyond
the reach of their faculties, and ftiould have iuv.igincd that,

in framing hypothetical fuppofitions, they had acquired any
adual knowledge, or had advanced one ftep in the praAieal
improvement of tiieir art. If a number of piiilofopheri
were engaged in invelligating the nature of light and heat,
and fhould not only execute a feries of experiments on tlic
reflection, refraction, and divilibility of the one, and on the
properties of expar.lion, inflammation, vaporization, &c.
of bodies, which belong to the other; but fliould likewife
think it neceffary to form conjectures relative to the nature
and qualities of the fun, which is the fource or proximate
caufe of both; tliCfe conjectures, like the medical hypo-
thefes jufl quoted, however tlicy might amufe us, would
add not a tittle to our knowledge, nor would the want of
them be any diminution of our information, or of our prac-
tical powers.

The great fource of thefe hypothefcs, refpeCting the
cxillence of a morbid humour in the goutv habit, is, no
doubt, the appearance of a palpable matter, of a peculiar
nature, in the joints dii'eafed. This chalk-like matter, how-
ever, will be found to afford no ground for fuch a conclu-
fion, if the circumihmces are duly examined. In the (irll
place, the produdion of this morbid matter mav be the
f^-fl of the difeafe ; and that it is fo, is apparent from its
not occurring in all cafes of gout, and from its feldom or
never accompanying the lirfl attacks of the difeafe, but
only appearing after repeated paroxyfms. Nor have «e
any direct evidence, from experiment or obfervation, of the
fmaUell difl'eicncc in the blood or other humours of gouty-
people, from thofe of other perfons. On the other hand,
we know that tiie veffels in particular parts acquire the
power of ferreting or otherwife producing new fluids, when
inflammation is induced. Thus a blow in a flelhv or mem-
branous part ihall occafmn inflammation, and a conliderable
quantity of pus lliall afterwards be accumulated or dif.
charged, as in a common abfcefs: jet no one fuppofes that
this^.w V, as contained in the mafs of the circulatiiio- blood,
any more tiun he fuppofes that urine and bile are contained
in th.at mafs, and not elaborated by the kidnies and liver.
The appearance of the chalky matter, or urate of foda, iiv
the parts attacked by gouty inflammation, is therefore to
be confidered as the refult of that inflammation, and not as
its caufe. If the general mafs of blood were contaminated
with this morbid matter, or any peculiar acrimony tending
to produce it, why is it never depoilted on the vifcera ami
other internal parts? yet no fuch depontion was ever ob-
ferved: thofe parts remain invariably free from it in the
mott inveterate forms of the gout, and the appearance of
ciialk-flones is confined exclalively to the membranous and
ligamentous parts which exhibit inflammation exterr.aUy.
In the next place, the frequent and fudJen tranllatioii of
the difeafe from one part to another is net conlillent with
the iuppolition of its dependance on the prefence of a mor-
bid matter: but analogous changes or i/u-ru/Li/rs of other in-
flammations, in which no peculiar matter is produced, are
exceedingly common. Belides, upjn the fuppofitioii of
fucii a traiulation of morbid matter, its operation fhould be
llmilargii every part: whereas it feems to be very diffeivnt,
being Himulant and exciting inflammraion in the joint.s, but
feda.ive and dellroying the tone or energv of the Itomach.
Farther, as Dr. CuUen jullly obferves, " the fuppotition of
a moibilic matter is quite fuperfluous; for it explains no-
thing, without fuppoling that matter to produce a change
in the flate of the moving powers; and a cliange in tjie llate
of tlie moving powers, produced by other caules, explains
every i Ircumllance, without the fuppofition of a morbific
matt.r: and to this purpofe it may be obfcrved, that manv
of the caufes exciting gout do not operate upon the llate

GOUT.

lof the fluids, but dircclly and folcly upon tliat of the mov-
ing po\vc-rs." Dr. Cullon likewifc remarks, that tl;e fiip-
poiition of a morbific humour bL'ing the caufe of gout lias
been hitherto ufelefs, fince it has not fuggefted any fuccels-
ful method of cure: but, on the contrary, that particular
iuppofitlons have often corrupted the praftlce, and liave
frequently led from thofe views, which might be ufoful,
and from that prafticc which experience had approved,
(rirlt Lines, pt. 530.)

Having failed to explain the phenomena of the dlfcafe,
on tlie fuppofition of a morbid condition of tlie fluids of tlie
body; we might take up the doftrlne of the tuvvons patlio-
logUls, and attempt an explanation of the fymptoms, hjkmi
the notion of a derangement of the living folid, or moving
.fibre, as Dr. Cullen has done. (Loc. cit. §. 533 — 6.)
But it is fuffielent to perufe the account given by tliat
celebrated phyficlan, to be convinced that it is a mere
repetition of the phenomena of the different varieties
of the difeafe, couched in a new phrafeology ; and
therefore that it is practically as ufelefs as that which
tie controverts. It cannot be queflloned, we apprehend,
in the prefent flate of our phyliologlcal knowledge, that
the prime agents in the operations of the living body, whe-
ther in health or difeafe, are the folld, irritable, and mov-
ing parts; and that by thefe the fluids or humours are
clileily elaborated and modified: but it is likewife obvious,
that the follds derive their powers from certain conditions
of the circulating fluids, which are varied by refpiration,
nutrition, &c. Therefore the difputes between thofe, who
confine the origin of gout to the one or other part of the
fyflem exclufivcly, mull be deemed frivolous. Our kuou'-
ledge Is neccffarily limited to the phenomena of the difeafe,
and tlic order in which they occur, and to the effetls of
ph) fical agents upon them, as taught us by obfervatlon and
experiment. " Nulla tamen adhuc obfcurior quxfllo eft,"
lays Dr. Heberden, *' quam qua; verfatur de hujus morbi
■caufis, effeftlbufquc, et remedlls." (Comment, de Morb.
Cap. 9.) Lut we cannot doubt that thefe luunerous hvpo-
thefes, which liave at once diverted tlie minds of phyficians
from tlie lubom- of obfervatlon, and have perverted their
views of facls, have rendered the fubjeft more obfcure than
it wovdd otherwlfe probably have been.

Before we come to tlie method of treatment, there is
another queftien to be noticed, upon which niucli dlfcuflion
has taken place, and which has perhaps been popularly
folved with confiderable incorreftnefs : we mean tlie quel'-
tion, whether regular fits of the gout are fahitary ; ;'. e whe-
ther tliey altogether remove or prevent other complaints.
Tlie afRrmatlve Is generally maintained: and this opinion
has arlfen partly from obfervatlon, and partly from the hy-
pothefis, that a paroxyfm of gout eonlUls In an effort of the
conftltution, by which the morbific matter is thrown off
through tlie part afTefled. In a number uf inllances, be-
yond a doubt, tlie various fymptoms of indlgefflon, whe-
ther aftecflng the flomach and bowels only, or the lungs
and heart by vicinity, and the head by fympathy, are re-
lieved or altogether carried off by tlie complete fit. Per-
haps Dr. Heberden is fcarcely correft, when he confiders
this relief as either, in a great meafure imaginary, like that
which many invalids Invariably obtain from a change of their
jjliyfician, or frcnn a new medicine; or as not more frequent
than fimllar relief from flight indifpofitlon after other violent
difeaies: he appeals, however, to an ample experience in
fupport of his opinion. He thus writes: (we tranfiate
from the Latin edition) " There are fome countries in which
the itch is a very frequent difeafe, and tliere this eruption is
tlecnu'd falutary. Even an ague was formerly confidered by

tlie majority of phyficians as a wliolefome affeclion, and i»
fllU fo confidered by fome perfons: its occurrence was there-
fore a fubjeft of congratulation both with the patients and
their friends, and every precaution was taken not to get rid
of it too foon. But tliefe notions are ahnoft exploded in
this country ; and if we fliall difcover a remedy equally
effcAual for the gout, as thofe with which we cure the dif-
eafes juft mentioned, we fliall at length learn with what per-
feft fafety and advantage the gout may likewife be eradi-
cated.''— " I coiifefs,'' he adds, " that I liave feen fome
perfons who i-ejolced on the firft attack of the gout, as if it
afliired to tliem all future happinefs, and who, dreaming
only of the moft pcrfefl; health to come, eafily perfiiaded
theinfelves that this firft fit had been wonderfully beneficial
Tills Is a common difpofition with mankind, as often as they
have recourfe to new phyficians, or to remedies not before
tried. But, pafFing by fuch perfons, let us Inquire the
opinion of tliofe, who have fuffercd under long and frequent
paroxyfms, and who are better acquainted with the difeafe.
Of a very great number of patients whom I have feen, and
whole cafes I have committed to writing, more than twice
as many, to fay the leaf!, have found no relief whatever
from their previous complaints, in confequcnce of the regular
fit, or have even fuffercd an increafe of them, as have feemed
to derive any benefit: and, in niv opinion, the evils which
Were attributed to the difeafe, more certainly originated
from that f jurce, tlian the fuppofed advantages. Occafion-
ally. Indeed, we find that other complaints have ceafed on
the fupervention of the gout ; but the fame thuig alfo hap-
pens after acute fevers, after palfy, afthma, fmall-pox, and
infanlty, of all which I have witneffed many examples;
yet no one will call thefe difeafes falutary. On the other
liand, gout frequently occurs to perfons affedfed with ver-
tigo, aflhnui, indigelllon, and melancholy; where, fo far
from alleviating thefe diforders, it produces a confiderable
aggravation of their fymptoms. Befides, in fome patients,
all thefe complaints confiantly accompany the paroxyfm of
gout, and continue during the wliole of Its courfe.'' (Loc.
cit. p. 36.)

At all events, If we look at the life of the gouty In gene-
ral, we find ultimately but little ground for congratulation.
In fome, it is true, the difeafe occurs at dlflaiit intervals,
and foon goes off, and therefore occafions very little, it any,
obvious Injury. Even epileply Ilfelf, when its attacks are
rare, does not prevent the patient from reaching old age.
But this is far from being the cafe frequently with either
difeafe. In many perfons whom the gout attacks, the
health fuffers from the time of the firll fit, and gradually
grows worfe, until it is greatly broken, er falls altogether.
It may pofhbly be doubted, in fuch cafes, whether the gout
caulcd thefe evils; but we are very certain that it has not
been the remedy for them, nor in any way falutary.

We may julily wonder, therefore, with Dr. Heberden,
how it has come to pafs, that the gout is held in fo much
honour in England ; uiilefs it be that It is a difeafe, which
feveral great men have fuffercd, and which ciilefly attacks
thofe liajipy perfonages who enjoy leifure and affluence,
and all tlie good things of life. Louis XIV. of France
happened to labour under a fillula in the anus, and the fur-
geons of that time were confiantly called in by his fafliion-
able fubjetls to adniinlllcr relief to imaginary fiflulx; which
royal difeafe they perfuaded themiclves had attacked them :
and It is probable, as Dr. Heberden luggefls, tluit had there
exllled a>iy medicated waters in France, capable of produc-
ing fiihila, they would have been vlfited with tlie fame anxi-
ety with which our countrvnien haflen to thofe of Bath, in
the hope of returning with the gout.

GOUT.

fjflhc Cure. — Perhaps this iiiay be deemed an improper term
for the treatment of a difeafe, wliich, on the one hand, has been
affirmed to be incurable by medicine, and called the oppro-
brium of phyficians ; and, on the other, has been conlldereJ
fo falutary, that it ought not to be cured, and could not be
cured without the molh ijnmincnt danger to the patient.
Nay, farther, as much trouble has bee<i taken to produce
and excite the gout, as to relieve or cure it ; and all the
evils which arthritics fufFer, are not fuppofed to arife from
a lupcnibundance of gout, but becaufe they have not had
enough. It would be onlyjultice, liowever, as the intelli-
gent writer juft quoted remarks, to the art of pliyfic, no
longer to call the difeafe its opprobrium, until the patients
lay afide their prt^iidiees and fears, and"
be cured. " Utinam," he adds, " tarn in promptu effet in
venire, quam tutum adhibere, podagrce remcdium." (Com-
ment, p. 43.)

The treatment, it is obvious, muil be neceffarily very dif-
ferent according to the different forms of the difeafe, the
different periods of life, and the Rate of ftrength of the pa-
tient, &c. We fiiall lirfl fpeak of the practice neceflary to
be purfued in the regular gout ; which will refolve itfelf into
tlie treatment requilite during the fit, and tliat which is pro-
per during the interval.

Treatment of the Regular Fit. — All aclive meafures, during
the occurrence of a regular paroxyfm cif gout, have been
prefcribed by writers in general fnice the days of Syden-
ham. This phyhciaii remarked, that the moi-e violent the
pain and inflamma;ion, the fliorter in general will be the Jit,
the recovery moll perfeft, and the interval between this and
tlie fucceeding paroxyfm the longer. If this opinion were
admitted as jull, it would fnggelt the prohibition of any re-
medies which might moderate the inflammation. But againd
this doctrine another hypothefis has been advanced by Dr.
CuUen, which is at leall eqiiallv plaulible, and better fup-
ported by analogy, if not by fail : namely, that the violence
"t the inflammation may weaken the tone of the parts, and
while it renders them lefs liable to fimilar violent attacks, and
the confequent more perfeA recovery, may, by that very
debility, invite a return of the difeafe. On the whole, the
indications of pracl;ice generally purfued at prefent, are to
moderate the violence of the inflammation and tebrile atlion,
v.lien it is fevere, without applying any aC'live remedies to

fu

jetfts vinous and fermented liquors Hiuuld Lc

ther abtlained from during the fit ; and the diet fliould to t

of ligiit aqueou.^ and vegetable inattcri, or thin animal brollis:
tlie bowel 1 (hduld be kept open by laxative medicines, and tlie
fliin moiil; by diaphoretics of the neutral falts. This is at
lealt a palliative fyllem, and the prejudices of men in gene-
ral are averle to any more active interference with the dileafiv
But in cafe the inflammation is extremely violent, in youn"
and hale men, Sydejiham, Cullen, Huxham, and other abli-
authorities, concur in recommending the empIovm;nt of
blood-letting from the arm. This, however, thev do nut re-
commend to be often repeated, on account of the dcbditv
which may enfue ; and as the part affected is not an orgaii
lave a difpofitjon to important to life, and the inflammation fo purely local, there
does not appear to be any good reafon for recurring ta this
remedy, except in cafes of extraordinary violence, in verv
plethtiric habits, in which the fymptomatic fever itfelf might
prove hurtful. I^ocal blood-letting, by means of leeches ap-
phed to the foot itfelf, promifes more advantage, and experi-
ence itlelf lias proved the efhcacy and fafety of the prac-
tice. (See Cullen, Firll Lines, par. 563 — Mufgrave dc
Arthrit. regular!, cap. 8. ^ 4) Cupping and fcirifying

the neighbouring parts have alfo been found beneSciaJ.

( iVIulgrave. )

\\'^e are perfiiaded that hypothefis has had much more in»
fluence than obfervatioii and experience, in exciting the gene-
ral fears about interfering with the progrels of the goutr
Inflammatioii, and of the danger of its b?ing driven to fome
internal part by fucii interference. ^V'hen it was believed,
that a quantity of morbilic matter cxilled in the inflamed
part, it was inferred, of courle, that it could only be removed
by expulfion or by re;)ulfion, in which lall cafe it mull fall
upon i'ome other organ. "We know very well, that the (ame
hypothefis, and the lame fears prevailed no long time a'ni
with refpecl to cooling the flcin in fevers, and eipecialiv i:i
eruptive fevers, fuch as fcarlet fever and fmall-pox. «« The
perlpiration will be cliecked,'' faid the theorill, " if you-
allow the fcin to be cooled, and the Ji.earit ii:n//.r mud there-
fore be thrown back upon the bowels, or the lungs, or the
brain, and the efiect may be fatal.'' But ample, and un-
varying experience has now demonllrated, not only ti.at fuch
danger was altogether imaginary, but that wafliing the fliiii
with cold water, even under the JuU eruption of Icarlatina,

the foot itfelf. After enumerating the various external ap- and in the eruptive fever of fmall-pox, affords the moft grate-

lications, fuch as poultices, fomentations, bliilers, linapilms,
eai-iiphor, and llimulaling fubltances, which have been occa-
honally recommended, Dr. Cullen concludes, that from any
1.1 them there is dano-er of renderinsx the crout retroeedent ;
" and that therefore the common practice of committing
lUe perfon to patience and flannel alone, is eltabliflied upon

fill relief to the patient, and is the moll effectual moderator
of his difeafe. (See Cold, ij^Wir 0/ us a renu-Jy.) Nor is
a confiderable experience of the fafety andeiiicacy of a llmi-
lar practice, in lubduing the inflammation of gout, wanting.
'I'he great Dr. Harvey himlelf, whole name is immortalized
by the dileovery of the circulation of the blood, w.is in the
i!ie belt foundation." As there is no danger from the lit of habit of immerhng his toot in cold water, as foon as he por-
L;out, when regular, in a conllitution not much broken, this ceived the approach ot the gout, and thus removed the dif-
lUetliod may be purfued with a certain degree of impunity : order : he lived to the age of eighty- V'an Swieten men-
tions an officer oi infantry, who was ijiduced to rub his gouty
feet with fnow, and afterwards, emboldened by fiicecfs, wait-
ed a little way baretiiot upon the Inow, and returned quite
free from jiain: the interval before another lit iias alfo length-
ened by this practice. Similar obfervations were likevvife
made by tlie ancients. Aetius informs us, that he li.id feea.
a perfou labouring under what he calls a bilious gout, " who
obtained extraordinary relief from immerlitig and keeping bis
foet fome time in cold water.'' And it is an aphorilm of
Hippocrates, that " cold water, copioully poun-d upon fwell-
ings of the joints,, painful ulcers, ^outy rijfortlerj, and con-
vulfed limbs, leli'ens and removes the pam." (Aph. 2j.
fee. 5 See alfo Heberden Comment, p. 45. — 'Van Swie-
ten, Com. ad Aph. 1^73-) But the molt cxtculivc evidence-

but it cannot be quellioned, that the loads <.i{ f.dunel, which
u'e fometimes uled, often augment the necelhty tor a lupply
of patience, by increaflng tlie inflammati.iii and pain in the
toot. It is true, that the parts thus fwelled and painful, are
more acutely fenlible to cold, as well as to other impreflions,
t'nan in health ; but no covering beyond what i., Iiiliicient to
prevent a troublefome fenfation of culd, if that fliould oc-
■:ur, can be neceffary. (Heberden.) All poultices, fomen-
tations, and wai-m batliing during the inflammatory llage arc
pernicious..

It is more than probable, that confiderable errors have been
committed, upon the hypothetical notion, of keeping the
gout in the extremities, at lealt in the younger fubjects of
jj'out, by deviations from tlie aniiphlogillic regimen. In

GOUT.

of the cffi.cr.cy of this practice, in niring the paroxyfm of
gout, has bjcn adduced by Dr. Kiiijrluke, (fee a DifTerta-
tion on Gout, &c. I^oud, 1804,) who brought forward about
tliirty cafos, in which tlic apphcation of cold water to the
inflamed part, dining the gouty paroxyfm, was invariably
and fpecdily fucccl'sft!! in relieving the pani and removing the
difeafe, without any untoward circumttantfe enfving. Dr.
Kinglakc maintains, lliat the inflamniationof gout is to be
treated upon the fame principles as other local inlinmmations,
and yields to the fame Ireatmcut. That this propofition is
correct, while the conftitution remains unbroken, we fully
believe ; but to what extent the principle will hold, in thole
vvhofc fvltem is greatly debilitated and decayed, as well by
age as by frequent and protraftcd difeafe, remains as yet
undetermined by experience. With tlie diminiOied ftrength
of the patient, the paroxyfms bec(mie diminifnedin violence,
and attive remedies arc, therefore, the lefs required ; but
from what we have detailed above, it appears at leaft highly
probable that, in the firll attacks of gout, the application
of cold, iudicioully employed, fo as to remove the morbid
heat and" no longer, would always be fafe, and would con-
tribute as well to fhorten the paroxyfm, as to diminiflt the
fufferinrr of the patient, and to preferve the joints from the
injury, wdiich protracted inflammation and morbid effulions
nccelTarily occallon.

The operation of Jiiir^ulives, which is known to be cfTen-
tially ufeful in other inllammations, has been confidered as
beneficial in the gout by fome phylicians, but has more
commonly been altogether forbidden. Sydenham exprefTes
himfelf very ilrongly in prohibition of purging, at any
period of the fit, or even in the interval ot health. Had
he expreffed his conviction upon this point fimply as the re-
fult of experien-ce, we fliould have been dilpoled to bow
to his authority : but his theory appears to have had at
leaft an equal fliare in producing this convidtion ; and un-
fortunately this theory involves tiie moft grofs contradittion.
In the beginning of the paroxyiin, we are told that there is
great danger left purgatives fliould ftop the inflammation of
the foot, " by throwmg back into the mafs of blood that
peccant matltr, which nature was protrudiiig to the extreme
parts." (Traftat. de Podagra.) But after the termination
of the fit, there is extreme danger, " lelt a new paroxyfm
in the foot, equally fevere with the former, Ihould be
produced by a purgative.'' (Ibid.) So that this theory
blows hot and cold, like the fatyr in the fable ; and thefe
dangerous purgatives draw the peccant matter out of the foot,
when it happens to be in, and are the moft effeftual means
of throwing it into the foot after it has been driven out not
only from the foot, but from the whole body (according to
the hypothefis) by nature !

Sydenham, however, lived long enough to retraft, in part,
his opinion refpefting the injurious influence of purgatives
in the gout, eipecially if the milder ones arc ufed, and an
anodyne given afier the operation. (Differt. de Mictu San-
guineo, &c. 1686.) Van Swieten obferves, " many phyfi-
cians are of opinion, that part of the gouty matter may
be carried off by purgatives, and the fit rendered much
more m.ild, efpecially if it be occafioned from errors in
diet ;'' and he quotes Hoftmann, who recommends gentle
purgatives in all cafes of local pain, and has mentioned an
inflance in his own perfon of tlic moft ftriking benefit deriv-
ed from a purgative taken immediately before the fit of
gout. An inftance has been related to us, in which the
gout was completely baniflied, during a fpace of nearly
twenty years, by the ufe of a briilc purgative, taken when
the firlt fymptoms of the fit began to appear ; the medicine
employed in this initance confiiled principally of fcammouy,

in the dofe of about fifteen grains. We have ieen thi5
medicine ufed in a few cafes, with fome relief, in fnialler
dofes, and without any untoward confequences. That pur-
gativeB, as well as cold apphcations, may be reforted to
with advantage in the beginning of the paroxyfm of gout
wherever the conftitution is unimpaired, ue confidcr as tc-
Icrably well eitablillied on tlie grounds of obfervation ; al-
though we do not doubt that many of the cafes of repelled
gout, which have been attributed to fuch caufes, may have
really occurred, under circumitances of broken and feelvle
conftitution, or of peculiar idiofyncrafy. But the accidents
arifing from a carelefs or injudicious abufe of any pradtice,
afford no juft argument againft the rational and cautious ufe
of it.

We apprehend, however, that many diforders have been
very erroneoufly attributed to repulfion of the gout, which
might be more correftly explained upon other grounds.
For every inflammatory difeafe that occurred, even at the
diftance of feveral months from the celfation of the fit, has
been confidered as the refult of tlie premature cure of the
gout : whereas, it is next to impoifible that io long an inter-
val could have taken place between the caufe and its efieCt ;
and, on the other hand, as gout is moft frequent in pletho-
ric habits, which are alfo moft liable to inflammatory dif-
eafes, the occurrence of pleurify or apoplexy, in fuch cafes,
is doubtlefs to be attributed to the plethora, and not to
the previous gout. Dr. Cullen mentioned that he had
known about twenty perfons die fuddenly, more than lialf
of whom were of gouty habits.

The violence of the pain, in the paroxyfm of gout,
would naturally fuggeft the ufe of opiates : but experience
has fliewH that opium, in any form, when adminiftered in
the beginning of any inflammatory difeafe, witli whicfi
much heat of ikin and great febrile excitement are connected,
generally fails to give relief; on the contrary, that it tends
to increafe the heat, fever, and reilleffnefs, and, with them,
the pain likewife. When, however, the violence of the
paroxyfm is fomewhat abated, yet continues to return, fo
as to occafion painful and reftlcfs nights, opiates may then
be given with fafety and with advantage, efpecially in the
cafe of perlons advanced in hfe, and who have been often
affected with the difeafe. Tlie liypothetical objei^tion to
the ufe of opiates, that they tend " to lock up the morbid
matter," ii altogether groundlefs. Dr. Warner fpcaks with
delight of the toothing influence of opium in the fits of
gout, which he fuffered in the latter periods of his life.

(P. ..S3-i3^-)

Hitherto we have feen that the praftlce, generally pur-
fued in the paroxyfm of gout, is merely palliative; an actual
cure being deemed a deiideratum by moft perlons, and a
thing improper to be attempted by others. Of late, how-
ever, a medicine has been introduced into this country from
France, which is faid to poffefs a fpeclfic power over the
goutv paroxyfm, which it removes " cito, tuto, et jueunde."
The compofition of this medicine is at preient unknou-n,
but it has been afccrtained that it is a vegetable matter, and
it is faid by the inventor to be a plant lieretoforc not ufed in
medicine. It is called eau nieilicinale (V Hujfon. It has ap-
peared, in many Inftances in winch it has been employed in
this country, and that in perfons of the firil rank and cha-
racter, to poflefs the power of removing the ])aroxyfm of
gout in the courfe of twenty-four hours, leaving the patient
in a ftate of good health, and in pofleflion of the fame ufe
of his limbs wiiich he enjoyed before the fit. It is faid that,
in general, it increafes the various excretions confiderablv,
if taken in the full dofe, producing feveral loofe motions
from the bowels, a free perfpiration, and an increafcd dif-

tharjjc

GOUT.

charge of urine. But tlis influence of the medicine on the verfity of Edinburgh, is a rcmarkatle example of the ptr.

I ffouty parents,
(ufftred fvveral

gouty pnroxyfm is not attributed to thcfc evacuations; lince,
in fonie inftances, in wliich a fmaller dofc was taken, a llnii-
lar relief to the gout was procured, witliout any increafe of
the excretions. No untoward circumftance whatever has
yet occurred, in confequence of the fpeedy removal of the
paroxyfm : but fartlier experience will be requifite to enable
us to form a fatisfuCt-Jiy ellimate of its properties. (See
an Account of the Eau Medicinale d'Huflon, by Edwin
G. Jones. M. D. Lond. 1810 )

Trealnifnt in the Interval. — Whatever nwthod is adopted
in the treatment of the fit of gout, whether it be merely
palliative, or fo active as to fhorten the attack, the coniHtu-
tion retains its predifpofition, and is equally liable to fufFer
a return of the difeafe. It is not yet afcertaincd, we be-
lieve, whether the fits, when warded oft by the eau med'ic'i-
r.iile, do not recur more frequently. It is the treatment of
the patient in the interval of health, by which alone the dif-
eafe oan be cured, i. e. the paroxyfms prevented irom re-
turning, and the goutv diathelis eradicated. How this is
to be effected, we cannot learn from a view of the ])roxi-
mate caufe, or efTential nature of the difeafe ; for upon this
point we have no adual knowledge : but, as we pofleis fwme
knowledge of the exciting caufes of the difeafe, or of the
circuinftances which generate or fofter the predifpofition to
its attacks ; fo, by rcm.oving tliefe, we may hope to prevent
the production of tint predifpofition, or to diniiniih it, if
not to remove it altogether. Now, we have feei; that in-
temperance and indolence are the parents of the gouty dia-
thcfis, where it is not hereditary, and are the chief agents
in exciting it to activity, where it is. The inference, then,
is obvious: by ttwpcniv.ce and ndii'it\, and not by medicine,
the return of the gouty paroxylms is principally to be pre-
vented.

There is, perhaps, no fubject, on which Enghdimen in
general entertain fo many unfounded prejudices, or lillen to
argument with fo little attenti<ni or conviction, as that of
tinipenmce. It is conceiTed that phyficians, in inculcating
the advantages of it, only talk idly about it, in the way of
their proftfllon ; and that w hat is called good living, when
not carried to actual debauch, is favourable to the fupport
and health of the body. It is, indeed, fo univerfally the
practice, in this country, to indulge an artilicial ajipetile,
beyond the actual wants of nature, that temperance is a
thing, as Dr. Cadogan obfervts, of which an Englifliinan
can acquire no idea at home. It is, however, altogether
comparative with refpecl to individual conftitution ; for
ionie perfons will become plethoric to a morbid degree,
upon diet which is barely fufficient to fupport life in others.
I'erhaps Dr. Cadogan's teft is correct. " As long as a
man eats and drinks no more than his itomach calls for,''
/. e. when unexcited by variety of dilhes, by iauces and
condiments, or bv interpofing liquor of any kind) " and
will bear without the lealt pain, dillention, eructation, or
hneafuiefs of any kind, &c. he may be faid to live in a
•,'.rv prudent well-regulated (late of temperance, that will
robably preferve hiip. in health and fpirits to great old age.'' 1

^Oii the Gout, p. 31 ,

We know too well, however, the general want of power
or inclination to refill the pleafures of the table, with
li-.at degree of perfeverance and to the requifite extent,
'o expect that many cures of the gout will be effected in this
.vay ; but this we may alfert, that the only inilances of the
eradication of the difeafe, which are known, have been ac-
complilhed by rigid and perfevering teinperance. Dr.
Janus Gregory, the prefent profeffor of medicine in the uiii-

Vw,. XVI.

fe(ft cure of the gout by fiich means. Corn of £
he was attacked (everely when young, and
paroxyfms, which, after being banifhed by abltetnious livinn.
recurred on a (liort indijgence on reviliting Oxford ; but hr
has fincc that time entirely kept the foe at a diflaiice for about
thirty years, by extreme temperance and much txercife, and
is now liale and fining, llnnigli advanced fevcnil years be-
yond the age at which his f.ilhir died, brokvn d<iwM l>y the
gout. This he repeats annually to liis pupils with no fmall
exultation. His diet has buen chiefly broth, or a fparing
quantity of plain anim::l food, with littl" or no wii^c. Dr.
Cadogan affords another inllance of the benefit of rigid tem-
perance in his own perfon, "having not only got rid of the
gout," he fays, "of which I liad four fevi-re fits in my
younger days, but alfo emerged from the lov.ell ebb of life,
that a man could polfibly be reduced to bv colic, jaundice,
and a complication of complaint;, and ri.c(;vered to iM-rftd
health, which I havL- now uniiiterrnplediv enjoyed above I'-n
years." (Loc. cit. p. 83.) Dr. Heberden likewife ob-
ferves, that alth<nigh complete curi-s of the gout are ex-
tremely rare, yet he has feen more than one inllance in which.
by a total abllinence from animal food and wine, the patieot«
were reilorcd from a flate of extreme debility and miferv, fr»
fuch a degree of health and flrength, as rendered their lifr
no longer ufelefs to others, nor painful to tliemfclvei.
Coinm. J) 44.

It can icarcely be doubled, indeed, that a complete cure
of the difeafe might, by a rigid plan of life, beH.ccomplifhcd
in mofl cafes, when the patients are not above tlie age of ^o
or 35 years, even if they fhonld already have experiL-nced
two or three paroxyfms. In older habits, where the dileaie
is of longer (landing, a c(«ii]jkte cure cannot he fo confidently
anticipated ; but experience has Ibewn that the feveritv and
the conlcquent evils of the difeafe mav be cfiecluallv miti-
gated by temperance, even under fuch circuinllances. It i>
a moil dangerous and miitaken notion that the gont is to be
encouraged; for its tendency is to increafe in frequencv,
and in duration, to cri))ple tlie limbs, and to render the body
liable to a variety of diforders, which tend to render life
both fliorter and nuire niilerable than it w&jld otherwii'e
be.

The fear of the pernicious confequences of rigid tempe-
rance is an unfounded piTJudic, very prevalent 'n this
country ; but it there be any danger, it can oejv originate
in general from the iuddennefs villi which an extrJinc clianwe
is made. We have feen, in the cafe of the l*t miller of Bd-
lericay, however, what a fmall quantity of nutriment is al>-
folutely requifite for the wants of the conllitution, and how
beneficial even an extreme change of diet lomctimes proves.
(See Ci'Ki't'l.i.xcE.)

The next point of management in the iaterral, whicl;»
together with temperance, conduces to the prcvtution of
the recurrence of gout, is exercijc. This tends to obviat*
plethora, on the one hand, by promoting the circulation and
all the fecretions, and to thvngthen the ftomach, on the other
and, and promote the function of digeflion ; and plethora
and indigeilion, as we have already Itated, commonly pre-
cede the gouty paroxyfm, and are connected w ith the goutif
diathcfis. 15y thote who cannot walk, which is the licil
mode of exerciie for the gouty, riding on horfeback, o^
even in a carriage, Ihould be fubflitut.d. Even frictioi\,
w here thefe modes of exerciie cannot be retorted to, mav br-
an ufeful fuccedaneum. Dr. Cadogan's directions on this
head are worthy of attention. If t!ie pa'ient "can nriiher
walk nor ride ;it all, he muil by dejjrecs be brought to do

U

bo!j»

GOUT.

•

both by the affiftancc of others, which may be given him in wc are much difpofcd, with Dr. Cuflen and ctr.ers, t© be-

the following manner : lot a handy aftive fervant or two be lieve the impoflibility of curing the gouty habit by me-

emploved to rub him all over, as he lies in bed, with flannels, dicines, we (hall notice one or two known medicines, which

or riannel gloves, fumigated with gums and fpices, which have been in vogue no long time ago. If the gouty corili-

will contribute c^reatly to brace and ilrengthen his nsrves and tution is created by a feries of high-feeding and indolence,

fibres, and move his blood without any fatigue to himfelf. how is it to be expefted that medicine can change that con-

This may take up from five to ten minutes at firil, but ititution, efpecially while the caufe continues to operate ?

muft be repeated five or fix times a day, fuppofing him totally The PorlL<;nii potudcr h a medicine which obtained con-

un:ible to help himfelf. But if he cat walk a hundred yards fiderable reputation, as a cure for the gout, about the mid-

only, it will forward him greatly to walk thoid hundred yards
every two hours; and if he can bear a carriage, let him go
out in it every day, tillh> begins to be tired. The firft
day or two all this may dlllurb and fatigue him a little ; biit
if he has patience to perfevere to the fourth, I dare promife
him feme amendment and increafe of ftreiigth ; which he
iiiuil employ, as young merchants do a little money, to get a

die of the lall century. Tliis pov.'der derived its name fronz
the duke of Portland, who received fo much relief from it,
that he ordered the formula to be printed, and delivered to
all who {hould adc for it. It was brought from Switzerland
by a friend of the d;;ke's. The powder confiils of the roots
of ariftolochia rotunda and gentian, and of the tops and
leaves of germander, ground-pine, and centaury, well

ttlc more. Thus he muft go on rubbing, walking, and dried and powdered, equal weights. This powder was or-
ridin^ a little more and more every day, flopping always on dered to be taken for a year or two, at firil in the dofe of a
the fi°ft fenfation of wearinefs to reft a little, till he be able drachm daily, but afterwards in fmallcr qtiantities. (See

Medical Obf. and Inqiiir. vol. i. art. 14.) In the work
juft referred to. Dr. Clcphane has fhewn that a fimilar com-
pofition was ufed by the ancients for the cure of gout.

to wolk tvv-o or three m.iles at a ftretch, or ride ten without
any v.-earinefs at all." He muft ever' remcsr.bcr, however,
that the habit of body is only to be corrcficd by liabitual
meafures ; and perfeverance, therefore, muft be his motto in
regard to exercife, not lefs than with refpecl to temperance

Such a formula is given by Galen, in his treatife De Anti-

dotis, lib. ii. cap. 17., which he fays he had ufed liimfelf.

But it muft be obferved, in general, that the exercife Cxdius Aurelianus fpeaks of fimilar medicines, under the

from their being taken

denomination of annnlia mcdtcaiiuna,

for the fpace of a year. Aetius gives, among other gout
medicines, an " antidotus podagrica ex duobus centaureae
generibus,"' which differs from the Portland pov.der in one
But feveral of the ancients confidcred the

mgredient only

Ihould not be violent ; for if violent, it cannot be long con-
tinued, and muft always endanger the produftion of atony
and debilitv in proportion to the degree of violence. " It
r.-iuft be moderate," to ufe the words of Dr. Cnllcn, " but
at the fame time conftant, and continued through life.''

It has been fuppofed by fome perfons, that an abllemious long uninterrupted ufe of thefe medicines as dangerous; and
and aftive mode of life for a limited time, as for inftance, an alfure us that they are extremely hurtful in the hot and
abftineiice from animal food and fermented liquors, and a diet bilious, and are only proper in cold and phlegmatic confti-
«f milk and farinaceous matters alone, for the fpace of one tutions. The Portland powder has fallen into ncglefl, un-
year, might be fufficient for a radical cure of the gout, der a notion that it was ultimately prejudicial. " In every
Such an opinion was expreffed by Cclfus, v.-ho fays that inftance," fays Dr. Cullen, " whic1« I have knov.-n cf its
" fome, by cleanfing themfelves thoroughly by drinking exhibition for the length of time prefcribed, the perfons who
r.fits' milk, have for ever banifhed the difeafe ; and others, had taken it were indeed afterv,-arJs free from any inftamma-

by abftaining, during a whole year, from wine, mulfe, and
venery, have obtained a fecurity from it for the remainder of
their lives." (De Medicina, lib. iv. cap. 22.) In a few
cafes, this plan may pofTibly have fucceedcd ; but it is well

tory affeftion of the joints: but they wei-c affected with
many fymptoms of the atonic gout; and all, foon after
finifning their courfe cf medicine, have been attacked with
apoplexy, afthma, or dropfy, which proved fatal." (Firft

are as far be3-ond the truth, as they formerly were in its fa-
vour. (Comment, p. 48.) He attributed to it ccnfidcrable

mitted, occur in gouty habits, v.ould be probably accele-
rated, if not occafioncd, by the ufe cf a ftomachic pow-

known that many perfons, wh.o, by entering on an ab- Liner, par. 557.) Dr. Heberdcn, however, is of opinion,

ilemious courfe, had been delivered from the gout, have, on that the popular prejudices againft tliis medicine at prefent
i-etrrning to their former mode of living, had the difeafe
return with at leaft equal violence.

While an abftemious regimen, combined with exercife, powers of alleviating the dileafe, by ftrengthening the i!c-

will tend to correft the gouty habit, if Ifeadily purfued ; it mach and fupporting the funftion of digcftion ; and believes

will be at the fame time advifable to avoid as much aspoffible that many of the evils (which, becaufe they followed its ex-

fomeof thofe circum.ftances, which we have nientioncd above hibition, were imputed to its operation,) were in reality the

as among the freauent exciting caufes of the diieafe ;' more confequences of the difeafe, and not of the remedy. That

efpecially when the gouty habit has become eftabliftied by a thofe cafes, however, of apoplexy, S:c., which, it is ad-
repetition of the fits, or is hereditary in its origin. In fuch
cafes, the meafures, whiih we have propofed, are not ca-

fily pnri'ued to the requifite extent, and are commonly at- der, while the full diet was continued, appears to be ex-
tempted even with reludlance : men, therefore, have been tremely probable ; for the plethora muil have been increafed
very defirous to find a medicine which might anfwer the pur- in proportion to the artificial incrcv.fe cf the digefiive
pofe, without rcqniring a reftramt on their m.anner of living, powers. We fliould, therefore, be di.^pcfed to conclude,
Of this defire numerous empirics and felf-intere-lcd pre- that the conftant ufe of fuch a mcdicir.e muft be pernicious,
tenders have taken advantage, and have been induced either unlefs it were combined with temperance in eating and drink-
to amufe the gouty wish inert medicines, or have ralhly em- ing ; and that, with fuch a regimen, it would in all prcbabi-
ployed thofe of the moft pernicious tendency. It is unne- lity be highly beneficial, if taken whenever the fympton-iS of
celTary for us to inquire into 'he nature cf thofe aileged_/2'^r;- indigeftion fhould appear.

fie njfiri^ms, which, after being tor fome time in vogue. Another clafs of remedies has been employed in the in-

wrre neglefted or exploded, as their inutility or injurious terval between the paroxyfm.s of gout, and in many in-

<}ualitics were thus acknowledged. But alter premifing thut fiances with confiderable alleviation to the difeafe^ rendering

the

GOUT.

th--- fits milJer, and the inttrvah between tliem longer : we.
allude to the antadih ; fuch as the alkalis, and abiorbent
eartlis. The nature of the chalky matter, produced in in-
veterate gout, which is an acid, and denominated lithic or
uric acid, (being the fame which is found in the urine and
urinary concretions,) has led to the theory, that this acid, or
its elements, is the morbiiic humour of the gouty ; and
therefore naturally fuggefted the idea of ufmg alkaline me-
dicines as remedies for the difeafe. And as acefcent drinks
are found to increafe the gouty diathefis, and to increafe the
difordered (late of the digellive organs ; fo alkaline medl'.'ines
have been found to relieve tb.e fymptoms of indlgeflion, and
at the fame time to leflen the difpofition to gout. Thus the
cauftic alkalis have been found beneficial ; but not more fo,
we believe, than tb.e mild or carbonated alkalis, efpccially
potafs ; and the abloi-bent or alkaline earths have likewife
afforded relief, and fomcli'.nes fpeedily remoi,-ed fome of the
urgent fymptoms of difordered llomach ; efpccially the pre-
parations of chalk, lime-water, and magnefia. The mag-
nefiu is perhaps ose of the beft medicines of this fort for the
gouty, as it not only corrects the acidity of the Itomach,
but at the fame time is laxative to the bowels, and thus con-
tributes to obviate plethora. When thefe antacids do not
fufiiciently open the bowels, or do not prevent coftivenefs, a
little rhubarb, aloes, or fome other aromatic purgative
fliould be conjoined with them. It appears, from fome ex-
periments mads by Mr. Home and Mr. Crande, and recently
publifhcd in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, (Part I. for
1810) that magnefia has a much more powerful influence in
preventing the formation of the uric acid, in the urine, than
any of the alkalis ; it is probable, therefore, that it may be
more beneficial in the gout. As a warm laxative the tinfture
of guaiacuni was much recommended, and as it combines a
flimjlaat with anevacuant property, it may be lerviccable
in fome conflitutions.

Cure of the irr'gular Gout. — We have already remarked,
that falfe th.^ory has led to much f.ille alarm, and doubtkfs
to many mlllakes in practice, efpecially relative to the atonic
gout ; all the various fymptoms of dyfpepfia, and hypo,
chondriafis being often fuppofed to be gouty, when no aftual
gout had ever appeared. Hence fomentations, blifters, ru-
befacients, and other local ftimulants to the extremities, the
Bath waters, hot pcdiluvia, &c. have been employed to bring
on the gout in the feet, inftead of relying on the remedies
which might reilore the funftions of the digellive organs.
T'^J Bath waters are certainly to be recommended in thofe
cafes, as they are pofTefTed of conliderable powers in reiloring
the healthful condition of the Romach, efpecially when it
has been difordered by irregular and intemperate living ;
and of relieving thofe wandering pains, which are deemed
gouty, but which, as Dr. Heberden obferves, are the com-
mon accompaniments of declining years and a broken co;ifli.
tu.ion.

In thefe cafes of atonic or wandering gout, as it is called,
all the means iifually employed to llrcngthen the habit in ge-
neral, and the ftomach in particular, are to be reforted to.
Moderate, but frequent and regidar exercife on horieback,
or walking, mull be purfued ; the diet fnould be a little
more generous, and fome wine may be necelTary ; but both
■food and drink of the acefcent kind mull be flumned, and if
wine, of whatever fort, fiiould be found to increafe the acidity
of the fiomach, fpirits much diluted with water ihould be
fubtlituted. At the fame time, for tliepurpofe of fupport-
ing the tone of the fiomach, preparations of iron, the Peru-
vian bark, bitters, and aromatics in moderation may he re-
forted to ; and laxatives, employed only fo as to prevent cof-
tivenefs, m.ull be taken. The propriety of frequent gentle

vomit.'i, where tlic ihdigeflion is trobblefome, id ir.ore than
problematical ; .^or, while tiicy give a temporary reliif, by
removing a load of undigefted food, they tend to debilitate
the organ, and thus to increafe the evil which they were in-
tended to remove. At the fame lime, all tlie caufes of debi-
lity formerly mentioned, mud be fhuniird, and cxpofure to
cold efpccially mufl be carefully avoided : the mofl cfrtain
rneans of doing this is by repairing to a warm climate during
the winter fealon.

Cure cf rnifplaccd or rdrocrJent Gcul.- Tlicfc, like the ato-
nic gout, are in a confiderable degree the bugbears of medi-
cal Ipeculation, more efpecially the mifplaced gout ; tlify
do, we believe, occaiionally occur in caf^s of old and inve-
terate gout, but certainly much more rarclf than ii gene-
rally believed. This opinion Dr. Heberden Aates from his
own experience. (Comment, p. 41. — See alfo " Letters on
the Caufe and Treatment of Gout," by Dr. Robert Ha-
milton, Lynn, 1809.) The lafl mentioned phytician, who
had employed bleeding and other antiphlogillic remedies,
both upon himfelf and feveral of his friends for eighteen
years, never faw any thing like a retrocefTion of gout ; and
Dr. Cullen never faw an inllance of mifplaced gout.

When the gout has dilappeared in the extremities, the
fiomach and bowels are fometi.nes attacked with moil acute
pain, which is of a fpafmodic nature, and to be relieved
oijly by flrong difTiifive llimulants, and opium in full dofcs.
Opiates arc doubtlefs the moll cffeclual antiipafmodics ; but
their operation will be aided by combining with them the
ethers, volatile alkali, the free ufe of 'Irong wines, and aro-
matics, given warm, or ardent fpirits, if thefe are not elTec-
tual. Camphor, muflv, aflafoctida, and other flrong fr..eUinz
fubflances, may be employed as adjuvants, efpecially m lets
violent cafes. External heat to the region cf the ftomach,
hot pediluvia, or the warm bath, will contribute by their
flimulant powers to overcome the fpafms and pain. If the
fiomach is known to be loaded, as by a previouj rcpafl, its
contents may be evacuated upwards, by draughts oi warm
water, with wine, or of chamomile tea, or downwards by
means of fome of the cathartic tirclurcs, as of ionoa, or
rhubarb.

As thofe perfons, who are fubjcil to paroxvfu.s- of the
gout, are generally plethoric in their habits, fo ih.-y are lia-
ble to inilammatory difeafes : and it cannot be doubted,
that ordinary attacks of inllammation of the lungs, of palfy,
and apoplexy, have been deemed gouty, and have proved fatal
from the oniiiTi-jn of blood-letting. When the fymptoms o«
pleurify, or pcripneumony, or the acute pain cf head, verti-
go, loninolency, threatening apoplexy, or the actual fymp-
toms of apoplexy and palfy occur ; we ought not to delay
the exhibition of the ufual remedies for tliofe 4ifeafc.', or be
induced to be fparing in the ufe of the lancet, becaufc wc
apprehend a gouty diathefis ; for death may be producetl iti
a few minutes. And, as Dr. Heberden ju!lly oblerws,
" where the danger is imn\inent, from the violeiice of the
fymptoms, and wo are doubtful whethir they be gouty or iii-
flamniatory, we incur much gre.tter rifk by oniitling blood-
letting in a difeafe arillng from inllamnvation, th.in by di-aw-
ing blood in a difeafe arifmg from gout."' Indeed tbcfe
very phyficians, who condemn blecdi.ng and other OT.ciia-
tions in gout, in, the extremities, gravely prefcribe the prompt
admiwiilMtion of tliefe remedies, when the lungs, head, or
other vifcera are atia.ked with it. In a word, when the 'c-
ternal vifcera are affecltd with unequivocal fymptoms ol in-
flammation, the fame treatment by local and general evacua-
tion, blillering, &c. nnul be reforted to, as in all other cafe*
of inllammation, regard being bad at the fame time (an cb-
fcrvatioa, indeed, which applies to the practice of medicine
3 U 2 univerfallvj

G O W

G 6 W

tinivcrrally ) to tkf pct'uliar circumftances of the patient's
agf, fi.reiigth, and conftitiition.

GovT-'cUort, in Bolitiiy. See Asc.ELICA.
GOUTIER, GoTRE. or Goiire, terms in ^uiypry, ap-
phcd to a chronic enlargement of the th)Told gland. See
Bitos'ciion'.r.i- and Goithe.

GOUTY-I.AND, in y^^riiu'liin; a term uted by tlie
farmers to denote a hollow fuz/v black earth, with little
fprings, that have no free outlet, nud therefore fwell anc^^•le-
vate tlic furiarcin many places.

GOUVEA, in Geo;^raphy, a town of Portugal, in Eftre-
madura ; 20 miles S.E. of Vifeu.

GOUX DE I.A Bovlayj:, Fn vxrts i.e, in Biogra-
phy, a celebrated traveller, was born in the province of An-
jou about the year ]6lo. Little is known of his early life,
but that lie fell a ftrong propenfity for rambling into foreign
tiov.ntries : he employed ten years fuccellively in traverliiig
various parts of the globe. He feems to have been willing
to become all things to all men, in order to obtain his wiflies
in fafety. In Africa and many parts of Afia he palled for
a Mahometan, and in Europe he was a good Catholic. On
ills return, he publilhed an account of his travels, under the
title of " Les Voyages des Obfervations de Erani;ois de la
Boulaye le Goux, en divers Pays, d'Europe, d'Ahe, et
•I'Afrique, jufqu'a I'Annce 1650." This work was publilhed
in^to. and illuftrated and adorned with engravings. The
fiyle is incorreft, but the fafts, as far as they are borne out
with truth, are faid to be very curious. He was fo much
Jiltered in liis perfon during his abfence from France, that
iiis motlier even, either could not, or would not recognize
him, and he was obliged to inllitute a law-fuit to cihiblifli
liis rights as heir in the family. In 1668 he was appointed
ambalFador to the Porte and the great mogul, by I^ewis
XIV. who was verr delirous of renewing his commerce with
the Eaft. Le Boufaye died in Perfia of a fever before he
had executed this million. Moreri.

GOUYE, Thomas, was born at Dieppe in the year
1650. He was brought up among the .Tefuits, and was at
an early period diftinguilhed by an ardent love for matlienia-
ticaland fcientilie purfuits. In 1699 ^'-" ^^''^ elefted a mem-
ber of tlie Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, of which
body he became an affiduous attendant, and was highly
elleemed for the ufetul contributions which he made to tiieir
memoirs. He died at Paris in 1725, leaving behind him, as
•nemorials of his learning and induilrv, " Phyfical and Ma-
thematical Obfervations tending to the Improvement of
Aftronomy and Geography, fent from Siam to the Academy
of Sciei;ees at Paris, by the Jetuit Mifhonaries, witli Reflec-
tions and Notes, in two volumes." The iirll volume was
publilhed in 16S8, the fecond in i6y2, and both have been ■
mierted in thefeventh volume of the collections of the Aca-
demy. Moreri.

GOW, in Geofrrap/.'v, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
40 miles S.S.W. ot Bahar. N. lat. 25 . E. h)ng.

GOV/ER, Joiix, in B'w^rnphy, an ancient Engiilh poet
of tiie fourteenth century, is faid to have been defeeiided
from a family at .Stitenham in Yorkfhire. He had the bell
."ducation which the tim.es afforded, and at a proper age be-
cam.e a member of the fociety of the Inner Temple, where
he attained to a high degree of refpeclability in the profeffion
of the law, aiKl where lie became acquainted with Chaucer.
Some writers affirm that, in the courfe of his profefnonal
duties he was appoiited chief juftice of the court of Com-
mon Pleas, though otliers think the judge wiis another perfon
of the fame name wlio was a contemporary v.ith the poet.
Gower attached bimfeJf to the duke of Glouceftcr, uncle to

Richard II., and was much noticed by the king himfelf, at
whofe delire tie wrote his prmcipal work. He had, however,
a pliable mind, and could turn his pen to different iiiterells ;
for on the acceflion of Henry IV. he not only wrote in
adulatory terms to the new king, but even reflected on the
mil-government of the one who had been depofed, and who
had been his patron. His circumllancea were fuch as 10 put
him beyond the fear of want, for he appears to iiave been a li-
beral contributor to the rebuilding of the cliurch of St. Mary
Overy in Southwark. During tiie lirfl year of Henry's reign,
our poet liad tlie misfortune to he deprived of his light, an
affliction whieli he did not long furvive. He died in tlie year
1402, at a very advanced age. Go-ver, fays his biographer,
is entitled to a place among Engiilh writers only relative-
ly to the time in whicli he flourilhed ; for though well fur-
niflied with karning, and a fuccefsful culti\ator of his native
language, he has irot the leail pretentions to genius or inven-
tion. He is characterized by his friend Chaucer, as the
" moral Gower ;" he was uniformly grave, even upon topics
that might infpire vivacity. He was author of thret" volumes,
entitled " Speculum Meditantis ;" " Vox Clamantis ;'' and
" ConfefTio Amantis." Of thefe, the lu-fl is a moral trail,
and relates to conjugal duties; the fecond is a metrical chro-
nicle concerning the infurrection of the people under Rich-
ard II., in Latin elegiac verfe : the third, or " Lover's Con-
feffions," relates to the morals and metaphylics of love.
This is tlie only one that has been printed, and it was among
theearliell products of the Engiilh prefs, by Caxton in 1483.
It feems, fays Mr. Warton, to have been his object to crowd
all his erudition into this elaborate performance. The mofl
interelling part of the work is a variety of llories adduced as
moral examples, and taken from authors moll in vogue, an-
cient and modern. The language is perlpicuous, and the ver-
lilieation frequently harmonious. Biog. Brit. Warton.

CJowKii, in Geogrnphy, a diltrict of Wales, in the fouth'
we Item extremity of Glamorgan fhire, below the town of
Swanfea, and boundcnl by the Irith fea and the Brillol
channel.

GowEH, Cape, a cape on the E. coaft of China, lying in
the track from the fouthward to the gulf of Pekin. A reef
of rocks runs out from a neck of land near this cape, which
appeared to have a compaft harbour. Tlie entrance to it
was between the cape and the reef iilil mentioned. When
the perfons concerned in the embalfy to China pafTed this
cape, a conhderiible number of vefi'els wei'e dcfcried in the.,
harbour, and a pretty large town behind it. N. lat. 36''
57'. E. long. 122'^ 15'.

Gowi'.i;'.s IJItmd, a fmall, flat, low ifland, in the Pacific
ocean, fo called by captain Carteret, who pafl'cd it in Au-
gnit 1767 ; he found no anchorage, and could only obtain a
few cocoa-nuts in exchange for nails ; the inhabitants rc-
fembled thofe of Egmont ifle. S. Lit. 7 56.
158° 56'.

Gower's Harbour, a bay on the S. W. coaft of New
Ireland ; 5 miles N. of cape St. George. M. Bougain-
ville calls this " Prafslin Bay,' and by Dampier it is
called " St. George's bay.' S. lat. 4 50'. E. long.
150 ■ 48'.

GOWGAT, a town of Hindooftan ; 12 miles W. of
Agra.

GOWGATCHY, a town of Bengal; 12 miles N. of
Calcutta.

GOWN, Robe, a long upper garment, worn by law-
yers, divines, and other graduates, who are hence called
gtntlemin of ihe goivn, iir goti'ii-nun.

'Jlie gown is an ample fort of garment, worn over the

ordinary

E. long.

i

GOV

ordinary clothes, hanging down to the feet. It is faHiioned
differently for eccleliallics, and for laymen.

At Rome, they give the nan-.e \irile gown, togas virihs,
to a plain kind of gown, which their youth afTumed when
arrived at puberty. Thij they particularly denominated
prslextii.

In iome univerfities, phyficians wear the fcarlet gown.
In the Sorbonne, t!:e doctors are always in gown.s and caps.
Beadles, &;c. u ear gowns of two colours.

Among the Fre icli officers, &c. they diilingnifh thofe of
the (hort gown, or robe ; which are fuch as have not been
regularly examined. They have alio barbers of the (liort
gown, who are fuch as are obliged to practife in an inferior
way to furgeons, or thofe of the long robe.

Gowx is alfo taken, in the general, for the civil maglf-
Lratiire, or the profeflion oppofite to that of arms.

In this fenfe it was that Cicero faid, " Cedant anna
tog.f."

GOWRAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 27 miles

S. S. E. of Doefa Alio, a town of Hindooilan ; 5 miles

N. E. ot Benares.

GOWRAN, a poil town of Ireland, in the county of
Kilkenny. It is a place at prefent of no importance, but
was a borough before the Union, and there are fome ruins
which I'eem to intimate its former importar^ce. It is 52
miles S. from Dublin.

GOWREY, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 53 miles
W. of Kairabad.

GOV\'*RY-BiRD, in Ornithology, a name given by Ed-
wards to the Lo.\l.\ punciuloria.

GOWRYPOUR, in Geography, z town of Bengal ;
26 miles S. E. of Dacca.

GOWT, in Enginfery, or go-out, is a name applied to
the fea iluice, or valves ufed in embankments next the
ica or tidal rivers, for letting out the land-waters when
the tide is out, and preventing the ingrefs of ialt-water.
Srime of the gowts in the fens of Lincolnlliire and Cam-
bridgelhire are very large works, and coil in.menfe funis of
money.

GOY, in Geography. See Ant.oi.

GOYANES, a town of Spain, in GaUicia, on the fea-
coait ; 25 miles S. W. of Santiago. N. lat. 42 32'. W.
long. ^ jo'.

GOY.-vS, Go.lAS, or Goyaz, a town and government
of Brazd, extending irom 42 to 54° W. long, and from
6 30' to 19 S. lat. the inhabitants of which arc cilimatcd
at 8930 whites, 29,630 Indians, and 34,100 negroes, who
are employed in icarching for gold in the mines, which
were dilcoveredin the year 1726.

GOYAVA, a town on the \V. coafl of the illand of
Grenada. N lit. 12° 13'. W. lor.g. 61 31'.

GOY.VVES, a town oftheifland of Gaadaloupe, giv-
ing name to a bay in which it is iituated.

GOYEN, .Toiix Van-, in Biography, a painter, born at
Leyden in 1596, who iludied fuccefsfully the practice of
Ian4fcape-painting under feveral maiters, and having an un-
coninon readinefs and IkiiUiliiefs of liand, he produced a
great many works of a light agreeable kind ; with much
charactei- of nature, but no great reliih of art ; which, in
their time, however, were very highly elleemed and widely
fpread over Europe.

Views of he fcenes on the banks of the canals and rivers
of the Low Countries were his favourite lludies ; fometimes
he emerged to the fea fhore, or funk into the interior of the
country, and fkctched the villages that prel'ented themlelves
to his talle in the one, or the harbours, &c. of the other ;
bat all are touched by the fame kiud of pencilling, and

G R A

generally in the fame hue of colour, when he came to wprk
them up into pirtures. Certainly, they have much ment of
a peculiar kind, fuch as liglitnefs in the handling, and free-
dom in their efl'ect ; but frequently they arc vapid and
flimfy, and by no meansjullify the high value and repuutioii
affixed to them. It is faid that the grey tone, too frequently
found in his pidnrcs, arofe from the ufe \k made of Haer-
lem blue, which is apt to fade into that tint, and therefore
no longer in ufe. Jt may be fo ; but tliat grey is not the
l>redominant defeft in his pictures : it is the evident halle
with whicli they are wrought, and their confcquent impcr-
fection of imitation, that induces us thus to condemn what
the world have too long eAimated in a high ratio, which
ought only be given to works completed with the ikill and
])urity of tafte of a Caracci or a Claude. He died in 165(5,
aged 60.

GOZ, or GoZF.N-, in Geography, a fea-port town of Mo-
rocco, on the coall of the Atlantic, in the vicinity of
Mogodor.

GOZO, an ifland of the Mediterranean, fituated N. W.
of Malta, and at a little dillance from it. This illand is
about 25 miles in circumference, ratlier fertile, and contain-
ing about 3000 inliabitants.

Gozo, or GafJa, a finall ifland in the Mediterranean,
about 27 miles from the S. W. coall of Cardia ; anciently
" Clauda," near which St. Paul failed in his voyage to
Rome. Some biblical writers fuppofe that the Gozo near
the ifle of Malta h the Clauda of the Book cf Aits It is
occupied by about 30 families ; who have a Greek church,
and is occalionally vilited by vefTels for a fupplv of water and
provifions. At a fmall dillance to the well is a verj- little
ifland called " Pulo Gozo," or Little Goz. N. lat. 34 48'.
E. long. 23 46. See Cl.U."DA.

GOZZANO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Gogna ; 18 miles N. of Novara.

GOZZOLI, Bkxozzo, in Biography, one of the early
practitioners of tlic art of painting on its revival. He was a
Florentine, and difciple of Fra. Angelico ; but fubfequeiitly
imitated with very great fiiccefs the llyle of Maflaccio, his
contemporary. V'alari fpeaks of him with great elleem
under the name of Beiio/zo, and relates hiilories of his
many productions at Fhirence, Volterra, Rome, and Pila ;
at wliich latter place are his moil confpicuoiis labours, both
in hillory and portraits, which indivd at tint time weix>
uhially introduced in hillorical pictures. At Pifa he died
i'l 1478, aged 78, and a monument, with a Latin epitaph,
is placed near his principal work in the Campo-Santo ; a
111 niento of his powers, and the elleem in wiiich thev were
held.

GRAAF, Rkixieh De, an excellent phylician, was
born at Schoonhove, a town in Holland, where his father
was an eminent arcliitecl, on the 3Cth of .lulv, i6j.i. He
ftudied phyllc at Ley den, where he made great progrels,
and at the age of 22, publilhed his ti-eatife •' De Succo Pan-
creatico,'' which gained him conliderable reputation. In
1665', he went to France, and received the degree of M. D.
at Angers ; but lie returned to Holland in the following
year, anil llttled at Delft, where his great fuctxis in praclicc
excited the envy of his profefiional brethren. He married

in 1O72, and died in .\u'.^u(l, 1673, when he was oulv ;2
years of age. He publilhed three diifertations relative to
the organs of generation in both fexes, upon which he had
a controverfy with Swammerdam. His works were pub-
lilhed in 8vo. at Leyden, in 1677 and 1705 ; they were
alio trandated into Flemilh, and publilhed at Amltendam iu
1686. Hutchinfon, Biog. Med. Eloy.
Gra-vf R£V-\j;Tj in Geography, a difln& of fouthcm

Africa,.

G R A

Africa, in iVie colony of the Cape of Good Hope, exlend-
inc- to the eaftern extremity of the colony. On the E. it is
divided from the Kaffers by the Great Filli river, the
Tiirka, the Bambarfherg, and the Zuureberg ; on the W.
from the diftrifts of Zwellendam and Stellenbofch by the
Camtoos river, the Gamka or Lion's river, and Nieuwveld
mountains ; on the N. from the Bosjefmaii Hottentots by
Plettenbero- Landmark, the great Table mountain, and the
Karrecbcrg ; and on the S. it is terminated by the fea-
coad ; the whole length and breadth of this dillrift may be
about 250 by 160 miles, making an area of 40,000 fquare
miles, which is peopled by about 7C0 families, each family
commanding about 57 fquare miles of territory. Great
part of it has been occahonally abandoned on account of
the incurfions of the Kaffers and Bosjefmans. The inhabit-
ants are a fort of Nomades, who would long ago have
penetrated with their flocks, and herds far beyond tlie pre-
fent biiundaries of the colony, if they had not been refilled
by the Kaffers. The boors of this dillricl are graziers ;
and it is entirely compofed of loan-farms, which were grants
made to the original fettlcrs of certain portions ot land
to be held on reafonable yearly leafes, on condition of
paving to government an annual rent of 24 rix-dollars.
Barrow's Travels in S. Africa, vol. ii.

GRAAT, or GliAET B.MiKNT, in Biography, an hif-
torical painter, wliofe name is remembered principally upon
account of his clofe imitation of the works of Bambcccio,
and of hi» having founded an academy at Amilerdam, wliere
lie was born, to which the bell artills of his time rcforted
to ftudy after living models ; by which means much im-
provement was obtained, and fpread among thofe who cul-
tivated talle and fcience in the arts. He died in 1709,
aged 81.

GRAB, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz ; 17 miles W. N. W. of Leitmeritz.

GRABATAR.!!, Ghabb.vt.\RII, in Church Antiquity,
fuch perfor.s as deferred the receiving of baptifm till the
hour of death ; or who did not receive it till they were
dangcroufly ill, and out of hopes of life : from an opinion,
that baptifm abfolutely waflied away all former iinf.

The word is formed of grabalum, bed ; and that from the
Greek ypiSy^lo; a hanging bed, of k;;/^.ki, I fufpeud : fuch
as was the bed of flaves, poor people, Cynic philofophers,
&c. who are enemies of luxury and eafc.

GRABAU, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 12 miles S. of Kaliih.

GRABAW, a town of Aulhian Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Belcz ; 28 m.iles N. N. W. of Belcz.

GRABE, Joiim Erne.st, in Biography, a learned di-
vine, and editor of the Alexandrian manufcript, in the
Royal Library at London, was born at Koningfberg, in
Prufiia, in the year 1666. Here lie received his education,
and in due time took his degree of M. A. applying him-
felf with all diligence to the ftudy of divinity, and the pe-
rufal of the fathers. He had been brought up in the Lu-
theran principles, but having imbibed foine notions incon-
iiflent with ttie commonly received faith, refpecliiig the un-
interrupted fucceflion of bifliops being efTential to the ex-
igence of the true church, he was fummoned before his
fuperiorsand imprifoned. Lfpon his releafe, after a few
months, he chofe rather' to quit the church than abandon
his opinion, and determined to become a member of the Ca-
tholic rehgion. He delivered, in a memorial to the elec-
toral college at Sambia, in PruTii, in 1695, containing the
reafons for his change, and then left Koning-fberg, that he
might be at liberty to carry his plan into execution, in
feme place where he lliould be beyond- the reach of the

G R A

Pruffian jurlfdidion. While lie was on the road to Erfurt,
through whicii he irieant to pafs to a Cathohc Country, the
eleClor of Brandenburg fent three treatifes to him in anfwer
to his memorial, by three Prullian divines, written by order of
the eledlor. This great attention of his fovereign claimed
the rcfpecl of Grabe, who not only read them with care.,
but felt defiious of difeulT:"g the queftion more clofely be-
fore he formed his ultimate determination of abandoning
the religion in which lie h.'.d been educated. He accord-
ingly wrote to one of the perfcns that had anfwered his
memorial, intimating a llrong wifh to return to Berlin,
that he might enjoy the bcnclit of a conference with him.
This privilege was obtained for him ; M. Grabe returned
and was foon prevailed on to relinquifn his purpofe ot join-
ing the papal communion, but ftiU he maintained the ob-
noxious tenet for which he had fufiered imprifonment.
Finding him immoveable on this point, his friend advifed
him to remove to England, where, faid he, " you
will find the outward and uninterrupted fucceflion wliich
you want : take then your route thither : this ftcp will
caufe lefs unealinefs to your friends, and, at the fame time,
equally fatisfy your fcruples." He gladly complied with
the advice, and was llrongly recommended to king Vv'^illiam,
who immediately granted him a penfion of loc/. per ann.
to enable him to purfue his ftudics. From this time he
confidered England as his country, becaufe he conceived
that its ecclefiailical conllitution approached nearer on the
whole, than that of any other, to tiie primitive pattern.
He fliewed his gratitude for the liberal patronage which he
received by the publication of fcveral learned works. Hav-
ing formed a delign of printing fome curious and fcarce
pieces of the fathers, in defence of his own opinions, he
obtained accefs to the univerfity of Oxford, to examine
the treafures of the Bodleian library, and, in 1698, he pub-
lifhed " Spicilegium S. S. Patrum, &c.'' vol. I. 8vo. ;
and in the following year, the fecond volum.e of the fame
work appeared. Shortly after this, he was ordained a
deacon of the church i;f England, and was appointed
chaplain of Chrift-church, Oxford. This promotion he
accepted, in order that he m.ight be entitled to the emolu-
ments without being required to difcharge the duties of the
appointment, for he had refnfed, on his ordination, to re-
ceive the facrament, on account of the omilhon of the prayer
in the communion fervice, jnentioning the facrifice, before
the elements were diilributed, which had been inlerted in
the firll common-prayer book of king Edward VI., and he
ever afterwards continued a non-ccnformilt in this particu-
lar. In the fame year in which he took orders, Mr. Grabe
publiflted " S. .Tullini Philofophi et Martyris Apologia
Prima pro Chriilianis, S;c.'' illuftrated with the notes of
feveral learned men, and additional remarks of his own ;
and in 1702 he publilhed " S. Irentei Epifcopi Lugdunenfis
contra omnes Hxrefes Libri quinque, &:c." with prolego-
mena and notes. On the acceflion of queen Anne to the
throne, Mr. Grabe's penfion was continued, and. her ma-
jelly was adviied to employ him in printing the Alexandrian
MS. in the royal library, of the Scptuagiiit tranflation of
the Old Teftament. The queen took the opportunity of
informing him of the appointment herfelf, and at the tame
time made him a handfome prefent as an encouragement to
his exertions. In 1705, he publiflied propofals for printing
that work by fubfcription, fetting fori', the fuperior vahie
of this copy to the Vatican MS. ; he alio gave three ipe-
ciniens, containing fo many different methods for the pro-
jected edition, in the linal choice of which he was to be
determined by the learned world. As a teftimony of their
approbation of the delign, tlie univerlity of Oxford pre-

y fcntcj

G R A

fesited him with t?ie degree of doftor of divinity. His pro-
pofals met with a very favourable reception on the continent
as well as in England, and he received a handfomc prcfent
from his own fovereign, the king of Priifiia, and liberal fub-
fcriptions from the principal nobility, clergy, and gentry of
all parts. In 1707, he gave to the public his firlt volume,
under the title of " Vetus Teftamentum juxta Septuaginta
Interpretcs ; torn. I contiiiens Octateuchum." This vo-
lume contains the Pentateuch, and the three following
booiis. In the expedlation of an acceflion of additional
MSS. he deferred the fecond and third volumes, and
pubiiihed the fourth volume in the year 1709. This con-
tained the book of Pfalms, of Job, of the three books of
Solomon, &c ; and in the following year he publifhed a
Latin dilTertation, giving a particular account of the reafons
why he had departed from the ufual order of publication,
and of the helps which be expected to receive in order
to perfect his plan. I'^iisfe were, a Syiiac MS. of the
hillorical books of the Old Tellament, with Origen's re-
marks upon them, and two MSS. one belonging to car-
dinal Chigi, and the other to the college of Lewis XIV.
When he received thefe MSS. and had collated them, he
prepared a volume of annotations on the whole work, and
collected materials for the Prolegomena. The time which
thefe objefts took, caufed a material delay in the publica-
tion of the fecond and third volumes, which did not, in
fact, appear till after the author's death. This event took
place in 17 1 2, when he was only in the farty-fifth year of
his age. He had previoudy to this publiflied " An EfTay
upon the Arabic MSS. in the Bodleian library, and that
ancient book, called the Dottrine of the Apoilles, which
is faid to be extant in them, wherein Mr. Whiilon's mif-
takes about both are plainly proved.'' The third volume
of his great work was publifh;d in 1719, and the fourth
in 1720. On his death-bed he was attended by Dr. Smal-
ridge, by whofe means he defired that the public might be
informed that he died in the faith and communion ot the
church of England, thougli he confidered its conllitution
tfl be defective in fome points, in which he thought the
nonjuring clergv adhered more clofely to the apodolical
doctrine and difcipline. Of his talents there were different
opinions, but of his indullry and learning no one could
harbour a doubt. Dr. Thirlby fays, in the dedication
of his edition of Juitin's Apology, " he was a good man,
ar.d not unlearned, and well verfed in the writings of the
fathers. But he was no critic, nor could be one, fince he
was not furnifhed with genius or judgment, or, to fpeak
the truth, with learning fufficient for the purpofe " In
this opinion Le Clerc coincides, and adds, that his books
gained him the chira6ter of a laborious perlon rathi;r than
that of a great critic. He was the author of many other
works befidos thofe whivh have been mentioned, and was
editor of an elegant edition of biihop Bull's works : he
likewife aflifted in preparing for the prefs archdeacon Gre-
gory's edition of the New Teftament in Greek ; and he
1-ft behind him many MSS. fome of which have been pub-
.iihcd. Biog. Brit.'

GRABEN, in Georra^hy, a town of Croatia ; 12 miles
S. cf Varafdin.

GR.\BO, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; II
miles S.E Linkioping.

GRABON, a town of the dnchy of Mecklenburg, on
the Elde ; 80 miles N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 53' 23 . E.
long 1 1 44'.

GRABUSA, an ifland cf the Mediterranean, near the
NAV. coaft of the iftaHd of Caiidv, confirmed lo the Turks

G R A

by the peace of Carlowitz, and generally garrifoned with
1000 men. N. lat. 35 40'. E. long. 23 33'.

GRABUT, in Biography, an obfcure French mufical
compofcr, whofe name is not to be found in the annali of
the art. He was brought into Ei.gland to flaltcr the par-
tiality of Charles II. fur the mufic of France; and em-
ployed by Dryden to fet his political opera of " Albion
and Albanius," though Purcell had already givco indifpiit-
able proofs of his fuperior genius, and was rapidlv riling
into fame and national favour.

This drama, written under the aufpices of king Charles II ,
was reht arfed feveral times, as the author informs us in his
preface, before his majelly, "who had publicly declared, more
tiian once, tliat the compofitions and chorufes were more
jull and more beautiful than any hv had heard in England."
We believe this prince was not very flcilful in muhc, nor
very fenfiblc to the charms of any fpecies of it but that of
France, of the gayeft kind ; however, royal approbation is
flattering and extenfive in its influence. Unfortunately for
the poet and mufician, his majelly died before it was brought
on the ftage ; and when it did appear, the f-.ccefs feems not to
have been very confiderablc. Upon a perufalof this drama,
it feems hardly poffible, fo near a revolution, that it fliould.
have efcapcd condemnation upon party principles ; as, under
obvious allegories, Dryden has lalhed the city of London,
democracy, fanaticifni, and whatever he thought obnoxiuu.s
to the fpirit of tlie government at that period. Had Or-
pheus himfelf not only compofed the poem and the mufic,
but performed the principal part, his powers would have
been too feeble to charm fuch unwilling hearers. "

GRA' AY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cher, and chief place of a ca.nton, in the
diftric^ of Bourges ; 9 miles S.W. of Vierzan. The place
contains 2204, and the canton 5459 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 145 kiliomctres, in 9 communes.

GRACCHURIS, an ancient town of Hifpania Tarra-
goneiifis, mentioned by Livy, Antonine, and PtoUmy, and
faid to be built by the proconful Titus G.acchus Sempro-
nius, after having conquered the Celliberians. Others fup-
pofe that it exifted before Sempronius, ucder the name of
" Illurcis," and that he only repaired it. It is now called
Arreda.

GRACCHUS, TiBKRIUS Sempro\U-s, in Biography,
a perfon very memorable in the hiilory of Rome, was the
fon of a father of the fame name, a dillingui'hed com-
mander, and excellent citizen, who, from the Plebeian ranks,
arrived at dillinguilhed honours, and the highelt offices in
the Rate, having been mailer of the horfe to the dictator,
Junius, after the celebrated battle of Canm, afterwards
conlul, and, at length, to complete his glory, he was flain
while fighting for his country. The mother of the fubjecl
of this article was Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus,
whofe character has been iliuflrated in the proper place.
Tiberius received every advantage of education that tlie
pious afiefiion of a wife parent could bellow, and his natural
difpofilion feconded the efforts of his inllructors. He w^as
modeft, and remarkably mild in his temper ; and became, at
a very early age, diitinguiilied for eloquence, fobriety, atid
political knowledge ; and his reputation was fealed by an
admilTion into the venerable college of augurs. It is men-
tioned, as a proof of the high charafter which he fuilair.cd,
that Claudius Appius, one of the mo.1 illullrious perfoM
in Rome, and prefident of the fenate, offered him, fponta-
neouily, his daughter in marriage, which lie tliankfuUy ac-
cepted. When Appius informed his wife whit he Ind
done, fhe replied, " Why fo fuddeuly, you mfght nav«

taken

GRACCHUS.

Taken time, even if Tiberius Grasfliiis were the mam" In
conformity with the Roman cuftom, Tiberius paffed his
routh in military fcrvice ; firft in Africa, under his brother-
in-law, the younger Seipio, where he obtained great credit
in the army, bcinc; equally beloved by thofe above and thofe
below him'. HeVas made queltor, in the Numantian war,
to the conful C. Hoftilius Mancinus. This was in the year
B. C. 137 : the campaign was unfortunate, and the Roman
Tcneral was under the necellity of negociating a treaty of
peace with the enemy. The Numantines, who had been
betrayed in a former treaty by the Romans, refufed to nego-
ciate, unlefs it were with Tiberius Gracchus, with whofe
character for probity and Rrift honour they were well ac-
quainted. This being admitted, a jjeace was immediately
concluded. The treaty, though as favourable as, from
<iicumilancef, could be expccied, was received by the
Romans with great indignation : tliey determined to annul
it, and to deliver thofe, who had beju inltrumental in making
it, into the hands of the Numantines. The conful was
accordingly given up to them, naked and in chains, and it
is probable that Tiberius Gracchus would have ftiared the
lame fate had not a powerful intereil been exerted in hi,s
favour A fenfe of the iniullice of the fenate on this occa-
fion, and refentment of the dithonour they liad thrown upon
his treaty, was fuppofed to be a principal caufe of the fub-
fequent hollilities in which he engaged againit that body.
The condition of the Romans, at this period, afiorded a
good opportunity for the exertions of patriotifm ; for the
great mafs of the louer clades of citi/.ens were in a (late of
abjeft poverty. Lxlius the Wife, the friend of Seipio,
had attempted to introduce fome remedy for this evil, but
the ferious oppofition of men in power had deterred him
from the execution of his plan- Tiberius Gracchus reiolvcd to
take up the caufe. He was accordingly elicted a tribune of
the people, and propofed a revival of the Licinian law, \\4th
certain modifications, which greatly foftcned its operations.
(See AciKAKi.vx L.\w.) It offered a full compenfation
out of the treafury for all tlie laud above the 500 acres
allowed, which any one might be obliged to refign to the
public, and permitted every child of a family to hold 250
acres above the 500 held in the father's name. This propofal
•jvas received, as it might be expeClcd, by the fuperior orders,
wliofe rights and properties were to be affected by it : they
ivere determined to ftand by one another in refitting the
innovation. On the other hand, Grncehus loft no lime in
roufing the people to a knowledge and affertion of
tlieir claims as men and members oi fociety. His fpeeches
■were addreffed to tiieir interetls and their feelings : his
arguments were fpecious and highly dangerous to the peace
of thofe whofe wealth was become the objec^t of popular
difcuflion. In one of his harangues, lie ex-claimed, " The
wild beatls have their caves and dens, but the brave men
who filed their blood in the caufe of tiieir country have
nothing free but the air and the light. It is a mere mockery
when tiieir generals exhort them to light for their fepulchres
and houlhold gods, when, perhaps, not a man among them
is poffeffed of a donieilic altar, or fepulciire, of his anceftors.
The private men bleed and die to fecurc tlie luxuries of the
great, and they are denominated the matters of t!ie world,
while they are not owners of a foot of ground." At length,
after mueli tumult in the ftate, the Agrarian law was paffed,
and Appius Claudius, Tiberius Gracchus, and his younger
brother Caius, were appointed couimiffioners to carry its
provifions into execution. In his progrefs in the bufi-
nei's he was embarraffed with many obftacles, and, on his
part, he took meafures effectually to thwart the purpofes of

the great ; and, by new laws whicli he got enafted, he ren-
dered the property of all the old famihes infecure. The
difficulties which occurred in carrying the new law into
effeft were fufpended by the death of Attains, king of
Pergamus, who made the Roman people liis heirs. Grac-
chus procured a law for the diftribution of his treafures
amont; the poorer citizens, and for the difpofal of the reve-
nues of Pergamus, not by the fenate, but by the affcmblv
of the people. Thefe mealurcs gave him a great degree of
influence among the citizens, and he conceived the defign
of fecuring the powers of which he felt himfelf poffeffed, by
raifing his father-in-law to the confulate, his brother to the
tribunelhip, and continuing to himfelf the fame office an-
other year. He alfo planned other regulations for abridging-
the authority of the patricians, and throwing more weight
into the popular fcale. The day of election was approach-
ing, and the feiiators refolved to make a ttand agalnft the
innovations which he propofed, and a confpiracy was openly
formed to take away the life of Tiberius Gracchus. Of this
he v.-as informed by a friendly fenator, as he was proceeding
to tlie capitol. He, neverthelefs, advancei!, and his party
prepared to repel force by force. In the uproar, he at-
tempted to fpeak, but his voice could not be heard. He
made iigns to his friends, by raifing his hand to his head, to
iliew that his life was in danger. This fignal was inffantly
interpreted by his enemies as a demand of the regal crown,
and Seipio Nafica, the inveterate enemy of Gracchus, cried
out " Since we are betrayed by our conful, let thofe who
love the republic follow me." A general contett now com-
menced. The adherents of Gracchus were quickly dif-
perled, and himlelf was difpatchcd with a thoufand blows.
Not lefs than 300 per-Oans were ilain in this commotion, and
the bodies of the dead, even that of Gracchus himfelf, were
ignominioufly thro>vn iiito the Tiber. Several of his friends
were afterwards banilhed, and not a few ])ut to death, with-
out the form even ot trial, and the fenate paffed an act of
indemnity for all thofe who were concerned in the maffacrc.
The people, however, indignant againtt his enemies, droTc
Nafica trom Italy, and would never permit him to return.
With relpect to Tiberius Gracchus, his cliaracter has been
celebrated either as that of a martyr to liberty, or as a
victim to lawleis ambition, according to the different prin-
ciples of thole who have commented on his actions. Many
have thrown on his memory reflections as unmanly as they
are fevere. It feems to be acknowledged on all hands that
he poffeffed great talents, and was etteemed for his private
worth. That he was a man of am.bition none will denv,
and it may be that a love of popularity iuggetted tlie great
meaiuree which he propoled ; neverthelefs, tlie liittorian
may be fafely followed, who fays, that he was actuated by
the bell intentions, but that he profecuted liis dciign with
too much violence.

Gn.vcciics Caius, brother to Tiberius, but his junior
by nine years, enjoyed the fame advantages of education
with his brother, Axhich he fo well improved as to be-
com.e one of the ableil orators of his time. Cicero fays of
him, that he kno-.vs not if he had his equal in eloquence,
aud recommends his compolltions, th.ough unnnilhed, to the
ttudy of youth. After the tragical end of his brother,
Caius paffed lonie time in retirement, cultivating his rhetori-
cal talents, and fecretly preparing to act his part on the theatre
oi tiie public. In tlie year 126 B. C. lie accompanied the
conful Aurelius Oreftes to Sardinia as his quellor, and ob-
tained great app'aufe, as well for his humanity and tempe-
rance, as for a ftricl; attention to tlie duties of liis office.
The lenate (hewed evident figns ot jealoufy ou account of

the

G R A

tKe popularity which he acquired, and [retained him as pro-
queftor in Sardinia in order to keep him at a diftance from
tlie Roman forum. Perceiving their intentions, he ventured,
in defiance of their orders, to quit tlie ifland without leave
of his commander, and fuddenly made his appearance at
Rome. He was called to account for this breach of military
difcipline, but \\^s readily acquitted. Soon after he became
a candidate for the tribuneihip, and fuch was the zeal of the
people in his favour, that the Campus Martins was not able
to contain the multitude who flocked from the Italian towns
to fupport his election, and many gave their votes from the
tops of the adjacent houfes. Caius had not forgotten the
enemies of Tiberius, and would have purfucd them to their
deilruftion, but was probably difliiaded from it by his mother.
His fpeeches were calculated to revive the indignation of the
people againll the fenators for their conduct towards Tibe-
rius, and he propofed and carried motions for confirming his
brother's laws, and the pafling of others ftiU more obnoxious
to the patricians. He was appointed commifTioner for the
divilion of lands among the poor citizens and allies, and in
liis progrefs through Italy he employed his talents and
wealth in repairing roads, building bridges, and in other
wOrks equally ufeful and important. He eflablifhed public
granaries in Rome, from which the citizens were to have
their monthly diftributions of corn at a low price, the ex-
pences of which were to be defrayed by duties laid on goods
imported into the dominions of the late king Attains. By
thefe, and other aCls of a like kind, he fo ingratiated him-
felf with the people, that he was chofen a fecond time
tribune. Triumphing in his fuccefs, he propoied a law for
transferring from the lenators to the knights the cognizance
of all private caufes. When he had obtained his purpofe he
exclaimed, " at length I have humbled the fenate." He
now felt himfelf the arbiter of the repubhc, and treated the
patricians with contempt. This behaviour haftened his
ruin. There is a point, beyond which the mod fuccefsful
man, whatever be his pretenfions, cannot go with fafety.
Caius had tranfgrelTed this boundary, and his enemies were
perpetually on the watch for opportunities to check his
power, and to introduce rivals who might, by the appear-
ance of more liberality, depreciate his reputation and influence
in the ftate. During his abfence in Africa his enemies
were ever on the alert to injure his fair fame, and to afcribe
unwortliv and bafe motives to all that he did or propofed to
do ; and in the tumult which accompanied the difcullion of
fome of his laws after lus return, he fled to the temple
of Diana, and, unwilling to facrifice either himfelf or his
adherents to popular fur)-, he propofed terms of accommo-
dation. Thefe were rejefted by the arts of Opimius the

I conful, and a price was inft;antly fet upon the heads of
Gracchus and his friend Fulvius. A formal battle enlued,
in which multitudes were flain on both fides, and the popu-
lace without hefitation deferted their friends : Fulvius con-
cealed himfelf, but, being difcovered, was inftantly killed.
Gracchus, having folemnlv imprecated upon the heads of the
Roman people perpetual llavery for the bafe defertion of the
caufe, left the city and paffed acrofs the bridge named Sub-
llcius. His retreat was favoured by two faithtul friends, who
defended the bridge till they fell covered with wounds. In
the mean time Gracchus reached a grove facred to the furies,

1 where it is faid a flave, by his order, firll difpatched him, and
then put an end to his own life. Others have, however^
o-iven a different account of the matter; they fay that he
was overtaken by his enemies, and by them flain. His
liead was cut off and fold to the conful for its weight in gold.
The body was thrown into the Tyber, but afterw ards being
taken from the water it was delivered to hxi afflicted motlier
Vol. XVI.

G R A

for burial. This cataflrophe, in which three thoufand per*
fons pcrifhcd, happened in the year 121 1} C, and the fenate
immediately proceeded to abolilh all the law, of the Gracchi.
Their names, however, were Hill fondly cherilhcd by the
people, llatues were erected to their memory, and the place*
in wliich they were killed were confecratcd, by religious
rites, to their manes. Caius has been generally confidercd at
kfs pure in his intentions, and lefs moderate in his plans, than
Tiberius. From the evidence ef hillory it Ihould feem, that
the dilhirbance of the public tranquillity was rather owing to
his oppofers tlian to iiim ; " fo that," kys tlie hillorian,
•' inllead of calling the tumults of that period the " fedition
of the Gracchi," we Ihould rather call them the fedition
of tlie fenate againft the Gracchi, fince the efforts of the
latter were made in vindication of a law, to which the fe-
nate had affented, and as the dcfigns of the former were fup-
ported by an armed power from the country tliat had never
before interfered in tlie bufinefs of legiflation, and the in-
troduction of which gave a mod irrecoverable blow to the
conftitution. Caius in his pcrfon was graceful, his action
was ftrong and imprelTive, his voice of great compafs and
melodious when the vehemence of his pleading did not raifc
it to too high a key ; to correct this defect he was accullom-
ed to place a judicious perfon behind him with a pitch-pipc.by
which lie was enabled to regulate his tone. lu temper he wa»
warmer than Tiberius, nor was he dillinguilhed by fohriety
of maimers, though in this refpedt lie might be advantageouflf
compared to the Roman voutli in general. Plutarch.
Univer. Hift.

GRACE, GuATr.A, 'x='-P''> '" 7y'C0%V> denotes in general
any gift or favour, wliicli God freely bellows upon mankind i
whether fuch gift pertains to the prefent or future life : but
as thofe which relate to the improvement of their temper,
and their fitnefs for final happinefs, were favours of tJie
greatelt importance, this term is by way of eminence
applied to them. The proper fignitieationof the word^rjre
is favour ; — favour in fuch a fenfe as denotes nu-rcy and
goodnefs in a fuperior, either remitting lomewhat of his own
right, or conferring fomewhat beneficial upon others, frieh
and without any obligation of debt. And becaufe this may
be done in various modes and in a great diverfity of inllanccs,
hence the word ^rarf in fcripture is accordingly applied in a
correlponding diverfity of fignifications. Sometimes it
fignilies thofe extraordinary gifts and favours of the Holy
Gholl, by which the apollles were enabled to demoiillratc
the truth of their commifTion, to preach their doc\rines with
authority, to convince gainfayers w ith evidence, and to go-
vern the churches by a proper dillHbution ai different
trulls and offices. The gifts or power,", by wliich the apoltle*
were enabled to do all thefe things witli extraordinary effica-
cy and fuccefs, are therefore called grace, becaufe they
arc not at all natural acquifitions but free gifts of God ;
dillributed to every one, not according to the will of man,
but at fuch times, and in fuch proportions, and to liich pcr-
fons, and for fuch purpofes as God himfelf pleated. Sec
Rom. i. 5. Ephef. iv. 7. II.

In other palTages, the fame word is ufcd to fignity that
exti-aordinary affillance and fupport which God has been
pleafed fometimes to afford to his lVr\-ants under extraordi-
nary difficulties and trials ; and this is called grace, becaiile
it is conlidered as given particularly and gratuitoufly upon ex-
tiaoidinarv occalions over and above ihc general iiipport*
ariliiig from the confideratioiisof realbn.aiid from tlie pnmiifes
and motives of the gofpel in general. See i Cor. xii. 9.

A third fenfe, in whioh the word grace lometinus occurs

in the New Tellament, is to exprefs fuch moral »irtuc« as

are the effects of men's being intlueuccd by the fpiritual

^ X motives

GRACE.

motives of tlie gof^jel, and tlie praftice of vhicli preferves
incn in the favour of God, ;iiid recommends tliem to hie gra-
cious acceptance. (See Ephef. iv. 29. 2 Pet. iii. 18.
2 Cor. viii. T. 6.) Moral virtues are plainly for this reafon
diftinguiflied by the denomination of grace, becaufe they
proceed from and are founded on a regard to God in general,
and in particular to his will revealed under the gracious dd-
penfation of the gofpel of Chrift.

Another figiiification of the word grare in Scripture is to
exprefs the merciful acceptance of repentance and amend-
ment, by which God is pleafed, not out of any obligation of
juftice, but in gracious goodnefs, to reftore men to favour. In
this fenfe Paul fays ( i Cor. xv. 9.) " By tlic ^rnce of God
I am what I am :" fo John, i. 17., the dortriiie of Chrift is
ftyled " grace and truth." The Apolllcs' preaching is by
St. Luke (Adts, xiv. 3.) called " the word," or declaration
" of God's grace:" fo when St. Paul declares (Rom.
iii. 24.) that repenting finuers are " juftified freely by grace,''
and blames thofe " who continue in fin, that grace may
abound." The word grace in all thefe pafiTages fignifiea
that merciful and companionate difpofition of the divine na-
ture, by which God freely remits of his right of punifli-
ment, and receives penitent fmners, upon more gracious
terms, and to greater degree of his favour, than he was bound
to do by any obligations of juftice.

Hence it is, that the gofpel itfelf, as being the great and
ftanding declaration of God's mercy and goodncfs to wards men,
Jhewn forth in the free pardon and forgivencfs of iin upon the
gracious terms of repentance and amendment, is in the New
Teftament very frequently meant by the phrafe, " the
grace of God." (Clarke's Serm. vol. ii. p. 265 — 275. 8vo.
fol.ed. vol. i. p. iSo, &c.) Bilhop Pearce (Comm. vol. ii.
p. 259.) renders >^api1» in I Cor. x. 30. thankfgiving, and
not grace, as it is in our verfion ; and he obferves that this fenfe
cf the word x»f''' 'S too frequent in St. Paul's writings to re-
quire a proof of it. He adds that in^a^ira in the latter part
of the verfe confirms this fenie.

Some divines define grace to be any degree of divine in-
fluence on the mind, inclining it to believe in Chrift, and to
praftife virtue ; and thofe divine influences, which are not
effeftual in producing faving faith and fincere obedience,
they caXl commnn grace, in contradiftinftion to fpecia! grace,
the operation of wliich is completely efficient and faving ;
and thofe influences which introduce fpsc'tal grace, though
they do not aftually amount to it, are with refpeft to that
introduftion fometimes called preparatory . It is difputed
among theologians whether fpecial grace, which they fup-
pofe is never on the whole finally rejefted, fo as to fail of
working faith in thofe who are the happy objefts of it, be
in the nature of its operations upon the human mind irrejijli-
tle or not ; and it is alfo queftioned, whether common grace
he fuffiiient. Whether the mind be entirely pajfnte in the
firil moment of its converfion, or whether there be any co-
operation of our own together with the influences of divine
grace upon the heart, is a quelUon, which has been alio very
much difputed amongft divines of a particular defcription ;
and another queftion, no lefs the fubjeft of controvcrfy, is
fimilar to the former, and that is, whether the work of rege-
neration and converfion be accompliflied in an injlant. But
we ftiould far exceed our prefcnbed limits if we were to
ftate the arguments pro and con on queilions of this na-
ture.

Grace, in Law, is fometimes ufed for a faculty, licence,
or difpenfation ; but this feemcth to be only in a cafe where
the matter proceedeth, as it were, ex gratia, of grace and fa-
vour ; ar.d not where the licence or difpenfation is granted of
courfe or of ncceflity.

Gk-ACeIs alfo a term in the formula of all patents, &:c.
which begin, George, by the grace of God, king of Great
Britain, &c. The Romifli bifhops frequently began their
mandates in the like manner : fuch a one, by the grace of
God, and tlie holy fee, bifliop of, &c.

The Englifti archbifliops fay, by divine grace, or divine
providence. See Archbishop.

All fovereigns ufe the phrafe grace of God ; as emperors,
kings, princes, &c. Anciefitly dukes, counts, and even
lords, talked in the fame ftyle. In the new coUediion of
Father Martcne we meet with a mere feigneur, or lord, qua-
lified by the grace of God feigneur de Conibom. Louis
XL forbade the dnkc of Britanny to ftyle himfelf by the
grace of God.

Grace is alfo a title of dignity, attributed to princes of
inferior rank, and wiio are not qualified for that of high-
nefs.

In former times the kings of England were addrefied un-
der the title of grace, as they are now under that of majefty.
See King.

Our Englifii dukes and archbifliops are ftill addrcn"ed un-
der the title of grace. But that title is moft frequent
in Upper Germany, and particularly Auftria, where it is
borne by the barons, as being inferior to that of excel-
lence.

Grace is alfo applied to perfons, and various kinds of
performance.?, to denote a quality, or rather the refult of a
combination of qualities, which attrafts peculiar notice, and
affords peculiar pleafure.

Gr-^ce is alfo ufed for a fiiort prayer offered before and af-
ter meat. This praftice is very ancient, and has very gene-
rally obtained both in the heathen and Chriftian world : and
hence grace-cup is ufed by fome of our poets for the cup or
health drank after grace.

Grace, in the arts of Painting and Sai/pture,. is ufed to
fignify a peculiar quality which heightens the effeft that
beauty of form is calculated to produce, and renders it ftill
more engaging.

We have already, in the article Beauty, flightly touched
upon this fubjeft, and there mentioned the origin of the term
among the Greeks ; who gave to the Charites or Graces,
whom they deified, the prefidency over whatever was
amiable and engaging in the aftions or fentimcnts of man-
kind. By the undilguifcd nakediiefs in which they always
reprefented thefe goddeffes, to whom they gave the names of
Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrofyne : they allegorized the
pure finccrity and fimplicity in which afts of kindnefs*
Ihould always be wrought. By the union of thefe perfons,
which are gently holding each other by the hands, or with
their arms round each other's necks, they marked the union
of fpirit which diftates afls of benevolence and focial inter-
courfe; and by devoting them to the fervice of Venus, exem-
plified the necelTity of uniting the virtues of humanity
to the beauties of perfon, in order to become truly en-
gaging.

This allegory of the ancient Greeks leads us to the juft; con-
ception of the meaning of the word grace wlien applied to
the ai'ts. Whatever can lend to beauty, increaie of intereil
upon the beholder, is entitled to be called graceful, or at
leaft elegant. (See Elecaxce, in Fainting.) As the
heart of man, when inclined to good, is to his mental, fo is
grace to liis perfonal accomplifiiments ; that, which gives
the moft delightful gratification to thofe with whom he aflTo-
ciates. Without it, art is nothing, compared with the va-
lues it acquires by its prcfenco. Indeper.dent of all which
conftitutts mere beauty of form, it is abfolutely nccefl'ary to
give it its full force, its greatcft efieft, I'iz. tlr.it which
6 . beaut V

GRACE.

■beauty acquires by motion, wherein alone grace is vifi-
ble.

Poets as well as painters and fculptors acknowledge the
Yalue of this quahty : and the bed have conilantly apphed
it to the objefts of their adulation when moving. Milton favs
of Eve, "Grace was in all her Heps.'' Ariollo adds it to
perfeft the beauties of his Alvina ; when he fays,

" Avea in ogni parte un lafcio tefe
O parii, o rida, o canti, o pnjfo mora."

The graces, lurking about the mouth and the eyes of a
beautiful perfon when in motion, are the moil conftant theme
of poets, and as conilantly the fource of emulation to the
painter and fculptor to imitate ; and when the arlilt has by
his ingenuity difcovL-red and reprefented truly thofe minute
variations of form wliich take place both in figure and features,
when the mind is excited by iomc amiable emotion ; he lias
obtained the ultimatum of liis art ; no power can go beyond
it. Apelles, tlie ancient Greek artill of moll repute, declared
of his contemporaries, that tlicir feveral works poiTelfcd
every beauty but the perfettion which grace alone can give :
in this he found liimfelf unrivalled. Ancient fculpture is
frauglit with it ; their llgures, whether in afction or rcpofe,
poffefs it ; and when we fay that it may be found in figures
repofmg, we do not mihtate againll tlie fentiment that ac-
tion is the bafis of grace ; a previous motion being fuppofcd
to have taken place, to produce the graceful pofition. No
figure, (landing, fitting, or lying down, can be graceful,
however beautitul it may be, whufe parts or members are
prefented altogether llraight and full to the eye. With-
out foine varying turn being given to the head, the body,
the arms, or the legs, it will be in vain to look for grace ;
and it is their being arrelled in the action they may alFume,
at the moil agreeable and expreilive point of view, which
gives the confummation of tliis invaluable quahty to them.
Then, if fixed for ever, they will be for ever graceful ; and
the delight wliich the contemplation of tlieir mere beauty of
orm and proportion conveyed, will be heightened to the
ummit of that gratification which art is enabled to afford.
Wherein then lies this fource of perfeftion ? How, with
certainty, may we exprefs it in our works ? is the hitherto
unanfwered query of the artill ; or anfwered but in part and
snfatisfa6torily. All writers on painting have touched upon
grace, and fome have attempted to give information of the
principles whereon it retls. Lamozzo, in his Trattato dclla
Pittura fays, that Michael Angelo gave the following pre-
cept to Marcus de Sirena, his pupil. " That he Ihould al-
ways make a figure pyramidal, ierpent-likc, and multiphed
by one, two, three!" In which precept (Lamozzo conti-
nues) in mine opinion the whole myllery of the art con-
fifteth. For the greatell grace and life a picture can have, is,
that it exprefs motion. Now there is no form fo lit to
exprefs motion as that ofjlame of Jire.'' This text is again
repeated by Du Frefnoy, and thus has Dryden tranilated
the pallage ; " Large flowing gliding out- lines, w!-.ich are in
waves, give not only a grace to the part, but to the wliole
body, as we fee in the Antinous, and in many other of the
antique figures. A fine figure, and its parts, ought always
to have 3. Jerpent-liie znA faming form ; naturally, thofe forts
of lines have 1 know not what of life and feeming motion
in them ; which very much reiemble the aclivity of the flame
and of the ferpent."

On thefe two remarks our own induftrious and (l;ilful
iHogarth has built a fyftem, which, if it be not altogether
-compleat, has yet much fagacity and utility in it, and wliich
lie lias given to the world in his Analyfis ot Beauty. He
^therein adopts the ferpcntine line, ^ which he illullrates by

fuppofing a wire drawn fpirally round a cone from its bafe
to Its apex), a, the bafis of grace, with much anpart-nt
truth: and he is moll certainly fupported by all thofe fine
works wherein gracefulnefs is acknowledged to refide The
Torfo of the Belvidcre, the Venus de Medicis, the Apollo
iielvidere, the Laocoon, who, in tlie midil of tlie violent
anguKh he fuffcrs, ilill poffeHes grace. AD thefe, and in-
deed all others, which have any pr-.tenfions of the like kind

' . , — ^ "..; i'i'-i.».iiiiv>ii> ui iijc nice xinM,
have the ferpentine line for the bafe of their coinpofition, i:i
a greater or lefs degree. Who lliall laugh at a fyftem up-
held by fuch authority ! Walpole attempts to ridiJule it, a.
well as others, becaufe Hogarth was not equal to put it in
prartice. The futility of Inch an argument needs no illu<".
tratioii. 1 o aonceivc a thing in the imagination, and not
be able to exemplify it by practice, is by no means an un-
common occurrence among artills, or among men; yet the-
proi.riLiy of the conception may be unquellionabic, taken
on general grounds. Hogarth's millake appears to hav/-
been, having lixcd the boundary of grace; having riven
what he calls l\w pn-cifi line of it; whereas, aU the antique
figures mentioned above are graceful, while each vari.-s
trom the other in the quantum of curve which its aclion
coiililts Oi. Hence ariles, that he fo narrowed the fphere
wherein grace was obfervable, wliich in nature is found to
be fo widely extended, that, wiihout juft confideration, hi«
ingenuity was regarded as the ravings of exccntricity ;
whiUt iH, good arguments were adduced to difprove the
general principle, which appears to us to be juft. How to
employ it, is another queilioii. And here we fear no rulct
will fuffiee to guide the praditioiier in art. As wc faid ot
elegance, we repeat of grace : he that is endowed by nature
with a power to feel its beauties, and diCplay its effcaj,
may, by cultivation, improve his original ftock; but he
that requires to be taught what grace is, will, in vain, feck
to obtain the power of painting it; if he ever arrives at the
knowledge of it, or the power of feeing it, in nature or in
art. A conftant obfervation upon the adions, in figure and
feature, of thofe who are by nature graceful, is the beft
fchool in which to iludy it, and the readieft modv to difco-
ver wherein it lies.

Grace is not, or rather ought not, to be confined to the
figures m a compofition. Every part of the pidure Ihould
have a conjundtive effeCl to produce grace in the whole.
Contraft «f form will aid the beauty of the principal parts,
but that contraft Ihould never force itfelf into notice, the
artifice would then become apparent, and the eve would
not be led to the beautiful parts, but, on the contrary, be
detained from them. The painter therefore who has con-
ceived a graceful figure, ihould either paint it finglv, or be
careful lo to fupport it, by projier accompanying lines and
objects, that its beauty be not loft in the mals, and its
efled overpowered by other forms of lefs value becoming
obtrufive to the obferver. And great care (hould be takea
to prevent every attempt to produce grace in the action of
figures,from degenerating into aftcClation. Where thatbegins,
grace ends: and deteftatioii or ridicule, inftead of admira-
tion, becomes the meed of the artiil ! No vice hi art is fo
odious as affeaation! If the beft executed work in-.aginable
be unhappily tindlurcd with it, few minds of an ele.rant or
graceful turn of feeling will bear to dwell upon it. Thofe
artills who allow their minds to be impreflcd with the paf-
fion or feniation they wifli to convey in their figures and
thence conceive the aclion of them, are not fo liable to fall
into this error, as thofe whofe ideas are more intent on
making an agreeable piclure, and think of the aclions, be.
fore they have conlidered the palHons of their figures.
Kaphacl is an lallance of the former ; Correggio and Parmi.

G R A

riano, preat and graceful as they frequently were, never-
thelefs belong too often to the latter clafs, and even their
txtraordinary brilliancy of talent does not fecure them, from
inft cenfure when that is the cafe.

The bell examples of grace are to be. found m ancient
fculuture and paintings, and in the works of Raphael.
Some few of llie xvorks of Corregglo, of Parniigiano, and
of Guido Rheni, poffefs it, perhaps, more rctined than
Raphael's ; but the)- are fo near tlie extreme boundary
vhcrein real unaffeaed grace rehdes, tliat they are dan-
gerous exemplars to a iludent. A confirmed artill may
obferve them to advantage.

Sir JoHuia Reynolds poffeffed it largely, and perliaps we
ouo-ht to have added his name to Raphael's. But yet he
is not always i>ure: a little too much of the Correggiefque
is admitted in feme of his fancy pidures; and particularly
in the exprefTions of the featin-es.

GiiACK, ^/i7 of, properly denotes an aft of anineily,_ or
oblivion, for the pardon of all offenders who are qualified,
or come within the conditions of it.

Tlie term is alfo fometimes extended to an aft made for
relief of infolvent debtors in the feveral prifons; by fetting
thofe who are qualified, at liberty from tlieir debts and con-
finement.

GuACE, Covenant of. See CoVEK.vXT.
Grace Cup, fo called becaufe the beverage contained in
it was circulated amongil tlie community, or other com-
pany, at a particular time, and by a fpecial favour. It
was alfo called Poculum ChnnUUis, or the Cup of Ckirily, as
beino- intended to indicate and promote brotherly love. At
otlier times it was termed the ll^iilpl Cup or Bowl, becaufe
each one of the company, in drinking out of it, drank
health to his next neighbour in the old terms, IVas heil. Wil-
liam of Malmefbury, defcribing tlie cuftoms of Glallonbury
abbey foon after tlie conquell, fays, that on fuch and fuch
particular days, the monks had " Medonem in julHs et
vinum in charitatem:" Mead in their cans, and wine in the
rrace cup. A large cup or bow-l uf this nature was always
heretofore placed on tlie table of princes, &c. as well as of
abbots. In the eleventh volume of the Archsologia there
is an engraving of a grace cup, which formerly belonged to
Glallonbury abbey, and a dilTertation upon it by Dr. Mil-
ner. The inlide of this cup, which holds two quarts, is
furnilhcd with eight pegs, at equal diftances, one below the
other, in conformity with Edgars law, to rcpreis cxcefs in
ih-inking. This incafurement allowed of lialf a pint to each
perfon.

Gha< K, Days of. See Day, in Laxu and Commerce.
Grace, Herb of. .See Rii:.

GRACES, Gkati.e, in the Canon Law, are the fame
with what we other wife c^ provlfiom ; wliicli fee.

Guace.s, Expeetative, Gratia: Expeclativn:. See ExPECTA-

tive.

Gii-tCK-s, Gratis, Charities, in the Heathen Theology, were
fabulous deities, thi-ee in number, who attended on Venus.

Their names are Aglaia or Egle, Thalia, and Euphro-
fvne ; ;. e. fliining, flourilhing, and gay ; and they were fup-
p'ofed by fome to be the daughters of Jupiter and Eury-
nome, the daughter of Oceanus, and by others to be the
daughters of Bacchus and Venus. VolTuis de Idol lib. xiii.
cap. If. Homer (Iliad, lib. xiv.) changes the name of
one of the graces, and calls her Palithee, and he is followed
by Statius. (Theb. lib. ii.)

Some will have the graces to have been four, and malce
them the fame with the Horit, Hours, or rather with the
four feafons of the year. See Houu.s.

Tiie Lacedxmonians admitted only two of them, whom

G R A

they worfliipped under the Barnes of Clito and Phaenni.'
The Athenians allowed the fame number, but denominated
them Au\o and Hcgemonc.

A marble in the king of PruHia's cabinet reprefents the
three graces in the ufual manner, with a fourth, feated, and
covered with a large veil, with tlie words underneath, ad
souoRES lui. Yet Monf. Beger will by no means allow the
graces to have been four: the company there prefent, he
underftands to be the three graces, and Venus, who was
their filler, as being daughter of Jupiter and Dione.

They are always fuppofed to have hold of each other's
hands, and never parted. Thus Horace, (lib. iii. od. 21.)'
defcribes them:

" Segnefque nodum folvere gratia:,"

They were alfo reprefented in the attitude of perfons
dancing; whence Horace lays (lib. i. od. 4.):

" Alterno terram quatiunt pede."

They were comnwnly thought to be young virgins. In
the earher ages they were reprefented only by mere Itones,
that were not cut; but they afterwards were reprefented
under human figures, at firft clad in gauze. But the cuf-
tom of giving them drapery was laid aiide; and they were
painted naked to iliew that the Graces borrow nothing from
art, and that they have no other beauties than what arc
natural.

Yet, in the firft ages, they were not reprefented naked,
as appears from Paufanias, lib. vi. and lib. ix. who defcribes
their temple and ftatues. They were of wood, all but their
head, feet, and hand."!, which were white marble. Their
robe or gown was gilt; one of them held in her hand a
rofe, another a die, and the third a fprig of myrtle.

They liad temples, as we learn from Pauianias, at
Elis, Delplios, Perga, Perinthus, Byzantium, and in fe-
veral other places of Greece and Thrace. The temples
confecrated to Cupid were alfo confecrated to tlie Graces :
and it was alfo cullomary to give them a place in thofe of
Mercury, in order to teach men, tliat even the god of elo-
quence needed their affillance. Indeed fome authors rec-
koned the goddcfs^of perfuaiion in the number of the Graces,
thus intimating, that the great fecret of perfuaiion is to
pleafe. The Mufes and the Graces had commonly but one
temple ; and Pindar invokes the Graces almoft as often as
he does the Mufes. Fellivals were appropriated to their
lionour through the whole courfe of tlie year, but the
fpring was chiefly confecrated to them as well as to Venus.
Greece abounded with monuments facred to thefe goddefles ;
and their figures were to be feen in moll cities, done by tlie
greatell mailers. They were alfo reprefented on many
medals. The favours which thefe goddeffes were thought
to difpenfe to mankind, were not only a good grace, gaiety,
and equahty of temper, but alfo hberality, eloquence, and
wifdom, as Pindar informs us ; but the moil noble of all
tlie prerogatives of the Graces was,tliat they prefided over all
kindnefles and gratitude ; infomuch that, in almoll all lan-
guages, their names are ufed to exprefs both gratitude and
favours.

Graces. There is a good article for Fr. mulic, by
M. Framery, under tlie term /igremens, New Encycl. Meth.
p. 54 : in this he candidly acknowledges all the defefts afcribed
to Fr. finging by Roulfeau and Burney. See AGiitME.Ns,
RiFioRA.MENTi, SiiAKE, Beat, Trill, and Mufical CnA-

KACTER.S.

GRACIAN, Balthasar, \n Biography, an eminent Spa-
nilh writer, was born in 1603. He entered among the
Jefuits at the age of fixteen, and became a teacher iu their

fociety,

G R A

fociety, of the belles-lettres, of pliilofopliy, nnd of theo-
logy. He likewife exercifed the duties of a preacher, and
was at length rcftor of the Jefuits' college of Tarragona,
where he died in the year 1658. He was a much efteemed
author, and moil of his works have been tranflated into
French and other foreign languages. The principal of
thefe are " The Hero ;" " Refleftions on the political
Conduft of Ferdinand the Catholic ;" "A Treatife on the
different Kinds of witty Conceptions.'' A work treating
of tlio errors to which man is liable, and a colleftion of
meditations on taking the holy communion. Moreri.

GRACIAS a' Dio.s, in Geogrnpl?y, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Honduras, and audience of Guatimala,
fituated at the mouth of a river, which communicates witli
the bay of Honduras. It has fome gold mines in its neigli-
bourhood. N. lat. 14° 30'. W. long. 90" 6' — Alfo, a
cape on the N. coail difcovercd by Columbus. N. lat. 15'^.
£. long. 132^ 50'. — Alfo, a cape, called " Falfe Cape
Gracias a' Dios,'' on the coaft of Nicaragua, 63 miles from
the other. N. lat. 13^ 36'.

GRACILIS, in Anatomy, a niufcle of the leg, thus
called from its flender fliape.

It arifes partly tendinous, and partly flefhy, from the os
pubis internally, between the firft and fecond heads of the
triceps ; and in its defceut on the infide of the thigh, grows
narrow, and becomes tendinous, a little below tlie lartorius,
and is thus inferted into the tibia. It affills in bringing the
tliigh and leg inwards.

. Gk.\cilis Rethis, a name given by Riolan to one of
the mufcles of tlie leg, called by Window the reftus cruris
anterior, and by Cowper the rectus femoris. Albinus calls
it the redus cruris.

GRACULA, in Ornithology, a genus of the order Picx,
having the bill convex and acute at the edges, the bafc
rather naked : tongue entire, fharpifh, and fleihy ; and the
feet formed for walking. The genus gracula correfponds
with the mainate of BrilTon, fi'om whom it appears to have
been adopted by Linnxus under the former term. Some of
the fpecies of this natural tribe were known to Ray, who
refers them to the crows ; and alfo to Willughby, who
fonfiders them as of the Hare or ilarling kind. The Ipecies
of gracula, defcribed in the Gmehnian Syftema Naturae,
amount to twelve ; and this number is increafed to foin-teen
in the work entitled " Index Ornithologicus" of Dr. La-
tham, by the addition of tiie new fpecies illcrops, and tiie
introduction of the Linnsan Paradifta Iriflis, which latter
the laft mentioned writer has deemed it requifite to remove
to this place. As a fecondary to the ciTential or generic
charatter above defcribed, it may be proper to obierve that
the birds of this kind have the bill thick, and comprcfTed at
the fides ; the noftrds I'mall, at the bafe of the bill and
fometimes fituated near the edge ; the toes three forward
and one behind, the middle toe conneftcd at the bafe to the
outer one, and the claws hooked and iharp. Their priu-
.cipal food confiils of fruits and infeits.

Species.

Religio.sa. Violet-black ; fpot on the wing white ;
band on the hind head naked and yellow. Gmel. I..inn.
Mmmitus, Briir. Sturnus imUcus Bontii, Ray. Bonlius't
InJiaii J/ure, Will. Le Mainate; Buff. Minor graik,
Albin.

The length of this bird is ten inches and a half, its bulk
equal to that of the black-bird : the bill an inch and a half
long, of an orange colour tipped with yellow ; the legs
tawny or orange ; feathers of the head, except the middle

G R A

ones, very fhort and filky ; and the naked band reselling
nearly to the nape. This fpecies is found in many farts of
India, and not unfrequently in a tame or domellicatcd (late,
being naturally of a familiar difpofition, and capable of
being taught to wliiftle, fing, and imitate the articulations
of the human voice with greater precifion than any of the
parrot tribe. In the iflands of Sumatra and .lava it is called
by the natives hill-mnynoa, and in China, whither it is im-
ported from the latter place, its common name is Teeong.
Several fuppofed varieties of this bird are defcribed by writers,
the moll remarkable of which is tliat call.-d the greater
minor grakle, Ic grand main;ite of Briffon ; this entin-ly
correfponds with the ordinary kind, except in fi/.e, which
it materially exceeds, being in this refpett not inferior to
the jackdaw ; it inhabits the ifland of Hainan, in Afia,
C.VLV.\. — Sub-cinereous, with the head naked each. fide.
Linn. Meritla calva Philippinenfis, BrifT. MiiU ckauve des
Pbilippincs, Buff. Goulin, il). Ititi:;, Tabaduru, vJ Cuiui,
&c. Pliil. Tranf. BaU grail,; Latli.

Size of the black-bird, witii the head and cheeks bare of
feathers and flefh-colonred, except a narrow lid of (lu)rt
brown feathers, extending from the bafe of the bill to thi>
back of the head ; the naked part becoming of a deep r«i
when the bird is irritated : the general colour above is
fdvery-afli, beneath grey-brown, bill and legs brown. Tlufc
birds build their ncil in the hollows of trees, efpecially pre-
ferring thofe of the cocoa-nut ; it is reprefented as a noify
chattering bird, of voracious appetite, and as living prin-
cipally on fruit. Found in the Philippine iflands.

Fa:TiD.\. Black ; exterior part of the quill-feathers
blueilh ; band round the neck naked, I^inn.

Native of America, in five rcfembling the magpie : the
head with ereCl, fhort, filky feathers ; noltrils oval and
naked ; tongue Iharp ; and tail even at the tip.

BiVUiTA. Somewhat grey ; fliovilders blue ; quill-feathers
at the outer edge green. Linn. Monedula tola nigra, Ray.
Boat-tailed graLli; Lath.

Size of the cuckow : the bill fhortifli, rather black, paler
beneath and naked at the bafe ; the plumage black, inclining
to grev, and gUiffed with purple ; tail rounded, concave
when folded, and becoming flat on being expanded ; legs
and claws black. The fpecies inliabits the Antilly illands
and North America. It feeds on infects and fruits.

CiuT.\TELJ,.v. Black, tlie lirll quill-featliers at the bafe,
and tail-feathers at the tip white ; bill yellow. Gmel.
Menda fmcnfis trijlala. Brill". Merle hupps dc la Chine, Buff.
Chine feJltirUng or l/la-ri-lird, Edwards.

A fpecies rather larger than the black-bird ; the plumage
inclining to blue, witli a crcll of feathers on the head v.hicii
it can raife and deprefs at pleafuie ; greater quill-feathers
from the bafe to the middle wliite, the remaining part diep
blue; tail-feathers, except the two in the middle, tipped with
white ; legs dull yellow. The crelled grakle lings and
talks like the fpecies rchgiofa, but with inferior dilliiictncfs;
and is frequently kept in cages in China, which country it
inhabits in a wild Hate ; its principal food is rice, worms,
and infefts.

S.ML.vnis. Blueifh-black ; belly, fpot on the wings
and lateral tail-feathers white. Gmel. I.anius imgnlnt/Ix
tiiger, Briif. Pie griefehe noir dr Bengalt, Bufi". Bengal
niiigpie or dia'-bird, Albin. Dial grakle.

Native of Bengid. Size of the Miffel thrulli, with the
head, neck, breall, back, rump and upper tail-coverts
black ; belly, fides, thighs, and under tail-coverts white ;
tail even at the end, black above, and white beneath. The
female differs in being black inllead of brown on the fore-

7 r-^^

G R A

part of the neck and bread, and in the white being mere
obfcure.

QuiscALA. Violet, black ; tail rounded. Linn. Finis
jamaicenfis, Briff. Cornix purpurea, Klein. Fur-zed:, Kalm.
Jzanati, Ray. Black-bird, or maize-thief, Kalm. Tr. Pur-
ple ^rakle, Arft. Zool.

Native of Mexico, and the warmer parts of America,
and the Weft Indies; fings finely, builds on trees, is de-
ftruftive to plantations, but ufeful in deftroying the noxious
jnfeas that infeft them. The flelh is black and unfavoury.
Its iize is about that of the black-bird, the male a little ex-
ceeding the female in bulk ; the bill and legs are black ;
tail long and cuneated, and with the wings purple ; the fe-
male entirely duflcy.

Atthih. Greenifti-blue ; belly rufty ; legs blood-rcd,
Linn. Corvus JEgyptius, Haifeln. Egyptian gral/e. Lath.

Size of a lark; and is fuppofed by HalTelquift to feed on
infe£ts, the remains of centipedes and fcorpions being found
in the ftomach. The bill is black ; neck with a longitu-
dinal rufty line each fide, and the claws black.

LoNGiROSTRA. Erown, beneath ochre-yellow ; head and
neck black; band round the neck naked ar.d wrinkled; area
.of the wings white ; tail cuneated, black, and at the tip
white. , Pallas, &c.

Native of- South America; length eight inches. This
■ appears to be the fame fpecies as that dcicribed by Sonnini
, under the name of merle des Savannes.

Sturnina. Hoary; fpot on the crown and back be-
■, tween the wings violet-black ; tail and wings witli a tinge
...of green, the latter with a double white ftripe. Pallas.

Inhabits the Ozier banks of Dauuria ; the neft and eggs
refemble thofe of the tliriilli ; tlie plumage of the female
is dirty alh, with the back brown ; and the wings and tail
. deep black.

IcTEROPS. Black ; band on the wings and body beneath
wllite ; the region of the eyes naked and wrinkled. Lath.
j.Le mainate afacejauni, Vieill. Telloiu faced graUe.

Length feven inches and a half; bill comprefled ; noftrils
oval ; legs yellow and wrinkled. Native of New Holland.

Cavane\'.si.s. Striated; abave tawny, beneath yellovv-
ifh ; head and chin varied with tawny and white ; tail wedged,
fharp and with the wings tawny. Gmel. Climbing graile.

Inhabits the interior parts of Guiana ; is about ten inches
in length, and remarkable for climbing trees ; the bill is
black, about two ir.ches long, and a little curved; the legs
are alfo black.

Carunculata. Cinereous; tail and quill-feathers
: black ; crown and chin with warty excrefcences. Gmel.

Length fix inches ; and fuypofed to inhabit the Cape of
Good Hope.

Melaxocepiiala. Head black, front white; back,
tail, and wing-coverts blueifh-aih, the laft with a tranfverfe
white iireak near the extremity. .Don. Grarula mehmoce-
pha/a. Lath. Lemaitiatea Icte noire, Vieill. Black-headed

grakh.

A fpecies recently difcovered in New South Wales ; its

height is about eight inches ; the bill yellow, a htfle bent,
and formed at die bafe like that of the Tardus, or thrufh
tribe ; the tail three inches long ; the legs very long in pro-
portion, of a pale yellow ochre-colour, and armed with

, ftrong blackilli claws.

VililDls. Dull green; throat above brown and blackifli
varied ; under parts of the plumage whitilh, with fome
blackilh ftreaks ; wings blackifh, edged with white ; tail
blackifh, with white tip. Don. Gracula -viridis. Lath.

jJjC mainate vert, Vieill. Green graile.

X,ately found; the fpecies inhabits New Holland, and

G R A

appears to be very rare; the bill is ftrong, fomewhat in.
chning at the bafe, and the colour of horn ; the legs
blackifti.

Cyanoti.s. Space about the eyes bare of feathers and
bright blue ; head black, with a white crofs on the hind
part ; upper part of the neck, body, fcapulars, wing-
coverts, and tail yellowiih-green ; breaft lead-colour ; plu-
mage beneath white. Don. Gracula cyanolis, Laili. L.e
mainale a oreilles bleues, Vieill. Blue eared greikle.

Length twelve inches and a half; bill black ; legs blue "
black, with very hooked black claws. Native of Nev»
South Wales.

- Picata. Greater part of the head, the neck ; tranf-
verfe band on the breaft, back, border of the wings, and
tail above nearly to the tip black ; throat, breaft, wing-
coverts, body beneath, and under furface of the tail-fea-
thers white. Don. Gracula picata. Lath. Le mainate pie,
Vieill. Pie grakle.

Rather l;u-gcr than the black-headed grakle, and like
that fpecies inhabits the regions of Auilralafia ; the general
colour black and white, tiie former partially gloffed with
purple ; bill yellow, and correfponding in form with that of
the black-headed grakle ; and the legs lead colour.

GRACULUS, the Shagge, a fpecies of Pelecanus; which
fee. — Alfo, a fpecies of Corvus ; which fee.

GRADATION, the aft of afcending, ftep by ftep, to
any pitch or eminence : from the Latin gradus, degree,

>^- . . . .

Gradation, m Architedure, fignifics an artful difpofition

of parts, rifing, as it were, by ilcps or degrees, after the

manner of an amphitheatre : fo that thofe placed before do

no differvice, but rather fervice, to thoft- behind.

The painters alfo ufe the word gradation for an infenfible
change of colour, by the diminution of the teints and
Ciades. Sec below.

GuAnATiON, in Chemiflry, is a kind of procefs belong-
ing to metals. It confills ni gradually raifmg, or exalting
them to a higher degree of purity and goodnefs, fo as to
increafe their weight, colour, confiftence, &c.

Gradation, in hogic, is an argumentation, confiding
of four or more propofitions, fo difpofed as that the attri-
bute of the firft is the fubjedl of the fecund ; and the at-
tribute of the fecond is the fubjeil of the third, and fo on,
till the laft attribute come to be predicated of tlie fubjeft
of the firft propofition. As in Porphyry's tree ; man is
an animal ; an animal is a living thing ; a living thing 19
a body ; a body is a fubilance : therefore man is a iub-
ftance.

An argument of this kind is liable to many fallacies;
both from the ambiguity of words and tilings ; e. gr. Peter
IS a man ; man is an animal 4 animal is a genus ; genus is an
univerfal ; therefore Peter is an univerfal.

Gradation, in Painting, relates both to chiaro-fcuro
and to colour : that is, all the different degrees in which
light and dark, and .colour may be modified, are compre-
hended in it.

An objefk receding froiW the light, and gradually lofing it,
becomes at its iartheft extremity obfciirely defined. A
coloured body, pure m- bright in teiiit, under the fame cir-
cumftances, gradnally diminilhes in clearncfs of hue througli-
out jts receding parts, and becomes dull and dark. By
fixing the fcalc of gradation in both tliefe particulars, effefts
of great force or great fimplicity may be produced. The
fcale of defcent being n-.ade rapid, great force will enfue,
from the ftrong oppolitioiis it promotes ; and the rcvcrfe
will take place when the degrees of defcent are prolonged,
and lefs contiraft thereby effected. The nature of the fub-

jea.

G R A

G R A

Jcft, and the fitiiation of tlie figures with regard to light,
mull's be the artill's guide in this matter.

The gradation of colour includes not only what is men-
tioned above, viz. the different decrees of purity, or bril-
liancy of the fame colour, but alfo the approximations of
rach colour to its neighbour, necelfary to produce harmony;
r.nd alio the art of gradually lofnig the local colour in ob-
fcnrity, and yet maintaining llie charafter of it in the objcci:
which is extremely diHJcult and of great importance in the
art of painting.

GnADATiON, in Rhetnric, is when a feries of coufwlera-
tions or proofs is brought riling by degrees, and improving
each on the other. See Climax.

Such is that in Cicero to Herennius: " Africano induftria
virtutem, virtus gloriam, gloria xmulos comparavit."

GR ADI, Italian, degrees. Every ccclefiallical mode, and
every key in fecular mufic, has ksgradus, its fcale ; no note of

wa? anciently rchoarfed on the fteps of the altar : though
UgulK) gives us another account, and fays j( took it«
denomination gradual becaufc fuiig in the gradual afcent
note to note. Magri fpeaks differently ftill, and

from

will have it to have taken" its iiame becaufe fuiig while the

deacon went up the flairs to the pulpit, to fine

Gofpel.

GuAni'AL,

the

Cradiialis,

. >' alfo applied to the fifteen
plalms, fung among the Hebrews, on the fifteen fleps
of the temple. Others arc rather of opinion that they were
thus denominated becaufe the fingers raifed their voice by
degrees from the firit to the lait.

Cardinal Bona, in his' treatife of Divine Pfalmody, fays,
the fifteen gradual pfalms are intended to rcprefent to the
mind, that we only arrive at the perfection of goodn.fs or
holinefs, by degrees. He goes on to lav down the fifteen
degrees of virtue, correfponding to the fit'teen pfalms ; five

which can be changed by an accidental fat, fiarp, or natu- of them are for beginners ; five for profisients ; and the refl
ral, without changing the key. As in the key- of F major for the perfeft.

with one flat at the clef, annul that flat by a natural, and
the key is changed to C, add anotlier flat and it modulates
intoB b.

GRADISCA, or GnADl.sciI, in Geography, a town of
Germany, and capital of a fmall county, annexed with
Goritz to the dominions of Auftria, feated on the Lizonzo,
built in the year 1473 to ilop the incurlions of the Turks,
additionally fortified in 1764, and crefted into a bifliopric in
1784; taken by the French in 1797 : — y miles S. of Goritz.
N. lat. 46^ 2'. E. long. 13' 27. • — Alio, a town of Scla-
vonia, on the river Save, near the borders of Croatia, well
peopled and fortified ; 132 miles W. of Belgrade. N. lat.
45^ 10'. E. long. 17 ' 50'.

GRADISELLO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Adda and Ogha ; 8 miles S. of Bieno,

GRADUATE, a perfon who has the degrees of any
faculty : a graduate in phylic, in divinity, in mufic, &c.
See Deghke, Doctok, &c.

This privilege of graduates is no older than the fifteenth
century : it being obferved, that men of learning were
much neglected by the collators, and patrons of churches ;
complaint, therefore, was made to the council of Bafil,
where this decree was made ; which was afterwards con-
firmed by the Pragmatic Saiidion, and again by the Con-
cordat.

GRADUATION of JJronomical Injlruments, isthedi-
viding of a circle, or of fome aliquot part thereof, into de-
grees and its fub-divifions, on the limb of any inllniment that
is ufed for meafuring angles with a great degree of accu-
racy. (See the article Dec:uie.) When the indrumcnt to

GRADISTA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulga- be graduated is of a portable fize. admitting of only a fmall
ria, on the borders of Scrviu ; 40 miles S. of Viddlii radius of curvature for the limb that is to be divided, the

GRADISZTE, a town of Walachia ; 48 miles N.E. of operation is very readily as well as accurately performed by

Galacz. N. lat. 45 23'. E.long. 27^ 19'

GRADITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; burnt by Zifca ; 12 miles N. of Konigin-
gratz.

GRADO, afmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, near the
coail of Friuli, with a town which was the firft fee of the
Venetian patriarch. N. lat. 45°. E long. 13- 17'.

GRADUAL, Graduale, was anciently a church-book,
containing divers prayers, rehearfed, or fung, after the epiflle :
called in fome of our ancient writers gradile, graduale, grade,
&c.

After reading the epiftle, the chantor afccnded the
ambo with his gradual, and rehearfed the prayers, &c.
therein; being anfwered by the choir ; whence the
name gradual, on account of the iteps or degrees of the
ambo.

The gradual or graile, which the provincial conftitutions
of archbifhop Winchelfea, made at Mcrton, A. D.
J305, required to be in every church, was a book contain-
ing all that was to bf fung by the choir at high raafs ;
the trafts, fequences, hallelujahs ; the creed, offertory ;
trifagium, and alfo the office for fprinkling the holy water.
" Gradale fie diftum, a gradalibus in tali libro conten-
tis."

It is fometimes taken for a mafs-book, or part of it, in-
ftitutcd by pope Celefline, anno 430. Sec flat. 37 Hen.
VI. cap. 32.

In the Romidi church, gradual is an appellation ftill
given to a verfe which they fing after an cpillle, and which

an engine, fuch as Ramfden's or Troughton's, the former of
which we have defcribed under the article Enci.vk /"er diriJ-
ing Circles, kc. but when the radius of the inftruinent is loo
large to admit of divifion by an engine, the ta(k of graduat-
ing, by the determination and adoption of original dividing
points or lines, requires no ordinary portion of Ikill, manual
dexterity, and perfewerance to be united. Before the cfta-
blifhment of the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich, the art
of graduating was in a rude itate, but a defire to have this
inflitution furnifhed with fuperior inflruments of obfervation
has ffimulated the different aftronomers royal, fuccelTively,
to encourage the t;dents of fuperior artilU from time to time,
till at length fuch pcrfeftion it attained, that little more can
now be hoped for in the improvement of our beft Englifh
inllrumeiits. The hillory of the art of graduating allrono-
mical iuilruments, and the gradual developement of themoft
convenient and mod accurate modes of proceeding, together
with the difficulties to be furmountcd in the various lla>n;s
of progrefs towards perfeftion, will be bell explained by a
eoncife detail of each fucceffive method of dividing, that
has been pratlifed, agreeably to the order of time ; and by
remarks arifuig out of each detail, as they mofl naturally
occur.

We know not fufficient of the aftrolabes of Hipparchus
and Ptolemy to enable us to give any fatisfadory account of
the nature and accuracy of their divifions and fub-divifion.s,
though it is probable that the graduated circles on them
contained each 360", agreeably to the Egyptian mode ef
dividing the circle. Neither can we give a vcrj perfect dc-

f;:ription

GRADUATION.

fcription of the manner in wliicli Copernicus, long after-
wards, had his aftrolabe and meridian quadrant graduated,
though we have fhcwn under our article Chicle that his pa-
ralladical inftrument, with which his altitudes were chiefly
taken, had its limb divided by equal divifions that were the
fubtenfes of 3' 49. "137 each.

Tvcho Brahe's intiruinents had the advantage of along
radius, which rendered any incquaUties that might occur in
his^diviiiims of, Icfs value than they would have been in inllru-
nients of Ihort radii ; the fmalleft fub-divilions into wliich he
profcfTed to mark his fpaccs were 10' each, and the lingle
minutes and portions of a minute, even to 15" and 10", were
indicated by triangular diagonals ; but with what degree of
preciiionthc fub-divHionswerc effc<fled, and what dependence
could be placed on Iris diagonals, as to accuracy, at this dif-
tance of time, it is not an eafy matter to afcertain : it is re-
corded, however, that tlie operation of graduating his in-
ilrumcnts was performed by liis own manual labour.

And what we have here faid of the inftruments of Tycho
Bralie, is equally true of the machiim ccchjl'n of Hevelius ;
whatever accuracy his apparatus pofTeiTed, was the refult of
his own perfevering induitry, but we are not aware that hi»
methods of proceeding have been particularly detailed.

In Dr. Hook's Animadverlions on the Mach'ina CaJeJl'u of
Hevelius, 1 674, this very ingenious mechanift has publiflied
an account of iris metliod of racking the exterior edge of
the limb of his quadrant, as performed by Tompion, which
method, he fays, " does not at all depend upon the care and
diligence of the inftrument-maker, in dividing, graving, or
numbering the divifions, for the fame fcrew makes it from
end to end.'' But, as Smeaton has very properly obferved,
this inventive contriver has not given his reader any precau-
tions, or particular directions how the perfeftion of the
fcrew is to be eniured, or how the notches of the rack work
are to be rendered perfectly equal among themfelves, not-
withftanding the unequal denfities, and hardnefs of different
portions of the metal lo racked. The difficulties alluded to
here, were acknowledged by the due de Chaulnes, in a
memoir of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, pub-
lilhed in the year 1765. Tlie doClor called the account of
his method, " an explication of the new way of dividing,'
and as an original invention, it may probably be called his
own, though the want of a perfect fcrew, with intervals
exaftly proportioned to the effective radius of his quadrant,
was a fource of error, that pollerior contrivances were re-
quired to remedy. See Encine (by Ramfden) fur cutting
the fcre-ws of the circular HiviJiiig engine.

The ufe of Dr. Hook's fcrew for racking the limb of an
aflronomical inltrument was not, liowever, abandoned, witli-
out a fair trial of its accuracy in reading the quantity of the
angles fo meafured ; for Flamllead, (or Flamfleed,) on his ap-
pointment to the Royal Obfervatory in 1676, employed
Tompion to conilruft him a fextant of fix feet nine and a
quarter inches radius, at the expence of Jonas Moore, with
an endlefs fcrew of feventeen threads per inch, acting on the
racked edge of tlie limb, and with telefcopic fights, which
had not been before ufed : the refult of this trial was, that
fome (liake took place in tlie notches, that were worn by the
fcrew, and frequently an error of a whole minute in reading
anobfervation was unavoidably produced thereby. Toremedy
this evil, in tlie following year degree fpaces, with diagonal
divifions to read to the accuracy of 10", were added as a
check on the meafures of the fcrew, and a column, to contain
the check angle by diagonal lines, was filled up from the i ith
of September of the year 1677. Thefe additions, it appears,
from the Prolegomena of the H'tflor'ia Cahjlii, were inferted
bj- Flamllead himfelf, and a eomparifon of the fcrew with

the diagonals proved that an error of as mtich as one m'lnuta
was frequently the rcfult of the reading by the fcrew. In
an obfervation of the moon, taken on tlie 9th of June 1687,
Smeaton fays, that on looking over the obfervations, he de-
tected an error of 55", which, upan a radius of fix feet nine
inches, he calculates amounts to more than J-^ih part of an
inch. The fcrew, however, was ufeful for giving a regular
flow motion to the telefcopic fights, and though its ufe, as
an accurate meafure of a large arc, was foon abandoned in
aftronomical inftruments, it has been retained as an excellent
mode of producing a flow motion, by the aid of a tapped
clamping piece, and has been applied with great fuccefs to
the limb of a dividing engine, which, being a complete circle,
admits of equalization of the contiguous notches, by a long
continued fimultaneous action of feveral threads of a very
perfedt fcrew, caiTied many times all round the circle, when
the cxait iituations of dillaut notches have been enfured by
the checks afforded by accurate divifions, previoufly mado^
on its plane.

Notwithftanding what we have above faid of the imperfefit
meafureraent of an angle by tlie fcrew, it was notrelinquillicd
without another trial in Flamllead's time, by Abraham
Sharp, his amanuenfis, to wiiofe fliill and dexterity in ma-
nual operations of a meclianical nature both Flamitead and
Smeaton have borne ample teilimony ; tlie latter of whom
fays, " I look upon Mr. vSharp to have been tlie firft perfon
that cut accurate and delicate divifions upon allronomical
inftruments.'' The inftrument at which Sharp laboured,
and to wliich he applied the fcrew in conjunction with the
diagonals of the divided fpaces, in 1689, was the mural arc
at Greenwich, of whicli the radius is fix feet feven inclies
and a half. " But yet," lays Smeaton, in his paper on this
fubjeft, read November 17, 1785, at the Royal Society's
room, " wlioever compares the different parts of the table for,
converfion of the revolutions, and parts of the fcrew belong,
iiig to the mural arc into degrees, minutes, and feconds,
with each other, at the fame diltance from the zenith on
different fides, and witli their halves, quarters, SiC. will
find as notable a difagreement of the fcrew-work from the
hand-divifions, as had appeared before in the work of Mr;
Tompion ; and hence we may conclude, that the method of
Dr. Hook, being executed by two fuch mafterly liands as
Tompion and Sharp, and found defective, is in reality not
to be depended on in nice matters.''

This inference of Smeaton obvioufly implies, that what
he calls the hand-dtvifiotis of the mural arc, are njore accurate
than the readings by tlie fcrew alone ; but, as he has given
no other teft of the accuracy of thefe hand-divifions, nor
has explained by what procefs they were inferted, tlie more
legitimate inference would have been, that either the fcrew,
or the hand-divifions may be faulty, or both may be fo in
their refpeCtive degrees. It is to be regretted that Sharp,
who was a mathematician as well as a mechanift, has not
publiflied the method he adopted of marking out and cutting
his dividing lines, which is more immediately the fubject of
our prefent article. Had he made his hand-divifions firft,
and checked his notches, made by the fcrew, thereby, as
Ramfden did with his engine afterwards, his meafures by
the fcrew would have been more perfect, though the centre-
work might have been hable to be galled by too much
preffure of the fcrew againft the notched edge of the inftru-
ment, when frequently ufed.

Nearlyabout tlie time that the mural arc was fixed at Green-
wich, Olaus Rocmer, the Danifli aftronomer, fupplied his
domeftic obfervatory with an inftrument that had divifions
and telefcopic fights moving in the meridian, by means of a
long axis, common to both the divided arc and telefcopt-,

wbicii

GRADUATION.

'••'hicli therefore admitted of better adjuftment for the vorti-
cal motion than the mural arc was capable of; and which
may be confidered as the firft tranjit Itijlrument that properly
deferves fuch a name. In dividing his arc, Mr. Roemer dif-
rcgardcd the total length, with refpcdl to an exatl number

the greated precaution taken in drawing the dividing line»^
or in marking the dividing points. The fcrcw for flow mo-
tion was alio ufod for dividing the vernier fcale in a proper
way, after its value was afcertained ; and its perfection was
cnfured, with refpeit to the due inclination of its threads all

of degrets, and lacked more particularly to the equality of round, as well as to the equality of their fpsces : and laflly.

the divifions, which were convertible into degrees and mi
nutes, by a table calculated for this purpofe. The me-
thod he made choice of, for rendering his divifions equal,
was to begin at one end of his arc, and to proceed by ilep-
ping, and by marking the dividing points with a proper prcf-
fure at each ftep, till the whole arc was finifhed : for this
purpofe he diJ not depend on a pair of dividers, however
ilrong their legs, but two fine pointed pieces of ftrong tem-
pered fteel were tied, or otherwife fixed together in Inch a
way, that the diftance between the two points was f'-th or
-TTth of an inch, and the radius of the arc to be divided was
lo proportioned, from 2| to 3 feet, that this diftance made a
fpace very nearly equal to lo' ; whether exaftly fo, or not,
did not fignify, as the difference was allowed for by the cal-
culated table, when an angle had been read by the divided
fpaces ?.s numbered. It is eafy to conceive that this mode
of meafuring an angle would be as accurate as any other,
after the due allowance was made, provided the fpaces were
perfectly equal to each other ; but the theory of this me-
thod is more perfeft than the praftice ; for none of the mix-
ed metals is fo perfeclly uniform in its denfity, and fo free

in order that the advantage of continual bifeaion might be in
troduccd as a chtcL on the degree fpaces, the quadrant wa«
divided in 96 fpaces, with fub-divifions, in a fcparate
d the rea;!:!!^' from Uie <)6th arc were a conilan

arc :
a conilant tell

and tile re3;!:!!gj from Uie 96th arc were

of the readings by the 90 , when converted into degrees

and minutes by calculation, or by a table iifed for that

purpofe.

As it is not our iiitewtion to defcribe here the ftnifiure of
Graham's quadrant, but merely to defcribe liis method of
graduating the limb of bnifs, which was laid over the iron
frame, we fliall fatisfy ourfelves by dating that two feparate
arches were ftruck by a beam-compafs, fecured from bend-
ing by feveral bracing pieces ; the refpoftive radii of wliich.
were 96 85, and 95.8 inches. The inner arch was dinded
into exaft degrees, and twelfth parts of a degree, or 5' fpaces;
but the outer one was divided, as we have faid, into 96 equal
parts, and each of tliefe again fub-divided into 1 6 equal parts,
fo that the fub-divilions were to each other as 1080 : 15^6,
or in fmaller number, as 25 : 32. To convey to the reader
an idea how the arcs were divided, fuppofe the quadrant to
be rcprefcnted by_/?;/^. 1. of Plate XV' III. of AJlrmomical In

from hard particles, occafionally met with by the ftepping JlrumnUs, and thjt the occult line a b ilhe required to be di-

points, as to enfure the perfect equality of the divided fpaces, vided into degrees by points iiiferted thereon, as centres for

however carefully the ftepping points are prefied in a verti- cutting the dividing lines from ; the known property of the

cal direftion ; the fmalleft deviation on making the firft circle, that the chord of fixty degrees is always equal to the

imprefllon becomes greater by preffure, and an attempt to radius, afforded the means of laying down the total arc of

reftify any erroneous points can never be depended upon : 90 in the firft place ; thus, from the point a, or zero of the

but, what is worfe, every individual deviation from perfect
equality is charged on the whole arc, which therefore will
be either longer or fticrter than the true length, by the ag-
gregate of ail the pofitive, or negaiive quantities, that pre-
dominate in the inequalities of the individual fpaces thus di-
vided ; and the longer the arc is from the firft point, when
any angle is meafured, the greater is the error of the mea-
furement in all probability, becaufe the greater is the proba-

arc, the point b was marked by meafurement of the fame
points of the beam-compafs unaltered, that ftruck the occslt
line ; and this arc of 60° was bifecled at c by an extent nearly-
equal to the chord of 30 from the points a and b refpeCt-
i"ely ; the extent, however, being a trifle lefs than the chord
of 30 , the two fweeps did not interfeCi each other, but ap-
proached fo nearly together, that the fmall fpace between
the fweeping lines was bifected bv a point put in bv hand.

ble ao-gregate of the deviations from perfect equality in the by the alfiftance of a magnifying eyc-glafs : the di dance of

fpaces. The total arc thus dirided was about 75° ; but as this point c from a or from b being the chord of 30°, was

Roemer apphed no correclion to the errors of the dil'ant laid along the hmb from b to d, the extreme point of the

divifions of this arc, no dependence could be placed on the whole arc of 90 , and when this operation was fo carefullir

ivfult of the readings, even when converted into degrees and performed, that the arcs a c, c b, and b d were prccifely of

minutes bv his table, which fuppofed the arc perfedlly di- the fame length, when compared with each other, the total

vided. ^"""^ might fafely be depended on, as being of its true dimen-

The next ingenious artift who diftinguiflied liimfelf in the fions. During tliis nice operation, it was pr.^fumcd, that the

art of graduating aftronomical indruments, was the cele- length of the dividing beam had not altered by any variation

brated Graham. At the appointment of Dr. Halley to the of temperature. Tiie next ftep was to bififft each of thofc

Roval Obfervatorv of Greenwich, Flaniftead's indruments three arcs of 30 into fix of 15- each, in the fame manner as

a b, the arc of 60 , was bifeifled into a c and c l< : but the
arcs of 15 ' were not divlhble into a lower number tlian tlirae
parts of each 5 ; in order to tripartite each arc of iy\ a
feparate arc was nfed, as an arc of trial, defcxibed'Uy the

Avere removed by his executors, and in the year 1725, Gra-
ham undertook the condruClion of a new mural quadrant,
which remains as a ftanding proof of his (kill, to this day,
in the faid obfervatory. This artift availed himfelf of every

contrivance that had been praftifed by his predecedbrs, and original radius unaltered, and 15 were transferred to it, and
invented fuch a ftrong, and, at the fame time, fight method divided by trial till one-third of it was afcertained to moa-
of conftrnfting the frame-work of the iron quadrant, con- furc exactly thedilVunce lietween tlie two points of the com-
ilructed bv .Jonathan Siflon, as evinced his fuperior know- pafs ; this diftance 'wai then l.iid off each way Irom each of
ledo-e of mechanics, as well as Siffon's precifion in the work- the aforefaid paints of the arcs of 15", and tlie fecond fpace
manfhip. The diagonals were now rejefted, as being inca- of each being found equal to tlieir contiguous firit .-ind third
pible of being read by a fiducial edge with requifite exaft-
iiefs, and the vernier fcale was fabftituted as much prefer-
able in this refpecl, and the beam-compafs, with equal ad- _ , , , -
vantao-e, was fubftituted for the ruler and dividing knife, the arc of trial, was alcertained by repeated adjudtr.ents and
which were liable to coafidcrable parallax, notwithllanding examinations, and then inferted within the divifions of the
Vol. XVI. 3 Y divide*

fpaces thus meafured, tlie whole arc was lub-«.livided into 18
equal arcs of 5=" each : in the fame manner, a fiftli part of
one of the arcs of 5 , firft transferred upon another part of

GRADUATION.

divided arc, by turning the points over twice each way,
from every point already laid down, and then the middle
fpace of each five being found equal to the extreme as well
as contiguous fpaces r>irpeftively, the whole arc was fubdi-
vidcd into points of one degree of diftance from each
other. But to enfure a perfett equality among thefe fpaces
required great fteadinefs of hand, as well as obfcrvation of
the eye, and caution, to preferve the regulated dillances of
the points, unaltered during the operation. Of courfe, the
marking point was required to be line, and at the fame time
well tempered, as well as flrong enough to bear prclfure,
which preffure was alfo neccffary to be made in a perpendicu-
lar diretlion on the face of the limb. The fub-divifions of
the degree fpaces into 12 parts of 5' each, were done firit by
trifeftion, and then by bileftion, or vice verfa, in the man-
Her we have already defcribcd ; and tlie delicacy of thefe
operations, on fo fmall a fcale, required extraordinary atten-
tion and care to enfure perfeft equality among the fmalleil
lub-divifions, which were now in a ilate to be transferred by
lines tending to the centre of the arc to Isc graduated.
This was an operation that could not be done well by the
Jlraight edge of a rule, and a marking point, or dividing
knife that would be liable to deviate a little, notwithftaniing
the greateft care ; here another, but fmaller beam-compafs
was fubltituted for the ruler, probably for the firlltirae, for
the purpofe of transferring the graduated points from the
occult arc into the :»rc to be graduated, in the following
manner ; fuppofe the points g and e to be intended to be
transferred ; becaufe the lines to be cut, as the dividing lines,
are required to be in a direftion tending dire£tly towards
the centre 0 of the concentric arcs, defcribed on the limb ;
the diilance of the cutting point, from the ftationary point
ef the compafs, was taken of fuch a length, that the cutting
point crofTed the arc to be cut at right angles, or, in other
words, the beam was fo fituated, as to become a tangent to
the are to be cut ", therefore the diilance of the two points
of the beam was regulated by the diftance of the occult line
of dots r, h, d, from the arc to be graduated by the ftraight
lines, or rather by the curved lines, which in fact were fub-
{tituted, and which palfcd without fenfible error for ftraight
lines, when the tangent line in queftion was long. From the
point or dot ^, the curve /; k was drawn, and from the dot
*• the curvey / ; but in fuch a way that a fmall portion only
of each, that lies between the circular lines, was cut on the
face of the inftrument. In the fame manner all the otlier
dots were fucceffively transferred, while each reprefentative
«f the numerals 5, 10, 15, &c. were made longer than
their intermediate hnes of divillon, and the fubdividing lines
were again ftill ftiorter. The vernier carried by the tele-
fcopc, when nicely and accurately divided, would detetl
any inaccuracy in the fub-divilions thus transferred, by the
aid of a magnifier properly adjutted.

The arc of g6 divifions, with their fub-divifions, was not,
properly iYi?^\T.'g, graduated, but divided and fub-divided iu:o
portion.'- of fmaller value than degrees, and 5' fpaces ; but as
the nu.nib'.-r chofen is divifible continually by the number tiuo,
it was completed by eontiiwal bifenions, which method there-
Jore requires no further explanation. We are told by Dr.
Hmith (.n his Optics) that thefe two arcs were never found
So ditf'j.' from each other more than 5" or 6 ' on any part of
the lu.ib, butthat when there is fuch difference, the preference
ought to be given to the bifefted arc of 96 divifions.

To prove that the fpaces obtain..-d by the hues of transfer
areecjiiaito.thijfe between the correfponding dotsijr points,
let e y ar.d g h be joined, alfo of, oh, 0 e, and 0 g ; and the
tri,ar,gles r of, g 0 h, will be every way limilar, and equal to
Cucii otlicr J ihtrexore, if the common angle (ob be taken

aw?y from the equal angles e of, g 0 I.', the angles e 0 a anct
fo h, that remain, will aifo be cquyl to each other.

It does not appear that Graham took any meafures ta
guard againft, or even to detect the errors that his method
of dividing is liable to, from variations of temperature in
his quadrant and beam, during llie time that the operation is
going on, and from the correfpondiiig variations of length
in the metals, according to their relpetiive expanfibilities ;
nor is it quite certain that he was aware t.'f the probable ex-
tent of fuch errors, feeing he conftradtcd the frame-work of
his inftruments of iron, and had his circle to be divided of
brafs. In Dr. Bradley's zenith feCtor made by Graham,
Dr. Maflvelyne has caufed an iron limb to be fubilitutcd for
the original brafs one, and has had the points of divifion in-
ferted on iluds of gold, to avoid the errors that arole from
the unequal expanfibility of the dillereiit metals.

We might here mention Mr. H. Hindley's plan of dividing
a circle by a tootlied circular plate and endkfs fcrew in form
of an engine, about the year i 740, but that we think his
method of dividing and drilling the holes of his plate, by
bending a ftraight flender bar of brafs into a circle, and
transferring the holes therefrom, cannot be depended on
where much accuracy is required in the divifions of a circle.
It was originally intended, and is much better calculated,
for dividing and cutting the notches between the teeth of a
wheel ; but the reader may fee the plan defcribed, and fome
improvements on it propofed by Smeaton, in his paper already
mentioned, as contained in the Philofophical Tranfaclions of
London, in the year 1 785.

Jeremiah, the fon of Jonathan SifiTon, was of Graham's
fchool of dividing, and did nearly as much juftice to the
method he adopted, as Graham iiimfelf, probably ; and his
nice care, and perfevenng affiduity, have claffed him among
tiie firft dividers of his time ; but we are not aware that he
was the inventor of any original contrivance, except, perhaps,
that lie applied a triple index to fonie of his inftniments,
one of which had the vernier, and each of the others had a
finglc line or ftroke drawn at one-third of a circle from each
other, and from zero of the vernier, which might aft as 3
check on the eccentricity of the circle, as well as on the
inequality of its divifions ; though it does not appear cer-
tain that thi.s was the original intention, as the three props of
his vernier-bar in his theodolites required it to be triple ;
but in his circular indexes one ftroke only was made, and
that oppofite the vernier : the importance of a triple vernier
has not been noticed particularly by any one, previoufly to
the time of Mr. Ed. Troughton's introduction of tlie triple
vernier into his circular inftruments. Mr. Ludlam, however,
fays, that SifTon very early rejected the method of trifefting,
and that of lleppiRg too. " Having (by means of the radius
and bifeftionsorly) divided his quadrant into three arches
of 30 each, he fet off in each of thefe arches the clierd of
2 I 20', or 256 times five minutes. This cliord was taken off
a fcale of equal parts, and was checked by the chord of
8 40', both chords together filling up the arch of 30°. The
arch of 21 20 was divided by continual bif'eftions into
arches of five minutes each." This defcription, fays Mr,
Ludlam, in a note to page 4, of his Introdudion and Notes
on Mr. Bird's method of dividing, was given by Jeremiali
Sifton, in a private letter dated Mav 20, 1766 ; and according
to the fame letter it appears alfo, th?t SifTon placed the
fixed or central point of his compafs in a blank tarigental
line, as hereafter defcribed by Bird, during the operation
of transferring the divided points into linear divifions ; but
as Bird has m the year 1767 publifhed thefe proceffes as
originally his own, and as he worked for the Silfons pre-
vioully to 1766, we are difpofed to conlider Dirdj and not

either

GRADUATION.

either of the SifTons, as the real contriver of the metliods
here adverted to. SiiTon (the younger) rcjefled the arc of
96, as being only a help to a bad divider ; but Bird uft-d to
retort on him, by faying, that good dividing wa3 not afraid
of fuch a teft of its accuracy.

It is the charafteriftic of a great genius in mechanics, not
to tread too clofely in the licps of his predccefTors, but,
avaihng himfclf of any hints tliat may have been prcfented
to him, to mark out a more diredt and even path for him-
fclf, that (hall throw in his way fewer obilacles to impede
his progrefs. This was the cafe with Mr. Bird, who, hav-
ing been brought up a cloth-weaver in the county of Dur-
ham, and having noticed fome very coarfe divifions on the
face of a clock that fell in his way, immediately fet about
dividing one himfelf, in a much neater manner, and was fo
pleafed with his fuccefs, that in the year 1740 he came to
London, and was in bufinefs for himfelf as an inftrument-
makcr, only five years afterwards. After having made him-
felf acquainted with the methods at that time in ufe of
dividing a circle, he faw that no one had guarded again 11
the errors produced by the effedls of variable temperature
on the beam of the compafs, as well as on the metal of the
fcales and circles to be divided ; he alfo faw that bifeftion
of an arc had fo much advantage over trifefiion, or quin-
quefeftion, that he abandoned the latter modes of dividing
altogether, and was the firll probably to compute chord-
lines, to be taken from a good vernier (what he calls iio-
riius) fcale, by the beam-compafs, in order to determine
fuch points in an arc of 90°, as may enable a divifion by
continual bifeftion to be adopted, and at the fame time fuch
as may be laid down without lofs of time, or, in other words,
without fenfible change of atmofpheric temperature.

We cannot better defcribe Mr. Bird's method of dividing
ailronomical inilruments than by uilng his own words. " The
requifites," favs he, " for the performance of this work are as
follow : A fcale of equal parts, by which the radius may-
be meafured to o 001 of an inch mull be provided. My
tcale is 90 inches long, each inch divided into 10, conti-
guous to which are nonius (vernier) divifions, viz. 10. 1
inches divided into 100 equal parts, fhewing 0.00 1 of an
inch, and by the aflillance of a magnifying glafs, of one
inch focal length, a third of ocoi may be taken off by
eftimation.

" Provide fine beam-compafles, to which magnifying
glafTes of not more than one inch focal length Ihould be
applied. Let the longell beam be fufficient to draw the
arcs, and meafure the radius ; the zd to mealure tlic
chord of 42' 40' ; the 3d to moafure the chord of 30 ;
ihe 4th, 10 20'; the 5th, 4' 40' ; and if a lixth, to mea-
lure I y', be made ufe of, fo much the better.

" The radius of the arc of 90" at the points is equal
10 95.938 inches, from which the following numbers were
computed, vi-z. 49.6615 inches r= chord of 30°; 25.0448
inches z= chord or 15 ; 17.279047 inches = chord of
10^20'; 7.81 186 inches ::= chord of 4° 40 ; and 69.80318
inches =: chord of 42' 40'. Having drawn the fevcral
arcs, between whicli the divifions were to be cut, the radius
and the lengths of the above chords were taken by the
beam-compafles, which, together with the fcale, were laid
upon the quadrant, where they remained till the next morn-
ing ; daring which time, the door of the room was kept
locked. Before fun-rife I re-meafured the radius, which
required fome correction ; the beam being of wliite fir, and
the fcale of brafs, which probably contrafted, while the
beam remained unaltered : the oilier beani-compafies alto
required correction. Now tiie quadrant and feale being
of the fame temperature, tlie faint arc i /I fjl£. 2. of

Plate XVIII. of /IJronomicnl Injlrumeiiis,) was ftruck, and
with a very fine prick-punch (pointril) the point a wa«
made ; with the fame beam-compafs unaltered I laid off
from a X.O e the cliord of 60'', making alfo a fine point ;
witli the chord of 30" a e was bife£led in r. Now one point
of the beam-compalTes containing 60' was fixed in c, and
with the other was marked the point r or 90" : next, with
the bcam-compaffes containing 15% was bifeftcd e r\n n or
75'; from n was laid off the chord of 10' 2o' ; and from
r, 4 40'; which two lall chords joined exaftly in ^, being
the point of 85' 20' : now each degree being to be divided
into 12 parts, or every 5', thcref^ire, 85 x 12 + 4 = 1024,
a number divifible by continual bifedions. The lall chord
computed was 42^ 40', with which a g was bifedled in 0 ;
a 0 and 0 g were bifedled by trials : but, whoever under-
takes to divide a large quadrant, will do well to compute
alfo the chord of 21° 20' ; but for this chcrd any of the
beam-conipaffes already provided, which will take in the
length, may be ufed. Tiie point g, being forrred as above,
I proceeded, by continual b feclions, till I had the number
required, viz. 1024. To fill up the fpace betn-ecn^ and r,
containing 56 divifions, the cliord of 64 divifions was laid '
off from g towards d, and divided like the rcfl by co.itinual
bifeftions ; as was alio from a towards b. The points 30',
60, 75", and 90', fell in without any fenfible ineqHality."

So much will lufRce for giving a general idea of Bird's
proceedings, in di'oiding his ailronomical inilruments ; but
his method of transferring the divided points into dividing
lines was equally original, and guarded alfo againft errors
that might ariie from the handling of the beam duriiiir the
operation, by variable temperature ; before, however, we
proceed to detail this procefs, it may be proper to obferyc,-
that the points made on the faint circle were inferted by a
pointril, or piece of ileel-wire, with a conical point made
fail into a piece of cylindrical brafs rounded at the upper
end : the fteel part was -^x.\\ of an inch thick, and ^ths of an
inch long, and the brafs part 2 f long, and 'th of an inch ir»
diameter. The angle of the fteel conical point was from
2Q^ to 25 ^ and the point fome what above a fpring temper,
fo that the point made in the circle did not exceed o.coi
of an inch ; as it was fliarpened on an oil-done while tiuTi»
ing round, and while drawn in a dircclioii outwards from
the point itfelf, the furfacc partook of the nature of a
counter-fink, and, as it were, drilled a diminutive hole of a
conical fhape when gently prelfed on, as it revolved in the
point of bifeCVion, which point, by reafon of the four an-
giilar burs made by the inlerfetling lines, could he f:!t as
well ^•ifeen. The poii.ts of the lieam-compaffes were never
made to approach nearer to each other than two or three
inches, but at the ends of th.e arcs fpring dividers, witW
conical points, were fubllituted to meafura fmall arcs.
Another precaution was, that in all bifeclioiis, the place to
be pointed was laid off from left to right, and tlien from
right to left, from the refpcctive central points.

As the maxim, " tiiat an arc may be bifc3ed, but not
praftically trifeded or qutnqueftfied with certainty," was th?
maxim adopted by Bird, when lie introduced the ufe of hi*
fcale for meafuring the chords, fo the maxim, " that a right
line cannot be cut on brafs, fo as accurately to pafs through
two given points, but that a circle maybe defcribed from
any centre, to pafs accurately through a given point," was
taken up by him when he adopted the beam-compafs, as
Graham and SilFon had done, for cutting tlie fmall portions
(if a circle, indead of perfectly liraight lines, as boundaric*
of the divifions. His plan of doing this, however, was new,
as may be feen from his own words.

" The next llep," fays he, " is to cut the linear dinfion*
3 Y i from

GRADUATION.

from the points : the beft indnimcnt for this purpofe is the
beam-compafs, having both its points conical and very fliarp.
Draiv a tangent to the arc b <U fuppofc at e, it will intcrfea
the arc .v y in y, this will be the diilance between the points
of the be'nm-compars to cut the divifions (nearly) at right
angles to the arc b d. Lodge that point of the beam-com-
pafs next voiir right hand, in the point r ; let the other fall
freelv into the arc xy ; prefs gently with your finger upon
the fcrew-hend that fallens the focket (and that is convex),
and with the point towards the right haad cut the diviuons.
In this manner you mult proceed with the relV.''

The intention of transferring the central^ or refting point
of the conipafs into a blank tangental line, inftead of fulier-
ing the faid point to reft in the refpeftive points made in the
faint arc, is, that in the former cafe iliould any alteration
take place in the length of the beam, during the operation of
cutting, no error is charged on the divilions cut, but the
alteration is compenfated by the diilance of the nev.ly made
point in the tangeutal hne from the cutting point ; that is,
each divition is charged only with fuch a minute error, if
any, as arifes from temperature during the acl; of cutting a
Tingle Itroke, and if one of the points Ihould break, another
may be rLplaced without inconvenience-; whereas,^ by the
method of Graham, a broken point produces confidcrable
difficulty ; and the whole error ariting from temperature,
curinir the whole procefs of cutting all the divifions, is
charged not only on the total arc, but likewife in a certain
undefined degree on each of the whole divifions. This idea
of getting quit of the eil'efts of temperature is ingenious,
but has been objefted to as liable to the ill effefts of ilcpping
in a certain degree, inafeuch as that a hard partic!e,_ lying
under the point of reft, may caufe a little deviation in the
diftancej before the ftroke is cut. This objection, however,
was not allowed to be realized by Bird, who no doubt mull
have obviated it by fome other plan, had he fuund any real
inconvenience arifiiig from it. Great care, notwithftanding,
nmft have been taken in fctting down, and preiTing on the
point at reft, in a perpendicular direftion. Another objec-
tion applied to Mr. Bird's fcale, from which the chord-fines
were meafured, inafmuch as the fcale itfelf might be eiTO-
jieous in fomc places, and would impart its errors to the
arcs meafured from the computed chords taken there-
:from.

Befides the arc of 90' , the mural arc by Bird had an
arc of 96 divifions, like Graham's, divided by continual
bifeAions, till each of the 96 divifions had 16 fub-divifions,
as a check on the accuracy of the arc of degiees ; but fub

a point at one of the angles ; which formed the cutting-
point.

At the requeft of the commiflloners of the Board of
Longitude, Mr. Bird, in the year 1767, publiflied his method
of dividing in a quarto pamphlet, tor which they rewarded
him with 500/. befides 60/. for his plates, after having bound
him to inftruft an apprentice of feven years in the art of
conttrafting and dividing ailronomical inftruments.

Mr. Sm.eaton is of opinion that Bird's method of dividing
may be improved in one refpett, and exprefies himfelf on
the' fubjeft thus :

" I muft here obferve that I apprehend no quadrant, that
has ever undergone a fevere examination, has been found to
form a perfeft arch of 90', nor is it at all neceffary it fliould ;
the perfeft equahty of the divifions throughout the whole
is the firft and primary confideration ; as the proportion of
error, when afeertained by proper obfervations, can be as
eafily and readily applied when the whole error of the redl-
angle is fifteen feconds, as when it is but five. In this view,
from the radius taken, I would compute the chord of 16*
only. If I had an excellent plain fcale, I would ufe it,
becaufe I Ihould cxpedl the deviation from the right angle to
be lefs than if taken from a fcide of more moderate accuracy ;
but if not, the equality of the divifions would not be affect-
ed, though taken from any common diagonal fcale. This
chord, fo prepared, I would lay off five times in fuccef-
fion, from the primary point of o given, which would com-
pleat 80 ; I would then bifecl each of thofe arches of 16^,
as prefcribed by Mr. Bird, and laying off one of them be-
vond the Beth, would give the 88th degree, proceeding then
by bifediion, till I came to an arch of 2~, laving that off from
the 88th degree, wouldgivethepointof 90°. Proceeding ftill by
bifettion, til! I had reduced the degrees into quarters of ij'
each, I would there flop, as from experience I know that
when -divifions are over clofe, the accuracy of them, even by
bifeftions, cannot be fo well attained, as where they are mo-
derately large. If a fpace of y'^ths of an inch, which is
a quarter of a degree, upon an eight feet radius, is thought
too large an interval to draw the index over by the micro-
meter fcrew, this may be fhortened by placing another line,
at the diftance of one-third of adivifion on each fide of the
index line, in which cafe the fcrew will never have to move
the index plate more than one-third of a divifion, or 5', and
the perfect equality of thofe fide lines from the index line may
be obtained, and adjulled to 5' precifely, by putting each
of the fide lines upon a little plate, capable of ad'iuitment to
its true diftance from the middle one, bv an adjufting fcrew.

hich

fequent dividers of ailronomical inftruments have found this The above hint is not confined to the chord of 16
fuperfluous, as bein<r in the opinion of others, as well as of prohibits the fub-divifion going lower than 15' ; for if it be

Jeremiah Sifibn, a check only on bad dividing, and as ren- "

dering the reduction of obfervations troublefome, when made
thereby.

The vernier was retained by Bird as the beft method he
knew of fub-dividing the 5' fpaces into quantities of 30" each,
■which was the fmalleft angle he profelled tomeaiiu-e; and
to effect his purpofe he made ten divifions on his vernier equal
to eleven on the limb of the inftrument, firft by computing
the chord of thirty-two parts, and then by taking ten out

of thofe parts, when bilecled, as the proper divifions for Jhpping, arifing from Roemer's method, afterwards propofes
the vernier ; thefe, being made in points, were alfo transfer- to lay down the chord of 64", or of 85^ 20', from compu-
ed by a tangental line into linear divifions by the bcam-com-
pafs, as before defcribed ; but great care was taken, that
the ftroke zero on the vernier was drawn from the qua-
cranl's centre, precifely parallel to the hne of colhmatiou of
the telefcope. Mr. Ludlam fays, that the cutting-point
which SifTon ufed was flat in the knife-edge form, but that
Bird's was a triangular prifm, with a flope ground down to

required to have divifions equivalent to 5' upon the limb it-
felf, then I would compute the chord of zf 20' only ; and
laving it off four times from the primary point, the lall
■vs'ould m.ark out the divifion 85 ' 20', pointed out by Mr. Bird,
fupplying the remainder to a quadrant from the bifefted
divifions as they arife, and not by the application of other
computed chords." Mr. Smeaton, fenliblc, however, that
this method of laying i6- five times over, or 21° 20' four
times over, may be objected to, as liable to the errors of

tation all at once, and then to bifeCt, and complete the
quadrant from the bifefted divifions, which Mr. Bird him-
felf prefcribed as a good method for Hadley's fextants and
cCtants. But thele plans are now fuperfeded for inftruments
of fmall radius by the dividing engine, which performs the
work with great expedition, as well as accuracy, and the
original methods of dividing the circle are only ufeful for the

kirgcr

GRADUATION.

larger inftniments, and for the finirtiing of the dividing
engines thenilclvcs.

In the year after Mr. Bird had publiihed an account of
his method of dividing aftronomical inftruments, the due dc
Chaulncs printed in French a folio work, entitled " Nouvelle
methode pour divifer les Inllrumens de Mathematique ct
d'Allrononiie," and alfo a work proper to be bound with
the former, called " D'--fcription d'un Microfcope et de dif-
ferens Micrometres deftines a mcfurer des parties circu-
laires ou droites avec la plus grande precilion." The former
of thefe pamphlets contains 15 plates, and the latter fix,
■which exhibit plans and drawings in different points of view,
of all the apparatus, both in pieces and together ; thefe are
not neceflary to be copied by us, but we will defcribe them
as far as they fall within our prefent purpofe. This new
method of dividing is performed by the afliilance of com-
pound microfcopes, with crofs hairs in the focus of the eye-
glafs of eacli, to be fixed to the circle to be divided in any
given fituation, and of moveable pieces of brafs with fine
dividing lines marked thereon, which may be fo fixed with
wax, as to be adjuftable to the point of interfeclion in the
focus of any of the microfcopes, and when duly adjuiled, a
Aiding pointril, moving in a complex frame of brals, cuts
the line, on the circle to be divided, that fhall correfpond to
the point of the circle v.-here the adjuftable divifion is fixed ;
though the line cut is not in the fame part of the circle.
As this method may be confidered as the ground-work of
Ramfden's method of dividing a large circle, and has not,
that we know of, been tranilated into our language, we will
give the fubttance of tliat part of the work which more imme-
diately relates to our prefent fubject, without following the
author through all his minute detail?. The circle, which
the due de Chaulnes propofes to divide by his original method,
is the table of his dividing engine, but as it is equally ap-
plicable to any circle that may be fixed concentrically on it,
we will fuppofe it an agronomical circle for altitudes or azi-
muths that is to be divided by his method. In the firll
place, he propofes to have from 30 to 40 thin pieces of
fmooth brafs about one-third of an inch long, and onc-fixth
broad, having each a fine ilroke drawn acrols, perpendicular
to the long fides and juft deep enough to be feen ; and fe-
condly, three compound m.icrofcopes are to be provided,
one to hejjxed diametrically oppofite the pointril, or cutting
point, that is carried in and out, /. e. towards and from
the centre of the circle by an adjuftable frame, and the
other two are adjuftable to any given points along the
plane of the circle to be divided. When the circular hues
are ftruck on, the adjuftable microfcopes, which we will call
A and B, are placed as oppofite to each other, in a diame-
trical line, as can be guefled, or roughly meafured by any of
the ordinary means, and a moveable divifion on a piece of
brafs already defcribed, is put by means of wax under each
of the two microfcopes, and moved by hand, till the lines,
which muft be in a radial direftion, fall refpeClively under
the centres or intcrfecting points of the fields of view ; tliefe
microfcopes, it muft be underftood, are fixed, not on the
table which Ijears the circle, and which is made fo as to re-
volve on a long vertical axis, but on a fixed or ftationary
furrounding frame, that is unconnefted with the table itfelf,
when the table is at liberty to revolve ; fuppofe now the
table and circle on it to be carried half round, while the
microfcopes remain fixed, in fuch a way that the moveable
divifion which was under the microfcope A, falls under the
centre of microfcope B ; in this fituation, if the oppofite
divifion falls under the centre of A, the circle is truly
bifedled ; but as this is nut Hkely to be the cafe at the firft
trial, the quantity that is over or fliort muft be adjufted, one

half by the moveable divifion, and tlie other by the micro-
fcope, and the operation of revcrfing muft be repealed, and
the reclifications made, till the circle is found to be truly bi-
fected, both backwards and forwards, by the coincidence
of the divifions with the interfered points in each focus of
the microfcopes. The two microfcopes A and B may row
be removed, and the third or fixed microfcope muft be made
faft over one of thefe two dividing ftrokes, after the pointril
has been brought precifcly to occupy the place of tlie other,
in which fituation the pointril and the fixed microfcope will
ftand fo diametrically oppofite each other, that whenever an
adjuftable line is brought to bifeCl the field of view of this
microfcope, the pointril will be ready to cut a line on the
oppofite fide of the circle, and whenever a fet of adjuftable
divifions are properly placed, by the wax, on one (cmi-cir-
cle, the lines in the otlier femi-circle, directly oppofite thefe rc-
fpe(itively,^can be permanently cut, before the moveable pieces
are taken off, and afterwards thefaid linesfocut maybe brought
fucceffively under the fixed microfcope, in order that their
oppofites, where the moveable pieces were ftuck on, may,
in like manner, be cut ; fo that one-half of the circle will b-."
fulBcient to be divided and fub-divided by the adjuftable
pieces, feeing that each of its divifions and fub-divifions,
brought in fuccefiion under the fixed microfcope, may be
inftantly transferred by the pointril, into the oppofite femi-
circle, and alfo thefe in their turn transferred back again.
Let us now fee how the femi-circle is divided and fub-divided
by means of the two microfcopes A and the fixed 'one, B
being no longer wanted ; the firft operation is t!ie trifeClion
of it into arcs of each 60 ; for this purpofe, wliile the poin-
tril remains at T, (Ji^. 3. of Plate XVIII.) one of the points
cut, 11/2. at 180S and the fixed microfcope refts at Z, or
zero, /. e. the firft point of the circle, to be figured o or 360 ;
two moveable pieces are ftuck on at C and D refpcctively,
fo as to trifetl the femi-circle Z B T very nearly, and the
microfcope A is placed directly over C, fo as to view its
ftroke or line at the point of interfeclion in the focus of the
eye-glafs ; there it is made faft for the prefent ; the line C is
now brought under the fixed microfcope at zero, by making
the circle revolve, ar.d fuffored to remain ; the piece D has
its ftroke put under the microfcope A, as before was the cafe
with piece C, now at zero ; the circle is again made to re-
volve till the ftroke of D is under the fixed microfcope at
zero ; in this fituation the point T, or 180, will have been
brought forward 120', or 60' twice over, provided the
pieces C and D were truly placed, and in this cafe an eye,
looking into the microfcope A, will fee this dividing line bifeA
the field of view ; but as tliis is not likely to happen at the
firft trial, the microfcope muil be moved one third of the
error now ftiewn, and each of the pieces C and D another
third, accordingly as the portions of the femi-circles Z C,
C D, and D T taken together, are found to be more or lefs
than an exac^ femi-circle. The operation we have here de-
fcribed is repeated again and again, till the three equidif-
tant arcs amount to an exacl femi-circle ; after which they
are rendered permanent, by ftrokes made fucceffively on
the oppofite femi-circle, at the points c and d, which tri-
feCt the femi-circle T A Z, when tlie adjuftable ftrokes C
and D are in fuccedion exactly fixed in the centre of the
field of view of the fixed microfcope. The diftance between
the two microfcopes, which is here 60 , is called the owning
of the microfcopes, which are confidered as the two poinn
of a pair of dividers, and the arc between them is therefore
denominated accordingly.

The next flep is to bifect the arcs of 60^ each, into two of
30 , by an opening of 30 ; to do this one moveable piece,
iUick at the middle of each arc of Cxf, will be requifite, and

the

GRADUATION.

tlic two ha'.vc-i, to tVie right 3nd left of each piece, may be
examined and iidjuflt-d till the bifetlions are complete, and in
a rtate to be transferred into the oppofite femi-circle ; for
inllance, fnppofe the arc of 60 ' from Z to C to be bifefted,
put a moveable ftroke at 30 \ more or kfs, and place the mi-
crofcope A over it ; make the table and circle revolve till
this llroke 30 ' falls under the fixed microfcope ; in that fitu-
Btion, the llroke 60^ ought to bifeft the field of view of mi-
crofcope A, and whatever the deviation may be, plus or mi-
nus, it muft be adjuiledby trial, partly by moving the mi-
crofcope A, and partly by moving the piece with the ftroke
on at 30', when brought back again under the microfcope A.
In t!ie fame way, any other bifedion may be made within the
poiTible opening of the microfcopes. Again, the arcs of
30' arc trifefted, as before defcribed, into arcs of lo\
which arc all transferred into tiie oppofite femi-circle in fuc-
ceifiun .

With refpeft to the divifion of the arcs into fmaller quan-
tities than thofe of 10% where the microfcopes approach
too near together to admit of the neceflary adjuftments, an
ingenious mode of fub-dividing is adopted by a property of
the number 9, thus; having all the arcs of lo' round the
femi-circle laid down, the points 90' and 180^ are of courfe
among them, and as thefe are divifible by 9, an opening of
nine degrees is taken by trial, which repeated ten times, by
means of the moveable ftrokes, will reach from o to 90,
when properly adjurted ; befides the 10 ', 20'', 30', &c. there
will now be 9 , 18", 27 ', Sec. up to 90', and alfo 99^, 108 ',
117'', &c. up to 180°, and the differences or fpaces left be-
tween the divifions obtained from io'\ and thofe from 9^ re-
peated, will be refpeftively i', 2", 3% &c. up to 9°; now,
if the points 9', iS'", 27', &c. which numbers decreafe by
unity in the units place, be made in fucceffion points of com-
mencement, for the arc of 10^ to be repeated from, they
will from 9* produce 19°, 29°, 39 , &c. ; from 18" they will
give 28'^, 38 ', 48^ &c. ; and from 27 ' tliey will give 37 ', 47°,
57°, Sec. and fo of the reft, till all the fingle degrees are put
on by the arc of 10^ thus apphed from the points derived
from 9^ and its multiples. The work is performed thus:
make tlie opening of the microfcopes again 10, by fixing
the on" called A at the tenth degree when zero is at the fixed
one, then turn the table and fuperincumbent circle to be di-
vided till the ftroke 9 -• cemcs to zero, then a moveable piece
ftuck properly under A will be 19 ; bring this to the fixed
microfcope, and the place for 29' will be had for the next
ftroke, under A again ; and in like manner every individual
degree may be marked in fuccedion, by taking thofe ending
witli 8, after thofe ending with 9 have been gone through ;
and after that, thofe ending with 7, with 6, with 5, &c. till
all the numerals are included. If the circle is large enough
to admit of divifion to y' by the opening of the micro-
fcopes, the numbers 4 and 5 may be fubftituted with advan-
tage for 9 and lo, and then tlie opening may be 20' for in-
ferting them, inftead of 10 , as in the mode we have de-
fcribed. When half degrees are required to be inferted 15'
may be bifefted, and the line obtained will be in the middle
between 7 ' and 8", from which ftroke, with an opening of
15°, all the other half degrees may be marked as before, by
the aid of the adjuftable marks to be transferred afterwards
into the oppofite femi-circle, and all the ftrokes in that femi-
circle may then be transferred back again permanently, fo as
to compleat the circle.

The ule of the numerals nine and ten, or of the four and
five, is evidently borrowed from Clavius the Jefuit, whofe
problem for thus dividing a right line, or arc of a circle,
was publilhed in 161 1.

Another method of fub-dividing the circle, when marked

into degrees, as aboVe defcribed, is alfo propofed as being
lefs tedious, and capable of carrying the fub-divifions to a
lower denomination ; thus, a focket is made to fit the arbor
of the revolving table that carries the circle to be divided,
fo tight, that it will revolve with the faid arbor, or without
it, as the cafe may be : to this focket a telefcope ii fixed
with a vertical hair in the focus of its eye-glafs, that may
bifeft any diftant mark to which it may be direfted, then
a long ruler, of fix or feven feet in length, is divided, for
inftance, into twelve equal parts, fo that it may be read
diftinflly ; the diftance of this ruler is fo adjufted from
the telefcope, that when placed at right angles to the line
of coUimation, it may juft fubtend one degree, which may
be firft calculated nearly, and then adjulted by trial, till
tlic run of the telefcope over the twelve marks of the ruler
be exactly eorrefponding to the run of one degree of the
circle under one of the microfcopes. In this fituation of
things, the divifions of the ruler, as feen through the tele-
fcope, are, with great care and fteadinefs, transferred in
fucGelTion, not to one of the degree fpaces itfelf on the
circle, but to a pattern-piece of brafs, which may be after-
wards fixed with fcrews under the objeft lens of the fixed
microfcope, fo as to be applied in fucceffion to each feparate
degree, as the circle is made to revolve, during the operation of
transferring thefe five minute fpaces, to the oppofite parts of
the circle, by means of the pointril. In ftiiCtncfs, the ruler,
viewed through the telefcope, ought to be a portion of a
circle ; but the arc and the chord of one degree are fo
nearly alike, that one may be fubflitutcd for the other,
without fenfible error. When fmall circles, or parts of a
circle, were propofed by the due de Chaulnes to be divided,
they were fixed on the revolving arbor of the table, and
the microfcopes and cutting point were fo arranged, that
the divifions of a large divided circle were transferred to the
fmall one in fucceffion, and the whole apparatus, fo ar-
ranged, conftituted an engine for dividing ; but the work
could not be performed with fucli expedition as with our
modern engines, where flops are fubftituted for the micro-
fcopes, and where the touch has greatly the advantage over
X.\\e fight. With refpcft to the accuracy of the work per-
formed by the due de Chaulnes, we arc greatly inclined to
believe, that the flidi.ig mechanifm of tlie cutting-point
would not fecure the ftrokes from having a devious diredtion
fometimes, arifing from the neceffary hberty that the Aiding
parts muft liave had to adn.it of fiee motion, unlefs, indeed,
the parts of action were fitted «ith extreme nicety.

Laftly, tlie vernier fcale was retained by the author
before us, as the bcft fub-divider of the 5' fpaces, or other
fmall divifions ; but he h.is not conceived it neceffary to
defcribe, in detail, how he proportioned it to the divifions of
his circle, though it is eafy to conceive how this may be done
by the help of microfcopes and the cutting-point. Our
remark on this original method of dividing is, that it (liews
great ingenuity ; but we conceive, that making an equality
in the divided and fub-divided arcs will not always eiifure
perfeftion in the angular meafura, becaufe the axis of motion
may be out of the centre of the divided circle, and the
eccentricity will neither be detefted by tliis method, nor
allowed for in the divifions and fub-divifions, unlefs, indeed,
two or three equidiftant verniers were ufed for taking an ave.
rage of the readings from different fides of the circle. It is
fomewhat remarkable that the fame thought that introduced
the microfcopes for meafuring the arcs to be divided, did not
fubftitutc them for the vernier, in reading off fmall qiraii-
tities of a fub-divifion when an inftrument was finifhed ;
which praftice was left for Mr. Ramfden afterwards to
adopt. The fecond femi-circle, being only the copy of a

copy,

GRADUATION.

copy, renders this method of dividing lefs wortliy of imita-
tion, as an original method, than it would have been if tlie
imperfefiions of the firll portion of the circle liad not been
neceflarily transferred to the other, and from that back
again. In fhort, we think the wax-work niight have been
better employed.

The elder Troughton (John) whofe dividing was ac-
knowledged to be equal to tliat of any of his predecelTors, or
contemporaries, ufed the beam-compalTes, like Bird, but
rejefted the computation of chords, and the meafures taken
from fcales, as being liable to uncertainty in determining
the primary points from which the bifLiiiions were to
proceed. After ha\'ing defcribed his circle, or rather quad-
rantal arc to be divided, he determined the point 60 with the
radius, as Graham and Bird had previoudy done, and, having
bifefted it at 30 , fet off 30 in addition to the 60' to com-
plete the arc of 90 ; he then bifec^cd till he had arcs of 15",
and again till he had 7^ 30' in each divilion ; the two marks
nearell to 90 were now 82 30', and 86 ij'; but the
point 85 20', or hmit of the largeil bifectional arc, lay
between thefe two, and could not be obtained by further
bifeftions ; the fpa.:e between the two marks in quellion
was therefore trifeCted, and the more forward of the two
new points was 85 : again, the fpace between this mark of
85 , and that of 86 15 , was trifefted ; from which came
85 25', as d-noted by the more backward of the two new
marks ; and laltly, a fifth part of one of the fub-divided arcs
was fet backwards from 85" 25', to 85^ 20', the point
from which the 1024 divifions were inferted from o entirely
bv bifeftions. The quadrantal arc was then completed
from the fub-divifions thus obtained. It may be neceflar)-,
however, to obferve, that the marks at firft made by the
radius, bifeCtions, trifeclions, 5cc. were none of thtm per-
mitted to be permanent, being of no further iif- than to
afcertain the individual point 85' 20', from which the fub-
fcquent bifeftions were to commence. This method is con-
fidered as being preferable to Bird's method of computing
the chords and ufing the fcale, inafmuch as it does not
depend on fecondary or auxiliary means of afcertaining
the primary point in the bifciTtional arc. It has uniformity
of means to recommend it in preference to thofe mixed
methods that depend partly on computation, and partly on
the extended radius.

The method of dividing a large circle, commonly known
by the appellation of Ramfdi'n's method, or the method of
coaxing, confilts of Bird's metiiod, and of tint propofed by
the due de Chaulnes united : the circle is iirll divided by the
beam-compalTes irtto primary points; and the true fituation of
each of thefe points is afcertained by oppofitc microfcopes,
as the work proceeds, and is reftitied accordingly, by
pufhing the points forward or backward a trifle, till they
are in their true places. This method, now generally prac-
tifed by all the beft dividers, except the prefcnt Mr.
Troughton, has not, that we know of, been very particularly
defcribed, with references to drawings, &c. though it is
capable of confiderable accuracy in the hands of a good
workman, who has perfeverance enough to do j .ftice to it.
The great number of points that will require to be re£litied,
will, notwithltanding the utmoft precaution, render the work
irregular in its appearance, and a circular line muft necel-
farily pafs tlirough tlie centre of all the points or conical
lioles, to render them concentric ; belides, the bifedional
arcs defjrm the conical ftiape of the points, by palling
through them, and the fubfequent erafjres m\x\\ leave an
unevcjinefs in the metal ti'.at cannot but offend a nice eye.
Sir George Shuckburgh, iii his paper on the equatorial, calls

1

the points that have been enlarged by re(f\ifIcat:on, and
burniflied level again, " doubtful or bad points ;" and ihefe
bear a confideraVjIe proportion to the whole. «' It would,"
fays Mr. Troughton, " be a great improvement of this
metliod to divide the whole by hand at once, and after-
wards to correct the whole ; for a dot, forced to its place,
as above, will fcldom allow the compafs-point to reft i«
the centrtt of its apparent area ; therefore, otlier dots mad'-
from thofe will fcarcely ever be found in their true places.
This improvtment alfo pn vents tli corrected dots from
being injured or moved by the future application of the
compaffes, no fuch application being neceffar)-."

The circle that is divided by this method is placed hori-
zontally to have its firll points made, after it has had it.s
circle defcribed from a revolution on its own axis, and
then it is placed vertically in a frame, in which it revolve?,
and which carries the microfcopes with micruM.eters, that
fub-divide, and read to the accuracy of one fecond, in order
that the femi-circles, taken from any given oppoGte points,
may have their equality afcertained, or their deviation there.
from determined previoudy to final rectification. In thefe
operations great attention is paid to the temperature of all
the metallic parts employed in the work.

Mr. Ed. Troughton has deviated from the beaten track
of his prcdeceffors, and made a road forhimfelf, (probably
bffore Ramfden's plan was adopted,) tiiat he has trodden
with great fuccefs, and which he has fully defcribed in a pa-
per of the Philofophical Tranfaclicns of the year 1809,
which gained him Copley's medal. The reafon ihatcaufed
him to think for himfelf on this fubjeft, as he has done fuc-
cefsfully on many others, fcems to have been this : " With
as iLady a hand, and as good an eye,'' fays he, " as young
men generally have, I was much difappointcd at finding, that
after having made two points, neat and fmall to my hking, I
could not bifeCl the diilance between them without enlarg-
ing, difplacing, or deforming them with the points of the
compaffes."

This dlfcovery led to the abandonment of the beam-corn-
paffes and fpring-dividers, and, the art of turning appearing
to have approachi.d the nearell to perfeftion of anv of the
mechanical arts, a roller was thought of, which by its revo-
lutions might fub-divide the circumf;.rence of a circle rolled
over, after the ratio of their refpective diameters was afcer-
tained and properly adjufted. When this fpcculation was
firit attempted to be realized, fome circumftanccs occurred
which could not be certainly inferred from reafoning, a
priori, from known data, but of which a perfect know-
ledge was neceffary for the confummation of the project ; in
the firll place, it was found on trial, that however fmtioth
the furfaces of the circle and roller were made, there was no
Jlippery afiion, as might have been cxpeCled, but the points
of contact aC\ed with each other in an appai~atus l:ke that
hereafter to be defcribed, as the teeth of wheel-work of in-
definitely fmall dimenfions ; the certainty of this kind of
aftion was an indifpenfablc condition ; fccondly, notwiih-
lla;iding this ftableiiefs in the motion of the roller, it wa*
found to mcafure different portions of the metallic circle
with different degrees of accuracy, fome of the meafures
being a trifle plus, and others minus, with relpect to the
truth : this want of accuracy, which, as we have faid, did
not depend on any Hiding of the roller, was expected ti>
take place previoully, in a certain undefined degree, by rta-
fon of the unequal deiuily uf haJimea-d materi;ds, and of
their confequent unequal /^r^/)' ; but thirdly, though there
y>-ii found to be a deviation iroin true ineofuivmeDt in indiri-

G RADUATION.

^ual portions of die circle, yet, when the roller was proper-
ly adjufted to raeafure the whole circle without a remainder,
it was found to pofTefs tlie dehrable property of accommo-
dating itfelf to the fame track again, as often as the circuit
was repeated, and confequently of arriving at the point
7.ero again without the leaft fenfible deviation. This cir-
cumftance, which may be confidered as a plienomenon in
mechanics, reproduced the hope of fuccefs, which the w-ant
of perfeft regularity in mcafuring the intermediate portions
of the circle was calculated to dlfcouragc : and a remedy,
hereafter defcribcd, was fuccefsfuUy employed to equalize
tlie meafui-ements, nav, fo exaftly was the courfc of the
roller found to be identically the fame in every part of its
circuit, that, when duly adjufted for diameter, the devia-
tion at any individual point, from the iirft meafure, would
not exceed a _/eron^/. This uniformity in the mode of the
roller's travelling furniflied the means of correftiug its own
inaccuracies of meafuiement, feeing that thefe inaccuracies,
once afcertained, always remained the fame at tlie fam.e points
of the circle, provided that zero of the roller llarted from
7,ero of the circle, at the commencement of its lirft circuit.
We cannot convey an adequate conception of the mechanical
application of a roller to the diviiion and fub-divilion of a
circular inllrument, without a reference to drawings of the
apparatus aftually ufed ; nor can we defcribe that appara-
tus better than in the words of the author himfelf The in-
itrument, of which he has defcribed the graduation, is a
four feet meridian circle, at prcfent the property of Stephen
Groombridge, efq. of Blackheath.

" The fuiface of the circle, which is to receive the divi-
fions," fays Mr. Troughton, " as well as its inner and outer
edges, but efpecially the latter, ftiouldbe turned in the moll
exatt and careful manner ; the reafon for which will be better
uuderftood when we come to defcribe the mode of
applying tlie roller : and as no projeftion can be admitted
beyond'the hmb, if the telefcope, as is generally the cafe,
be longer than the diameter, thole parts which extend fur-
ther mull be fo applied, that they may be removed during
the operation of dividing." Plates XIX. and XX of JJro-
hom'ual Injlrumcnls exhibit the principal parts of the appara-
tus ; Jjg. I. Ihews the plan, and fg. 4. the elevation of the
revolving parts of the mechanifm, in both of which the
fame letters of reference are affixed to correfponding parts,
and both are drawn to a fcale of half dimenhons. A A is
a part of the circle, the furface of which is feen in the plan,
and the edge in the elevation. B B B is the main plate of the
apparatus, relling with its four feet a, a, a, a, upon the fur-
face of the arc ; thefe feet, being fcrews, may be adjufted
fo as to take equal (hares of the weight, and then are faften-
ed by nuts below the plates, as (hewn in Jig. 4. C C and
D D are two fimiiar plates, each attached to the main
plate, one above, and the other below, by four pillars ; and
in them are centered the ends of the axis of the roller E.
F and G are two friftion wheels, the latter firmly faftencd
to B, but the former is fixed in an adjuftable frame, by
means of which adjultment thefe wheels and the roller E may
be made to prefs, the former on the interior, and the latter
on the exterior edge of the circle, with an equal and con-
venient force ; namely, by the bending of the pillars of the
lecondary frame, and of the axis of the roller. At the ex-
tremities of the axis of the roller, and attached to the mid-
dle of the plates C and D, are two bridges, having a fcrevi'
in each, by means of which an adjultment is procured for
railin"- or lowering the roller refpefting the edge of the cir-
cle, whereby the former having its diameter at the upper
cd"-e about .001 of an inch greater than at the lower edge.

on account of its being a little conical, may eafily be brought
to the pofitlon where it will meafure the proper portion of
the circle.

Much experience and thought upon the fubjeft have taught
me, that the roller flould be equal to one-Gxteenth part of
the circle to be divided, or that it fliould revolve once in 22*^
30', and that the roller itfelf fliould be divided into fixteen
parts, no matter whether with abfolute truth, for accuracy
is not at all efTential here. Each of fuch divilions of the
roller will correfpond v/ith an angle of i 24' 22 .5,or ^-i^th
part of the circle. This number of principal divilions was
chofen, on account of its being capable of continual bifec-
tions, but they do not fall in with the ultimate divilions of
the circle, which arc intended to be equal to 5' each.

'I'he next thing to be coniidered is, how to make the
roller meafure the circle. As two microfcopes are here
necefiary, and thofe which I life are very fimple, I will in
this place give a dcfcriotion of them. i-ig. 3. is a feftion of
the full fize, and fufiicir.ntly explains their conilruttion, and
the polition of the glalTes ; but the micrometer part, and
manner of mounting it, are better (hewn at H mjigs. I and
4. The m.icrometer part confills of an oblong Iquare
frame, which is foldered into a flit, cut at right angles in the
main tube ; another fimi ar piece, nicely fitted into the
former, and having a fmall motion at right angles to the ax;s
of the microfcope, has at one end a cylindrical guide-pin,
and at the other a micrometer icrevv ; a Ipring of ileel wire
is alfo applied, as feen 111 tlic fedlion, to prevent play, by
keeping the head of the micrometer in clofe contatl with the
fixed frame. This head is divided into one hundred parts,
which are numbered each way to fifty ; the ufe of which
will be (hewn hereafter. A fine wire is ftretched acrofs the
moveable frame, for the purpofe of bifefting fine dots.
Two of thefe microfcopes are necefiary ; alio a third, which
needs not have the divided head, and which mull have in the
moveable frame two wires crofling each other at an angle of
about 30"; this microfcope is ftiewn at I, fig. 1. In the two
firft micrometers a divifion of the head is of the value of about
o .2, and the power and diftinftnels fuch, that when great
care is taken, a much greater error than to the amount of
one of thefe divifions cannot well be committed in fetting
the wire acrofs the image of a well-made dot. The double
eye-glafs has a motion by hand, for producing diftintt vi-
fion of the wire ; and diflinct vilion of the dots is procured
by a fimiiar adjuftmcnt of the whole microfcope. The firlt
ftep towards fizing the roller is to compute its diameter ac-
cording to the meafure of the circle, and to reduce it agree-
ably thereto, care being taken to leave it a fmall quantity
too large. The fecond ftep is, after having brought the
roller into its place in the plate B B, to make a mark upon
the furface of the circle, near the edge, and a fimiiar one
upon the roller, exaftly oppofite each other ; then carry the
apparatus forward with a fteady hand, until the roller has
ir.ade fixteen revolutions ; if now the mark upon the roller,
by having over-reached the one upon the circle, fiiews it to
be much too large, take it out of the frame, and reduce it by
turning accordingly : when, by repeating this, it is found to
be very near, it may be turned about .001 of an inch fmalier
on the lower edge, and fo far its preparation is completed.
The third and laft ftep is the ufe and adaptation of tke two
microlcopes ; one of thefe mull take its pofition at H i^Jig.
I, viewing a fmall well-defined dot made for the purpofe on
the circle ; the other, not reprefented in the figure, mull alfa
be fixed to the main plate o{ Jig. i, as near to the former as
poflible, but viewing oiic of the divifions on the roller with
a due attention to each microfcope, it will now be feen to

the

GRADUATION.

tlic gFeatefl: exadlriers, when, by 1-aIfing or depreffing the
roller, its comn-.cnfiirntc diameter is found.

Fi^. J. is a reprefeiitatioii of the apparatus for transferring
thediviiions of the roller to the cirele. It coniids of two
(lender bars, whicli, being ieen edgewife in the lignre, have
only the appearance of narrow hnes ; but looked at from
above, t!)ey refemble the letter A. They are fallencd to
the main frame, as at VV and Z, by fliort pillars, having
alfo the off leg of the angle fecured in tiie fame manner ; Y
is a fine conical ftcel point for making the dots, and X is a
feeler, whereby the point Y may be preiTed down with an
uniform force, which force may be adju lied, by bending the
end of the bar jull above the point, fo as to make
the dots of the proper ii/.e. The point Y yields moll readi-
ly to a perpendicular aiilion, but is amply fecured againd
any eccentric or lateral deviation.

The apparatus fo far defcribed, is complete for laying the
foundation, /. e. for making 256 primary dots ; no m.atter
whether with perfefc truth or not, as was faid refpefting the
divifions of the roller ; precilion in either is not to be ex-
pefted, nor wiflied ; but it is of fome importance that they
fhoiildbe all of tlie fame fi/,e, concentric, fmaH, and round.
Thev fiiould occupy a pofition very near tlie extreme bor-
der of the circle, as well to give the grcateil radius pofTible,
as that there fiiould be room for the llationary micrcfcope,
and other mcchanifm to be defcribed hereafter.

It mull be noticed that tiicre is a clamp "and adjufting
fcrew attached to the main plate oi Jig. i, but as it differs
in no refpect from the ufual contrivances for quick and flow
motion (feeCuiCLE), it has been judged unneceffary to in-
cumber the drawing with it.

Now the roller having been adjuftcd, with one micro-
fcope H upon its proper dot on the circle, and the other
microfcope at the lirll divifion on the roller, place the appa-
ratus of fig. 5, fo that the dotting point Y may Hand direct-
ly over the place which is defigncd for the beginning of the
diviiions. In this polition of things, let the feeler X be
prelTed down, until its lower end comes in contact with the
circle ; this will carry down the point, and make the lirlt
impreffion, or primary dot, upon the circle ; unelamp the
apparatus, and carry it forward.'? by hand, until another di-
vifion of the roller comes near the wire of the microfcope ;
then clamp it, and with the fcrew-motion make the coinci-
dence complete; where again prefs upon the feeler tort he fccond
^ot ; proceed in this manner until the whole round is completed.

From tliefe 256 erroneous divifions, by a certain courfc of
examination, and by coniputati<ni, to alcertain their abio-
lute and individual errors, and to form tliefe errors into con-
venient tables, is the next part of the proceis, and makes a
very importantbranch of my method of dividing.

The apparatns mull now be taken off, and the circle
mounted in the fame manner, that it will be in the obferva-
tory. The two microfeopes, which have divided heads, mud
alfo be firmly fixed to the fupport of the inllrumeiit, on op-
pofite fides, and then wires brought to bifeft the iirll dot,
and the one -vhieh fliouldbe 180 diftant. Now the micro-
fcopes remaining fixed, turn the circle half round, or until
the firfl microlcope coincides with the oppofite dot ; and if
the other microfcope be exaftly at the othei- dot, it is ob-
vious that thefe dots are 180 apart, or iu the true diameter
of the circle ; and, if they difagree, it is obuous that half
tlie quantity by which they difagree, as mcahired by the di-
vifions of the micrometer head, is the error of the oppofite
divifion ; for the (piantity meafured is that by which the
greater portion of the circle exceeds the lefs. It is conve-
nient to note tliefe errors -(-or — , as the dots arc found too

Vol, XVI.

forward or too backward, according fo tfie numbering of

the degrees ; and for tlie purpofe of ditiinguilliing tlic -^
and — errors, tlie licids, as meiitioiicd before, arc nuirbiTf J
backwards and forwards to fifty. Chie of the microfeopes
remaining as before, remove the ollicr to a pofition at riglit
angles ; and, confidoring for the prefeiit Loth the former
dots to be true, examine the others by tliem ; /. r as before,
try by the micrometer how many divifions of tlic head the
greater half of the femi-circlecKceeds the lefs, and note half
the quantity -f or — as before, and do the fame for the
other femi-cirde. One of the micrometers mud now be fct
at an angle of 45- with the other, and half the differences
of the two parts of each of the four quadrants regiftered
with their refpedive figns. When the circle is a vertical one,
as in the prefent indance, it is much the bed to proceed fo
far in the examination with it in that pofition, for fear of
any general bending or fpring of the figure ; but for tl«»
examination of fmaller arcs than 45 ', it will be perfectlv faff
and more convenient to have it horizontal ; bccaufe the divid-
ing apparatus will then carry the micrometers, feveral per-
forations being made in the plate B for the limb to bo fecn
through at proper intervals. The micrometers mud now be
placed at a didance of 22 ~ 30', and the half differences of
the parts of all the arcs of 45 meafured and noted as be-
fore ; tluis defcending by biledions to 1 T 15', 5 37' 30",
and 2' 48' 45". Half this lad quantity is too fmall to al-
low the micrometers to be brought near enough ; but it will
have the defired effect if they arc placed at that quantity and
its half, J. f. 4- 13 "".5, in which cafe the examination, in-
dead of being made at the next, will take place at the nc:^t
divifion but one, to that which i.". the f ubiect of trial. During
the whole of the time that the examination is made, all the
dots, except the one under examination, are for the prefent
fuppofed to be in their true places ; and the only thing in
this moll important part (-f the bufinefs, from firfi to lad, is
toafcertain with the iitmofl care, in divifions of the micro-
meter head, how much one of the parts of the interval under
oxan.ination exceeds the other, and carefully to tabulate the
lialf of their difference.

I will fuppofe that every one who attempts to divide a
large adrononiical indrument, will have it engraved firft.
Dividing is a mod delicate operation, and every coarfcr one
dionld precede it. Dende.^ it." being numbered is particularly
nfeful to dillinguidi one dot from another; thus in the two
annexed tables of errors, the fide columns give fignilicant
names to every dot in terms of its value to the nearefl tenth
of a tk'giee, and -the millaking of one for anotlicr is rendered
nearly impodible.

The foregomg examination furniflies materials for the can-
flnidtion of the table of half didcrences, or apparent errors.
The fird line of this table confids of two varioties ; ;". e. the
micrometers were at iSo didance forobtakiing the numbers
which fill the columns of the tirll and third quadrants ; and
at 90 for tliofe of the I'econd and fourtli quadranti:. Tlie
third variety makes one line, and was ohtairicd w ivli a didance
of 45 ; the fourth confifls of two line.-, with a diilance of
22 30'; the fifth of four lines, with a diftaiice of U' 15 ;
the iixth of eight lines, with a didance of 5 37' 30'; the
leventh of fixteen lines, with a didance of 2 48 45'; and
the eighth and lall variety, bcuig the reniaiuvltir of the tabl6»
confills of ihirlv-two lines, and was obtained with a diltance

of 4" '3'-" 5'

The uible of apparent errors or half diiferences, jufl ex-
plained, furnilhes data for computing the table of real errors.
'i'he rule is this ; let a be the real error of the pivcetling
dot, and b that wf the following oue, a;id c llie apparx'nt
3 Z etTiir,

GRADUATION.

error, taken from the table of half differences, of the dot

„. . , ■ o -^ b . ,

under inveftigation ; then is + f = its real error.

But as this fimple cxpreffion may not be fo generally iinder-
ftood by workmen as I would wifli, it may be iiecefTary to
fay the fame thing lefs concifely. If the real errors of the
preceding and following dots are both + or both — , take
half their fum, and prefix thereto their common fign ; but if
one of them is + and the other — , take half their differ-
ence, prefixing the fign of the greater quantity : again, if
the apparent error of the dot under inveftigation has the
fame fign of the quantity found above, give to their fum the
common fign for the real error ; but if their figns are con-
trary, give to their difference the fign of the greater for the
real error. I add a few examples.

Example I .

For the firft point of the fecond quadrant.
Real error of the firft point of the firft quadrant o.o

Real error of the firft point of the third quadrant — 6.9
Half fum or diifereuce - - - — 3.4

Apparent error of the dot under trial - +12.2

Real error .... -j- 8.8

Example 2.

For the point 45' of the fecond quadrant.

Real error of the firft point of the quadrant -\- 8.8

Real error of the laft point of the quadrant — 6.9

Half difference - - - +0.9

Apparent error of the dot under trial - — 8.9

Real error .... — g.g

Example 3.

Point 88''. 6, or laft point of (he third quadrant.
Real error of the point 84°.4 of the third quadrant — 2 l.o
Real error of the point 2 .8 of the fourth qua-
drant ... — 2.9
Half fum - - ' . " " — 11.9
Apparent error of the dot under trial - — 4.0
Real error ... — ij.9

Example 4.

Point 88^.6, or laft of the fourth quadrant.
Real error of the point 84". 4 of tlie fourth qua-
drant - ■ - - - — 21.6
Real error of the point 2 ,8 of the firft quadrant — 10.2
Half fum - - - — 15.9
Apparent error of the dot under trial - + 9.^;
Real error . . . _ 5.^

It is convenient, in the formation of the table of real
errors, that they fhould be inferted in the order of the num-
bering of the degrees on their refpedlive quadrants ; although
their computation neceffarily took place in the order in which
the examination was carried on, or according to the arrange-
ment in the table of apparent errors. The firft dot of the
firft quadrant having been affumed to be in its true place,
the firft of the third quadrant will err by juft half the dif-
ference found by the examination ; therefore thefe are alike
in both tables. The real error of the firft dot of the fecond
quadrant comes out in the firft example ; that of the fourth
was foupd in like manner, and completes the firft line. It is
convenient to put the error of the divifion 90 of each
quadrapt at the bottom of each column, although it is the
fame as the point o*"" on the followiog quadrant. The line

of 45^ is next filled up ; the fecond example ftiewsthis ; but
there is no occafion to dwell longer upon this explanation,
for every one, who is at all fit for fuch purfuits, will think
what has already been faid fully fufiicient for his purpofe.
However, 1 will juft mention that there can be no danger in
the formation of this table, of taking from a wrong line the
real errors which are to be the criterion for finding that of the
one under trial ; becaufe they are in the line next to it ; the
others which intervene in the full table not being yet in-
ferted. The laft courfe of all is, however, an exception ;
for, as the examining microfcopes could not be brought near
enough to bifeft the angle 2 48' 45", recourfe was had to
that quantity audits half; on wliich account the examination
is profecuted by ufing errors at two lines diftance, as is ftiewn
in the two laft examples.

When the table of real errors is conftrufted, the othef
table, although it is of no further ufe, fhould not be thrown
away ; for, if any material miftake has been committed, it
will be difcovered as the operation of dividing is carried on;
and in that cafe the table of apparent errors muft be had re-
courfe to, indeed not a figure ftiould be deftroyed until the
work is done. Refpefting the angular value of the num-
bers in thefe tables, it may be worth mentioning, that it is
not of the leaft importance; icoof them being comprifed
in one revolution of the micrometer fcrew ; and in the in-
ftance before me, 56 of them made no more than a fecond, it
is not pretended that one of tliefc parts was feen beyond a
doubt being fcarcely .jjji^. dtli of an inch, much lefs the
tenths, as exhibited in the tables ; but as they were vifible
upon the micrometer heads, it was judged beft to take them
into the account.

Having now completed the two firft feftions of mv me-
thod of dividing ; namely, the firft wiiich confifts of making
256 fmall round dots ; and the fecond in finding the errors of
thofe dots, and forming them into a table ; I come now to
tlie t!:ird and laft part, which confiils in ufing the erroneous
dots iii comparifon with the calculated errors, lo as ultimately
to make from them the true divifions.

It will here be neceffary to complete the defcription of the
remaining part of the apparatus. And firil a little inftru-
ment which I denominate a fub-dividing feftor prefcnts it-
felf to notice. From all that has hitherto been (aid, it mufl
have been fuppofed that the roller itfclf will point out, upon
the limb of the inllrument to be divided, fpaces corre-
fponding to others previoufly divided upon itfelf, as was done
in fetting off the 256 points ; but, to obviate the difficulty
of dividing the roller with fufiicient exaftnefs, recourfe
was had to this feftor ; which alfo fervcs the equally im-
portant purpofe of reducing the bifedtional points to the
ufual divifion of the circle. This feftor is repreftnted ia '
full dimenfions hy fg. 2; it is formed of thin brafs, and
centered upon the axis at A, in contaft with the upper fur-
face of the roller; it is capable of being moved round by
hand ; but by its friftion upon the a.iis, and its prefiure upon
the roller, it is fufficiently prevented from being difturbed by
accident. An internal frame B B, to which the arc C C
is attached, moves freely in the outer one, and by a fpring F)
is puflied outwards, while the fcrew E, whole point touches
the frame B, confines the arc to its proper radius. The
arc of this feftor is of about four times greater radius than
the roller, and upon it arc divided the fpaces, which muft be
transferred to the inllrument, as reprefented on a magnified
fcale hy Jig. 6. Now the angle of one of the fpaces of the
circle will be meafured by iixteen times its angular value
upon the fedlorial arc, or 2i 30'; but this does not repre-
sent

GRADUATION.

fent any number of equal parts upon the inllrument, whofe

fub-divifions are to be 5' each ; for is cxaftly

16J, therefore fo many divifions are exa&Iy equal to a mean
fpace between the dots, whofe errors have been tabulated.
Let therefore the arc of the feftor be divided into 1 6 fpaccs,
of I" 20' each, and let a fimilar fpace at each end be fub-
divided into eight parts of 10' each, as in Jig. 6 ; we fliall
then have a fcale, which furnifhes the means for making the
true divillons, and an intermediate examination at every
bifeftional point.

I have always divided the feftor from the engine, becaufe
that is the readiefl method, and inferior to none in point of
acGiu-acy, where the radius is very fliort ; but as it is more
liable than any other to centrical error, the adjuftment of
the arc by the fcrew E becomes neceflary ; by that adjuft-
ment alfo any undue run in the aftion of the roller may be
reduced to an infenfiblc quantity.

When the utmoft degree of accuracy is required, I give
the preference to dividing by lines, becaufe they are made
with a lefs forcible effort than dots are, and alfo, becaufe if
any fmall defeft in the contexture of the metal caufes the
cutter to deviate, it will, after pafTing the defective part,
proceed again in its proper courfe, and a partial crookednefs
in the "line will be the only confequence : whereas a dot,
under fimilar circumftances, would be altogether difplaccd.
Bat, on the contrary, where accuracy has been out of the
queftion, and only neatncfs required, I have ufcd dots ; and
I have done fo, becaufe I know that when a dot, and the wire
which is to bifeft it, are in due proportion to each other,
the wire covering about two-thirds of the dot, the niceit
comparifon poffible may be obtained. It may be further
obferved, that divifion by lines is complete in itfelf ; whereas
that by dots requires lines to diftinguifh their value.

On the upper fide of Jig. i . is reprefented the apparatus
for cutting the divifions. It confifts of three pieces, J, K, L,
jointed together, fo as to give to the cutter an cafy motion
for drawing lines dircftly radiating from the centre, but in-
flexible with refpecl to lateral preffure ; J, d, are its handles.
The cutting point is hidden below the microfcope H; it is
of a conical form, and were it ufed as a dotting point, it
would make a puncture of an elliptic fliape, whofe longer
diameter would point towards the centre. This beautiful
contrivance, now well known, we owe to the ingenuity of
the late Mr. Hindley of York; it was borrowed by Mr.
Ramfden, (fee Engine for diviiling,) and applied with the
beft effeft to his dividing engine.

Previoudy to cutting the divifions, the parts now defcribed
muft be adjulled. The cutting apparatus mull be placed
with the dividing point exaftly at tlie place where the firft
line is intended to be drawn, and clamped, fo that the ad-
iufting fcrew may be able to run it through a whole interval.
The microicope H muil be firmly fixed by its two pillars
b, b, to the main frame, with its micrometer head at •z.cro ;
and with its only wire in the line of tlie radius, bifedting tlie
firft of the 256 dot.s. And it ftiould be obferved tiiat the
cuttiiig frame and this muft not vary refpeiling each other,
during- the time that the divifions are cut ; for any motion
that look place in either would go uudimiiiillied to the

account of error. The microfcope I is alfo faftened to the
main frame, but it is only required to keep its pofition un-
varied, while the divifions of the fcctor pafs once under its
notice, for it muft have its wires adjufted afrelh to ihefc
divifions at every diftinft courfe. The microfcope I has
two wires, crofting each other at an angle of about 40 ;
and thefe are to be placed fo as to make equal angles with
the divifions of the feftor, which are not dots but lints.
The feftorial arc muft alfo be adjufted to its proper radius
by the fcrew ^, fg. 2. i. e. while the main frame has been
carried along the circle through a mean interval (hewn by
H, the feftor muft have moved through exactly i6j of iti
divifions, as indicated by I.

Things being in tliis pofition, after liaving given the parts
time to fettle, and having alfo fulTiciently proved th^- per-
inanence of the micrometer H, and the cutting frame,
with refpeiSt to each other, the firft divifion may be made;
then, by means of the fcrew for flow motion, carrj- the
apparatus forward, until the next line upon the fcAor coiqcs
to the crofs wires of I ; you then cut another divifion, and
thus proceed until the i6th divifion is cut := i' 20': now
the apparatus wants to be carried further, to the amount of
|ths of a divifion, before an interval is complete, but at this
laft point no divifion is to be made; we are here only to
compare the diviiiou on the feclor with the corrcfponding
dot upon the inllrument: this interval, however, upon the
circle will not be exactly meafured by the correfponding
line of the fedor, which has been adjufted to the mean in-
terval, for the fituation of the dot i .4 is too far back, as
appears by the table of real errors, by —4.8 divifions of the
micrometer head. The range of the fcrew for flow motion
muft now be reftorcd, the crofs wires of H fet back to
—4.8 divifions, and the feftor moved back by iiaiid, but vmX.
to the divifion o, where it began before ; for, as it left oft" in
the firft interval at ^ths of a divifion, it has to go forwards ^th
more before it will arrive at the fpot where the i 7th divi-
fion of the inftrument i' 25' is to be made, fo that in this
fecond courfe it muft begin at ^th ftiort of o: go through
this interval as before, making a divifion upon the circle at
every one of the fixteen great divifions of the fe(^tor ; and H
ftiould now reach the third dot, allowing for a tabular
error of — 10.2, when the divifion fths of the fedlor reaches
the crofs wires of I. It would be tedious to lead the reader
through all the variety of the fedor, which confifts of eight
courfes; and it may be fuflicient to obicrve, that at the
commencement of every courfe, it muft be put back to the
fame fraftion of a divifion which terminated its former one;
and that the wire of the micrometer H muft always be fet
to the tabular error belonging to every dot, when we end
one interval and begin another. The eight courfes of the
fedlor will have carried us through ,\d part of the circle
!!■ 15', and during this time the roller will have proceeded
through half a revolution: for its clofe contact witii th>-
limb of the circle does not allow it to return witli the feeder
when the latter is fet back at everj- courfe. Having in this
manner proceeded from one interval to another, tlirough the
whole circle, the micrometer at laft will be found with its
wire at ■x.cra, on the dot from which it fet out; ;i;id the fee-
tor, with its i6tli divilion, coinciding with tht wires of it*
niicrolcope."

3Z2

T.<RL*

GRADUATION.

Table of Apparent Errors.

Naiv.e of llie
Dot.

Kira
Qualrjnt.

Second
Qiiatliant.

'Ihird
Quadrant.

Fourth !
QuaJraiit.

I'

Qua

rft
lianr.

Second
Quadrant.

1'

Qua

.Ird
Irant.

Founh
Quadrant.

Name of ilit
Dot.

O^.O

0

H- 12.2

- 6.9

+ 17-9

4-

4.6

-t 17-1

—

4-4

4- 17-3

I .4

45.0

- 21-3

- 8.9

16.7

- 29.6

—

5.2

- 9-7

8.9

- 6.4

4.2
7.0

22.5

1.6

2.2

1.0

2.7

0.0

3-fi

1.0

4-7

67.5

+ i.o + 15.6

0.0 !

1

4- 13-7

4-

1.0

+ 3-5

5-1

5-5

9.8
12.7

•5-5

18.3

II. 2

- 16.6

— *0. 2

22.6

- 30-3

-

5-5

- 1.6

0.0

4- 1.2

33-7

4.0

4.2

13.2

23-'

7.6

7.6

4.2

- 2.3

- 562

16 9

22.2

17.0

"•' 1

9.4

3-9

0.0

5-3

78.7

30.8

16.6

31-3

30-3

4-

I.I

4- 12. 1

4-

4.2

+ 4-3

2;. I

5-6

2 7

8.6

4.1

lO.I

12.3

C.9

6.2

14.4

23-9

16.9

1 1.5

■'■3

11.2

x6.i

—

5-7

- 6.2

I.I j

— II. 2

26.7

28.1 i

90

7-4

5.8

14-3

-1-

'•5

3-5 i

—

6-3

4.2

29.5

39-4

9-3

8.2

5.8

13.1

0.0

7.0

7-7 '

+ 1.4

32-3
35-2
38.0

50.6

4.2

6.6

8.2

4.4

1-5

4- 9-0

4-

3-0

4-3

619

4-3

a.+

13.5

4.4

—

8.6

- 5-9

—

2.0

- 6.7

1

7.6

1 0.0

13.6

9-7

3-3

+ 2-7

4.9

1-5

40.8

84.4

18.0

4- 6.0

16.3

7-1 '

4-

4.0

3-1

3-5

+ 1.0

43-6

2.8

3-4

- 7-5

8.9

2.1

13-5

10.5

4-

16.0

14.9

46.4

8.4

0.0

5.0

4.6

5-7

2.1

0.0

1.7

- 3-5

49.2

14.1

6.6

8.2

5.6

4.8

—

5.0

- 10.7

—

2-9

3.5

52.0

19.7

1,6 2.4

4- 1.0

2.5

4.2

7-9

2.2

7-2

54.8

253

3-7

8.2

- 2.9

'■5

j 4.0

.VO

2.S

1.0

57-7

309

+ 2-4

7->

7.0

CO

7-3

4- 6.2

6.1

1-5

60.5

36.6

- 5-9

+ 1.0

2-5

1-5

3-2

— 10. 1

5-6

12.7

C3-6

42.2

+ 3-'

1.9

5.8

+ 2-5

1

1.4

7.2

3-9

4- 2.2

66.1

47.8

/■'

5.2

+ 2.4

4.8

4-

M.2

4- 14-9

4-

21.2

7-2

68.9

53-4

- 5-6

- 6.0

- S-o

- 6.1

-

7-1

1- 1.0

-

8.9

- "-7

7'->

59-1

10.7

4 1.0

3-0

4- 1.4

5-3

1.2

6.6

2.7
5-9

74-5

64.7

7-9

- 18.0

1

10.7

- 9.0

7.2

9.9

4-

1.0

77-3

70-3

2.7

7-4

1-5

9.0

6.5

J.8

5-3

2.6

80.2

75-9

1.2 1 5.2

2.2

4-7

4-

4-4

+ 1-4

—

2.2

4-3

83.0

81.6

1.6 i + 1.7'

1

0.0

2.0

—

20.8

— 0.0

11.4

4- 1.0

85.8

87.2

13.7 6.0

1 .3.5

1 + 5.6

4-

2.1 1 + 1 1.0

1

4.0

! 0^

88.6

GRADUATION.

Taiu.e of Real EiTors.

IN. line ui'llic
Dot.

Quailiunt.

.S'_T(»ll(l

Quadrant.

Quiulraiir.

luiirih
Quadfani.

Kirft
Quadrant.

iSccolld
Quadrant.

■lliird
Qiudrant.

1 o>trth
Quadrant.

iN«iiw ot ili<
D..t.

O^.O

0.0

4- 8.8

— 6.9

+ 14-4

— 16.9

- 8.0

- '3-4

-22.4

45 -o

'■4

- 4.S

- 0.6

16.0

5-9

8.7

5-5

9-7

,6..

46.4

2.8

10.2

9-3

24.0

I
- 2.9 ;

14-3

9.6

'7-4

2--3

47.8

4.2

13-8

i;.i

28.3

12.8

22.3

17.9

19.9

33-8

49.2

5-6

•3-7

12.5

23-3

16.1

2C.0

2 1. A

26.7

3 '-9

50.6

7.0

15.9

16.8

28.7

'9-4 1

25-5

26.0

23.6

2S.9

S2.0

8.4

17.6

19.6

32.0

27.0

32.0

27.8

30-3

3'<-3

53-4

9.8

21.4

16..

35-5

30-7

34-0

27-3

29.1

35-2

54.8

II. 2

21.6

16.7

3'-5

26.5

26.8

22.1

24.0

32.6

56.2

12.7

27.9

21.6

32.2

28.6

29.6

24-5

29.7

29.8

57-7

'4-1

3i-'

26.8

37-5

34-4

33-7

■7-7

27.2

24.6

59.1

^5-S

28.5

22.7

30.2

26.8

30.2

15.6

29.3

26.5

60.J

16.9

2 7-3

20.5

32-4

32-7

19.2

i>-i

24.1

19.4

61.9

18.3

29.9

18.2

24.2

25-7 1

21.5

14.6

18.8

^ 0' .

63.3

19.7

20.2

13-5

20.6

f ■> t

19.0

21.5

22.4

.7.4

64.7

21. 1

22.4

5-9

22.1

24.0

1S.8

19.9

22. S

17. 1

66.1

22.5

lO.O

1.8

10.9

6-7

3.0

+ 8.2

-t- C.7

+ 2-5

67.5

23-9

S.S

12.2

16.0

14.9

9.8

— 2.8

- 2.5

- >3-o

68.9

25-3

19.8

'y5

20.2

24.0

15-7

10.2

■3-7

19.2

70-3

26.7

2..7

1 6. 1

20.0

33-0

21.9

7.0

21.8

25.S

71.-

28.1

22.1

12.8

23.8

3^-4

23.0

'3-9

25.1

2 -.0

:i-^

29.5

17. 1

15.8

28.9

35-0

27.1

14.3

:;-3

26.3

74-5

30-9

22.1

18.0

3'-4

37-0

26.6

20.1

26.6

30.7

75-9

32-3

24.7

'9-3

33-3

37-7

33-3

21. 1

22.7

3>-'

77-3

33-7

17-4

9-t

25.1

37-6

27.9

16.0

23.8

29.1

78.7

35-2

22.7

8.0

2;. I

35-7

35-5

14.5

.8.5

28.7

8c. 2

36.6

27-3

1 1.9

27-4

41.8

29-3

9.0

22.4

2:-3

81.6

3S.0

2C.S

15.6

26.9

40.6

1 21.0

6.6

17-5

21.4

83.0

39-4

26.+

.^..7

24.8

43.1

i 27-S

5-4

21.0

21.6

84.4

40.3

2; >

7.2

25.1

3?-'''

31.0

7'9

15.4

12.6

85.3

42.2

>S.5

1 10.4

24.7

30.2

i

i 23.0

C.I

c.s

52

1 87.1

43-6

it'-3

lO.O

24.6

31-7

i6.i

A*

15.9

6.4

se.6

45.0

16.9

j 8.0

13.0

22.4

i 4- 8.8

(..q

-t- 14.4

' ^■'^

1 00.3 J

GRADUATION.

We might Tiare qnotea feveral other parts of Mr. Trough-
ton's paper for the advantage of the reader, but inttead
thereof, we recommend tlie perufal of the whole to fuch
perfons as are interefted in this fubjed, and (hall conclude
our account of the prefent method of dividing by remark-
in<T, that it requires not more than one-fourth of the time
that Bird's method does, and not much more than one-
twelfth that Ramfden's demands, and is applicable to a
quadrant or fextant, &c. ; that it may be performed by
night, by the aid of an appropriate lamp, as well as by day ;
that the work is, as it were, magnified by the feftor ; that
any erroneous aftion of the roller, when verified at every
interval, docs not extend its influence to any difiaut divilions;
that the divifions of the feftor very conveniently convert the
256 points into degrees and parts of a degree, while the
micrometer head allows for their errors of pofition ; that all
tools liable to vary their dimenfions by change of tem-
perature are here abandoned ; and laftly, that vijion alone is
employed in afcertaining the meafures of the arcs divided ;
on which account this method is called dividing by the eye ;
which appellation, indeed, might have been given to the due
de Chaulne's method ; a metliod which, we underftand, Mr.
Troughton was not acquainted with till lately, and from
which it will be perceived his differs very effentially. We
have no hefitation in aflerting, that this far excels every
otUer method of graduating large circles that we are ac-
quainted with.

Soon after Mr. Troughton's paper was read at the Royal
Society's room, the late Henry Cavendifli, efq. F. R. S.,
ivhofe death is an irreparable lofs to the fcientific world,
contrived a new method of ufing the beam-compafs, with a
view of avoiding the difficulties of jjointing the exaft middle
ofafmall fpace between two fcratches, and of ufing that
point again without altering its conical figure. As thefe
difficnlties had led to Mr. Troughton's new contrivances,
Mr. Cavendifh prefumed that a removal of them would ren-
der the beam-compafs unobjeftionable; and that future
dividers might continue the ufe of an inftrument which long
habit has rendered famihar. The method propofed, but
which probably has not been adopted, if tried at all, is, to
imite a microfcope that has got a micrometer, with the
beam-compafs, in fuch a way, that no dots may be necefl'ary
at all in dividing or fub-dividing any arc of a circle, but that
bifedion, trifeftion, and quinqnefeftlon, may aU be per-
formed by "vifion before the dividing llrokes are made on the
circle to be divided; we fay circle, becaufe this method is
not intended to apply to a quadrant, or any otlier aliquot
part of a circle. We will endeavour to explain the method
now before us as concifely as poffible. Let C Cl^,'m fg. ^.
of Plate XVIII. of JJlronomtcal Jnjlruments, be the circle to
be divided, in which we will retain the original letters of
reference, and B B B a frame rcffing on its plane fo ftea-
dily as to be without fhake, but notwithftanding to have
tlijL- power of Aiding fmoothly round the circumference to
any given point, to which it may be adjuited by a flow
motion, and there clamped ; let d J be a beam-compafs,
having its cutting point adjullable near «, and let m be a
microfcope with two parallel hairs, one fixed, and the other
moveable by the micrometer, made fo as to flide :Jong the
beam of the compafs into any required fituation. Let a
point d on the frame be fo cholen, that the line d m i may
lie in the direftion of the chord of half the arc to be bifect-
ed, when bifeftion is ufed, in which cafe the whole length
from d to i mull be very nearly equal to the whole chord of
ihe faid arc, and then both the centre of the field of view
of m, and alfo the point J, will fall in the circle to be
divided. It is not faid how the fixed or central point d is

to be fupported, and kept perfeftly i?^eady, but as its dif-
tance from the centre of the circle jnuft necefiarily depend
on the length of the chord d S, it is propofed that the piece
of metal that conftitutes the fupport fhould be adjullable
by a Hiding motion of fome fort, and that the beam near J
fliould rell on a prop to guard the cutting point, when de-
mitted low enough to make a ftroke. Suppofe now F and
f to be the extreme points of an arc to be bifefted fomewhere
near <p ; after having placed the microfcope at or near the
middle of the beam, with refpetl to the two points (/and i',
and fixed the point on the relling place of d, flide the frame
till the fixed hair in the center, which mud be exaftly per-
pendicular to the line d in ,5, interfetls the circle at F; then,
lowering the point S from its prop, make a faint fcratch;
in the next place turn the beam-compafs a httle raifed at
the end S, round its centre d, till it is found over the circle,
at the other fide at D, where it mull rell on a prop for a
time; flide now the frame forwards, and adjufl till the fixed
hair cuts the point f, and there fix it ; the fecond fcratch
mull now be made, which will be over, or fliort of the firlt,
accordingly as the microfcope has been beyond or fiwrt of
the middle of the dillance d ^. It is not propofed to make
a dot between thefe two llrokes, but to bifeCl the fpacc
between with the hair, by the eye, or, if neceiTary, by the
moveable hair of the micrometer, after it has meafnred the
whole of this fpace ; the bifecling line being now the true
place of ^, which we fuppofe brought back to the microfcope
at m, this interfccElion is the extreme point of the bifeftional
arc F (f or f (p, which mull be bifcfted fucceffively in hke
manner, when the point k has been adjufted. When the arcs
become fmall, a crooked point is propofed to be ufed at 0,
that it may not be in the way of the microfcope ; or other-
wife, if that plan will not fucceed, to adopt what he calls
Mr. Troughton's method of bilefting an odd number of
contiguous divifions, which was alfo done, as we have feen,
by the due de Chaulnes and others. In cutting the lines
of divifion, the microfcope and point J' are propofed to be
very near together, and, if pollible, fo near at one fide of
one another, that the flroke cut may coincide with the
fixed hair, when the beam has an angular motion giveuj as
a check on the liability of the microfcope ; and lallly, the
point d mull be fo taken that the line d a may now be a
tangent to the circle at the cutting point.

If the whole circle could be graduated by continual
bifeftion, this accwunt is all that would-be necefiary for ex-
plaining the method of dividing here propofed, but, as tri-
feiition and quinqnefeftion are neceffarily introduced, either
before or after bifeftion, where the computation of chords
is rejcdled, we mull give alfo an account of thefe procefFes,
which we believe are- original. Suppofe the arc a a, in^^. j,
to be propofed for quiuquefeftion, the equal meafures qj',
f e, e d, d b, and b a, are laid down in fucceffion, by bring-
ing a to the microfcope, and making y~nearly one-fifth of the
whole, then by bringing up^'to the microfcope, and mark-
ing e, &c. in the fame way, beginning at k, the points /S,
cf, i, and f, are made with the fame extent, wliich it ap-
pears was with too fmall an opening. Now the true paint
of the firll quinquefec\ion from k will be between a and;/?,
and diltaut from /3 jull one-fifth of the differential fpace & b,
and the fecond point will be two-fifths of i ,■/ froin •;, and
fo on for the rell; therefore, in cutting the dividing llrokes^
the micrometer mull mealurc the wiiole difl'erential fpace,
and then allow for the due proportion, after which it mull
be brought into the place of the fixed hair, to bifeCl the
fcratch before covered by it, and then the dividing line may
be cut: in the fame way allowance may be made for ?-tlis of
the fmall fpacc a </, before a fecond dividing ilroke is matje;

or.

GRADUATION.

or, which gives lefs trouble, wlien the firfl quiiiquefeAinT
hne is truly laid down, it may be transferred forward by
iifing the fixed hair with it firfl, and then with the fecond,
while the third is cutting, and fo forth till they are all mea-
fured and cut in futcelllon from the firll mealure repeated.
This method is, however, acknowledged to be liable to the
double error that may arife, firft, from placing the inter-
mediate point, and again, of fub-dividing from it. A third
method for quinquefcftions or trlfeftions is laflly propofed,
but is confidered inferior to the former plans, and therefore
may be paffed over in filence.

We mull confefs there is fomething fpccious in the theory
of Mr. Cavendilh's jiropofed method of dividing, but our
opinion, that it would not anfwer well in praftice, has been
confirmed by the affertion of a praftical artift, whofe judg-
ment in tliis art we eilimate much more highly than our
own. Suppofing the point d on the frame not to be altered
in ihape or polltion by the large fweeps of the beam from
right to left, and vice verfii, alternately, nor yet the point
injured, there muft necelfarily be a change of pofition in the
liands of the operator, as well as in his whole body, at every
backward and forward change of the beam, to the right
and left, which circumllance will be not only unfavourable
to expedition, but alfo to acctiracy; in facl, the operator
mull be both right-handed and left-handed to fncceed with
an alternation of operations that require the greatell nicety
of management, and in which the hands, the eye, and the
diverfified attitudes of the body, have all an equal fliare,
and where a falfe llroke once made cannot be well reftified.
The bifeiled arcs will not be more affefted by change of
temperature probably than by Bird's method, but the
quinquefefted arcs may be fenfibly affedlcd, as fome time
muft neceifarily be taken up in afcertaining the meafures by
vifion, while the operator breatlirs on the beam during the
infpcftion of the micrcfcope, and is alio handling it in two
places during the wh.cle time of obtaining the fine points,
or rather lines, in queilion.

Soon after Mr. Cavendilh's paper on the manner of divid-
ing aftronomical inftruments had been read before the mem-
bers of the Royal Society, the Rev. William Lax, A.M.
F.R S., Lowndes's profelFor of allronomy in the univerfity
of Cambridge, addreffed a paper to the aftrononier royal, which
was alfo read and printed in part 2. of the year 1809, im-
mediately after Mr. Cavendilh's paper. This paper, as well
as Mr. Cavendilh's, was probably brought forward in con-
fequence of Troughton's paper, printed in part I. of the
fame year.

The method of examination made ufe of by profelFor Lax
may be fainiliarly explained thus, without entering into any
mathematical formulx to mark the valae of particular ex-
prefiions, that might puzzle the ordinary reader : two mi-
tiofcopes were adapted by frame-v.-ork, fo as to be capable
of adjuftment to any given points of the circle to be exa-
mined, and one of them, having a micrometer attached to it,
was capable of meafuring minute differences between a given
arc of 90 , 60 , or 45 , &c. and any of the following mul-
tiples of that arc taken in fuccelTion ; confequently, if all the
faid differences marked + or — , as the cale might be, ba-
lanced one another exaftly, when the whole circle was gone
through, the meafure of the firll arc was a Ihuidard mealure,
or the exaft fradlion of the whole that it ought to be ; if
nut, a proportional part of the balance of errors would be-
long to it, and muft be allowed for accordingly. It is not
ncceftary to be more minute in explaining the principle of exa-
mination before us, as it is of no i.fe in graduating a circle,
but i« only intended as a correftion on bad graduation, like

the French repeating principle, to which it bears fome ana-
logy. The author's idea of afcertaining the fractional value
of each divifion in \m inftrument fuccelTively, which he calcu-
lates will coft him an expenditure of 98 hours, is founded on
an opniion that aftronomical inftruments in general d»j not
poffefs that degree of accuracy in their divifions that thcmakeri
of them affirm ; but he docs not appear to be aware that
as rigid an examination as his own is praclifed by all the bed
inftrnmcnt-makera in the final adjuftment of the divifions,
and that too by means of micrometrical microfcopes ; fo that,
if a pollerior examination is found neceflary, it muft, gene-
rally fpcaking, be neceft'ary in confcquencc of fome change of
figure tliat the inftrument has undergone from carriage, ac-
cident, or temperature ; in any of which cafes the profcftbr'*
mode of examination will be very defirable. But any one
who propofes to take the trouble of making a table of all
the pofitive and negative errors in the divifions of an indiffer-
ent inftrument, will do well to have the whole of the origi-
nal paper before him at the time, by which every ftep in the
procels will be pointed out as it is wanted Without meaning
to difcourage any attempt of this nature, for the propofai
of which altronomers are much indebted to the learned pro-
feftbr, we profefs a belief that three or four readings of any
individual obfervation by as many microfcopes properly ar-
ranged round the divided circle, in ftationary fituations, will
anfwer every purpofe of accuracy, ami corred all the ufual
fources of error that ex'ijl at the tinu of making the obferva-
tion ; for when any table of errors is completed with the great-
eft care, it ought only to apply to obfervatioiis made while
the inftrument remains in the fame predicament as it was when
the table was conliructed. Mr. Trougliton, who is engaged
with the conftrudion of his fix-feet circle for the Royal Ob-
fervatory, intends, we underlland, to adopt the ufe of four
microfcopic readings, two oppofite each other, which will
corredl for eccentricity finiply confidered, and two at i 20''
dillanct' from one of the former ones, which w.ll check the
bifettional dividing, and corretl the inaccuracies of divifion,
if any, as well as the effefls of any change of figure in the
circle by unequal temperature, in the room where it may be
ufcd. This propofai, coming from fo flcilful and experienced
an artill as Mr. Troughton, we confider as a ftrong argu-
ment in favour of our opinion, which we cxprefTed in favour
of three readings in our article Cihcle, before the paper in
queftion was publidied, or known to us.

" I find," fays Mr. Lax, " that I can read off, to a cer-
tainty, within lefs than thrte-foiirths of a feeond, and hence I
conclude that I could examine the divifions of my lircle (of
one foot radius) without being liable to a greater error than
9 63 feconds.'' This is Hated on calculation to be the extreme
limit ; which, according to the dodrinc of chances, can very
(Lldom happen, but if one-half of this error is llkelv to
happen in any one divifion of the « hole circle, as read oS
by the microfcopes, the refnlt will be, that the ermrsof the
table may be as great as thofe of a well-divided inftrument,
fuppofing it to preferve its ligure unaltered after examina-
tion In another part of tlie paper before us, the author
fays, " we may likewife obferve tliat by this examination we
ftiall not on'y be fecured agiiuft the errors of divifion, but
againft thuie which urife from bad centering, and fri m the
imperfcdt figure of the circle, and which in general are of
to« great a magnitude to be neglcctij," From this obferva-
tion we mull neceflarily conclude, tluit the diftancc between
the microfcope and micrometer, ufed in nuafuring, was not
the meafure of the included a>x, but of the a;if»<;<jr quaitiily
at the centre oppofite that arc : for it mull te evident,
that, in cafe the a:iis of motion is not prccifely the centre

6 of

GRADUATION.

of the divided circle, the an, fimply confidered, will not and unlefs the fteady pins fill their holes complttely, thefc

be the true mealure of the on^/-, feeing one fide of the pins will, in all probabihty, be drawn afide by the fixing

circle will be farther from the centre than the other, fcrews in fome of the poutions. fr »i„ ...u„.,i .„ ....i '-..^

For i

to the

centre of motion, placed a fmall quantity out of the centre

of the graduated circle, in this cafe the angles fubtended by

the iiril and fourth qnadrantal arcs will be greater than

thofe fubtended by the fecond and third ; but if tlie hne

from Cjo ' to the centre of motion (liouldpafs through the centre

of the divided circle, then the angles fubtended by the tirll and

fecond quadrantal arcs will be greater than thofe lubtended

by the third and fourth. Wlieu, however, the microfcopes

have a crofs iiair, as well as a radial one, the length of the

raiiiiis as well as of the air may be meafured, and confe-

quently the true quantity of the fubtended angle.
- The great fimiliarity between the due de Chaulne's method

of dividing a circle, and of profeffor Lax's method of ex-
amining one when divided, cannot but Itrike the reader ;
they both ufe microfcopes, one with a micrometer attached,
and both take multiples of the arc under confideration ; but
one correds the errors by adjuft menf during the att of
dividinsr, and the other calculates and tabulates tlicm for fub-
lequent corrections

Neither will the l!!:'^nefs pafs unnoticed between the ap-
paratus employed by Mr. Lax, and that for the purpofe of
examining llandardmeafures, defcribed by fir Geo. Shuck-
burgh (Phil. Tranf. I7(;S) ; but Mr. Tronghton, we
know, acquits the learned profeffor of borrowing any thing
from him.

If the wheel is iruly racked
^nli"ance,"'if w'e"fiippofe the line that paffcs from zero in the firft inftance by a careful divider, and the ileady
le centre of the divided circle, (liould alfo pafs through the pins placed with precificn, the reverfing of the rim will not

" " difturb the coincidence of the two rows of teeth all round,

which is the thing ultimately defired ; but if the original
divifion was bad, and had both negative and pofitive devia-
tions from true divifion, in dilTerent parts of the circle, then
we have a doubt whether the rim will produce the defired
effetf of equahzing them : a good fcrew will of itfelf equa-
lize contiguous teeth, when fifteen teeth or upwards are
afted on at the fame time ; but it will not equalize diftant
teeth, wliich the rin^. profefles to do. In order, however, to
anfvver the purpofe of a fs!j-corrc8cr, the rim muil be com-
petent to meet all cafes of bad divifion that are liable to
occur ; let us fuppcfe, in the firft place, that whenever
large teeth are made by the divider on one fide of the
wlicel, teeth correfponding in fmalhiefs are to be met with
at the oppofite fide, in this cafe, which is the moft favourable
to the operation of the rim, the errors being oppofed to each
other,by an oppofite pofitionof therim, will correct each other,
provided they arc of fimilar quantity, and the rim will pro-
duce its defired cftecl ; but, fecondly, if equal errors happen
to be in the fame direction they will not be corrected at all ;
and, thirdly, if unequal errors be in the fame direftion, they
will be correfted by only half their difference ; nay, arcs
of the wheel, that are true at firft, will, we conceive, be
vitiated, unlefs they fall in with arcs of the rim that are
alfo true. How far a change of temperature will affect
this long procefs we will not affirm ; but we hefitate not to
■ In the fpring of 1810, Mr. James Allan, of Blewitt's o-ive it as our opinion, that an upper plate, or wheel, revolv-
Buildings, Fetter Lane, London, received the gold medal ing on the fame centre as the wheel itfelf, would be lefs liable
from the Society of Arts, at the Adelphi, for a new method to central error than the rim with fteady pins, however care-
of equalizing the teeth on the edge of an engine plate for fully fixed ; for fteady pins could not then caufe any fenfible-.
dividing fextants. Sec , which would have been defcribed eccentricity in fixing at the different pofitions.

moft properly under the article ExciNE, but as it was not
then made known, we will take fome notice of it in this
place, though the Society's account is not yet publifiicd.
The profefTed improvement of Mr. Allan's method of rack-
ing, confifts in its enabling a bad divider of a circle to correft
his divifions, by what he cal's ?i f:lf-corrcYling proceis. The
contrivance is this: the ufi>al wheel or circular plate that is
racked, has a brafs rim of about two inches breadth, and of
the fame diameter and thicknefs as the wheel, rabbeted over
it, fo as to appear apart of the fame wheel; four fteady
pins, at the exaft diftance of a quadrant from each other-.

It would have been defirable if Mr. Allan had given* •
with his account of the racking, his method of making a per-
feft fcrew, which is cfTential in a dividing engine. We lately
had an opportunity of examining one of his engine-divided
reflecting circles, and found, however, the oppofite verniers
very well correfponding with each other all round the cir-
cumference.

Gr.-VDUATION of a Circle geovu-lncally. After the de-
fcriptiun v>-e have given in our preceding article of the
various practical methods of graduating allronomical inllru-

keep the rim in its place by the aid of fevrral equi-diftant ments, it may, perhaps, feem fuperfluous to give a further

fcrews, and the rim will therefore admit of four pofitions account of the methods that geometricians have propofed

on the wheel. When the wheel and rim together have for graduating a circle theoretically ; but which have been

been faintly racked in the ufual way (fee ExGlXE by of little or no ufe in the practical divifion of circles, or cir-

Ramfil.n) one of the other pofitions is given to the rim, cular arcs, on inftruments. It is not fufficient for tlie pur-

fuppofe the oppofite one, and then the operation of pofc of the inftrument-maker, that a probh'.n be true merely,

racking by the fcrew is refumed ; when the teeth are a but that the means necefiary for its adoption in pradtice be'

little formed, another pofition is given to the rim, and not fnbjeiEt to the introduction of error. Tlie ancient

the racking refumed as before to a certain extent, and, after geometry implies the pofTibillty of making a ftraight line

feveral changes have been gone through, it is prefumed in pradtice through two given points, whicli cannot be

that the teeth become nearly equalized, and are exadtly effected with certainty by a ruler and pointed too!, howevvr

equal to one another at the conclufion. How far this will carefully applied, while the modern geometry of Mafche-

be precifely the cafe we will not pretend to afllTt. We roni, the Italian, rejedts the ufe of lines altogether, and fiib-

conceive it to be a very nice operation to drill four holes ftitutcs the compafles only in the divifion of a circle. Vk\-

in the wheel and rim fo exactly equidiftant and concentric, will gratify the curiofity of the reader with a few fpecimei.i

that a reverfed pofition fliall not affect their relative fittings, of each method in fucceffion.

and if there is the leaft deviation in this refpeft, it will be I„ Adam's geometrical and graphical effays are the f -]

charged as an error on the divifions. The fcrews alfo pro- lowing problems, wliich imply the practicability of drawn.,

fefs 10 be placed fo as to admit of reverfing in pofition, a ftraight line through two given points.

8 Pkou-

GRADUATION.

Problem I.

" To cut off from any given arc of a circle a third, a fiftli,
a fevcnth, &€. odd parts, and thence to divide that arc into
any number of equal parts."

jExamph I . — To dividethe arc A K B into three equal parts,
C A being the radius, and C the centre of the arc. Bifect
AB, _/j. 1. of PA?//? XXI. of yljlroiiomical Injlntments, in
K, draw the two i-adii C K, C B, and the cliord A B ; pro-
duce A B at pleafure, and make B L =: A B ; bifeiA
A C at G ; then a rule on G and L will cut C B in E, and
B E will be J, and C E j of the radius C B ; on C B
witii C E, defcribe the arc Y.ed ; laiUy, fet off the extent
E « or D e from B to a, and from a to b, and the arc A K B
will be divided into three equal parts.

Corollary. — Hence, having a feKtant, quadrant, Sec. ac-
curately divided, s the chord of any arc iet off upon any
other arc of i that radius will cut off an arc fmiilar to the
iirft, and containing the fame number of degrees. Alfo,
^d, ith, -'th, &:c. of a larger chord will corillantly cut
iimilar arcs on a circle whole radius is jd, jth, 'th, Sec. of
the radius of the iiril arc.

Example 2. — Let it be required to divide the arc A K B,
of the fame iigure, into five equal parts, or to find 'th ot
.the arc A B.

Having bifefted the given arc A B in K, and drawn the
three radii C A, C K, C B, with radius C I defcribe the
arc I n M, which will be bifeftcd in n by the line C K ;
then take the extent In, or its equal Ma, and fet it off
twice from A to B ; that is, firil from A to a, and then
from a to o, and o B will be ' th of the arc A B. Again,
fet off the fame extent from B to m, and from m to c, and
the arc A B will be accurately divided into five equal
parts.

Example 3 To di\ide the given arc A B into feven equal

parts. A B being bifeCted as before, and the radii
C A, C K, C B, drawn, find (by a problem referred to)
the feventh part P B of the radius C B, and with the radius
C P defcribe the arc P r N ; then fet off the extent P r
twice from A 10-3, and from 3 to 6, and 6 B will be the
feventh part of the given arc A B ; the jompaffcs being
kept to the fame opening P r, fet it from B to 4, and from
4 to I ; then the extent A i will bifett i 3 into 2, and 4 6
into 5 ; and thus divide the given arc into feven equal
parts.

It is obvious, that this method of dividing any portion of
a circle, into an odd number of equal parts, is lubject to
three iources of error in prattice ; iff, the variation of tiic
compafs from expanfion ;'2d, the uncertainty of getting the
exa& points of interfectidn where the angles are acute ; and
3dly, the probable deviation of tlie points in ilepping ; to
fay nothing of tlie errors arifing from drawing the right
fines, which would, in all probability, exceed all the otiier
errors put together, even before they are doubled and
trebled, 5cc. by Ilepping.

PaoBLE.xr 11.

" To divide a given arc of a circle into any number of
equal parts by the lielp of a pair of beam, or otli>r com-
paifes, the dilbance of whofe points ihall not be nearer to
each other than the given chord," (by Clavius).

Let A B, yf^. 2, of Plate XXI. be the given circular
arc to be divided into a number of equal parts. Produce
tbe arc at pleafure ; then take the extent A B, and fet it
oil', on tlie prolonged arc, as many times as the given imall
arc is to be divided into fmullcr parts, nauielv, to the points

Vol. XVL

C, D, E, F, and G. Divide no^v the whole line A G into
as many equal parts as are required in A B, ns G H, H It
I K, IvL, L A, each of whicii contain i the given line, and
one of thofe parts into which the given line is to be divided.
For A G is to A L, as A I" to A B ; in other words, A L
is contained five times in A G, as A B is in A F ; therefore,
fince A G contains A F, and 4th of A B, B L is !th alfo
of A B. The"., as G H contains A B, plus F H, which
is 4tii of A B, i: I will be the ?ths of A B, D K iths,
and C I nhs. Therefore, if we fet off the interval G H
from F and H, we obtain two parts between F and I ; the
fame interval, or extent, let off from tliefe two points near
1, gives three parts between D and K; when fet off from
the points from D to K, it gives four parts in C L ; and
the next transfer will, from thofe points, give five parts
from B to A ; fo that, laflly, the fame extent will give
back again the remaining divifions in fuccellion from thofe
between B and C.

This method is liable to fome of the fame fources of
error as the preceding method, when compaffes alone are
depended on ; but it is ufeful, acconiing to the due de
Chaulne's mode of proceeding, and may be fernceable in
Ramfden's method of dividing, where tiie points are refti-
fied by oppofite microfcopes. In all probability the ver-
nier fcale owes its origin to this problem of Clavius, which
problem may be varioufly diverfificd, to prevent the necef-
iity of fmall extents ; but whenever fmall fpaccs are marked
out on an arc by a differential plan of this fort, it is requi-
fitc that the extent begun with (liould not alter during the
whole proccfs, and alfo that the points, once mark-d, (liould
be capable of being refumed with certainty at tl'.e fubfe-
quciit transfer. \Vhen, however, an error is made in any
divided fpace by a hard particle, or otherwife, thij vm r
will recur at every multl^'le of the extent meafurcd there-
from.

This problem of Clavius, it will be remarked, implies
the given arc A B to be meafured, or otherwife knows
previoufly to the propofed fub-divifion.

When an entire circle is propofed to be divided int»
degrees, the radius, whicli is equal to the chord of 60',
affords the means of making fix equal arcs ; and thcfc
arcs may be fub-divided to arcs of 15° each bv bifetlioR
only ; but to leduce the equal arcs to a iHll lower denomi-
nation, recourfe mull be had to either trifeCtion, quinqucfec-
tion, computation of the chords, or the differential method
originally propofed by Clavius, all wkidi have been already
dclcribcd.

The method of dividing a circle, propofed hv L. Maf-
cheroni, is tranilated into French by A. M. Carettf, l7yS,
and is contained in the lecond book of his " Geometric du
Compas." This method rejects not only the drawing of
lines, but all meaiurement from fc.iles, and bileclioiis of an
arc by trial, as well as tritections, quinquefeC'tions, &c.
but adnfits of ilepping, and fuppofes the extent of a pair of
compaffes, once taken, to be atterw.u'ds invariable. The
radius of the circle is the balis of .:11 tlie other extents, which
are very few in number, conlldering the various divitiont
that may be made therewith, and three points determined,
one without and two within the circle, afford the means of
taking all the meafurements, inlleadof a fcale; coni'equently,
any circle divided by .this method mull neceffarily have its
plane extended conliderably beyond and witliiH the circular
fpace to be divided, which is felJom the cale in a large in-
ilrument, wliere a ring or rim is attaclied to radial bars,. 10
form, a wheel .for the body of tiie intli:ument,_w!iich con-
llrudion contributes equally to ilrengili and ligiiUiefs ; a
4 A ' li^t

GRADUATION.

8at nieet of metal, which the prefc-nt method of dividing
requires, is feklom, if ever, adopted in the conftruftion of an
inftrument of confiderable radius. The fecond book of the
" Geometry of the Compafs,'' which has not yet been
tranflated into EngHfh, and which therefore may not be
known to many of our readers, contains ten problems on the
divifion of the circumference of a circle, and one on the man-
ner of biferting an arc by a new procefs, that makes no
fuperfluous marks, and requires no fecond trial : thefe pro-
blems are accompanied by dcmonftrations and coroilariei,
that would enlarge our article too much, were we to tranf-
late them entirely, but we will give fo much of tlic fubftance
ef tliefe problems, as will enable tlie reader lo comprthcnd
the nature and extent of the divifion in queftion, which we
apprehend will be deemed more curious than ufeful. The
ten problems' divide the circle into the following parte, ac-
cording to the order in whicli they here iuccr-ed one
another, -viz. 4, 8, t2, 24, 48, 9, 10, 120, 20, and 240.
Let Ji^. 3, of PIMi; XXI. be a diagram for illullrating the
four firft divifions or problems. I^et one beam, or other
kind of compafs, defcribe the circle with the extent BA
from the centre A, and let this compafs liave its extent pre-
ferved unaltered, to reprefent the radius, and be called llie
firil comoafs ; with this extent and beginning at 15, as zero,
turn over to C, T), E, cf, c, and back to B agam ; now if
this is accurately done, B A E will bileft the circL.', B D c/
.^yill trifecl it, and the fix original points will divide it into
fix arcs of 60 each ; take now B D, the chord of 120 in
the fecond compafs, and preferve this extent unaltered ; from
zero B and its oppofite point E, bifeft the point a out of
the circle, with this extent ; then will the dillancc a A, taken
ia a third compafs, and kept unaltered, be the chord B F
of 90 ; alfo of the arc E F, of E. f, and ofyB ; the circle
is now divided into four quadrants at the points B, F, E,
and f. To obtain an eighth part of the circumference, fet
A B, by the compafs N° I, from the point a, out of the
circle, to G and H in the arc on each fide ; then the femi-
circle is divided into four, and the points g and h, in the
other femi-circlc, may be transferred from G to g, and from
H to h, with the compafs N 3, or chord of 90", and the
whole circle will now be divided into eight equal arcs by the.
points B, G. F, H, E, h,j, g.

To gain twelve equal arcs ot the circle, with N^ 1, or ex-
tent equal to radius, from F as the firil point turn over to
N, and n, in fucceffion one way, and to O and 0 in fuc-
ceflion the other ; and the whole circle will be divided into
twelve equal arcs by the points B, N, C, F, D, O, E, 0, il,
f, c, n. To double this number of equal arcs, begin at G
with the fame extent of radius, and ilep to L and M one
way, and to k and / the other ; alfo from H with the fame
extent ftcp to I and K one v>-ay, and to m and / the other
way, which points will bifeft the former twelve arcs, and
make the whole 24. Hitherto we have had occafion for no
Other point but a for determining the 24 arcs, and it is fome-
what remarkable, that the three extents afcertained thereby,
-viz. the radius, the chord of 90 , and the chord of i2o\
are to each other in the fimple ratio of the fquarc roots of
I, 2, and 3 refpeftively. In order to fub-divide, without
trial, the 24 arcs into 48, another point e within the circle
is necefi'ary ; with a fourth compafs take the extent a N,
and find the point e by iiiterfettion from B and its oppofite
point E ; then N i, or radius, will cut the circumference
from this point c in the points jj. and » ; fo (hall K ^z, f* N,
M V, and » O be each equal to the 48th part of the whole
circumference. To divide the circumference into five equal
parts, a third point b within the circle, and in the fame dia-
mticr v/^h e, but at the oppoSte fide of the centre, will l^c

neceflary : to avoid confufion from further fub-divifioti, we
will take another fg. (4) with fimilar letters of rcferenccr
as the preceding one. With N ' 3, or extent a A of 90%
irterfeft at the point b from the points N and O, then with
a fifth extent B b fet off from B to Q, and the arc B Q will
be the fifth part. of the circumference. To bifeft thcfe five
large arts, take the fixth extent A b and fet it from B to P,
which will be equal to the arc P Q, and, confequentlv, will
be a tenth part of the circumference. Again, w ithout any
further operation, the fmall arc () I, already marked, will
be the 120th part of the circumference ; and to obtain ^Vth
part of the fame, in the quadrant BV_/', the fifth extent
B b, fet off from /' to V, will leave the arc B V equal to
this quantity. And laltly, to procure 240 equal arcs, take
the extent s ■., and fet it over from i to /?, and from I? to <%
fo lliall the arc P -5 be the j j^th part of the circumference ;
but to fubdi\ide all the circumference by the fmall arc P '^
of I- 30', the arc N G of ly'' mufl. firil be divided into five
parts of 3 ' each, without quinqucfeclion ; thus, with the
extent Kb = V> V, itep from B to the points P, Q, R, S,
and it will fall next in E already marked ; then with A b,
as before, begin at L and put in the points q and p fuc-
celfively ; alfo from I jmt in tt ; and from O put in (p, by
flepping the points j, y, and >' ; thus fliall the points p Y v
and ^ lub-divide the arc NG into five equal arcs, and i'lr
will be found equal P J, or , \ .th part of the whole. After,
having obtained thete five fub-divifions of 3 and 1 30', the
firit may be transferred, with the extent N G for inftance,
into other arcs of 15 in fucccffion, begimiing with G C firil,
and ufmg the points N, p, P, S:c. as they occur, 'ill the
whole is gone through, afier which the fmall arcs thus tranf-
ferred may be bifected by an extent J N, going a fecond
time over the fame points in fucceffion as before. Thus will
the whole circumference be fub-divided into 240 parts of
each 1" 30'.

The eleventh or laft problem on this fubjeft, is to divide
any arc B C {Jig. 5.) into two equal parts in G. To do
this; with radius A B, which has defcnbed the arc B C to
be divided, and from the centres B and C, the two extren i-
ties of the arc, let the arcs A D and A E be defcnbed ;
let A D and A E be each made equal to B C ; then from
the points D and E, as centres, and with radius D C or
E B, find by intcrfeftion the point F ; lattly, with the
radius A F, and from the centres D and E, let the point G
be interfered, which will fall in the circumference, if the
operation is truly performed, and will allobillft the arc B C
as was re(|eii-ed.

By the lielp of the three remarkable points a, e, and b,
in our Jig. 4, the author of the Geoir.etry of the Compafs,
has laid down in his twelfth and laft book a dozen equa-
tions, fome one of which may be applied to determine, by
approximation, almoft. any fmall arc of a circle that fhall
cut off a given quantity. It would be tedious to enter here-
minutely into his various calctdations, but, for the fake o£
amufing the reader, we will feleit the folufions of a few
probh-ms, without the annexed demonllratiuns, which would
enlarge our article loo much.

PKoni.rM I.

To Jind the' arc of one Jigrte luilL'Out the error of lalj a
fecond.

Soluthii. — I..ct the arc B c, below B, be 55" 30', (in the
circle which has been divided into 240 parts of each l^ 30',)
take the dillance b-z', and from the pomt e, as a centre, de-
fcribe an arc to cut the circumference in fome point Z', and
the arc B Z', above B, will be 52 59' \^'.'',, or 53° within
about 25'"; then iu tlie divifions between B and V is the

diviiloa

G R A

G R ^

<Jivifion 54*, or -^,^3 of the whole circle ; tliere will therefore aid to the introduftion of ufelefs innovatioiu, by entering

be 54' — 53^ = i' by approximation within the required niore minutely into the fubjeft.

dejrree of accuracy. L. Mafcheroni is the Italian geometrician, we are in-

Soliition 2— Let the arc B Z be taken = 10' 30', (by formed, who taught Bonaparte feme problems, when in

the divifions exilling) from the centre a, and with the one of his campaigns in Italy, with one of wLicli he puz-

diftance i Z as radius, crofs the circumference in the faid zled the Frencli mathematicians, and gained the reputation

point Z' = 2(f 29' iHI> or 29' 3°' without an error of of being an adept in mathematics.

halfafecond; then look for 28^ 30' in the exilling divifions, Gkadvatiok, in Mir^alogy. When a mineral is dif-

-«- of the circle, and the difference will be very nearly covered wliich is intermediate between other known fpecie.,

f^ than fli/. . _ J ■ T/r . <- *- . ^ - *.

as before
former

r "7 ' '• J*"'', ^°'"''°," ■■' l^'■^„='«"■•»t<^ 'han the and in different fpccimen., or parts of the fame fpeEmien,'
by about 4'" i the error being 29 ". approaches very near to fuch known minerals, it is faid to

Problem II.

Tajind an arc of 15' <wUhout an error of l'".

Se/uJion. — Take the arc B s == 1 2' below B,lhe diftance
f z will be the chord of 87 ' 15' ; with a radius of this ex-
tent, and from B, as a centre, cut the arc B F above, in
the point Z', and the arc B Z' will be 87' 15' ; but among
the exilling divilions of the arc is 87^ or ■?4'^th of the cir-
cumference ; therefore, the difference of the two arcs is

Problem III.
Tof.nd an arc cf 10' without an error of l o'".
So'ution. — Take the arc B s downward = 49" 30'

the diftance b % will be tlie chord of 38
error of 10'"; then, the divifion 39^ or

and
50', without an

, being found
already, their difference on the circumference taken from B
upwards, will bean arc of 10'.

Problem IV.

To find an arc of 6' •whliin 1 3 '".

Solution. — Take the chord of 45° from B to G above,
and from the point b cut the circumference at =, which will
be at 40 6', downwards from B, without an error of 13'',
but 40" counted downwards already exifts, therefore the
fmall arc between is 6'.

Problem V.

To find an arc of l' ivithin 22'".

Solution. — Let B 2 downwards be ^ 27' ; from the point
c as a centre with radius b 2, cut the circumference above at
Z ; and the arc B Z will be 29" 59', with an excefs of 22"' ;
tlierefore, the arc B N being 30 , the arc ZN will be l'
within 22'".

By fuch means as thefe an arc of 9' uathin 7'" is deter-
mined ; alfo, an arc of 20" within 1'"; as arc of 15" within
10"; an arc of 12'' within 1'"; an arc of 10" within i";
a!id an arc of 5" within 2'" ; but thefe lafl arcs arc fo minute
in all ordinary circles, that «e omit the folutions, as being
of no utility.

We have hitherto fuppofed the circle divided into 360^
with their liib-diviiions, but the French have propoicd a
fiintefimal divil'ion of the circle to be fublUtutcd, wlierc
eacli quadrant has ico~ inflcad of 9c', making 400' in the
vhole circU-. with each degree fub-divided bv lumdreds, &c.
Tins mode of dividing has been exemplified by L. Mafcheroni,

graduate, pafs into, pafs over to, or make tranfitions to,
fuch minerals. Frequently, the ftrata of the earth graduate
thus into each other, fo that it is extremely difficult to de-
fine where one ftratum ends and another of vcr)- different
properties begins : thefe graduations arc not uncommon be-
tween fome lime-done flrata and the chert beds in thtm.
More frequently, each flratum is fcparated by a tliin byer
or way -board of pulverulent matter, which occalions the Arata
to part freely ; and often, in fuch cafes, the parts of the
ftrata in contact with thefe way-boards ditTcr notliing from
the general mafs of each flratum, or there is no graduation
between one flratum and the next in fuccefTion.

Graduation of faltne Liquon, in Chswiflry, is a method
of concentrating weak faline folutions, by pouring them
through a heap of faggots, and expofing them in tliis di-
vided ilate to a free current of air. Sec Muriate of

Soda.

GRADUS Gemoxic. See Gemoni;?:.
GRjEA, Tfaisr, a name ufed by the old Greek writers
for the wrinkled pellicle which arifes upon milk in the
boiling.

It was alio ufed in a figurative fenfe for the wrinkles Li
the (Ivin of old people.

GRiECIA, Greece, \n Ancient Geo^aphy, a country of
confiderable extent, forming, as it were, the boundary or
frontier between Europe and Afia, and comprehending a
great number of different Hates and kingdoms. We have
various opinions as to the etymology of the appellations
Graci and Grscia. The mofl prevalent opinion traces the
origin of thefe terms to Graicus or Gricus, the father, as
fome fay, but, according to others, the fon of Thelfalus,
who gave its name to Theffaly. Salmallus fuppofes llie
name Graecus to be derived from Ragau or Rau, the fon of
Peleg, the fourth in dcfcent from Shem, the fon of Noah,
by the tranfpolition of a letter in order to foften the found.
Pezron deduces it from Graia, fignifying in Celtic ancient,
and appUcable to the Grecians by way of contradiftinction
to more modern people. But it has been objected to this
etymology, that the Pelafgi and Hellenes were a more an-
cient people than the Greeks. M. de Gebclin fuppofes the
origin of the appellation to have been the word rha, or rbe,
denoting vail or immeiife, in reference to tlic fca which ter-
minated the Adriatic gulf, on the borders of which tlie
Greeks migrated iouthwards, whence he forms Rmcus, fig-
nifying this fea, and br prefixing the guttural G to the lin-
gual R, Gniicus. The Greeks were alfo called Achians,
Hellenes and Pelafgi. The lirft of tlufe apptlblions is

in his Geometry of the Compafs ; and Mr. Troughton has fuppofed to have been derived from Achius, the fon of

i fcribi-d the mVthod of graduating a circle in this way by Xutluis, the fon of Hellen, and father cf Ion; the fc-

, : method, if it fhould ever prevail in England; but, as cond from Hellen, jull mentioned, the fon of Deucalion,

there appears to be no advantage to the divider in afloiding and father of Dorus, from whom fprung the Dorians ;

lufeclions lower than 25°, and as our tables of logarithms, and the third, from a pretended founder Pelalgus, who,

.Ts well as aflronomical tables, are adapted to the exiftiug taking poffelTion of the Peloponnefus,_ occafioned its being

,'n(,de of dividing the circle, we are unwilling to lend our denominated Pelafgia. Grotius, Salmalius, .nnd Stillingfleet,

4 A 2 jiaii:e&

G R iE C 1 A.

names of confiderablc aiitliorky in tilfquifitions of this na-
ture, fuppofe that tlio dcrcciulauls of Peleg, the fourth in
defcent from them, t}ie fon of Noah, whom tliey fuppofe
to have been the father of the Scythians, were the firll
who peopled Greece ; and that they only foftened the name
of Peleg, or Phaleg, their proirenitor, and called them Pe-
lafgians. But Bochart (in his" Phaleg") (hews, that both
Phaleg and Ragau, and their defcendants, remained in the
confines of Media and Armenia ; and that the Scythians
were the defcendants of Magog, and not of Phaleg or Ra-
gau. Some have alferted that the moll ancient name of all
is that of lones, which tlie Greeks themfelves derive from
Xuthus, grandlbn to Dcncalion. Jofephus afiirms (Ant.
1. i. c. 7.) that their original is of much older date ; and
that Javan, the fon of Japhet, and grandfon of Noah, and
his defcendants, were the liril who peopled thefe countries ;
and in proof of this pofition the learned Bochart has alleged
feveral ilrong prefumptive arguments. He firll adduces the
authority of .lofephus, juft cited ; he then appeals to the
name of the patriarch, '.y, which, without the points, founds
more properly Ion than Javan ; he next alleges the autho-
rity of Mofc's, who fays (Gen. x. 5.) that "by thefe"
(the fons of Japhet) " were the ifles of the Gentiles divi-
ded ;'' which, according to the genius of the Hebrew,
mean, not iilands properly fo called, but all maritime coun-
tries, at any diftance from Paleftine, efpecially thofe which
are along the Mediterranean ; and he alfo refers to the pro-
phets (If. cap. ult. v. 19. Dan. viii. 21.x. 20) who call
Graecia by the name ly. Ion, or Javan, and hence the Jews
Lave always called the Greek tongue H'^T) Javanith. To
thefe arguments he adds that the clear remains of Elifha,
Javan's eldeft fon, are ftill to be found in that of Elis, one
of the ancient kingdoms of the Peloponnefus.

Gk^CIA, or A/ic'wnt Greece, Geography of. Exclufively
of the provinces of Epirus and Macedonia, which long re-
mained barbarous and uncultivated, the continental pof-
feflions of the Greeks (fays Dr. Gillies,) were nearly equal
to Scotland in extent. In its length, comprehended between
the 36th and 41ft degrees of N. latitude, the whole coun-
try IS almoft equally divided by two oppofite gulfs, com-
preffing between them a mountainous neck of land, to the
breadth of only five miles, into the peninfula of Peloponne-
fus, and the territory extending northwards, from the ex-
tremity of the Corinthian iflhmus to the fouthcrn frontier of
Macedonia. The Peloponnefus, 160 miles in length, and
fcarccly 100 in breadth, is every where interfered by moun-
tains, particularly the towering ridges of Zarex and Tay-
getus. During the flourifhing ages of Greece, this fmall
peninfula contained feven independent communities of un-

equal power and fame, vvliicii ranked in the following order ;
the comparatively large, and liighly diverfitied, territory of
Laconia ; the fruitful vale of Argos ; the extenfive coaft of
Achaia ; the narrow but commercial iflhmus of Corinth ;
the central and mountainous region of Arcadia ; together
with the more level countries of Elis and Meffenia, which
are throughout better adapted to tillage, than any other
provinces of the Peloponnefus. The Grecian pofTeflions
beyond the iflhmus of Corinth were more confiderable, ex-
tending above 200 miles from eafl to weft, and 150 from
north to fouth. They were naturally divided by the long and
intricate ridges of Olympus, Pindus, Oeta, and Ofla, into
nine feparate provinces ; which, during the celebrated ages
of Grecian freedom, were occupied by nine independent re-
publics. They comprehended the extenfive and fertile plains
of Theffaly and Breotia, both of which were, in early
times, much expofed to inundations, and the latter, abound-
ing in fubterranean caverns, was peculiarly fubjeft to earth-
quakes ; the lels fertile, but more fecure territory of Atti-
ca ; the wellern provinces of iEtolia and Acarnania, encom-
paffed on one fide by dangerous feas, and confined on the
other by almoft impaffable mountains ; and the four fmall
rocky diflricts of Phocis, Doris, Locris, and Megara.

Thefe names and divifions (fays the above cited hiftorian)
which remained to the lateft times, are pretty accurately
marked by Homer, whofe poems continued, through fuc-
ceeding afcs, to be the approved llandard and legal code, to
which neighbouring communities appealed, in adjufling their
dilputed boundaries. Tliis qualification, however, mufl be
admitted with two exceptions. During the Trojan war,
the extenfive province of Theffaly fent forth above a fourth
part of the whole Grecian flrength, and was divided among
many warlike leaders. But when commerce, navigation,
and the mechanic arts, enriched and adorned the middle and
iouthern divifions of Greece, tfie northern diftrift of Thef-
faly lofl its ancient pre-eminence. The other exception arofe
from the extenfive power of the houfe of Pelops, which
hadi by fortunate marriages and rich fucceffions, acquired
dominion over the northern and eaftern parts of the Pelopon-
nefus, formerly containing feveral independent principalities,
and, after the misfortunes of Agamemnon and his family,
again divided into the immortal republics of Sparta, Argos,
Corinth, and Achaia. The following table will exhibit at
one view the principal flates of Greece, with fome of their
towns and rivers, referring to each article for a further ac-
count, and obferving that we have admitted into it RJace-
donia, though it was not properly a province of Greece till
after the reign of Philip, or rather that of Alexander, aad.
alfo Epirus and lUyria.

Table

G R iE C I A.

Table
Of the Principal Geographical Divi/ions of Greece.

, f Rivers. — Inachus, Erafinus

Peloponnesus.

Laconia.
Messenia.

Elis.

ACIIAIA.
SiCYONIA.

f Kivers. — Inachus, Erafinus.

\ Tovrns. — Argos, Mycenae, EpiJaurus, &c.

{

R. Eurotas.

T. Si'AiiTA, Amycls, Gythium, Teucrium.

JR. Pamifus.

Y -

^T. Messene, Slenyclarus, Colon ides.

fR Alph.vs, y4nigrus, Selleis.

■j Div. Triphylia, Pifalis, Cale-EFu.

(.T. Olympia, Pifa, Elis.

f R. Melas, Crathis.

\ T. Dyme, Patr.*;, JEgium.

JR. Jfopus.

IT. SlCYON, Phlill

ConiNTHlA. T. CoRlKTHUS, Lcchicum, Cencfira
Arcadia.

I

R. Atpheus, Erymanihus, Aoranius.

T. Megalopolis, Mautin:a, Tegea, Orchomenus,

Phi^alia.

Terra. FiRMA. <

O

o

Attica.
Megaris,

T. Atiien.t:, Eleufis, Marathon, Sunium, prom.

T. Megara, Nyfia.

rR. Cephijfus, Copais, lac. Afoptis.
BcEOTlA. < T. TuEBX, Orchomenus, Cheronea, Tanagra, Eleu-

tent, Thefpia.

Grjecia Propria, i

Pnocis.
Doris.

5 R. Cephiffus.

It. Di

)elphi, Elatia, Cryffa, Anticyra.
T. Cytinium.

Islands.

TlIE.ISALIA.

EriRus.

Illyria.

m.\cedonia.

To the Weft.
To the South.

To the Eaft.

r Locri Ozolie, Amphissa, Naupa8us.
LoCRIS. < Locri Epicnemidii . . . Cnemides.
I. Locri Opunlii . . . Opus.

JJ-, S ^' '^'^^''''"'■'■> Evenus.

\ T. Thcrmus, Calydon, ChaLis.

AcARNANiA. Argos Amphilochicuoi, Stratus, A3lum.

J R. Peneus, Oncheflus, Sperchius.

\'V. Larissa, Pharfalus, Phertc, Bemetrias.

J R. Acheron, Avas.
\T. Buthrotum, Nicopolis.

T. Epidamnus, Apollonia.

JR. Erigon, A.xius, S/rymon, Haliacmon.
^T. Edessa, Pilla, Thejfalonica, Olynthus.

Corcyra, Leucadia, Cephallenia, DuUchium, Zacynthus.

Cythara . . . Creta.

cThera, Naxia, Paras, Delos, Myconus, Ttnos, Andros, Ceos,
1 Ei.Ba:.\, Scyros, Thafos.

Tht

G R iE C: I A.

The ancient authors who are to be confiikcJ with regard
to the difFfreut periods of the geography of Greece, are
Humer, for the more remote times, in his account of the
forces collcdled for the fiege and capture of Troy; Strabo,
\s ho avails himfelf of ample materials to which he had acceis ;
Paufanias, who details the refults >»-f his own travels and
obfervations ; and Ptolemy, who furnifhes an ufetul nomen-
clature of the ftates and chief towns, with their longitudes
and latitudes.

Gk-TICIA, or /ittdent Greece, h'ljlry of. 'The traditions
of the Greeks (fays the learned hiltorian. Dr. Gillies,) agree
with the authentic records of facred hiilory in reprelenting
the coinitries afterwards known by the names of Thrace,
Macedon, and Greece, as peopled at an earlier period than
any other portion of the weilern world. The louthern
covuee of Europe, comprehended between the 3fith and
41 rt degrees of latitude, bordering upon Epii'us and Mace-
donia towards the north, and on other fides furrounded by
the fea, was inhabited, abo-ve 18 centuries before the Chrif-
lian era, by many fmall tribes of hunters and ihepherds,
among whom the .Pelafgi and the Hellenes were the
moll numerous and powerful. The barbarous Pelafgi vene-
rated Inachus, as their founder; and, for a fimilar reafon,
the more humane Hellenes refpefted Deucalion. From
his fon Helleu, they derived their general appellation, which
originally denoted a fmall tribe in Thelfaly, and trom Dorus,
Eolus, and Ion, his more remote defcendants, they were
difcriminated by the names of Dorians, Eolians, and loni-
ans. The Dorians took pofTeffion of that mountainous
dillrift of Greece, aft'^rwards called Doris ; the lonians,
whofe name was gradually loll in the more illullrious appel-
lation of Athenians, fettled in the lefs barren parts of Atti-
ca ; and the Eolians peopled Elis and Arcadia, the weftern
and inland regions of the Peloponnelus. Notuithllanding
many partial emigrations, thefe three original divifions of
the Hellenes generally entertained an affection for the efta-
bliihments which had been preferred by the wifdom or caprice
of their refpeCtive anceftors ; a circumllance which remark-
ably diftinguilhed the Hellenic from the Pelafgic race. While
the former difcovered a degree of attachment to their native
land, feldom found in barbarians, who live by hunting or
pafturage, the latter, difdaining fixed habitations, wandered
in large bodies over Greece, or tranfported themfelves into
the neighbouring idands ; and the moll confiderable portion of
them gradually removing to the coafts of Italy and Thrace,
thofe that remained melted away into the Doric and Ionic
tribes. At the diilance of 12 centuries, obfeure traces of
the Pelafgi occurred in feveral Grecian cities ; a diftridl of
Tlied'aly always retained their name ; and their colonies con-
tinued, in the fifth century B. C, to inhabit the fouthern
coaft of Italy, and the fliorcs of the Hellefpont ; and in
thofe widely ieparated countries, their ancient afunity was
recognized in the uniformity of their rude dialeft and barba-
rous manners, extremely diillmilar to the cuftoms and language
of their -Grecian neighbours. Such is the account of the
■iril fettlers in Greece, given by Dr. Gillies on the cited au-
thorities of Herodotus, Dionyfius Hahcarn., Paufanias,
Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo. Modern au-
thors, however, have eotertained different opinions on this
fubjeCl. Some have fuppofedthat the Pelafgi fucceeded the
Hellenes, and others have confidered them as the fame
people under different denominations. According to M.
de Gebelin, Mofes, the Jewifh legiflator, has given us the
primitive origin of the Greeks. In tracing the genealogy
of the defcendants of Noah he fays that Japhet, one of the
fons of Noah, had feven fons : that the fourth was called
Jon, and that he was the father of Elifa, I'harfis or Thra-

fis, Ketim, and Dodanim ; tliis Ion was the father of the
Greeks, and M. de Gebelin labours to find among the
.Greeks four nations formed by his four fons. With this
■view, he fays, that Pelafgia comprehended the whole terri-
tory between the Danube and the fea of Peloponnefus ;
and here we may difcover, as he conceives, tlie refpeftive
fituation of each of Ion's four fons. Thrace acknowledges
Tiiarfis or Thrafis for its founder ; Ketim poifeffed the
country of the Geta;, N. of Macedonia, and Macedonia itfelf;
Dodanim had the country that lay between Macedonia
and the Pelopoiniefus, inhabited by the Dorians ; and Elifu
delignated the inhabitants of the Peloponnefi'.s. This author,
in no fmall degree indulging his imaginatioji, and yet exerci-
fmg a verv conlidcrable degree of ingenuity f;nd attention to
facts, obft-rves, that theliijloryof Deucahon is the founda-
tion of the Greek chronology and hillorv : t;his Deucalion
is diftinguiihed by his deluge, his ark, and hisj being the fa-
ther of the Greeks or Hellenes. All thefe circumftances
afford a prefumption that Deucalion and Noah were the
fame pcrfon. He alfo fays, that the fable of the Argonauts
and tlieir voyage to Colchis is a copy of the navigation of
Noah. Phryxus, or the " man faved," in the Grecian mytho-
logy, is Noah. He difcovers alio other coincidences, wliicii
lead him to conclude, not only that Noah and Deucalion,
but that Ion and Hellen, the repute.l father of tlie Greeks,
wei'e the f;ime perfons ; and that the Hellenes and Pelafgi
were the faine people. According to this writer, the Pelafgi
were the fole podelforsof the whole country which extended
itfelf from the banks of the Danube, to the fea of the
Peloponnefus ; they peopled Thrace, Getia, Macedonia,
Illyria, Epirus, Theffaly, the Phocide, Attica, and the
Peloponnefus ; they fcnt colonies to the ifie of Crete,
to Etruria, and to the fouth of Italy ; and others croffed the
Danube, and were denominated Dacians and Geta;. Greece
was in this ftate, fays M. de Gebelin, when fome colonies
of ftrangers arrived on its coafts, as Cecrops at Athens,
DanauB at Argos, and Cadmus in Btcotia. Thefe, he
fays, came not from Egypt, but from Phoenicia, a neigh-
bouring country. The firil inhabitants of Greece, whence-
foever they came, were, in a very confiderable degree, like the
anceftors of other people, barbarous and favage; and the Hel-
lenes, whcjfe manners were mild andgentle, contributed infome
meafure to civilize them ; but their efforts produced effeift
very (lowly. At length, however, the happy pofition of
tiieir coimtry, forming a kind of frontier between Europe
and Afia, and divided only by a narrow fea from Egypt ar.d
Syria, and not far remote from thofe eallern regions which
were anciently moll populous and fiourirtiiiig, iuvitcd
ftrangers firll to vifit, and afterwards to dwell among them.
The Greeks were not infenfible of their obligations to
ftrangers for the moil important difcoveries, not only in re-
ligion, but in agriculture and the arts ; but as they advanced
to luperiority in arts and arms, above furrounding nations,
they vainlv fancied that their infancy was reai'ed by the gods ;
and to the gods they transferred the merit of many ulefnl
inventions, that had been communicated to them or their
progenitors by their ancient vifitants ; and it mull be acknow-
ledged, tliat the worlhip of feveral divinities was introduced
at tlie fame time, and by the fame perfons, wlio made known
to them the arts moll fubfervient to the purpofes of human
life.

From the middle of the i6th to the middle of the 14th
century, B. C. an inundation of Egyptians, Phccnicians, and
Phrygians overflowed the Helltiiic coalls. The principal
colonies were conduced by Cecrops and Danaus, Egypti-
ans, who refpectively fettled in Athens and Argos ; Cad-
mus, a Phoenician, who founded Thebes in Bocotia; and Pe.

lops.

G R iE C I A.

't.p'!, a Phrygian, '.vliofc dcfccndants, by intermarriages with
:h')fe of Danaus, king of Argos, and Tyndarcus, king of
Laccd^mon, or SpAi'a. aeqtiirod in the pcrfon of Agamoni-
-lou ftf powerftil an alcendant in the Pi-loponncfiis. 'I'he fa-
mily of Deucahon ftiU reigned in Theffaly ; hut Thebes,
i'\tlien% Argos, and Sparta, vvhieh were long regarded as
ih;' principal cities of Greece, thus fell under the dominion
gf four foreign lines of princes, wliofe exploits, and g'ory,
and misfortunes are immortalized by the firlt and noblelt pro-
ductions of Grecian genius ; fuch are the works of Ilo'.ner
aud Pindar, and of the Greek tragedians.

Tlie invaders of Greece introduced many important and
uleiul improvements. They brought into that country tiie
knowledge of the Piiocnici.'.n alphabet ; they affillcd them in
the operations of agriculture ; they multiplied the rites of rc-
)'i ;lon ; difeovered to tliem feveralules of the metals ; and,
: return, adopted the Grecian language, and generally con-
loiaied to the Grecian cuftoms and inltitutions. By the
Plurnicians they were taught and encom-aged to brave the
dangers of the lea.and to maintain a commercial intercourfe
with each other, as well as with foreign nations. Their
country, indeed, was peculiarly advantageous for this pur-
pofe ; three fides of it being waflied by the fea, and being
furrounded by numerous illands, aud abounding in excellent
harbours. Greece, however, was llow in availing itfelf of
the advantages it enjoyed; and in making improvements in
commerce, as well as in agriculture, and other ufeful arts.
Many circumllances concurred to retard its improvement.
The inliabitants of different parts of the country were un-
GOHnetled on account of the creeks and rivers, as well as the
mountains and promontories, that rendered Greece different
from any other part of Europe. The Grecian dates
were fmall ; each city was at war with its neighbour,
and vrant of union and mutual concurrence privented
their advancement in fcience and the arts. Befides,
their coafts were ravaged by pirates, and the metals, inflead
of being formed into ufeful implements of agriculture, were
converted into inftrnments of deilrurtion, partly forhollility
and partly for felf-defence : and the inland country was in-
vaded by Thracians, Amazons, and other northern favages.
But thefe irruptions and ravages of the barbarians ocea-
fioned the inftitution of the Amphictyonic council, which re-
ftored fome degree of prefent tranquillity to Greece, and laid
the foundation of its future grandeur. Tliis council produced,
after a confiderable interval of lime, vii. in the year 1263
B- C. the Argonautic expedition, an undertaking which was
attended with a beneficial effeft on the manners and charafter
of the Greeks. (Roe AiUiO^Auric.) In the progrefs of
the Greeks towards civilization, they pciceived the advan-
tages of political confederacy, before they became fenfible
ef the benclits of civil union; and accordingly a federal
affociation between different communities was formed
before the members of any one Hale had been fufficiently
united in the fyllem of domellic policy. In order to ce-
ment fuch diforderly communities b) laws and governments,
they had recourfe to the wife inllitutions and e,\amples of
the Cretans, which are reprcfentcd not only as the moll
ancient, but as the bell regulations that ever were eftabliihed
in any portion of ttie Grecian territory. (See Cuetk. )
Thefeus communicated the Cretan improvements to the
Atheikians ; from Athens tliey were diffuled through Attica,
and in proceis of time through the neighbouring provinces of
Greece ; infomuch, that at the commenccn.ent of the Trojan
war, in i (93 B. C. all the Grecian dates had adojited one uni-
form fyftcm of government, uniting the independent fjjirit of
European freedom with the refpeftful veneration of Egyp-
tian and AHatic fupcrllitiun.

Of the mythology and manners of tlie Greeks In
the heroic ages, as well as their gcograpliy and liiflory,
Homer, whilll he has indulged 1i:j fancy, has given
us an accnrate delineation ; and fuch as was conform-
able to tlie fyllem of opinions and belief which pro ailed
among his countrymen. The religion, or inytholugy of the
Gretk.^ \vas adapted to the mehoratioii of their condition,
and to the improvement of civil fociety. Unlike that of the
rude inhabitant, of ancient Germany,' among whom the of-
fices of priell and king were adminillered by diiicrent pcr-
fons, the fceptre, wijich denoted the connedion of civil
power with facrcd protection, was conferred, among l!e
Greeks, oil thofe who, wliile titey continued the humble
miniflers of the gods, were appointed to be the chief, but
accountable guardians of the people. The fame v.ice (fays
Dr. Gillies), that fummoned the warriors to arms, or tliat
decided, in time of peace, their domellic connexions, conduct-
ed the order of their religious worrtiip, and prefided in the
prayers and hymns addrelled to the divinity. Thefe prayers
and hymns, togetlierwith the important rite'offacririce( which
was hkewife performed by royal ii uids), formed lh\: cerimonini
part of the Grecian religion. The moral was far more exten-
(ive, including the principal offices of life, and tiie nol)Iell vir-
tucsof the mind. The ufeful quality of courage was peculiarly
acceptable to the Hern god of war ; but tlie virtues of cli:i-
rity and holpitality were llill more pleafing to the more ami-
able divinities. To this purpofc Homer lays (Od. xiv. ^C.)
" all llrangers and beggars come from .love.' The fubmif-
fioii ot fubjecls to tlieir prince, the duty of a priiKe to pre-
ferve inviolate the rights of his fubjefls (II. xvi. 3S5.), tlie
obedience of children to their parents, the rcfpecl of the
young for the aged, the facred laws of truth, jullice,
honour, and decency, were inculcated and maintained by
the awful authority of religion. Even the moll ordinary
tranfaftioHS of private life were confecrated by the piety of
the Greeks. They ventured not to undertake a
voyage, or a journey, without fohciting the propitious
aid of their heavenly protedlors. Every meal (and they
had three in a day, vix.. a^^-ov, oarr 1:, ^-wo.), was
accompanied with a facrilicc and libation. The common
forms of politenefs, the cullomary duties of civihtv,
were not decided by the varying talles-of individuals, but de-
fined by the precife voice of the gods. Tlie laws of religion
were guarded and enforced by corre.'jionding fanftions. The
dreaded vengeance of imaginary powers was ellabliihed in the
Grecian treed ; and it appears from the writings of Homer
throughout, that every important event, profperous or ad-
verfe, which happened cither-to individuals or to nations, ap-
peared to the Greeks, as the reward of their religion and vir-
tue, or the puniilmieiit of their irreligion and vice. The
principles above Hated are confirmed not onlv by the writ-
ings of Homer and Heliod, but by almoll every page of
Herodotus, of Pind;u-, as well as of the Greek tragedians
and hiftorians.

The origin of the gods of Greece has afforded a
fubjecl of elaborate difcuiTion ; and many leanud writers
have traced it to Palelline, Egypt, and other nations,
whence the firll fettlers or fature emigrants fprung. By llie
dim ligl-it of etymology and tr.idition (fays the ingenious liif-
torian of Greece), and the deceitful glare of legend anJ
fable, iiiquilltive men have endeavoured to trace llie ci.i rupt-
ed llreams of Pagan worfliip to the jiure fountain of the Jew-
ilh difpenlatio:i ; and it mull be acknowledged, that the ge-
neral ducirine of jirovideiice, tlie rebellion in lieaven, the Hale
of innocence, the fall of man, atonement by facrfice, and a
future Hale of retribution, for whicli the prefent hie is only
preparatory, are tenets, all, or fome of which, ,tre ft>. nd ir.

1. the

G R ^ C I A.

the traditions of all nations, Greeks and Barbarians. (See
Hefiod, Oper. and Di. v, no, 165. Theog. v. 220. 725.)
But our author obferves, that the majefty of Jehovah is very
feebly reprefentcd by the united power of Homer's divini-
ties ; and that tlie mythology of tlie Greeks is of fuch a
peculiar texture, that, whencefoever originally derived, it muft
have undergone a particular modification in the Grecian foil ;
nor (he fays) is it eafy to concur with the opinion of writers
who bring it immediately from Egypt, Chaldaea, or Lefler
Afia, when we confider that there is not the fmalleft veftige
in Homer of the judicial aftrology which prevailed fo much
in the two firft countries, (Diod. Sic. 1. ii. Exod. ch. vi.
Plin. 1. XXV ), or of the worfhipping of idols, which al-
moft univerfally prevailed in the laft. (Old Tellament, paf-
fim. ) Dr. Gillies traces the origin of the Grecian faith and
worlliip in the natural paflions of the human heart, the hopes,
-the fears, the wants, the mifery of man, which have in all
.ages rendered him a prey to the terrors of fuperftition.

The great pillar of fuperllition, raifed by the anxious
paflions of men, was fortified in Greece by a peculiar fenfi-
bility of cbarafter, which exerts itfelf in the ardour of fo-
.cial affeftion, and ftrengthens, by a thoufand affociations,
their belief of invifible and intelligent powers. The nature,
the characlers, and the occupations of the gods, were fug-
gefted by the lively feelings of an ardent, ratlier than by the
regular invention of a cultivated mind. Thefe celeilial be-
ings were fubjed to the blind paflions which govern unhappy
mortals : their wants, and their defires, were fimilar to thofe
of man. But what was wanting in the dignity and perfec-
tion, was fupplied by the number of the gods. Homer only
defcribes the principal and reigning divinities ; but Hefiod,
who gives the genealogical hillory of this fanciful hierarchy,
makes the whole number amount to 30,000. Every virtue
had its proteftor, every quahty of extenilve power in human
life had its patron, and every grove, mountain, and river its
favourite inhabitants. (See Gons.) The religious creed of
the Greeks, compofed of materials, in great meafure created
'by fancy, formed by poetry into beauty, and improved into
*ife by pohcy, becam* the happieft antidote againft the furi-
ous refentment, the favage cruelty, and the fierce fpirit of
wild independence, which ufually charafterizes the man-
ners of barbarians. Upon the whole, the ancient and vene-
rable fuperftition of the Greeks was diftinguiflied above
moft other falfe religions, by the uncommon merit of doing
much good, without feemingly occafioning any confiderable
harm to fociety. The Grecian tenets, while they inculcated
profound refpeft to the gods, had no tendency to break the
fpirit or to reprcfs the courage of their warlike votaries.
In order to avert thj: calamities threatened by the anger of
their divinities, they did not recur to the infli&ion of tortures
un themfelves, but they repaired the wrongs which they had
committed againft their fellow-citizens, or compenfated, by
new attentions, for the negleft fliewn to the ceremonies of
their national worrtiip. In their eftimation, tlie doing of in-
jury to men, and the omiflion of prayer to the gods, were
the principal caufes of the divine difpleafure, which they
were anxious to avert by a diligent praftice of moral duties.
The dangerous power of oracles, the abufed privileges of
afylnms, the wild raptures of prophetic enthufiafm, the abo-
minable ceremonies of the Bacchanaha, and the horrid prac-
tice of human facrifices, all which are circumftances that
cover with deferved infamy the latter periods of Paganifm,
were unknown to the good fenfe and purity of the heroic
ages ; nor is there to be difcovered the fmalleft veftige of any
of thefe wild or wicked inventions, either in the writings o.
Jtloujer, or of his co'.cmporary Hefiod. Their religious fyf-

tem communicated its beneficial influence to the civil and.
military inftitutions of the Greeks, to the laws of nations,-
as well as to the regulations of internal policy, and to the
various duties of domeftic as well as of focial life.

In examining the political ftates of the Greeks, during
the heroic age, we fliall find that they deferve the title of
republics, rather than that of monarchies. The foldiers of,
any warlike tribe fought and conquered, in their attack of
a more fertile territory than their own woods and mountains,
not for their leaders, but for themfelves : and the land ac-.
quired by their united valour was confidered as a common
property. No diftinftion was known among them, but that,
which was occafioned by the difference of perfonal merit and,
abilities. This difference raifed a chief or leader to the head
of each fociety ; and his fuperior ufefulnefs in this ftation,
was rewarded by the gratitude of his tribe with a valuable
portion of ground, feparated from the common property.
(U. xii. 310.) This perfon, who commanded in the fields
became the arbiter and judge of their civil differences, and,
he was inverted with the honourable office of prefiding in
their rehgious folemnities. Thefe important funftions of
prieft, judge, and general, conferred on the beft and braveft.
in each particular tribe, were conferred, upon the union of
feveral tribes into one ilate or nation, on the beft and braveft
of all the different leaders. The various ftates of Greece
formed a general confederacy, in which the council of princes
regulated the refolutions of tlie monarch, and the voice of
the affembly ruled that of the council ; and fo likewife in
each particular kingdom, the decifions of the fenate prevail-
ed over the will of the prince, and the acknowledged ma-
jefty of the people contreulcd the decifions of the fenate.
The fame diflribution of power took place in every particu-
lar village.

The civil rights of the Greeks were maintained by the
fame fimplicity which regulated the political fyllem. As
the price of fubmitting to tlie reftraints of fociety, a man
was fecured in the enjoyment of his life and property : his
moveables were equally divided, at his death, among his de-
fcendants; and the unnatural right of primogeniture, which,
in order to enrich the eldeft fbn, reduces the reft of the fa-
mily to want and mifery, was altogether unknown to the
equal fpirit of the Grecian inftitutions. Gaufes refpefting
property were decided by the firfl magiftratc, or by judges
of delegated authority. The profecution of murderers be-
longed to the relations of the deceafed, who might accept
a compenfation in money for the lofs which the family had
fuftained ; but in defedt of this compofition, all the members
of the tribe concurred with the aggrieved, in either pvmifli-
ing the murderer by death, or compelling him to leave the
fociety.

The hiftory of the heroic ages of Greece prefents the
moft interefting pifture of conjugal love, parental affeftion,
and filial duty. The inftilution of marriage was afcribed
to the gods ; and it was celebrated with alt the pump of
religious feftivity. Adultery was held in the grealell dc-
teftation, and always mentioned with the fame hon-or as
murder. Tlie guilty perfon might purchafe immunity, but
more frequently efcaped death by voluntary banifhment.
It has been erroncoufly faid, that, in ancient Greece, wives,
as well as concubines, were the flaves of their liufbands,
and that they were purchafed by them. The attention of
women was cliieflv confined to domeftic cr.ie and occupations,
which did not require any great degre- of ftrength, cou-
r age, or wifdom. Weaving and embroidery, whicli were
employments of females, \vere praftifed by ladies of the
higheft rank, and even by quj^ens ; and they were alfo cn-

6 tiufted

cruiled witk the education of their childjen.

psrmitted to join in tlie celebration of religious rites and
ceremonies, and many of them were coiilecrated to the fer-
vicc of particular divi:iities.

Wur, being the principal employment of the Greeks in
the heroic ages, they fupplied by courage what they wanted
in (kill. They marched to the field in a deep phalanx,
rufncd impetuoufly to the attack, and bravely clofcd with
their enemies. Their principal weapon was the fpear ; and
when the ufe of this failed, they drew their (words, and
rulhed impetuoufly on the foe. The Greeks had alfo bows,
flings, and darts ; whicli were chiefly ufed in their military
pallimes. Their defenSve armour was complete : a light
helmet, adorned with plumes, covered the head and face,
a fine cordet defended the breaft, greaves of brafs defcended
to the feet, and an ample fiiield, loofely attaclied to the
riioulders, turned in all direftinns, and oppofed its firm re-
fiftance to every hollile afTault. Their dole compaft com-
bats ferved to excite the moft furious pafiions, aad to embit-
ter national animofity by pcrfonal hatred and revenge. Be-
fore any war could be undertaken, it was necelTary to dif-
patch ambalTadors, who explained the injury that had been
done, demanded fatisfadlion, and if this were refufed, de-
nounced the refolution of their community to profccute its
claim by force of arms. After the commencement of war,
the charatters of heralds were equally refpefled by friends
and foes ; and they travelled in fafety tlirough the midll
of embattled hofts. The ufe of poifoned weapons was for-
bidden, under pain of the divine difpleafure. The will of
the gods required that life fliould be fpared, when a fufii-
cient ranfom was promifed ; and when a treaty of peace
was concluded, without any ratification but the honour of
the contrafting parties, the perfidious wretches who be-
trayed the fantiity of their engagements were devoted, amidil
libations and facrifices, to the fury of the terrible goddefies.
(Iliad, iii.)

From the praftice of war we may now turn our atten-
tion to the arts of peace. Pafturage and agriculture fup-
plied the Greeks with food and clothing ; but their imple-
ments for preparing thefe articles were very imperfeit.
The principal produce of their fields was barley, which
fupplied the ordinary food of men as well as horfes. Mills
were unkno\vn, aiid the grain was bruifed between two large
ftones with the hand. They cultivated the olive, but
knew not how to extraft tlie oil ; and though their foil
was favourable to the grape, the juice was obtained by a
tedious and operole procels, which rendered wine fcarce and
dear. Of the mecl.anic arts, weaving was bell underllood ;
and the hatchet, wimble, plane, and level, are the tools
mentioned by Homer, v.ho fejms to have been unacquainted
with the faw, the fquare, and the compafs. Homer does
not mention the orders of architefture ; and pillars are the
only ornaments afilgned to the edifio'S which he defcribes.
The roofs of the huufes, confiding of two floors, and lur-
rounded by a wall, were flat. The invention of enamelled
metals had been cultivated with peculiar fuccefs ; and though
painting, properly fo called, was rude and unformed during
the age of Homer, the genius of tlie divine poet has
defcribed the rudiments of liis kindred art with fuch graces
^s would adorn its moll refined (late of perlection. Mufic
'vas muchpraftifed among tiie early Greeks, (See Mujlc of
il e GkeeK-S.) Tiie fciences were in alow and imperfeCl
llate. For arithmetic they had little occafion ; by means of
their ailronomy they were enabled to obferve the conllellations
which direCled the adventurous courfe of the mariner ; but
their navigation was fo imperfeft, that they ieldom aban-
doned the coalls. The only liars mentioned by Homer are the

Vol. XVL

G R iE C I A.

They were

Great and Little Bear, the Pleiades, the Hyades, Orion,
and the Dog-ltar. Of their games, we give an account
under Gamks and Gy.mn.\,stics. As to their general charac-
ter, we fliall tra.ifcribe two or three paragraphs from the
firll volume of Dr. GiUies's Hillory of Ancient Greece,
to which we have been indebted in the compilafion of this
article. "The Greeks," fays Dr. G., "had advanced
beyond that uniform infipidity of deportment, that fuUen fe-
rocity of manners, and tiiat hardened infenfibility of heart,
which univerfally characterizes tiie favage llate. They Hill
poflefled, however, that patient intrepidity, that noble
fpirit of independence, that ardent attach:nent to their friends,
and that generous contempt of pain, danger, and death,
which render the defeription of the wild tribes of America
fo interelling to a philofophic mind. Of two principal en-
joyments of life, fludy and converfation, tiiey were httle ac-
quainted, indeed, with the confolationt and pk-afures of the
firft, the want of which was compenfated by the fincerity,
the confidence, the charms of the fecond. Their focial
affeftions were lefs comprehenfive in their objcfts, but more
powerful in their efi'ects than thole of polifhed nations. A
generous chief rudies to certain death to revenge the caufe
of his friend ; yet refufes to the prayers of an aged parent
the melancholy confolation of interring the remains of liis
favourite fon, till the correfponding image of his own father
llrikes his mind, and at once melts him to pity. (Iliad,
xxiv.) The imaginary wants and artificial palfions which
are fo necelTary to urge the hand of indultry, and to vary
the purfuits of men, in improved commercial focieties, were
fupplied to the Greeks by that excefiive fenlibihty, which
interelled them fo deeply in the affairs of their commmiity,
their tribe, their family, and their friends, and which con-
ncCled them by the feelings of gratitude even with the inani- ■
mate objeiils of nature. As they were not acquainted with
the fame diverfity of employments, fo neitiier were thev
fatigued with the fame giddy round of dilfipated pleafures
which augment the fplendid mifery of later times. Thougk
ignorant of innumerable ads which adoni the prefent age,
they had difcovered one of inellimable value, to render the
great duties of hfe its mod entertaining amufement. It will
not, perhaps, be eafy to point out a nation who united a more
complete lubordiiiation to cllablilhed authority with a higher
fenfe of perlonal independence, and a more refpeilful regard
to the diclates of religion witii a more ardent fpirit of mar-
tial cnterprize. Tiie generous quahty of their pohtical
ellablilhments, and tlieir fancied intercourfc with the gods,
confpired to raife them to a certain elevation of character
which will be for ever remembered and admired. This cha-
racter was rendered permanent in Sparta, by the famous
laws commonly aicribed to the invention of Lvcurgus, but
whicIi will appear (under that article) to have been •• ahnoft
exaft copies of the culloms and inilitutions that ur.iverfally
prevailed in Greece during the heroic ages." The character
of the Greeks in fublequent periods will appear in the ac-
count of the feveral llatis, provinces, or kingdoms, which
they occupied.

The general hifl;ory of Greece may be divided into four
periods, marked by as many memorable opochas. The
fiijt extends to the fiege of Troy in the year 1 1 S4 B.C. ; the
era of its commencement is not precifely afcertaincd ; but if
we date it with the foundation of the kingdom of Sicyon by
iEgialeus in the year 20S9 B.C., it lalled 905 years. This
was properly the infancy of Greece ; and comprehends the
ellablilhment of the kingdoms of Sicvon, of Argos, i85»/
B.C., of Athens, 1556 B.C., of troy. I J46 B C .. of
Thebes, 14(^3 B.C., of Mycenar, 1344 B.C.; the deluge
of Ogyges, J764 B.C. af.d that of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. ;
4 B tlie

G R iE C I A.

the murder committed by the daughters of Daiiaus on their
liulbands, 1485 B.C. ; the introduftion of the Phoenician
letters into Greece, 1493 B.C. ; the legiflatioii of Minos in
Crete, 1406 BC; thu Argon.uitic expedition, 1263 B.C.;
•the exploits of Thefeus, 1234 B.C. ; the war of the feven
heroes againft Thebes, J225 B.C., &c. &c.

The fccond period begins with the fiege of Troy, and ter-
minates with the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., including
about 694 years. In the year 1104 B.C., 80 years after
the taking of Troy, the Heraclidae, or defcendants of
Hercules, condufted the Dorians to the eaftcrn coafl of Pe-
loponnefus, and having landed their followers without oppoii-
tion, allailcd the defencelefs territories, to which they had
long laid claim, comprehending the whole peninfula, except
the central province of Arcadia, and the maritime diftritt
of Achaia. The five other provinces were conquered at the
fame time, though by dift'ercnt means. Laconia was be-
trayed to the invaders ; Argos acknowledged their authori-
ty ; Corinth, Elis, and Meffenia fubmitted to their arms.
The revolution was complete, and cfFefted with little blood-
■fiicd ; but not without great oppreflion of the ancient in-
habitants, many of whom emigrated, and many were
reduced to llavery. The Heraclidas divided their new ac-
quifitions by lot.' Upon the divifion of Peloponnefus the
kingdom of Lacedxmon commenced, 1 102 B.C. In the
year IC96 B.C., or 88 years after the taking of Troy, the
Eolians, having traverfed the northern parts of Grscia in
quell of new fetilements, crofied the Hellefpont, and
eftabliflied themfelves along the fhore of the ancient king-
dom of Priam. They gradually diffufed their colonies from
Cyzicus on the Propontis to the mouth of tlie river Her-
mus ; which delightful country, together with the ifle of
Leibos, from this time received the name of Eolis or Eolia,
denoting that its inhabitants belonged to the Eolian
branch of the Hellenic race. In the year 1070 B.C. royalty
terminated in Athens upon the death of Codrus, and the
Athenians were afterwards governed by Archons. In the
year 1044 B.C., 60 years after the return of the Heraclidse,
the lonians, blended with other emigrants, having ieized
the central and moll beautiful part of the Afiatic coall, gra-
dually diffufed their colonies from the banks of the
Hermus to the promontory of Pofidion, and afterwards
took pofl'edion of Chios and Samos ; and all tliefe coun-
tries were united in the year above-mentioited by the
name of Ionia, intimating tiiat the lonians compofed the
mod numerous diviiion of the colony. (See Ionia ) The
Doric migration took place in the year B.C. 944 (See
Doris )

During the heroic ages we have feen, in the preced-
ing part of this article, that the authority of kings was
founded on religion, fupported by gratitude, and conlirmed
by utility Wiiile they approved themfelves worthy minillers
of heaven, they were entitled to due and hereditary honours ;
but they were bound to refpetl the rights, the fentiments,
and even the prejudices of their fubjefts. But at length, in-
cited by ambition and avarice, they tranfgreffed the prefcribed
limits, and tranipled on thofe laws which their predecefforshad
hold lacred. The minute diviiion of property, which had
taken place, not only in Peloponnefus, but in the northern
provinces of Greece, rendered the iaobles and people more
feiidble of their encroachments, and induced themto refill their
opprcfTors. The more independent and illullrious citizens,
who from the earliell times had been accuflomed to come
armed to the council or aflembly, communicated their
grievances, and adopted proper means for removing them.
Miltas, the fourth Arglve yrince in fucceffion to Temenus,
to vvh< m Argos ftU on the KeracSdan diftribution, was cou-

3

demned to death for ufurping abfolutc power. In Attica
monarchy more honourably expired ; it perilhed (lill more dif-
gracefuUy in Arcadia; but was gradually abolilhed in every
province of Greece, except Sparta, from tlie fouthern ex-
tremity of Peloponnefus to the northern frontier of Thef-
faly. The confequence of the abolition of monarchy was
the introduftion of accumulated evils. Tliefe, however,
were removed, or at Icall alleviated, by the authority of the
Amphictyonic council, and by that of the oracles, particu-
larly that of Delphi. This latter oracle confirmed by its
awful fantlion the 01yi'''pic games and Spartan laws, which
had been refpeftively eilablilhed, the former by Iphitus, and
the latter by Eycurgus in the fame year, fi-z,. 884 B.C. ;
and which ferved to the fafety of their refpeftivc territories,
though in different ways ; the Olympic games by rendering
Elis the moil pacific, and the lav. s ot Lyturgus by making
Sparta the moil warlike, of all the Grecian communities.
Greece, even under its kings, was divided into many inde-
pendent flates ; and under the republican torm cf govern-
ment it was flill more fubdivided ; and hence wars became
more frequent, and battles more bloody and more obdinate.
But the long and fpirited conteil between the Laced-.ciiio-
nians and Meffenians was the only war of that age which
produced permanent efTecls. Of Laconia and iVIefTfnia
we fliall give an account under their refpeftivc articles. A^'e
fiiall here obferve, that they were both governed by kings
of th.e family of Hercules, and inhabited by fubjeils of the
Doric race, and yet this kind of mutual affinity and cou-
neclion was not fufficient to counteraft other caufcs, which
produced liolilities among them. Urged by reciprocal pro-
vocations whicii we cannot here detail, the Spartans invade
the Meffenian frontier and attack the fmall town of Am-
phica ; and thus in the year 743 B.C. began the firfl war
between the Meflenians and Laeed.Emonians, which lafted
19 years, and terminated with the furrender of I theme,
their capital, to the Lacedaemonians, and the difperfion of its
inhabitants. In the year 685 B C. the MefTenians prepare
to revolt, and a fecond war commences, which continued 14
years, and ended with the capture of Ira, or Eira, by the
Lacedi-monians, after a fiege ot 1 1 years. The conqneft
of Melfenia rendered Sparta the molt confidcrable power in
Greece, as its fubjects occupied two-fifths of the Pelopon-
nefus. In tlie year B C. 600 commenced the firft " Sacred
War," cccr.fioned by an injury committed againft the oracle
of Delphi, and undertaken by order oi the Aniphiclyons,
and terminated by the total deilruftion of the cities accuftd
of iacrilegioQs outrage. On occalion of the happy termination
of this war the Pvlhisn games were re-citabiiflied 591 B.C.
The battle cf Marathon, which clofes this fecond period of
the Grecian hiilori', terminated, after a very fevere conteil,
in the total defeat of the Perfian-s, and triumph of the
Athenians under their commander Miltiades.

The third pericd of the hillory of Greece comprehends,
an interval of 167 years, that elapfed between the battle of
Marathon and the death of Alexander, 7,2-^ B.C. The
Athenians, in compliance with the advice of Themiilccles,
augment their navy ; and under his command they defeat
the fleets of TEgina and Corcyra. Themiilocles, infteadof
allowing the Athenians to indulge themfelves in fccurity after
the advantages they had gained, exhorted them to be alwr.y%
ready for aftion. In confequence of this judicious counit!,
they were enabled to oppofe the immenfe armaments of
Xerxes. The Athenian fleet proved tlie fafe-guard cf Greece,
and prevented a country, from which the knowledge of
laws, learning, and civility was deilined to flow over Europe,
from becoming a province of the Perfian empire, and being
confounded with the mafs of barbarous nations. Xerxes was

provided

G R iE C I A.

provided with I ico (hips of "\rar, and jcco (hips of bur-
then, for his intended expedition : and his army conlifted of
feventeen hundred thoiiiand infantry, and four hundrt-d thou-
innd cavah-y, and thefe, joined to tliofe who manned his
tk-et, amounted to near two milhons of fighting men. lii
t.!ie year 480 B.C. he pafTed the Hcllofpont, and the vain-
glorious monarch had the pleafiire of reviewing the whole
fleet and army near Dorifcus, a city of Thrace, at the
mouth of the river Hebrus. In the mean while thofe Greci-
ans, who, unmoved by tlie terrors of invaiion, obeyed the
voice of libcrly and their country, had fent deputies to the
il'tiunus of Corinth, to deliberate about the common fafetv.
A general union pi-cvailcd, and the general danger feemed
to harmonize the moll dllcordant members of the common
council. The Grecian fleet failed to /^rtemifium, patient-
ly expefting the arrival of the barbarians. The ftraits of
Thermopylae, 15 miles diftant from the ftation of the Gre-
cian fleet at Artemifium, and deemed the gate or entrance
into Greece, v.as guarded by troops, conhlling chiefly of
Peloponnefians, under the command of Leonidas, the
Spartan king. Xerxes having made his previous arrange-
ments, fent mefiengers to treat with the Spartans, and to de-
fire theia to lay down their arms ; to whicli tliev replied,
" Let him come and take them." The meffengers then of-
fi;red them lands, on condition of their becoming allies to the
great king, but they anfv.ered : " That it was the ciflbm of
their republic to conquer lands by valour, not to acquire
them by treachery." Xerxes waited four days after the re-
turn of the meffengers, expefting the Grecians to retreat
into their own country, or furrendcr their arms. On the
fifth day he determined to chaftife their infolent oppofition.
The attack was ordered, and the Perllans were repelled :
it was renewed the next day with the like refult.

The Greeks, however, were betrayed by Epialtes, a per-
fidious wretch of their own nation, who conducted a body
of twenty thoufand Perlians through a pafTage in the moun-
tains of Oeta, feveral miles to the well of that guarded by
Leonidas. The Athenian general had prudently guarded this
important but unknown pafs, which, as he conceived, chance
or treachery might difcover to the Perllans. A body of
1000 Phocians had been appointed to this fervice ; upon the
approach of the Perlians they inilantly flew to their arms,
and determined to refill the progrefs of the enemy or to die
in the attempt. Expefting to be purfued, they retired to
the highefl part of the mountain ; but the Pcrfians, declining
to follow them, feized the paffage wliich they had aban-
doned, and marched down the mountain in order to accom-
plifh the defigu which had been preconcerted by the traitor
Epialtes. I^conidas, apprized of this ail of treachery, called
a council of war ; when all the confederates of Pelopannefus,
except the Spartans, determined to abandon a poll v.hich
they deemed to be untenable. Leonidas, however, with 700
Thelpians, 4C0 Thebans, and 300 Spartans, remained in
the poll of danger and of glory. In the dead of night the
•Spartans, headed by Leonidas, marched in a clofe battalion
towards the Perlian camp, with refentment heightened by
defpair. The conflict was ardent and deflruftive, whilll the
Greeks were favoured in their attack by the darknefs of the
night ; but at tlie approach of day the Perlians, who had
( previouflv fled, difcovered that their fears had multiplied the
number of the enemy ; and therefore rallying their Icatter-
ed forces, Xerxes gave orders to purfue the Greeks, wlio
had retreated in clofe order to the fhaits of Thcrmopylx.
The fhock was dreadful ; and the battle was maintained on
the fide of the Greeks with perfevering intrepidity and dcf-
perate valour. At length a barbarian dart pierced the heart
of Leo.iidas ; p.evcrthdcfs the Lacedxmonians and Tliefpians,

though inglorioufly defertcd by the Thebai.j, maintained
their tirmnefs to the lall ; and they were finally not dellroycd
or conquered, but buried under a trophy of PerliaJi nnr.s.
(See Leonida.s and Thkumoi'vl.t,.) During the military-
operations at Thermojjylx, the Grecian fleet was llationed
in the harbour of Artemifium, the northern promontory of
Eubcea, and the niimercus one of the Perlians had an-
chored on the road that extends between the city of Callansea
and the promontory of Sepias, on the coatl of ThefTaly
Here it fuffered calamities, of which Xerxes had been fore-
warned, but which he difregarded. Themiilocles, by hij
addrefs, prevailed on the Atherian commander to remain at
Artemifium ; and as foon as the Perlians recovered from the
terrors of the florin, tlie effeCls of whicIi they had fuffered,
both fides prepared for a battle, for tiie refult of which fee
AuTE.MisiUM. The Perfians were again totally defeated
near Salamis (which fee) ; upon whicli Xerxes determined
to leave Greece. Of the condudl of Themiftocles on this
occafion, fee his article ; and for an account of the battle of
PlatKa, fee Blatjf.a. The event of this bloody engage-
ment not only delivered the Greeks from the danger of fer-
vitud^", but gave them poffeflion of greater wealth than they
could ever have expefted to poffcfs. In his precipitate re-
treat from Greece, Xerxes left behind hin: all his riches and
magnificence. The battle of Platxa was fucceeded by that
of Mycalc, in which the Greeks were again viftcrious.
About 40,000 Perfians periflied in the field, many fell in the
purfuit, and the remainder fled in diforder, nor thought them-
felves fecure till they had reached the walls of Sardis. Tli?;r
fliips, their camp, the freedom of Ionia, and the undillurbtd
pofTeflion of the Afiatic coafl, formed the ineflimable prize
of the viftors ; and thus the expedition of Xerxe?, under-
taken with a wew to enflave Europe, reflored liberty to the
fairefl portion of Afia. The beginning of the 5th century
B.C. forms the mofl glorious era in the hiflory of Greece.
It is, however, the peculiar glory of the Athenians that,
during their rapid career of military and naval triumphs,
they cultivated, with a generous enthufiafm, the arts whicU
adorn peace as well as war. It is obfervabh; that in the tin-
gle hfe-time of Pericles, the republic of -\thens produced
thofe ineflimable models of poetry, eloquence, and philo-
fophy, which, in every fucceeding age, the ciihghlened por-
tion of mankind hath invariably ivgard'-d as the bell
ftandaids, not merely of competition and flyle, but of
tafle and reafon. The name of Greek fecmcd thenceforth
to be funk in that of Athenian. (Sec Athhn;?, and
Sparta.) For an abllra'.:fl of the further hiflory of this
period of Alexander's hiflory and exploits, we have given a
brief flceich under his article ; we Ihall here obfcrve, with
Dr. Gillies, that during the latter years of his rvign the
Greeks, deprived of the honour and delivered alfo from thr
Cares of independent fovereignty, and undifhirbed by thofe
continual and often bloody diifenfions, which deform t!i»
ar.nals of their tumultuous hbeity, indulged their natural
propenfitv to the focial embellilhments of life ; a propeniity
by which thev were honoumbly diflingiiiflied above all other
nations of antiquity. Their innumerable fhows, feltivals,
and dramatic entertainments, were exhibited witli more pomp
than at any former period. The fchools of philofophers and
rhetorician.^ were frequented by all defcriptions of men.
Painting and llatuary were cultivated with equal ardour and
fuccefs. Man\- improvements were made in the fcieiiccs, and
the Greeks, particularly the Athenians itill rivalled the
tallc and genius, though not the fpirit and virtue, ot their
ancellors. Yet even in this degenerate Itate, when patriotilm
and true valour were cxtinft, and thefe vapquilhed republi-
c-ans had ucitlier liberrie? to love, nor country to defend, their
4 B i rtrutial

G R iE C I A.

mardal honours were revived, and brightened by an adocm-
tion with tlie renown of tlieir conqueror. Under Alexander,
llieir exploits, though diret'led to very different piirpol.s,
equalled, perhaps cxcelle<l, the boalled trophies of Mara-
thon and Platxi. By a finRularity peculiar to their fortune,
the era of their political difp;raee coincides with the moll,
fplendld period of their military j^lory. Alexander was hmi-
ielf a Greek ; his kiiifrdoin had been founded by a Grecian
colony ; and to revenge the uTongs of his nation, he under-
took and accomplifhcd the mod rxtraordinary enterpriles re-
corded ill the hillory of the world.

The fourth period of tlie hiftory of Greece, commencing
with the death of Alexander, 323 B.C. and terminating
146 B.C. when the Aclixan league was dillolved, and
Greece became a Roman province, under the name of
Ach-uia, comprehends an interval of 1 7 7 years. After various
changes and revolutions, for an account of which, fee
Acii.T:.\Nsa!id Athens, it became fubjed to the Turks.

GuylJCH, Magna, a name given to the fouthern part of
Jtalv, comprehending Apulia, Lncania, and the country of
the ' Brutii, and alfo to Sicily and feveral of the adjacent
illands. Tlie name of Grtccia was derived froin the Greek
colonies, which mi j;rated hither at different periods, and the
epithet magna, or great, was derived from mere ollcntation, as
Pliny informs us (I. iii. c. 5.). This migration and fettle-
ment took place at a very early period, about 1055 years
B.C. The moil numerous colonies, the migration of which
was occalioned by intelline fiiftion, foreign invafion, or the
veftlefs fpirit of adventure and rapine, occupied the ifles of
the Ionian and iEgean feas, the fouthern coall of Italy almolt
interfeded by the former, and the winding Ihore.-i of Alia
Minor fo beautifully diverl'ilied by the latter. The larger
illands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Cyprus were very anciently
planted by Greeks.

Whoever has obferved the defolate barbarity of Calabria,
or reflected on the narrow extent and prefent weaknefs of
Sicily, will fcarcely believe, that iive centuries B. C. thofe
countries contained above 20 warlike communities, faveral
of whom could fend into the field ico thonfand fighting
men. In order to account for this wonderful population,
wc muft look back to the period above mentioned in the
heroic ajres ; and confidcr likewife that the greater number
of Grce^ colonics in thofe parts were planted during the
ci"-lith century before the Cbriftian era, and chic-fly, I. By
the Eubceans, whofe principal city Chalcis, nfually furnilh-
ing the condudlor of the colony, gave the epithet of Clial-
cidian to the new fettlenients ; 2. By the Achceans of Pelo-
i)onnefits, who were of the Eolian tongue and lineage ; and
J. By the Dorian Hates of that peninfula, efpecially Corinth.
Befides their powerful colouies in Corcyra, I.,euca3, Anac-
torium, Anibracia, whofe tranfaCtions form luch an im-
portant part of the hillory of ancient Greece, the Corin-
thians founded Syracufe, which foon became, and long
continued, the capital of Sicily ; and in the fixlh century
B. C. the Syracufans had extended their fettlcments over
-:ill the fouthern coall of tlie ifland. By means of thefe and
limilar ellablilhments of a powerful kind, the Dorians ac-
quired, and always maintained, an afcendant in Sicily ; but
the Achian colonies, who were of the iEolian blood and
language, commanded the Italian fliore. Crotona, the moll
conliderable city of the Achsans, and of all Italy in ancient
times, was built 710 years B. C. Sybaris, its rival, was
founded about the fame time. The former fent colonies to
Tirina, Cephalonia, and Pandofia ; the latter built Laus,
Metapontum, and Pofidonia, or P;eilum, whofe admired
ruins attell the ancient wealth and grandeur of the Greek
:iti€S of Italy. We may here remark, that the loniaus,

who came from Euboea, and fettled chiefly near the eatlcrn
lliore of Sicily, never rivalli-d the power and fame of their.
Dm-ian and VEolian neighbours, but fell fhort of thofe
nations iu Magna Grscia, as much as they furpaffed them
on the fliores and idands of Ada. In order to account for
tlK dourilhing dtualion of Magna Grxcia about the year
500 B. C, many caufes may be affigned, belides thofe of a,
phyfical and moral nature, whicli ufually contribute to the
rapid growth of uewly-eftablilhed colonies. We might
mention' the natural fertility of Magna Grascia, and parti-
cularly of Sicily, which in many places produced an hundred
fold ; and in tiiis connection oblerve, that the Greeks who-
failed thither from Peloponnefus, carried with them the
knowledge and praftice of agriculture, which had early
attained a high degree of perfeftion in their peninfula ; and
that the exuberant foil of Sicily, improved by cultivation,
foon exhibited a picture of that rich abundance, wliich, in
later times, made that beautiful idand be entitled the gra-
nary of Rome. Befides, the peculiar fituation of the
Achxaus and Dorians, from whom chiefly the colonies in
Magna Grxcia derived their origin, had a confiderable in-
fluence in accelerating the population and grandeur of thefe
new eftabliflimcnts. Tiie impartial and generous fpirit of
the Achrean laws early compenfated the natural defeds of
their territory, which was a long, but narrow, ilrip of
ground, not more fertile than extendve, along the Corinthian
gulf. They, however, were the firll, and long the only
republic of Greece, who admitted ftrangers into their com-
munity on equal terms with the ancient citi-/ens. The
equitable and generous policy, which they tranfportcd with
them into Magna Grxcia, could not fail to promote the
happinefs and profperity of that delightful country. The
condition of the Dorians, at the time when they planted-
colonies in Italy and Sicily, is not lefs worthy of conddera-
tion. Tlie Dorian Rates of Peloponnefus were then uni-
verfally fubjed to the gentle government of limited but-
hereditary princes, or to magillrates chofen from the-
dcfcendants of their ancient royal fiunilies ; and who, thus
adorned by birth, were fometimes itill more ennobled by
wifdom and virtue. Moreover, the colonies in Magna-
Grxcia, enjoying a wide extent of territory before them,
were not retarded in their advancement by interference of
interell on the part of neighbouring Hates, but they found
fufficient employment in fubduing the original inhabitants
of that countrv, without commencing hoililities either
again ll their neighbours or again ll each other. The kings
or nobility of Magna Grxcia, fecure of their own pre-emi-
nence, felt nothing of the republican jealoufies w-hich pre-
vailed in the mother country. They received witii pleafure
new citizens, or rather fubieds, from whatever quarter they
might come. The Hates of Italy and Sicily, thus increadng
bv degrees, could foon boaft, the former of Crotona, Ta-
rcntum, Sybaris, Rheginm ; the latter of Syracufe, Agri-
genit;:n, Meffenc, Hiuiera, and feveral other cities, which
rivalled or furpaffed the wealth of Athens or Corinth, and
the populoufnefs of Thebes, Argos, or Sparta. Tlie wars,
conquells, or oppreffions, and, above all, the civil diffendons,
which iu the dxtli century B. C. difturbed and deformed the
coall of Ionia, and the other Grecian colonies in the idands
and continent of Ada, brouglit frequent acceffions of inha-
bitants to the diorcs of Magna Grxcia. Neverthelefs, the
lonians, along witli their poetry, mufic, and painting, com-
municated alfo their diffolute and artificial appetites to the
Greeks of Italy and Sicily. It is a fad, however, that
Magna Grxcia, having obtained opulence by iiidullry,
diffipated it in idlenefs andlicentioufnefs : infomuch that the
Greek cities of Italy, and particolarly Sybaris and Crotona,

feU

G R A

kII a pvey to the mod danjrerous errors and vices, when
Pythagoras came to thfir rehef about 550 years before the
Ciiriftian era. His philofopliy and legiflation reformed and
improved the manners and policy of Magna Grsecia, and
contributed, in an eminent degree, not only to the quiet and
happinefs, but to tlie indullry, power, and fplendour of
that celebrated country. (See Pythagoras') The con-
curring teftimony of hiilorians afTures us, that the fchool of
Pythagoras fiouriHied above 40 years to tlie unfpeakable
benefit of Magna Gr.xcia when a war arofe between Cro-
tona and Sybaris, the latter of which had ever contemptu-
oudv rcjetted the Pythagorean inlHtutions.

Having traced the progrefs towards profperity and renown
of Magna Grsecia, it is natural to ftate the caufes of its
decay. In Italy, the citiz-.-ns of Crotona had too fooii
reafon for lamenting their infurreclion againll their magif-
trates, and their dereliction of the difcipline of Pythagoras.
The other Greek cities of Italy, which are laid to have
imitated the fatal example of Crotona, were haraffed bv wars
againll each other, or againll their barbarous neighbours.
In 60 years after the death of Pythagoras, an attempt was
made to revive his inllitutions ; but in lefs than 40 years a
new perfecution entirely drove the Pythagoreans from Italv,
and completed, according to Polybius (i. 403.) the confufiun
and mifery of that once happy country. Gillies's Hift. of
Greece, vol.ii.

GR.1ECINUS, JuLlL'S, in Biography, a Roman fenator,
who flourillied in the reign of Caligula, was fon of a Ro-
man knight, and greatly dilHnguilhed for eloqift-Mice, and for
the lludy of philofophy, and he carried into practice the
moral Icflbns which his iludics led him to contemplate. He
refufed to obey the command of the emperor to appear as
the accufer of Marcus Silanus, and fuffered death in confe-
quence. Seneca fays of him, that he was put to death for
the fole reafon, that he was too good a man to be permitted
to live under a tyrant. He is mentioned by Columella, as
having written a treatife concerning agriculture and the ma-
nagement of vines. He was the father of the illuttrious
Cn. .lulius Agricola. Univcr. Hift.

GRAEDER Fiokd, in Geography, a bay of Well
Greenland. N. lat. 63 ' 50'. W. long. 49' 30'.

GRAEMSAY, one of the Orkneys, a flat, fertile
ifland, il mile in length, and a mile in breadth, containing
32 famihes and 179 inhabitants; i^ir.ile S. of Stromnefs,
near the northern extremity of Hoy. The foil of the inte-
rior part is thin and fertile; but the coaft is a chain of
broken and pointed rocks. It contains a bed of flale, hut
no fuel.

GRAEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 24
miles S. of Ciu-rer.

GRAESATZ, a town of Croatia; 30 miles S. of
Bihacs.

GR^VIUS, John-George, in Biography, an eminent
critic; was born at Naumberg, in Saxony, m 1632. Hav-
ing acquired a good knowledge of the learned languages in
Germany, he went to Leiplic and ftudied under Rivinus
and Strauchius. After this he palled two years at Deven-
ter, intimately connected with the celebrated Gronovius,
to whom he acknowledged himfclf indebted for a confider-
able part of his acquilitions, and whom he after fucceeded
isi his profelforfhip. (See Gnoxovif.s. ) His great repu-
tation induced the States of Utrecht to inritr him to their
univerfitv, and during forty-one years he inllrudled the
young men there in pohtics, hiflory, and eloquence, re-
fiifing various invitations to other feminaries. He died in
the year 1703, at the age of feventy-onc. He was the edi-
tor of many of our bell claflTical authors, as Heliod, the
greater part cf the woirks of Cicero, F.orus, Cxfar, Sue-

G R A

tonius, &c. He compiled alfo " Thefaurus Antiquitatum
Romanorum," in 1 2 vols. fol. and "Thefaurus Antiquita-
tum Italicorum," in 6 vols. fol. This work was continued
by Burman to the forty-fifth volume. Grxvius, as a critic,
was moded, and free from pride and pedantr)-, which are
faid too frequently to accompany this charaaer. Moreri.

GRAF, in Geography, one of the fmallcr Wellem ifland*
of Scotland, on the W. coall of Lewis. N. lat c8- li'
W. long. 6" 53'.

GRAFFENBERG, a town of Germanv, in the tern-

tory of Nuremberg; u miles S. E. of For'cheim Alio,

a town of Upper Carniola; 19 miles S. E. of Laybach.

GRAFFENECK, a town of Auftria; 10 miles S.W.
of Sonnelierg.

GRAFFER, from the Yr^nch grejier, \.e. /criba,2Lnolary,
or fcrivcuer. It is ufed in the itat. 5 Hen. VIII. cap. 1.

GRAFFIGNY, FnAxcio d'Is.sembolrg d'Hai-po-x-
cot.RT DE, in Biography, a literary lady, daughter of a-
major of the gendarmerie of the duke of Lorrain, was bom
at Nanci about the year 1694. She married de Graffigny,.
chamberlain to the duke, a man of violent palTions and molt
brutal difpofition, from whom die obtained, after livinfr
with him many years, a legal feparation. She now wen't
to Paris \\ith mademoifelle de Guife, who was cfpoufed to
marllial Richelieu, and foon made her merit known to the
wits of the capital. In 1745 (he was announced as the
author of a Spanifli novel. This was followed by the
" Lettres d'une Peruviennc," in two vols. i2mo. which
were much read and admired, though defective in point of
ftyle, and in the metaphyfical manner of treating of the
paffion of love. One of her bell pieces was entitled
" Cenie," a drama in five a(£ls, which was written in profe.
She wrote another, which was entitled " La Fille d'Arif-
tide," and which obtained a much lefs fliare of public ap-
probation. This lady was of a truly eilimablc character
in private life, and had many refpectable friends, even in
the higheft ranks of fociety. The emperor and emprefs
honoured her with particular notice, and made her frequent
prefents. She was an allociate of the academy of Florence ;
and died at Paris in 1758, at the age of fixtv-four. Gen!
Biog.

GRAFFIO, or GiiAvio, \n owt Old IVriiTt, denotes a-
landgra-ve or earl. " Nee princeps nee graffio, hanc leni-
tatem mutare audeat.'

GRAFFIUM, is ufed for a writing-book, regiller, or
chartidary of deeds and evidences.

GRAFT, in Gardening, a name applied to the (hoot or-
fcion that is to he infcrtcd into the lb-,ck or branch of the
tree, in the operation of grafting. It h»s occaiionally the
vulgar term of fr^y given it by gardeners.

The word is fori). jd of the French ^/-.7^, which ll<Tni(ieS'
the fame thing; and .r;v^, in this fenfc, is fuppofed to have
been derived from the reftmblance the (hoot bears to the.
point of a penknife, whicli was anciently called grrffe. Du
Cange goes farther, and derives the ancient grefj'e trom gra-
phioLim: Menage, irom grapbium, a Latin worii, lignifyinn-
a little llyle, or iron bodkin, one end wlureof was pointed,
and fervcd to write on waxen tablets; and the other flat,,
ferving to efface or rub out v.hat was written.

Tiierc are feveral circumltances to be attended to in
choofing the grafts. The (hoots or fcions that arc to be
employed in this way, Ihould be feleded and cut in v.x
manner that will be directed in fpeaking of gr,ift,!-.- : .r.t
they ihould never be taken from fuch as have a too ! .: .:.'..•.:
growth, or are in the leall degree infected with diitiUt. c: ,.r. ,
kind. See GK.\yTiKG.

In the conducting of this procefs, thoug': the vefleis cf
the Hock, and thofe of the (hoot or graft are. in I'ojne mea-

GRAFTING.

fure.brouglit into contaft anil tlieieby uirlteJ, as well as
thole of tlic latter fupplied witli iiutiitious malttij from the
former, yet their economy remains Hill the fame. Mr. Brad-
lg,v lias confiJercJ it as a fort of planting; the flioot or
fcion riitl-icr taking root in the llotk or tree into which it
is infcrtcd, than uniting itfelf with it, as is fcen by its pre-
ferving its natural purity and utility, although fed and fup-
ported merely by a crab-ftock; which it is fuppofcd depends
upon fome difference in the veffels of the flioot or fcion from
thofe of the ftock or tree.

GRAFTING, the act of infcrting a flioot or fcion
taken from one tree, into the ftem or fome other part of
another, in fuch a manner as to unite and conftitute a perfect
plant of the fame kind as that from which the branch was
taken. .

It is by this practice that particular forts ot curious fruit-
trees of different kinds are tajxible of being raifed with a
certainty of their being the fame, or not degenerating. It
has been obferved, that though the plants raifed from feed
are liable to run from their kinds, and afford fuch fruits as
are not worth the trouble of cultivation; thofe procured
from flioots taken from fuch trees as produce good fruit,
never alter from their kind, whatever the itock or tree on
which they are grafted may be; as notwithitauding the
"■rafts receive their nourifliment from the ftocks, their varie-
ties are never altered by ' them, but continue to produce the
fame kind of fruit as the tree from which they were taken :
the only alteration which they undergo is, that when the
ftocks on which they are grafted do not grow fo fall, and
afford a fufficient fupply of uouridiment to the grafts, they
do not make fo great a progrefs as they otherwiie would do,
nor is the fruit they produce fo fair, or fometiiues I'o well
flavoured, or fo large.

This procefs has the advantage, probably from the fupply
of nutritious matter being not only more abundant but more
regular, of rendering the plants or trees which are thus
raifed more quick in their arriving at the ftate of maturity,
or that of bearing.

It is on thefc different accounts that the practice of graft-
ing is princriially had recourfe to, in raifmg different forts
of fruit trees, as well as fome particular forts of ornamental
plants of the tree and flower kinds. It alfo affords the
means of growing different kinds of fruits and tlowers of
the fame fort, in the fame ftock or tree, as feveral varieties
of pears and apples, Sec.

There are different methods of performing this operation,
and which are diftinguilhed by different terms or names, as
below.

RhJ, Shoulder, or CroTim Grafting This is that mode

in which the grafts are fet in a fort of circle or crown, upon
the top of the cut-off ftem or branch.

It is chiefly praftifed on large trees, when either the head
or the large branches are cut off horizontally, and two or
more flioots or fcions put in, according to the fizc of the
branch or ftem: in performing which, the fcions are cut flat
on one fide, with a ftioulder to reft upon the crown of the
ftock; then the rind of the ftock is raifed up, to admit
them between the v.-ood and the bark of the ftock, which
niuft be inferted about two inches, fo as that the flioulders
may meet, and clofelv join the crown of the ftock; and
after the whole of the flioots or fcions are inferted, all the
crown of the ftock fliould be well clayed over, leaving two
eyes of them uncovered with it, which wili be fufficient for
fliooting. It is a method of grafting that was much more
in practice form.erly than al prefent, owing to the bad fuc-
cefs with which it has been attended ; for, as the fcions are
placed between the rind of the ftock and the wood, they
are frequently blown out by ftrong winds after they liave

made large filoots, fomelimcs after five or fix years grovitli.
Where this method is praclifcd, there fliould therefore
always be fome flakes fixed, fo as to fupport the fcions un-
til they have alnioil covered the ftock or branch. It is ufual
to perform the operation in this mode of grafting about the
beginning of April, or fometimes a little later.

Stock, Cleft, or SUt-Graflirig. — This is a mode which is
praCtifed upon ftocks, trees, or branches, of a fmaller iize,
as from one to two inches in diameter, and may be ufed
with fuccefs where the rind of the ftock is not too thick,
by which the inner bark of the fcion will be prevented from
joining to that of the ftock. In performing it the head of
the ftock or branch muff be cut off with a flopc, and a flit
be made the contrary way, in the top of the flope, deep
enough to receive the fcion, which fliould be cut Hoping
like a wedge, fo as to lit the flit made in the ftock; care
being taken to leave that fide of the wedge which is to be
placed outward, much thicker than the other: and in put-
ting the fcion into the flit of the ftock, great care muff be
taken to join the rind of the fcion exattly to that of the
ftock; for if thefe do not unite perfecl;ly, the grafts will
not fucceed : when this method of grafting is uied to ftocks
that are not ftrong, it will be proper to make a ligature of
bafs, to prevent the flit of the ftock from opening: after
which the whole fliould be clayed over, to prevent the air
from penetrating the flit, fo as to dellroy the grafts, only
leaving two eyes of the fcion above the clay for fliooting.
It is uuially performed about the beginning of March, or
fometimes a little later.

IVhip, or Tongue-Grafting. — This is moft generally prac-
tifed by nurfery-men, efpeciallv for Imall ftocks, or branches
of an inch, half an inch, or lefs, as the fcions much fooner
cover the ftocks in this method, than in the other. It is
performed by cutting off the heads of the ftocks floping;
then makir.g a notch in the flope towards the upper part
downwards, a little more than half an inch deep, to receive
the fcion, which muff be cut with the flope upward, and a
flit made in this flope like a tongue, which tongue muft be
inferted into the flit made in the flope of the ftock, and the
fcion be placed on one fide of the ftock, fo as that the two
rinds of the fcion and ilock may be equal, and join together
exactly ; after which, there fliould be a ligature of bafs put
round to fallen the fcion, fo as that it may not be eafily dif-
placed, the whole being afterwards clayed over as in the for-
mer methods. It may be performed in the early fpring
months, with moft fuccefs.

There are, befides tlieie, fome other m.odes of performing
the bufincis.

Grafting by Approach, or Inarch-Grafting — This is fome-
times called ablactation. It is performed where the ftocks
that are defigned to be grafted, and the trees from which
the graft is to be taken, ftand lo near together, as that their
branches may be bent and miited. It is moft commonly
practifcd on tender exotic plants, and fome other forts
which do not fucceed in any of the other methods. In per-
forming the work, a part i:>'i the ftock or branch is flit off
about two inches in length, a fniooth part of t!;e ftock be-
VAi always chofen for the pui-pofe ; then a fmall notch is
made in this flit downward, in the fame manner as dire£ted
for whip-grafting ; the branch of the tree defigned to be
inarcht;d having a part flit off in the fame manner as the
ftock, and a flit made upward in it, fo as to leave a tongue,
which tongue fliould be inierted into the flit ol the ftock,
joiuing-.their rinds equally, that they may unite well together ;
after which a ligature of bafs fliould be made, fo as to keep
them exactly in their fituation, and afterwards this pai-t of
the ftock clayed over well to keep out the air. In this me-
thod of grafting, the fcion is not feparated from the tree

until

G R A F T I N G.

lintil it is firmly uniteil with the (lock, nor is the head of the
flock or branch, which is grafted, cut off till the fame time,
and only half the wood pared off with a (lope, about three
inches in length, and the fame of the fcion or graft. But in
this method of grafting, the operation is not performed fo
earlv in the fealon as the others ; it being done in the month
of April, when the fap is flowing, at which time the fcion
and flock will join together, and unite much fooner than at
any other feafon or period of the year. It is priacip:Jly
employed in raiting jafmines, oranges, and other exotic trjes
of the harder kinds.

By experience it has been found, that the walnut, fig, and
mulberrv will take by this method of grafting, while nei-
ther of them fucceed in any of the other modes. Several
forts of evergreens may hkewifc be propagated by this me-
thod of grafting ; but all the trees that are grafted in this
way are weaker, and never grow to the fize of thofe which
are grafted in the other methods ; therefore it is rarelv prac-
tiled, except on fuch forts of trees as will not take by the
Other methods of performing the operation.

R-:oi -Grafting. — This, which is a late improved mode, is
performed by cutting the clean fmooth roots of the flocks in
pieces of five or fix inches long, and as large, or a little larger,
than the graft; then they are whip-grafted, and tied toge-
ther very dole, fo as to prevent the wet from afPefting the
wounded parts, planting them fo deep as that the graft,
which fhould be four or five inches long, may be about half
buried. In this way, the grafts themfelves will root, and a
nearer fimilitude be preferved to the tree, whence the grafts
are taken ; and after two or three years, the flock may be
cut quite away, ai.d the graft left to maintain itfelf In prac-
tifinj this method, the grafts fhould be an inch or tv.'o longer
than the others.

Scafon of Grafting. — The period or feafon for grafting
fh'/ald always be regulated by the flate of the weather.
From the climate being fo Uiicertain in the fpring, it is bed
to defer it till the circulation of the fap is briflc, and the buds
of the ilocks begin to break into leaves, attention being had
that the weak ikoots of tender trees will not admit of being
fo long cut as the more hardy, and that the operation fhould
never be performed while it a6\ually freezes or rains, or there
is fnow uron the ground.

Proper Grafts. — In providing thefe, care fhould be taken
that they are ihootsof the former year, as vshen they are older
they never fucceed well ; that they be alr.-aj'S taken from
healthy fruitful trees, as when the trees are fickly from
whence they are taken, the grafts often partake fo much of
the di'ilemper, as not to get the better of it, at lead for iome
years ; that they be not taken fi-om voung luxuriant trees,
whofe veJels are generally large, continuing to produce luxu-
riant (hoots, and feldom proving fruitful ; and that they be
taken from the lateral or horizontal (hoots, rather than the
peroendicular on^s. They fhould be cut oft from the trees
before their buds be.in to fwell, which is mollly three weeks
or a month b fore the feafon for grafting; confequently when
they are cu: off, thev fl\o".ld be laid in the ground, with the
cut part downwards, burying them half their length, and
covering their tops with dry litter, to prevent their dr^'ing ;
if a fmal! joint of the former year's wood be cut o.T with the
fjion, it will prefervc it the b' :.er, and when they aregraft-
'1 d, this may be cut oil ; for, at the fame tinej the fcions
nufl lie cut to a proper length before thev are inferfed in
the flocks ; but, till then, the fhoots fhould remain of their
full length, as they were taken from the tree, w hich will
better preferve them from fhritiking : when the fcioris are to
be carried to a confiderable di!^ mce, it will be proper to put
tkcir ends into a lump of clay, and to wrap them up in

mofs, which will prefervc them frefli for a month or longer :
but thefc fhould be cut off from the trees earlier than thofe
wliich are to be grafted near the place where the trees are
growing. It is, ho.vever, always the bell pradicc to cut
the grafts as near the time of their being inftrt-d into the
ftocks as poffiblc, as by that means they fucceed witli much
more certainty.

Stocis proper for Grafting upon. — The ftocks are the trees
or plants for grafting upon ; which arc either fiich old tree.,
as are already growing »here they are to remain, but the
fruit of which is intended to be chnngcd ; or fuch youag
trees as have been raifed in the nurfery as a fupply to the
garden. In the former cafe, there is no other choice than
that of the branches, which fhould b^ f ;cli as are young,
healthy, well-fituated, and have a fmooth bark. Where
thefe trees are growing againfl walls or efpaliers, it will be
proper to graft fix, eight, or ten branches, according to the
fize of the tree, by which they will be much fooner fnmilh-
ed with branches again, than when a lefs number of fhools
or fcions are put in ; but in ftandard trees, four, or at moll
fix fcions will be futficient for the purpofe.

In choofing young flocks for grafting upon, fuch as
have been raifed from the feed, and that have been once
or twice tranfplanted, (hould always be fixed upon for the
purpofe.

After thefe, thofe ftocks which have been raifed from cut-
tings or layers Ihould cotiflantly be preferred ; but thofe
which are fuckers from the roots of other tree* fhould be
rejefted, as they are never fo well rooted as the others, and
conilantly put out a great number of fuckers from the roots^
by which the borders and walks of the garden will be al-
ways peflered during the fummer feafon. Thefe, befides
being unfight'.y, take off part of the nourifhment from the
other trees and plants.

And where thefe (locks have been allowed a proper dil-
tance in the nurfery where they have grown, the wood will
be better ripened and more compaifl than" thole which have
grown clofe, and have been drawn up to a greater height.
The wood of thefe will be foft, and their vefiels large ; fo
that the fcions grafted into them will (lioot very ftrong ; btK
they will be lefs difpofed to produce fruit than the others ;
and when trees acquire a bad habit at firll, it is difHcult to
reclaim them afterv.-ards. The Ilocks moll adapted to each
fort will be explained under their particular genen, and in
confidering the nature of Ilocks. See Stocks.

Impl'in nts pro^sr for the ll^arl. — Thefe are principally .1
neat fmall hand-faw, for cutting off the heads of largp
ftocks ; a good llrong knife, with a thick back, to make
clefts in the ftocks ; with a (harp pen-knife, or budding-
knife, to cut the grafts with ; and a grafting chlffel and
fmall mallet. Other forts of implements arc fometimes ne-
ceffary in performing particular forts of grafting.

But befides thefe tools, other forts of materials are want-
ed in performing the bufinefs, fuch as bafs-llrings, or wool-
len yarn, to tie the grafts with ; and a quantity of good
tough clay, which fhould be prepared a month before it is
wanted, and kept turned and mixed, like mortar, every other
day, in the following manner :

A quantity of ilrong good clay, in proportion to the
quantity of trees intended to be grafted, flioiild be provided,
and fome new well-fed horfe-dung broken in among it ; and
if a little ftraw or hay be mixed amongll it, it will hold to-
gether the better. The addition of a quantity of fa!t will
alfo prevent the clay from dividing in dry weather. Thefe
Ihould be ftirred and mixed together, putting water to them
occafionallv, in the manner of making mortar. The whole
Ihould be hollowed like a di!h, filled with water, a:d kept

erery

G R A

G R A

every other day ftirred. It fliould be carefully kept from
being expofed to froll or drying u inds ; and the ottener it
is wrought over the better it will become.

Some have lately made ufe of another fort of compofition
for grafting, v/hich has been found to anfwer the intention
of keeping out the air better than the clayey mixture. It
is compofed of turpentine, bees'-wax, and rofm melted toge-
ther ; which, when of a proper confillence, is put on the
ftock round the graft, in the fame manner as the clay is ufu-
ally applied ; and though it be not above a quarter of an
inch thick, it keeps out the air more effeftually than the
clay ; and, as cold hardens it, there is no danger of its being
hurt by frofl, wliich is very apt to caule tiie clay to crack,
and fall off ; and, when the heat of the fmnmer comes on, it
melts and falls off without any trouble. In the ufmg it, a
tin or copper pot is nccefl'arv, with a convenience under it
to keep a very gentle lu-e v.'ith fmall coal ; otherwife the cold
foon condcnfes the mixture. It is necelTarv not to apply it
too'hot, led the graft be injured. A perlon a little accui-
tomed to this compofition, applies it very faft ; and it is
much eafier for him to work with than clay, efpccially wlien
..the feafon proves cold.

In the bufinefs of grafting it is found, tliat in long-conti-
iiued dry feafons the grafts are liable to fail in taking, which
is fometimes probably owing to the improper choice of the
grafts, as well as to the dry weatiicr. Great care fliould of
courfe always be taken not to graft with weak flioots, par-
ticularly thofe taken from near the top, but fucli as are
taken from the lower end of the (hoots, and in which the
wood is plump and frefli : fuch as are flirivclled feldom or
ever take well. When any have miffed in the fpring, it has
been advifed to cut off, about the middle or latter end of
June, fome fine, healthy grafts of the forts that are vviihed
to graft with, and to open the bark in the fame manner as
for budding, inferting the graft with a piece of the former
year's wood on it, and after this has been done, to rub in
with a brufh fome of the compofition of Mr. Forfyth in a
liquid Hate ; then to warp bafs round it, as is done for
Ipring grafting, leaving about tliree eyes in the fhoot, which
fliould be tied on with the bafs as light as poflible ; then
covering the outfide of the bafs, thus tied up, with the com-
pofition to the thicknefs of about one-eighth of an inch, as
well as the end of the ihoot, to exclude the air and wet. In
about three weeks or a month, the grafts ihould be looked
over, to fee if they have taken. When the gntft begins to
hvell, it will throw off the compofition; in which cafe al-
ways remember to apply more to prevent the air from pene-
trating the incifion or wound that has been formed.

About the month of September it fliould be examined
whether the wounds are all healed up, and the two barks
perfeftly united ; which, if they are, flackcn the bafs ; and
when they are perfeftly healed up, it may be wholly taken
off ; but if not, the bafs mull be again tied on, and covered
with a compofition as before, letting it remain till the follow-
ing fpring. It may then be taken off ; and if it be found
that the two barks have feparated during the winter, with
the point of a fliarp knife, all the brown part of the bark
(which, if left, would infallibly bring on the canker) fhould
be cut out, and the compofition rubbed into the wound.
When the grafts have produced ftrong leading flioots, the
tops of them ihould be pinched off with the finger End
thumb ; but if they have not fliot ftrong, they Ihould not be
cut till the fpring, when they may be cut do\vn to three or
four eyes, according to their flrength, to make them pro-
duce hori/.ontal flioots, and form handfome heads. This
fort of grafting fliould always be performed in moift or
cloudy weatlier,_ if pofTible, as under fuch circumilances the
operation molUy fucceeds better.
2

It has been remarked by Mr. Forfyth, that rubbing a little
of his compofition into the incifion will efteftually prevent
the canker, and in applying it round the graft, a much lefs
quantity is fufficient than of the clay ; as it need not be more
tlian three inches round in grafting fmall Hems or fhoots, and
ill proportion for thofe which are larger. It keeps the
fcion moift. When uted in grafting, it fliould be of fuch a
confiftence as to work cafily with the hand, or a knife, or
fmall trowel, rather fofter than grafting-clay generally is.
This method, on a fair trial, will, he thinks, be found " a
fure, neat, and expeditious way of grafting."

In grafting, or budding, they fliould be per'ormed as near
to the upper fide of a bud as poffible, and the nioft proper
place for inferting the fcions cr buds is at the joints, a little
above tlie crofs flioot.

And in refpeft to the forts of trees that will fuccecd
upon one another, it may be obferved that all fuch as arc of
tlie fame genus, that i", which agree in their flower and
fruit, take upon each otiier ; hence all the nut -bearing trees
may be fafely grafted on each other, as well as all the
plum-bearing trees, as the feveral forts of plums, almond,
peach, neftarine, apricot, &c. ; but as many of them are
fubject to admit gum from the parts wounded, as the peach
and neftarine kinds, it is found the fureft method to bud or
inoculate them.

All fuch trees as bear cones alfo do well upon each otlu r,
though they may differ in one being evergreen, and the otlnr
ftiedding its leaves in winter ; as in the cedar of Libanus, and
the larch-tree, whicli are found to fucceed upon each other ;
but they muft be grafted by approach, as they abound with a
great quantity of refin, which is apt to evaporate from the
graft, when feparated from the tree before it is joined with
the flock ; whereby they are often deflroyed. The laurel
likewife on the cherry, or the cherry on the laurel. All the
mafl-bearing trees are alfo found to take upon each other,
and thofe which have a tender foft wood do well if grafted
in the common way ; but fuch as are of a firm contexture,
and are flow growers, muft be grafted by approach.

It is likewife by this method that many kinds of exotic
trees are not only propagated, but alfo rendered hardy
enough to endure the cold of our climate in the open air ; as
by being grafted upon flocks of the fame kind whi^h are
hardy, the grafts are rendered more capable of enduring
the cold, and the general effetis of the atmofphere.

Gii.-\FTiNG ll''cix. See Wax.

Gk.\fting Tool, in Engineery, fignifies a kind of fpade,
made very ftrong and curving, ufed in digging canals, often
called only a tool ; (eejig. 50. C.vnals, PLite VII.

GRAFTON, in Geography, a town of America, in
Windham county, Vermont, chartered by the name of Tom-
linfon, but affuniiug its new name in 1 791. It contains
1 149 inhabitants, and lies W. of Rockingham, adjoining.
. Grafton Counly, a county of New Haniplhire, bounded
N. by Canada, S. by the counties of Strafford, HilHborough,
and Clielhire, W. by the ftate of Virginia, and E. by the
diilricl of Maine. It is divided into ^o townlhips, and 17
locations, and contains 23,093 inhabitants.

GiiAFTOX, a pofl-town in the county above-mentioned,
13 miles S.E. of Dartmouth college, and 19 S.W. of Ply-
mouth. It was incorporated in 1778, and contains 682 in-
habitants. Lapis fpecularis, of the befl quality, is found in
this town ; it lies in a mountain about 20 miles E. of Dart-
mouth college, adhering to the rocks of white or yellow
quartz, and lying in laminre, like fheets of paper.

Grakton, the Hojfanamifco of the Indians, a townfhip in
Wui-cefler county, Maffachufetts, containing 985 inhabit-
ants ; 40 miles S.W. of Bofton.

Gii.\i'ioXj C.^pe, a cape on the coaft of New Holland,

£0

G R A

G R A

fo called by Cook iii 1 770,
214 6'.

S. kt. 16' 57'.

W. long. 2 Tlie germ or bud ; this is always bid within tlic food or
grain, and is thf plant in miiiiaturi; that is to arifc from it.
Grafton //7am/, the moft northerly of the Balheciflands (Sec Bud and Gku.m.) And, 3. The meal, or that fan-
in the Eall Indian fca. N. lat. 21' 8'. E. long 118' naceous matter which is inclofed in the (kin, and whitii fur.

rounds tiic germ, and fervcs to give it nourifliment when firll
put into the earth, before it is capable of drawing it from
tlie earth itfelf. Dr. Grew, in his Anatomv of Plants, has
treated of this at large. Sec Fecundation 0/ Planlt,
GEUMiswTioy, Vegktatio;;, Sec.

The whole ftrufture of the plant which produces thcfc
feeds is equally admirable. The chaffy huik is admirably
adapted to fliield and defend the feed as long as that is uc-
cefTary, and then to Lt it fail ; and the lla'.k, fonned hol-

>4--

GRAGNANO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
II miles W.S.W. of Salerno.

GRAHAM'S Island, one of the Aladin iflands, in the
Mergui Archipelago, about 6 miles in circumference. N. lat.

GRAIG, or GuAlGNAMANNA, a poil-town of Ireland,
in the county of Kilkenny. Here is a good bridge over
the B.irrow, and the tide flows up. It is 58 miles S. by

\V. from Dublin. ^ low ana rouna, is neceilanly at once iigiit ana Ilrong, c; ^

GRAIN, John Bapti.st lk, in Biop-aphv,\vdLi born, in ble of fullaining the ear, without abforbing too much of the

1565, at Paris, where he was educated with great care, and juices deftined to its nourifliment ; and the beards of many

in early youth he was introduced to court, and attached liim. kinds are a defence agr/inll the bird--, that would ctherwife

felf to the fervice of Henry IV. He was appointed by tiiat defl:roy the feed before its ripening. The covering of the

prince to the oflice of counfellor, and mailer of requells in feed is formed of two membrane.-;, which meeting in a line

ordinary to the queen, Mary de Medieis. His employment on one part of the feed, form togetl-.er that fuiTow wc fee in

was in wTiting, and in attending on the education of his chiU it. This is the place at which the feed is to burll open on

low and round, is neceiTarily at once light and flrong, capa-

dren. On their account he drew up Memoirs relative to the
hillory of France, which remained in MS. till the chancel-
lor de Sillery pcrfuadcd him to pnblifli a part of them. His
iirll publication, which he printed in his own houfe, was en-
titled, " Decade contenant I'Hiiloire de Henri le Grand, Roi
de France et Navarre, IV. du Nom.'' fol. 1614, in ten
books. It compri/.es the period from the peace in i Jen, to
t';ie king's death in 1610. He publiflied a fecond decade,
including the hillory of that king's reign, in 1 61 8. The
former decade was prefented to the young king Lewis XIII

being moiftened. Had not nature provided this means of
the germ's coming out, the toughnefs neceffary to the coat
of the feed, as a defence from injuries, would have fulTcred
the farinaceous matter and the germ to rot together, within
it, before it Avould have given tiicm way to come out, and
for the germ to grow.

Nor is this the only ufe of this place of opening. The
great Creator of all things has provided thefe feeds, not
only for a fupply of the fame fpecie-i of plant, but for cur
food, and for that of birds, 5:c. We have art enough to

who was highly delighted w-.tli the freedom dilplayed by the erect machines for the reducing of the farina to powder, and

author, and it was at his dehre that the oth-?r was made pub- tlie freeing of it from its covering membrane ; but the birds

lie. Le Grain, though fortunate in plealing his fovereign, eat it as it is, and it would pals through them whole, and

made himfelf many enemies by the hoiielly and candour without doing them any good, were it not that the juices of

which he difplayed in the narration. Attempts were made the flomach Iwelling it up, it burfts open at this furrow,

to procure a cenfure upon it from the Sorbonne, but they and all the nutritive matter pours itfelf out. De Landes,

were uufuccefsful, that body declaring that they found no- Trait. Phyf. p. 62. See Fakin'A, Fecula, Flour, Bread,

thing in it deferving of cenlure. The real grounds of tli.
objeftions to it were that the author had fupported the li-
berties of the Gallican church ; that he had cenfured at-
tempts to introduce into France thofe articles of the coun-
cil of Trent, wlilch had been rejefted ; -that he difapproved
the eftablifhment of new religious orders, and was not fa-
vsurable to the perfecution of heretics. For thefe fentiments.

For the laws relating to the importation and exportation of
fcveral forts of grain, as wheat, barley, oats, &c. See
Corn.

The cleaning and prefernng of grain in a proper fwect
condition have long been objetts of confideiable importance,
but it is probable that the latter cannot be effeded for any
which ought to have endeared him to his countrymen, he was great length of time,
continually harafled by bigots, till at .length an order was Different methods of managing grain, after being threflicd
procured from the king for the fupprcflion of all the copies out, are praftifcd by farmers ; fome keeping a large propor-
of his work, which remained in his hands. The treatment tion of it in the chaS" on the barn floors, while others, after
which he experienced diigulled him with the court, and he having it cleaned, put it into facks, and place them in the
went into retirement on his eltate of Montgeron, where he fame lituation, or in fome room appropriated to the purpole,
died in 1642. He left in MS. a manifeilo relating to all until they can be fent to the market. But each of thcfc
the proceedings refpefting his book, which is faid to difplay metiiods is liable to much obje(tlion ; as when it remains
in glowing colours the difcouragements attending honell for any length of time on low damp floors, it mull ob-
hiilorians under an abfolute monarchy. He left likewife vioufly foon become mufty, however much precaution is
the third decade of his hillory, and forae chronological taken to prevent it, whether it be in facks, or in a loofc
pieces in MS. Moreri. Hate without being cleaned.

GR.VIN, Ghaxum, primarily deuotes a fruit, or feed. There is another pratlice fomctimes cmpl«ycd in

tlic
more northern parts of Scotland, according to the author of
" Modern .*\griculture ;" which is, that of twilling llraw
into large bands, or ropes, and coiling them up in the manner
of the cables of Ihips, placing the grain, when threflicd and
cleaned, within the coils, in a fort of well, as it were. But
whatever elfe of that kind. Thefe are, 1. The outer as the grain in this way rells on the ground or floor, and, of
coat or pellicle, which contains all the rell. This in the courfe, is liable to iml)ibe damp, it is not lefs objectionable
fame fpeeies of grain is found to be very different in thick- than the others, while it is much inu'rc troiiblcfome, ai\4
n^fs in different ears, and as it has grown in different foils. m»re expoied to lols.

vcL. xvL 4C n

growing in a fpica, or ear.

In this fenfe, grain comprehends all forts of corn ; as
ivheat, rye, barley, oats, &c.

Grain, Slru^ure of. Tliere are three particulars obferv-
able in every grain, whctlier it be wheat, barley, oat, or

G R A I N.

It has been ^idvill-d, in order to prefcrve grain in a proper
hale after tlire (liing it out, to have it as expeditioully as
poliible cleaned from the chaff, when the air is in a dry
llatc, and put into a room, chel.l, or bin, which is perfeftly
dry and free from any fort of moillure, until it can be
properly placed in the granary, or be fent away tor iule.
'ri\is fii'onld always be effected as early as poliible, as, by
delaying the cleaning of the corn, the fample is very hable
to be injured.

The cleaning of the grain is performed in feveral different
ways ; but where threlhing-machines are in ufe, they are
now molUy contrived in Inch a way as to execute it at the
fame tijnc the thrclhing is going on. Tlie winnowing-
machine is alfo frequently employed for the fame purpoie,
and anfwers perfectly well. And in forae fituations the
caJlhig-lhovA and Jprj, or flat broom, as well as the/nifl/e, are grain in thefe
made "ufe of, the Ijroom ferving to remove the chaffy parts pretty freely,

matters : or, after it has been cleaned, by preventing its
being depolited upon them, either in the loole ftate, or in
facks. And farther, by having great regard to the drynefs
of tlie air when the bufincfs is performed.

Ln inrtances of the latter kind mucli is capable of being
accomplidied by having proper apparatus, fuch as flides,
fliutters, and other fuitable contrivances, lixed in the pipes,
funnels, and other openmgs, defigned for the purpofe of
ventilation in the corn-chambers and granaries ; which
fliould be preferved, conilantly fliut in a clofe manner at all
times when the air is much impregnated with watery parti-
cles, fo as to prove hurtful to the grain. Damp and frofty
weather are, of courfe, always improper for expofmg grain
to the air in, as it niuft, in fuch fealons, do great mifchief.
But, beiides air, light is effential in the prcfervation of
circumftances, as, where it is not admitted
a kind of vegetable mucor, or mould, a.i

aiid the more minute llrawy particles w-hich are feparatcd already noticed, is liable to fix upon the grain, and injure it
from the grain by the wind. This method can, however, greatly. The ingenious author of the " Philofopliy of
only be employed with advantage where there is plenty of Gardening and Agriculture," has remarked, that this pot

barn-room ; under other circumllances the wnmowmg-ma
chine is far more beneficial and proper. The pratlice of
cleaning grain on the barn-floor, by means of the wind, is
not only tedious and troublefume, but an extremely imperfecl
method.

In whatever wav the extraneous matters have been re-

fcffes the fame property as that of other fungufcs, of grow-
ing where there is icarcely any change of air, and in places
where there is little or no light, provided there be the necef-
farv degree of warmth and moillure. On the fame prin-
ciple, with the intention of retaining the grain in a ftate
as free as potfible from dampnels, it is fuggefted by the

moved from grain, it fliould, as foon as the operation has fame writer, that it might be ufeful to have well conftrufted
been performed, cfpccially in barley and wheat, be put
through a fcreen-machine, which, in molt of the more im-
proved threfliing and winnowing-machines, is provided with
this intention, and is thereby rendered free from all forts of
fmall feeds and other foreign matters. In this way the ova
of different forts of infeft s are alfo removed, and the pro-
duftion of the weevil, motli, beetle, S:c. prevented, as well
as the deflruftion which they commil while in their vermi-
cular ftate, guarded againft.

Screen machines may be had feparatcly from the others ;
but the work of cleaning the grain h the moft readily,
cheaplv, and conveniently performed, where they are con-
Tieited with the other neceffary machinery.

It has been fuggelted, that as the prevention of all forts
of corn from being affefted by the dilTerent caufcs that
have a tendency to injure it, when laid up for the purpofe
of keeping, depends upon its being put by in a perfedly
di-y condition, and on its being afterwards preferved in that
fituation ; it is of much conlequence, in thefe views, to
keep it, from the period of its beinir threilied out of the

ftoves in the bottom parts of corn-chambers and granaries,
for the purpofe of occafionally communicating inch mode-
rate degrees of heat to the grain as would be fufficient to
dry up and expel any injurious moifture that it might have
attrafted in damp wet feafons. On this idea it has, indeed,
long ago been recommended as fupportcd by experience by
Mr. Tail, to preferve -wheat, by expofing it to the action
of a fun-fliine degree of heat upon a hair-cloth, in a malt-
kiln, produced by the combuftion of clean ilraw, for fuch
a length of time as may be neceffary to remove the dampnefs,
as from four or five to ten or twelve hours, according to the
proportion in which it may exift. But in this method the
heat fliould be conftantly kept fo moderate as not to dcftroy
the vegetative property, or life of the grain, as, if that were
the cafe, its putrefaction and decay would be promoted.
The degrees of heat that would be the moft adapted to
anfwer the purpofe, in different cafes, would be eafily regu-
lated by thofe inftruments which are in general ufe for
meaiuring the heat and moifture of the atmofphere. Thefe
principles aflift u.s much in reconciling the differences of
opinion that have fo long prevailed in refpeft to the ufe of
air in the prcfervation or corn in granaries, as they iufii-

Itraw, as nuich as poffflile from coming in contaft with the
earth, ttone, or any other iorts of floors that are placed near

to, or upon the ground, as they have conftantly a great dif- ciently fli5)W, that \vhen admitted in its perfeftly dry <'.nd
pofition to communicate moifture, and in that way injure claltic ftate, it muft be particularly ufeful in carrymg off any
the grain that refts upon them. moifture or difagrecable fniell that the grain may have con-
It is likewife found to be a highly beneficial praftice to traftcd by remaining clofely heaped together for fome length
'prevent, as much as poliible, the entrance of the atmofpheric of time ; as, by the ftirring that moftly accompanies the
air, whenever it is much loaded with humidity; as from the ventdation, it mult neceffanly operate in a very extenfive
vail extent of furface that is expofed to its aftion, it is eal'y manner ; but that when apphed in its moilt heavy ftate, it

to peiceive that it nuiit be highly preiudicial to the corn,
by imparting its moiilure to it, as a fort of mucor, or moul-
dniefs, is thereby brought on, that is attended with a mufty
difgulling fmell, and that prevents its keeping in a proper
manner. In regard to the means of prevention, they mult
be different in difl'erent cafes ; but much may be done in the
firlt of the above fituations, by cautioufly avoiding the

mult be detrimental in an equally proportionate degree, by
imparting its humidity to the grain, and thereby caufing a
fort of mullinefs.

It is probable that the ventilation of grain is the mft
completely effected by ftirring it by means of proper Aides,
doors, or other fimilar contrivances made in the floors, wui-
dows, and other openings of the granaries or corn-chambers ;

too general practices ot permitting the corn to remain upon but it is capable of being accomplilhed in a more flow and
the tlirefliing-floors in the barns, particularly where they are lefs economical manner by fliovels, rakes, and other liioilar
of the earthy or ftoney kinds, too long after it is thrcflied tools. And in order that the work may be more readily
ciit,Vefore it is cleaned from the chaff, and other ufeleis and more effectually performed, the grain fliould not be

7 fpread

GRAIN.

fpread out too thickly over the floors of the granaries anil
corn-rooms. From one to two feet, or two feet and a half
in depth, is confidered fully fufficient fur the i>urpofe, in
proportion as it becomes more dry and the moillure more
difiipated. When grain is heaped together to too great a
thicknefs at firfl, from the natural moillure which it con-
tains, it is frequently apt to heat, and thereby greatly
injure the fample. Frequent fcrecning (liould hkewife be
had recourfe to immediately after its being depofited in the
corn-rooms, and occafionalh- at other times as circumllances
may demand.

Other points have been fuggcfted by Doc*\or Darwin, as
necefTary to be attended to in this bulinefs, in order to
perform it in the mod effectual manner j luch as thole of
having the doors, windows, and other principal apertures
of the buildings placed in fuch a manner as to face the
I'outh, and as clofe to the ceiling as polhble, fo that the
!H,-s of the fun may enter with the greatell freedom. And
;ii addition, the linings of all fuch corn-rooms lliould con-
itantly be formed of fuch materials, as have no tendency
from their coldnefs to precipitate the moillure from the
atmofphere, which is frequeully the cafe with particular
iubltimccs, when warm, damp, fouth-vvelt winds take place
ifttr cold or call ones, and in tliat way impart it to the
grain that comes in contatl with them. It is alfo equally
neceffary in all fuch cafes that the entrance of wet and
raoilhire ihould be prevented in an effediual manner, by
having recourfe to proper Sheltering boards, Hides, and other
contrivances of the fame kind.

There is likevvife a particular fort of management necef-
fary in the turning over and ilirring of grain in order to its
complete ventilation, as when the corn is tirlt placed in the
rooms it ftands in need of much more frequent turning over
than afterwards, when it has parted with a conllderable
proportion of its moillure and is become fomewhat dry.
For the iirll month or fix weeks, once or twice in every
'veek or ten days may be fufficient to anfwer the purpofe ;
but afterwards for four or five months longer, about once
m the fortnight may commonly be fufficient, and trom that
period only once in the month, except when the feafon
proves very moift, warm, and of courfe improper for keep-
ing the grain well.

In order to accomplifli this bufinefs different methods are
in ufe ; it is the cuilom in fome places to have empty Ipaces
i left on the fides of the heaps of grain and other parts into
. which they may be turned over when neceifary ; while in
others, fquare holes are formed in the ends of the floors,
and round ones in the middle, by which means the grain
is thrown from the upper to the lower chambers, and back
again, and of courfe becomes agitated and expofed to the
air in a more perfetl manner. This is a method that is
praftifed with fucccfs in fome parts of the county of Kent.
As, however, in thefe modes fuch frequent turnings are not
only extremely troublefome, but expenfive, in coiiiequence,
efpecially in the firft cafe, of being performed by the
(hovel, the plan of having (llding fliutters in the middle of
tlie different floors fo contrived, as to have an inclination
towards the centre of the granaries, has been had recourfe
to ; by the occafional removal of which, and the opening
of the windows and ventilators, the grain is turned and
expofed to the influence of the air at the fame time with
great eafe, convenience, and difpatch.

This mode of preferving grain was long ago found by
Monfieur du Hamel to anfwer perfeftly well, even in cafes
where it had beeu laid up in a moid, damp, and improper
Itate. . .

There can be no doubt, however, but that grain may
be preferved without having recourfe to the mean> of vtnii-
lation, by depoliting it, when in a perffttly dry Itale, m
deep wells, pits, and caverns that are free from any (on
of damp aid moillure, and fo far below the furface of the
ground that it cannot be affeiled by the heat or iht-changCK
that take jdace in the (eafoiis. But though grain lias been
known to have been preferved in this manner for a great
length of time in thofc countries where it is the praiSice
to have it llorcd up lor times of ftarcily, it is by no means
cither a very fate or convenient mellmd.

It mult be oblervcd, however, that in whatevi-r mantior
grain is fecured, it is elTentially Heceflary that care Ihould
be taken that fuch portions as are in a foft damp Aate, .or
which have been badly harveflcd, ihould not, on any account
be laid up with that which is in a dry condition and perfecYlv
found ; as from the quantity of moillure that is containird
in it, and the tendincy to germination that takes place in
confequence of it, a muUy bad Imeil is liable to be im-
parted to the whole, and the fample either totally er in a
great degree dellroyed,

• The practice of cxpoling grain to the free aftiun of tlie
atmofpheric air, has been diicarded by fome in coi.fequence
of the ova oi eggs of infects being liable iii that way to be'
depofited among the grain, but it would leeni more pro-
bable, when the economy of fuch inlects is well confidered,
that their ova were either depoUted originally among thi-
grain in fuch lltuations, or brought in with diflereut parcels
of It from diiferent places. On this a<.:couiit it is evident
that great cauticm Ihould be ufed in furniihing frelh parcels
of grain for being laid up, and that the fci-een Ihould be
conilantly employed before putting it into the rooms.

It is, however, pretty certain that where grain is tpbe
preferved for much length of time, though it may without
doubt be fafely kept in the ways that have been already
mentioned ; yet it is moll probably not only a much better,
but more certain and economical method to let it remain
unthreflied from the ear in the flacks in which it has been
built, particularly where they rell upon lladdles that are
properly conftruCted for the purpofe.

It may be proper to obferve, that where grain is to bs
long preferved after being threlhed out, there Ihould always
be proper buildings of the granary kind provided for its
reception, the fizcs of which Ihould be proportioned t»
the extent of the farm, being conflantly adequate to con-
tain about one-half of the grain-produce after it has becH
threflied out and cleaned.

In cafes where the grain is ground and preferved after-
wards in the flate of meal, it is the ufual and by far the
bell mode to pack it very clofely by means of treading or
rammhig it into dry, dole, fmall rooms, or large cheils, as,
in this way, when laid up in a proper condition, it will
keep for a very great length of tiu,e quite fafe and five
from mifchief.

But, notwithtlanding the cuftom of preferving grain ik
ftacks and granaries, from the convenience of it, may, i»
fome inllances, be beneficial, not only to the farmer, but
the public, and, confe<iuently, in fome meafure necefiarj-,
it is clear from the trials thaf have been already made, that
the lloring of grain in either way fliould be carried to as
fmall an extent as pofllble, as it has been afcertained that
there is a contlant decreafe takini^ place in its weight from
the period at which it has been ^larvelled or hid up, but
that this lofs is far greater at lirll, than after it has been
kept fome time. ■ ..

In the fecond volume of the new edition of Geor^ical
4 C 2 Kflayj,

GRAIN.

EfTays, publiHicd by Doftor Hunter, the lofs is flated by
Mr. Holt to be in the following proportions in different
forts of grain :

In Wheat.

On being rubbed out in the hot-fun, and lb. ci. tin.
weighed the 31ft of Auguft, 1789,
foon after being cut, afforded - 0211

On being weighed again on the i8th of

Oaober 027

Lofs ox weight, per bunicl, of 7olbs.

nearly - - - - - -''83

Or alnioft one-ten'.h of the whole in forty

days.
Of this wheat, thirty-two grains weighed

one penny-weight.
It is, however, remarked, tJiat thi> is the greatefl pof-
fible lofs that the grain can fuftain, as though it was in a
full ilate of maturity or ripcnefs, it had neither had the
benefit of being dried by expofure to the fun after being
cut, nor undergone the procefs of fermentation after it was
put together.

In Wheat.

lb.
o

Jrs.

3

15

o 15

Another quantity, weighed on the 2 2d of
October, produced

Weighed again 24 days afterwards, af-
forded .....

Lofs in that time per bufhel, at the rate
of .....

A further quantity, weighed on the 8th of
January, 1790, produced

Lofs per bufhel, on being weighed again
32 days afterwards, at the rate of

lu Barley.

On being weighed on the 2d of September,

under iimilar circumftances, produced 022
On being weighed again on Oclober the

1 8th, afforded - - - - o l 12

Lofs of weight /li-r budiol of 60 lbs. 8 4 22

Or' about one-fcventh of the whole in 47

days.
Twcntv-four grains of this barley were

found to weigh one penny-weiglit two

grains.

In O.its.

Wlt-i tills icrt of grain no experiment appears to have
been made by the writer, but there can be no doubt but that
the lofs muft be equally great as in any of the otlier forts.

The refults of thefe trials render it fulficicntly evident,
that the more expeditiously grain is brought to the market,
the L-fs is the lofs wliich :s fuftained by the cultivator.
Of courfe it fhould never be laid up or kept in any other
way longer than circumftances render it neceffary. But in
addition to the lofs that has been feen to occur from th.e gra-

in regard to the prefcrvalion of grain from the depreda-
tions of infeCls, and other funilar animals, it may probably
be the beft accomplilhed by a timely and frequent ufe of the
fcreen, with proper ventilation, as has been noticed above.
Where the injury is produced by the weevil, the moth, or the
beetle, it has always ceafed at the period when thefe vermin
appear, as they are, wlien in this Hate of exillence, merely
propagators of their feveral refpoctive kinds of venniculi,
which, while they continued in that flate or form, produced
the injury.

In their ultimate or infeft flate they eat or confume very
little, their bufinefs being principally that of depofiting their
ova or eggs, which they do by a fort of unerring inlfinCt, in
fituations where the large coUeftiors of grain are fure to fur-
ni(h food for their fucceffors during the period in which they
are in the vermicular ftate. It is confequently a matter of
great moment to prevent the generation of them, by the
deftruftion of the eggs before they are hatched, which is
ufually the befl performed by having recourfe to the fcreen,
and expofure to a free air, as has been already fliewn. The
frequent ftirring of the grain breaks the cohefion of their
ova, by which the nidus of inch minute vermiculi is dellroy-
ed, as on hatching they collect together, and fpin or weave
numerous neils of a cob-web-like fubilance for their own fe-
curity and proteftion. And a great number of grains are
attached together by them to tliefe neils, by an infinity of
fmall threads, both for their fafety and food. Confequentlv,
when their habitations are broken and feparated bv the ufe of
the fcreen, they fall through its fmall interilices, and are ca.
pable of being eafily removed with the dull and other refufe
matters : and fuch as efcape the early fcreenings are de-
flroyed by thofe that follow, and the grain of courfe little
injured by the operation, being only i-endered more clean and
free from impurities. See H A kve-stixg o/" Gra;n, Reapixu
of Grain, and Stac KING of Grain.

Gi!.\iN" is alfo applied to tlie fruits or feeds of divers plant.s,
as a grain of millet, of pepper, &c.

Gn.vix is alfo extended to a minute body, or parcel of a
body pulverized. In which fenfe we fay, a grain of fand,
a grain of fait, a grain of gunpowder, &c.

Grain' denotes alfo a fmall weight, ufed in eflimating di-
vers fubllances.

The grain is the fmallefl of all weights known in Eng-
land. It is taken from the weight of a grain of wheatj
gathered out of the middle of the ear, and well dried. By
Hat. 12 Henry VII. cap. 7. every iterling or penny-weight
was to weigh tliirty-two fuch grains ; but now twenty-four
grains make a penny-weight, and twenty penny-weights an
ounce. See Pkxny and WEiciirr.

The grain is troy weight, and ufed in the weighing of
gold, filver, jewels, bread, and liquors.

Among the ancients, the grain was the fourth part of the
filiqua, or twelfth of the obolus, and the tvrenty-fecond of
the drachma. It coincided with lens.

Fcrnehus, lib. iv. cap. 6. Method. Mcdend. affirms it as
a thing known and certain, that the grain is of the fame
weight every where : but he is niillaken. Mr. Greaves,
in his treatife of the Denarius., in his Mifcell. Works, vol. L
p. 276. has ihewn, that 179 Dutch gi-ains, which Snelllus
had found to be the weight of a Philip of gold, only amomit
to 134I Englilh grains. Add, that Monf. Perrault has

dual diminution in the weight of the grain in coniequence of computed the French grain to be lefs than the Englirti, and

the d'.ffipation of the more moiil particles which it contains, yet bigger than the Dutch; to the Englilh, it is as 158

there are others that arife occafionally from the ravages of to 134^; and to that of Holland, as 158 to 179. See

different kinds of vermin, and the effeds of damps, imilli- Weiuiit.

and feveral other caufes
8

The grain ufed by the apothecaries is the fame with that

ef

G R A I N.

of the goldfmiths ; though they make a difference in the
Weitrhts raifcJ froiu it. Thus, 20 grains, with them, make
a fcniple, 3 ; 3 Icruples, a drachm, 3 ; 8 drachms, an
ounce, 2, i(c.

The carat ufej in eilimating the fnienefs of gold, a^ well
a; in weighing diamonds and precious ftones, is alfo divided
into four grains ; and the carat is about the one hundredth
and fiftieth part of an ounce troy, according to Mr. Jeffreys,
in liis treatifeon Diamonds and Pearls.

Hence, tlic jewellers' grain is to the troy grain, ini-erfely,
as 600 is to 4S0, that is, directly as four to five.

Gr.mn, in Englith troy and apothecaries weight, is the
4Soth part of a troy pound = 20 mites =: 480 droits =9600
pcriots = 230400 blacks, of the affayilts, —. 820386 French
grains = .06475 grammes of the new weights of France
.= .000 1 42 85 7 pounds avoirdupoife.

Gu.viS, a weight in France, = 1.2 1893 Englilh troy
grains = .0001 7413 Englilh pounds avoirdupoife = .053 1217
grammes of the new v.-eights.

Gu.viN is a'fo ufed for the figure or reprefentation of
grains on Hones, fluiTs, leathers, &c. Thus we fay, moroc-
co has a bolder and richer, that is, a larger grain, than fiia-
green.

In fome marbles, the grain is very fine; in others coarfer.
Steel is known by its grain, which is much finer than that of
iron.

Gr-MS, in Arming, is applied by quarry-men and mnfons
to the minute figures in molt blocks of ftone, by which they
are difpoled to fplit molt cafi'y in fome certain direction,
than in any other, af wood is difpofed to fplit in the direction
of. its grain. Beat, fiieet, lamella, and It rat ula, are other
terms of almoil fimilar import. Experienced mafons can
generAlly dilcover the grain of the moll homogeneous or per-
fect iree-ltone blocks, or fuch as will cut with equal eafe
in any direction, and this tliey often do, by obferving the
directions of the very minute plates of mica, or filver, as
they call it, which are frequently found arranged, in the
flone, in the direction of the grain, or beat of the ftone ;
which, it muftbe obferved, is not aKvays tliat of the beds or
ftratification, many rocks having ftratula which crofs their
beds obliquely, often at an angle, of from 30° to 45 ' with
'■the bed or plane of the llratiim ; and fuch ftratula, not un-
commonly, difpofe the llone to fplit into fiags or paviers or
even tile-itoiies, or fiates for houfes, and into the moll thin
and perfect lamina. Somccimes thefe oblique ftratula crofs
■ ftone beds of very great thicknefs, and have been frequently
millaken, by inattentive obfervers, for the ftratification Itfelf,
as Mr. Kirwan obferves of the argillites or ilates, p. 283
of his " Geological EfTuys." See ST:i.\.TLL.\ and

Gu.MX, Cochim-al. See CoriilXE.\L.

Gti.MX, Scarlet. See Scarlet.

Gr.mn, OUy, in Botany. See Mv.-.GRU.M.

Gr-\is", Tin. See Sthe.\minc; and Tin.

Grains, in the Materia Mcdica, or tiie feed.; of vegetables,
are dillingnlllied into emuliivc, which yield a conliderable
quantity of mucilage and oil, which may be fc-parately ex-
trafted from them ; fuch are almonds, and the feeds of
almolt all fruits ; and farinaceous, which are entirely com-
pofed of a dry fubftance, eafily reducible into a fmc powder,
called meal. Of this kind are the grains of all graminous
and leguminous plants.

Gn.vi.v.s, in Rural Economy, a ter.Ti applied to the remains
of different fubftances of the grain kind after they have been
employed in the brewing of beer, or the diftiiiation of fpi-
xituous liquors. They are in much ufe by the farmers and
cow-keepers near large towns for ilic fcediug of various de- .

Icriptions of domeftic animals, fuch as miJch cows, hogj,
fowls, gecic, ducks, &c. as well as fometimcs for the fatten-
ing oi neat cattle. In this laft intention, it is however ntcef.
fary to mix other fubftaiicca with them, fuch ai good pol-
lard, coarfe ground oatmeal, &c. It mult be obferled, that
theie matters can only be made ufe of while they are in a
frefli ftate with advantage. It is of courfe nece.Tar\-, parti-
cularly during the more hot fummer months, to employ fuel*
means as arc proper for preventing their running into a ftate
of fermentation, which would render them wTioliv ufc!efs.
This is ufually efletted by having them well preffcd and
trodden down into large vats and ciftcrns formed deeply in
the ground, and covered from the action of the air. In this
way they may be kept pcrfedtly fwcet and fit for ufe for a
confiderable length of time. See Cow-keepi.vc and Stall
FkkdiNi;.

Gr.vix.s of ParaiVife. See Mede.^.

OwSK-CoaJ}, Mnhiguctla, or Pepper-Conjl, in Geography,
a country of Guinea, extending about 300 miles along the
coall of tlie Atlantic from tlie vicinity of Cape Palmos ta
that of the hvlt Mefuiada, but its hmits are not prccifely
afcertained ; and bounded by the country of the Foulahs,
or the Sierra Leona country on the weft, and the Ivory
Coaft on the fi>uth-eaft. It derives its name from the great
quantity of Guinea pe|)per which it produce,-;. The climate
is infalubrious, and is found to be particularly noxious to
Europeans. The productions of this country are peafe,
beans, gourds, lemons, oranges, bananas, and a kind of nut
with a thick (hell, which is a moft delicious fruit. The
palm-wine and dates are iu high perfection ; cows, hogs,
Iheep, and goats, are very plentifid ; but this country deiives
its chief wealtli from the abundance of Guinea pepper, or
grains of Paradife, called Malaguctta by the Portugucfe,
which it produces. It fupplies alio a confiderable quantity
of pimento. Its commerce has alfo very much eonfiited in
ivory and flaves. The natives are reckoned temperate and
abllemious ; but they are faid to allow Europeans every
kind of familiarity with their females, and to invite them to
love-banquets witli their own wives and d.uigl-.ters. They
are actuated in common with other negroes, bv an invincible
propenfity to Ileal, not only from ftrangers and foreigners, but
from the ueareft of their own kindred. Their language is
peculiar to themfelves, and difficidt of attainment. Their
trade is carried on by ligns and tokens, fome of which are
not very decent. The natives are, in general, well-formed,
and haudlonie in their perfons and features. Their common
drefs is a " paan," or unlhaped piece of cloth round the
waift. They are extremely fubject to hernias and ru'--
tures. They have among them limie excellent meclianics,
fome of whom underftand and praftife the art of tempering
fteel, making arms, and all llcel inllruments, and conftructincj
canoes ; others have introduced improvements in hulbandrv,
particularly with refpcCt to the method of cultivating rice,
millet, and Guinea pepper. Tlieir king, called " taba,"
" taba fcyle," or " taba fcil," exercifes defpotic authority
over his fubjects, and never appears abroad without thf
utmoft po:np and magnificence ; and he receives from x\\c
people a degree of veneration and awe, wliich belongs to
fuperior beings. They are faid to he believers in .1 future
ftate, which appears by the ceremonies performed to tlie
fouls of the deceafed, and the prayers they oiTer for a happy
meeting in another world. They welcome tlie new moon
with fongs, dancing, and evfry kind of divcriion ; and their
fuperftitious regard for lorccrers is extreme.

The fole employment of many of the negroes, efpecialiy
about the river Seftos, is fiihing, which they perform in
thciv caiioe3.by. a hund-iinc and houk. The aniils of Seft-js

G R A

arc alfo peculiarly expert in their manul'aciurc of iron and
metal j.

T!ie Portnguefe poITcned for many years an independent
and uncontroided connection with tins country ; hut. in the
year 166+ the Englilli and Dutch, pereeivinp; the advantages
which were derived from their commerce, interfered, and
their rivals prevailed to fnch a degree as to drive the
Porluguefe fettlers into tlie interior parts ot the coinitry,
where they united thenifelves with the natives ; and trom
this intercourfe fprung that nii:<ed progeny of Mvilattoes,
who are more numerous here than in any part ot Guinea.
The fmall remnant of trade now pofTefTed by the Portuguele
i? entrufted with thefe perfons, to whoin they give the ap-
pellation of the hidalgos or gentlemen, having profelyted
them to their forms of Chrillian faith and practice, and
initiated fome of them into holy orders, whom they em.ploy
in propagating their notions of Chrillianitv.

The months moll favourable to trade on this coaft are
Febriiary, March, and April ; fmall veflcls, which are
capable of failing up the rivers into the country, are more
convenient than large (liips ; and it fhould be recolleded,
that the S.S.E. winds begin to blow in the month of May,
and they bring with them heavy rains and tornadoes, with
terrible thunder and lightning, extremely dangerous to
fliipping.

GRAINE, an ifland in the mcnth of the river Thames,
about ^^ miles long, and 2-' broad, fcparated from the coafl
of Kent by a narrow channel, called the " Stray," or
" Yenlade." It is low, flat, and marfhy, and has upon it
only a number of detached huts, with fome fait works. N.
lat. 51° 2-7'. E. long, o"' 42'.

GRAINED Med.\l.s. See Med.\l.

Crofs Gii.\iXED Stuff. See Cuoss Grained.

GRAINGER, James, in Biography, a phyfician and
poet, was born at Dunie, a fmall town in the fouth of
Scotland, about the year 172^. After finiihing his fchool
education, he was fent to Edinburgh, where he commenced
his medical ftudies under profeffors who were highly cele-
brated through the medical world, and in due time he
received his degree of M. D. He com.menced his proief-
iior.al career as furgeon in the army, and in that capacity
he ferved in Germany, under the earl of Stair, till the peace
cf Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. He afterwards fettled in
I.,ondon, and pratlifed as a phyiician. He here obtained
-and cultivated the friendfliip of feveral diftinguilhed literary
men, particularly of Shenltone and Dr. Percy, afterwards
bifhop of Dromore. While in London he publillied his
tranflation of the elegies of Tibullus ; but this work did
not receive the approbation to which he thought it entitled,
efpecially from Dr. Smollet, whofe criticifms were the oc-
calion of a long paper-war between them, and produced an
irrcconcileable difference. Probably his fuccefs in practice
in London was not great, as he embraced an offer of fet-
thng advaatageoufly m the ifland of St. Chriftopher, in the
Well Indies ; where, by marriage, he became connected
with feveral of the principal families, and practifed his pro-
feffion with great • fuccefs. He continued, hovv'ever, to
cultivate liis attachment to the mufes, and wrote, during his
leifure hours, an intereiling poem " On the Culture of the
•Sugar Cane." He likewife compofed a treatife " On the
Difcafes of the Weft Indies," for the ufe of the planters.
At the concluiion of the war, he paid a vifit to his native
country, and at the fame time publillied his poem, with
copious notes relative to the natural hiilory of the ifland.
He afterward returned to St. Chnilopher's, and continued
to practife till the begmning of the \ear 1767, when he
was-feiaed with a.fever, whieb.thea wged u» tt* ifland, and

G R A

died. Dr. Grainger was benevolent in his difpofition,
engaging in !n.i manners, and an able phyfician : he ranks
alfo conllderably above mediocrity as a poet. ' An " Ode
to SoUtude," and " A Weft Indian Ballad," (the latter
publifhol in Dr. Percy's collection) have been much ad-
mired. He publillied feveral medical tracls, Jlutchinfon.
Biog. Med.

GuAiNGER, in Geography, a county of America, in the
diftriil of Hamilton, Tensfiee, formed of parts of the
counties of Knox, Jefterfon, and Hawkins, .and bounded
N. by Virginia and Kentucky. Its chief town is Rutledge.
It is very mountainous, interfperfed with fertile valleys.
It contains 7367 inhabitants, of whom 496 are Haves.

GRAINING, in Ichlhyolo^y, the name of a fifh found
in the Merfey, near Warrington ; it refembles the dace,
but is more {lender, and has a llraighter hack. See D.iCE.

Gk.\imng Board is u board ufed by the curriers, to give
the grain to their leather.

It is made with teeth, or notches, running quite acrofs •
into which the foft, moiftened, iuppled leather being
prefTed, its furface readily takes the impreffior,. See
CunnYiNG.

GRAINVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in
the diiiricl of Les Andelys. The place contains 393, and the
canton 10,846 inhabitants, on a territory cf 185 kiliome-
tres, in 32 communes.

GRAKLE, in Ornithology. See Gracula and Para-

DISKA.

GRALL^, the fourth order of birds, coraprifing thofe
which have the bill cylindrical, and a little obtufe ; tongue
entire and flefliv ; and the lej.s naked above the knees.

GRALLATORI^. See Clas.sipication.

GRx\MAT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillricl: of Gourdon ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Cahors. N. lat.
44 47'. E. long. I ' 49'. The place contains 1842, and
the canton 9S88 inhabitants, on a territory of 275 kihon.e-
tres, in nine communes.

GRAMAYE, Jonx Baptlst, in Biography, a writer
of hiilory, was a native of Antwerp,, and rlourilliedin the
earlv part of the 17th century. He ftudicd at Louvaiq,
and became profeilor of rhetoric in that univerfity. He
was afterwards hiftoriographer to tlw Low Countries, and
obtained ionic other offices of truil and honour. He tra-
velled through the greater parts of Germany and Italy, and
proceeding from tlie latter country to Spain, he was made
captive by an Algerine corfair and carried to Africa. How
he obtained his releafe does not appear, but his writings
prove that he had been an attentive obierver of that country.
Upon his return to his native land, he travelled into Mora-
via and Silefia, and in the latter province he was, by cardi-
nal Dietrichllein, placed at the head of a college. He died
at Lubec in 1635, leaving behind him many works, which
fhew that he was unquellionably a man of great learning.
He wrote in profe and alfo in verfe. Of the former are
" Africae lUuflratie, lib. x.' 4to. 1622 : " Diarium Algeri-
enfe;" " Peregrinatio Belgica ;" " Antiquitates Flandria; ;"
and " Hilloria Namurccncis." The lirll of this lift of works
contains a hiilory of Africa from the remotell periods to his
own times, with geographical details ; and the fecund is the
rtiult of local oblervation during his captivity. Moreri.
GRAMEN, in Botany. See Gramixa.
Gramen' Murorum, Micahr.giffima. See Festuca.
GRAMINA, Gralfes, a molt natural order of plants,
the fourth of l^inna-us, and the fourth order of the lecond
clafs in the Genera Plantarum of Jufiieu, who.choofes. to

aker

G R A M I N A.

alter the appellation of it to Graminea. The Latin Word
^ramen is fuppofcd to be derived from gradient, going or
procceeding along, in allufion to the great increafe of many
ef thefe plants by their creeping roots.

Juffieu's fecond clafs coiiillls of n^onocotyledonoiis plants
vith a faperior germen. His definition of the prefent order
is as follows.

Calyx, (which he terms ^/amf,) ilngle or manv-flowered,
enclofing, in the latter inilance, two ur more flowers, dif-
pofod in two ranks in a little fpike or ear ; it is moftly of
two valves, rarely of or.e or of many, or altogetlier wanting.
Each flower has a f jro//.?, (called ^o/jm- by Juffieu,) refem-
bling the before-mentioned calyx, mollly of two valves,
rarely of only one, or altogether wanting ; the outer valve
either beardlefs or awned. Stamens below the germen, of a
definite number, except in the Pariana of Aublet, gene-
rally three, rarely two, or fix, or one ; their anthers oblong,
forked at each end. Germen one, fuperior, accompanied at
the bafe by two little fcales, not always evident. Styl.s
often two, with tw<i featliery ftigmas ; fometimes one, with
a fimple or divided fiigrna. Seed in either inilance fohtary,
naked, or often clotKc-d with the permanent inner valve of
the corolla. Embryo Imall, attached below to the fide of
the farinaceous and mucli larger albumen. The lobe of the
embryo in germination is permanent and fefiile along with
the annexed albumen, attached on one fide, at the bottom,
to the priinary fiieath which fiirrounds the plumula, or bud
of the future plant.

The rorj.'s are fibrous and capillary. Stems or culms cylin-
drical, either hollow or filled with pith, jointed or feparated
into dillincl; portions by knots, mollly fimple and Iierbaceous.
Leaves alternate, generally folitary at each knot of the
ilom, iheathing, their Iheath fplitting down to the knot.
FLrvcTS either in denfe cluilers, or fpiked upon a common
rack's, or panicled, concealed before they arrive at maturity
in the flieath of the upper leaf. Some fpecies are monoicous,
-bv an abortion of fome of tlie organs.

Botaniils liave differed much about the principles on wliich
the genera of GrafTes (hould be founded. Linnaeus and Juf-
fieu take into confideration the number of flowers, or rather
florets, in each calyx ; Hallcr in a great meafuie rejects
this, paying regard chiefly to the figure of the parts, which
indeed is of prnnary importance. He does not, however,
fufficiently attend to other equally important marks, as the
diltinclion, for inilance, between Poa and Brlza, confiHing
in the incorporation of the feed of the latter with the larger
valve of the corolla, and its depreffed figure. It were to be
wifned that the awns of grafl"es were permanent and conllant
in the fame genus, or at leait fpecies. but though conllant
ia fome, as y}v:na, in others, as Agrofils and Trilicum, they
are not fafficicnt to difcriminate fpecies.

In the fexual fylleni Grades chiefly belong to Triandria
D'i!jn\a. Some few have proper monoecious, none dioeci-
ouo, flowers, and feveral are polygamous, having a few male
bloffoms intermixed with perfeft ones furniflied with both
ftamens and piilils, and were therefore referred by Linnaeus
to Polygamla. But this latter circumilance is fo common
and variable, and caufcs fuch unnatural feparations of fpe-
cies or genera, that botaniils have generally agreed to pay
no regard to it in this family, but to clafs all fuch grafles
by their perfeft flowers.

Linnius remarks that '< Grafies are the moll genend of
plants, conflituting almoll a fixth part of all the vegetables
on our globe, efpecially in open fituations. There they
multiply, and extend themfelves by creeping roots, to a vail
extent. I'n confined and woody places they Icarcely creep,
but grow ered. They are the moll important of plants,

efpecially as affording the chief fullenance of animals wt«
feed on vegetables. They fumifli tlie verdure of ovir fum-
mers, and ipread a carpet over our meadows. Their leave 3
arc not eaiily damaged, even by our v.alking over then ;
and though winter deflroys their foli.ige, and the carlv
fpiing finds them dry and withered, they revive in a won-
derful manner from apparent death. How folicitouOy has
the Author of Nature proteded thefe plants, by giving
them fuch hard ftems, while they are perfeding their feed,
that cattle cannot readily attack them in that flatc ! Thcr,
on the otlier hand, they are fo conftituted, that the more
their l>erbage is cropped, or hardly ufrd, the better they
thrive, and extend themfelves the more under ground. That
they may he able to exifl in almoll every fituation, their
narrow Ipiny leaves are purpofcly contrived to infinuate
themfi-lves between other plants.

" The creeping roots of graffes are formed like a tape-
worm ; and are moilly fibrous, rarely tuberous or bulbous.
They confift of numerous joints and knots, each of which
has its bud, capable of producing a new Item, and the more
they are feparated by the heavy tread of cattle, the more
they multiply, thus conft-ituting the ftrength of the vege-
table kmgdom.

" Very few graffes have any peculiar tafle, mofl of them
having the infipidity of pot-herbs, though fome few are fra-
grant, at leail when dry. None are dangerous or poilonous,
if we except the intoxicating feeds ol Lo/ium temu'entutji.
They are the moll fimply conllrucled of all herbs, fcarcely
any of them having thorns, prickles;, tendrils, llings, brafteas,
or other appendages. Their ftems are with us generally
fimple; in India frequently branched. Leaves alwavs fimple
and undivided, molUy quite flat, and if one fide be fomcwhat
rounded, it is never that next the ilem. The flieath cf
their leaves is often crowned with a membranous ilipuia,
calhd by fome ligula, which clofely embraces the llem in
growing, to keep out water.

" The fruclificatlon of GrafTes is fo different from other
plants that it was judged impoilihle to reduce them to order.
They were firll divided into Corn and Graffes, but tb..*
former differ from the latter merely in the greater lize of'
their feeds, which compofe the balls of our aliment, as t!ie
fmallell of the grafs-feeds nourilh fmall birds. Ray firlt
examined this tribe fcicntifically, dividing them by their
habits or likenefTes, but he traced out no jull limits. Tour-
nefort, though a moil eminent botanill, was not equal t»
this fuhjeft. Monti followed Ray, but examined the
graflics of Italy only. .To!m Scheuchzer, at the perfualion
of Sherard, undertook ample and minute defcriptions of
every grafs he could procure, but the herbage of all is fo
fimilar, that his defcriptions, till he comes to the inflorel-
ccnce, are too little contrallec. They arc, however, very
«xadl. Micheli firll contrived a method of arrangemcr^
founded on the fpikel^ts being fimple or compound, with
an attention alfo to the fexual parts ; but he fubioined fome
plants, termed gramlnilus amines, which have really no con-
nedlion with them. If the fexes of grafles be attended to,
their arrangement becomes lefs difficult. Their inflcrel*
cence is either fpiked or panicled."

The principal writers on GrafTes, befides thofe abow-
mentioned, are Schrcber, who wrote in German, with fine
plates, coloured or uncoloured, and who is very full on their
qualities and uf's ; Rottbbll, who defcribed new or rare
fpecies, with plates ; Linnxus the younger, in a thefis
defcribing new genera of graffes ; Hotl, who has pubtilhed
three foho volumes, with excellent coloured plates in the
flyle of Jacquin, entitled Cram'ma ylujiriacj ; Leers, who
in his Fkra Uerhcrrunjis has delineated and engraved all the

graiTeS

G R A

yfrafTcs of that Flora, with more exquifite precifion than can
be found in any fimihr performance. Stillingfleet, Curtis,
and Swayne have in England publiflied botanical and eco-
nomical remarks on grades, the latter giving dried fpecimens
to illuftrate them. Many fpecies are admirably reprefented
and defcribed in the Flora LonHirenf.s, and the fecond part
of the fu-lt volume of the Flora Gr'a^ca contains 50 plates of
rare and curious graifes, from the drawings of Mr. Ferdmand
Bauer, which are among the moft beautiful and perfeft of
thfir kind.

The mmiber of genera of grafles in Juffieu are 60, arranged
jn I 3 feClions, nine of which comprehend grafles with two
ityles, four thofe with only one. This diitinclion however
is not one of the mott abfolute, even in the fam.e genus.
Ills fubdivilions are marked by the number of ftamens, or
of ilorcts, according to what we liave mentioned above.

Willdenow has in his Triandrla Digynia 34 genera, befides
five in Triandria Moiiogynia, Cinr.a in Motiandria, ?L-nA Nardus
in Diandria ; he has moreover, in Hexandria, Ehrbarta, and
Orrza, in all 43. He has five genera in Monoeda, making
48 in the whole, befides the polygamous ones, which after
tiie original plan of Liunxus, he refers to Polygamia. We
have not yet fecn this latter part of his work. In the 14th
edition of Linnxus's Sy/Icma Vegetabilium the genera of poly-
gamous graffos are eight, only, Holciis, Cenchriis, Ifchitmum,
Man'ifiirh, JEgdops, Spinifcx, Andropog'ji, and Apluda.
\Villdenow places Ccnchrus in Tr'iaiidria Momgyma, we
believe with great propriety, but the genus appears unna-
tural with refpecl to habit, and perhaps requires to be new
modelled.

Mr. R. Brown, in his Prodrowiis Flora Nova Hollandhs
a tnfulu Van-Dhm:n, has defined 35 new genera of this
natural order ; Sporobolus feparated from the Linnaean
yfgrojl'ts ; Polvpogon of Desfontaines ; Pentapogon of Billar-
diere ; Streptachne very near Slipa ; Amph'ipog'jn remarkable
for having an awn to each of tlie five fegments of its corolla ;
Diplopogori a])parenlly too nearly akin to the laft ; Amfopogon
very near the following ; Danthonm of Decandolle ; Glyccr'ta
of which we have treated in its proper place ; Triodia very
near Poa ; Ertachm fomewhat akin to Aira ; Trirapbis ;
■ Eclrnfta ; Eletifine of Ga:itner; C/i/o;'« of Swarf/. ; Cahuhne
:' remarkable for having its imperfcft flower female, not, as
iifual in graffes, male ; Cbamitraphts dillinguiflied from
Panicitm chiefly by the peculiarity of three ilyles ; Orlbopogcn
formed of I.,innxus's Panicum compofitiim and others ; Peii-
mjititm of Richard ; Neurachne relembling an Alopecurus ;
ffachne to which belongs the Mcncritaiui of Herman's Zeyl.
24; Xerocbloa whofe feed is inclo'ed in the inner paper-like
- valve of the corolla ; Tbuarea of Thnars in Perfoon's Sy-
nopfis ; /ff)^>7V7/iZ of Cyrilli, which is ii7^;//-«j cyUndricus of
L.inna:us ; Dinwria near Saccbarum ; Ophhinis ; Leptiirus ;
and Hemartbria ; the three laft feparated froni RottboUia ;
M'lcroMoa which is Nardits indL-a of Linnicus ; Zoyjia
recently formed by Willdenow of his AgroJUs Matrclla ;
H'lerccbhe of Gmelin Slbir. which is Difcrraiiim of Billar-
diere ; Tetrarrbena compofed of the Ehrbaria djjlicbopbylla
of Billardiere with other fpecies ; MicroUna his E. JTipoides;
Polamopbtla a water grafs near Oryza and Zigariia ; and
finally Leptafpis which has the afpcA of Pbariis la/ifolhis. —
It is not wonderful that a country whofe natural produftions
arc all fo very anomalous with refpeft to thofe of the reil
of the world, fliould afford fo many novelties, even in fo
natural and well-known a family as the grafles.

GRAMINEA, in Antiquity, is applied to a crown
formed of grafs, gramen, beftowcd by tiie Romans on certain
of their generals, in confideratioH of their having iaved or
refcued an aimy.

G R A

The graffy crown, corona gramima, was but rarely con-
ferred, and for fome fignal exploit ; when, through the
courage or dexterity of a general, an army reduced to the
laft extremities had been faved, or dehvered, and the enemy
put to flight.

GRAMINEOUS Herbs, zmong Boianl/ls, are fuch as
bave a long, narrow leaf, with no foot-ftalk.
♦ GRAMINIFOLI A, a name given by Dillenius to a ge-
nus of plants, called by iSIicheli and Linnius zannichelha.
GRAMMAR, teaches the right ufe of language, or to
fpeak, to read, and to write a language with propriety.
Particular grammar teaches the principles peculiar to any
one language. Thus the Englifh gramm.ar afccrtains and
teaches the principles which exclufively belong to, and
which difting\iifli the Enghlh tongue. The French grammar
profefies the fame end with regard to the French ; and
this is the cafe with the grammar of any other language.

When grammar is limited to any particular language, it
is employed in its humbleft province, and may be confidered
only as a mere mecbanieal art, the rules of \\ liich are little
inveftigated, and have no other foundation than the practice
of thofe who fpeak and write that language. But when
grammar, rifing above the confideration of any one language,
compares many languages together, and by this companion
traces the principles which are common to them, unfolding
by that means the nature and origin of fpeech, the caules by
which it is divided into diftindt dialects, and the analogies
whicii facilitated tlie growth and determined the idioms of
each : grammar, in this extenfive view, an"umcs the nature
of afdence, and is jullly dillinguiflied by the name oi general
or univirfal grammar.

That grammar claims the dignity of a fcience, in confe-
quence of inveftigaling the general principles of fpeech, is
evident from the fligliteft confideration. All languages,
however different, have many properties in common. They
have in general the fame parts of fpeech, becaufe the ideas
or things which they exprefs cxiit with httle or no variation
in the nature of things. Men alfo, in all ages and countrie.s,
have the fame organs of fpeech, which are fimilar in ftruclure,
however modified by peculiarities of enunciation. Finally,
the lame great law of aflbciation regulates the mind of every
man ; and the political, moral, and religious inftitutions, which
direft the operations of this law, however remote in age
and country, confiderably rcfemble each other. To thefe
caufes it is owing, that the languages of all nations, ancient
and modern, are marked by a fimilitude truly furprifing ;
and the more clofely they are examined, the more numerous
will appear the points in which they all refemble each other.
Hence may be juftilied the conclufion, that as all the tribes
of men originated in one family, fe all the languages of men
are but ramifications of one original tongue.

Grammar has ufually been divided into four depart-
ments, namely; ortbograpby, e/ymology, fyntax, and profody.
Orthography teaches to form and to found letters, to analyfc
or combine fyllables, or to exprefs words by their proper
letters. Etymology comprehends the clafliiication, the pro-
perties, or, more properly fpeaking, the derivation and coiii-
pofition of words. Syntax prefcribes the government or the
right order of words in a fentence ; while profody direfts
the j\ift pronunciation, the poetical conftruC^ion of words,
or fupplies the laws of verfilication. But this diftribution
of the parts of grammar is neither ufeful nor accurate, as
they are not independent of each otiier. Etymology is a
principle neceflary to account for phenomena in every de-
partment, and is that upon which orthography is chiefly
founded. We therefore difcard thefe divilions of grammar,
and dilhibute and confine our obfcrvations on this lubjef't

to

G R A M MAR.

to the' orig'iii, naturf, clairificatios, and the propcilics of
words.

The Origin, Ndture, and Clajpjication of IVords.

Words have been defined articulate or figuificarit founds,
farmed by the organs of fpccch, and irfed by common confcnt
as figns of ideas. The propriety of tliis dcllnilion will appear,-
if we attend to the mode in which words-acquire their lignill-
cfition. Tiie belt method to teach a language, with which
a youth is )'et entirely unacquainted, would, if attended to,
clearly unfold the nature and origin of fpeech in "general.
Suppofe a boah is held out before him for the iiril lime, an
iniprejjion, plianliifm, or it! a of that objeft is thus conveyed to
his mind by the organ of fight. While this impreflion con-
tinues, fuppofe farther that the found book is dillinetly ut-
tered ; he will then have an imprefiion or idea of the found
conveyed througli the fenfc of hearing, which will be ren-
dered more di(linA,'f he himfelf betaught to enunciateit. The
t»-o ideas, namely, that ot the o/ifc!, and that of the found
will then, if long continued, or often repeated, coalelce in
his mind, and become fo ilronglv connected, that the idea of
the object lliall fuggeft that of the found, book : and, on
the other h:uid, the found fiiall recal the objeft. The prin-
ciple on v.hich this coalition is founded, is a law of the
human mind, known under the r.ame cffocintion of ideas; and
the progrefs of the learner in connetting other ideas with
other founds, is only a repetition of the operation, till the
whole language is acquired.

- From this brief defcription, naturally follow a few in-
ferences of importance, to be obferved on this fubjedt. FiijI,
founds, though fo clofely connected by frequent ufe with the
tilings fignilied, as not to be feparated from them even in
i'liagination, ha-v-e no natural airmity witii them. Any other
I'ound than book, moon for iullance, might have been aflb-
ciated wiihthat objeft in the mind of a learner, and this lalt
nanie would as naturally, by ufe, be applied to book, as we
now apply it to the object fo known in the fl<y. And this is
llie realon why the fame idea is expreffed by different founds
in different countries, whei-e each lound is rendered equal'v
natural and familiar by repeated affociations. Strondly, as
language altogether depends on an arbitrary compact be-
tween lound and fenfe, there exilt not, in any regular polilh-
ed tongue, fuch words as natural articulate founds. There
are, indeed, in all languages, certain founds indicating de-
fife or averfion, pleafure or pain, but thefe are natural cries,
and not articulate founds ; and they arife more from the
itrudlure of man as an animal, than from his rank as an in-
telligent being, capable of forming dillinct idi-as, and ex-
preiiing them by articulate founds. Hence fuch founds are
common to him with inferior animals, and abound mofl among
men in the favage itate, where language is leait formed.
The abore explanation farther excludes what have been call-
ed factitious words, or words whole foiuid bears fome refem-
blan^ to the fenfe. Son-ie words indeed, of this kind, are
fiippofed to exili in all languages ; but the fupi>ori;ien, we
venture to afhrm, is erroneous, the imagined fimilarity being
^altogether the effect of aHociation. This principle, wlien a
word is heard, inftantly fuggeils its meaning, and while we
t/'/erlook tiie luggeilion, we afcribe the fenfe to a fancied
limilitude between it and the found. Let an idea be in your
mind, when you bear a cock croiv, or a bell toll, and you \\ ill
immediately fuppofe, that the found of the cock, or of the
bell, conveyed the entertained idea. This is a delufion pre-
cifely fimilar to that into wliich we fall refpefting the import
of -factitious words. If there be any word in our language,
or: in any language naturally indicative of the fenfe, it is
Vol. XVI.

cuckoo ; and yet adi a foreigner, aitogelher iinacquaintrd'
with Engliih, v.hat the ti-rjn means, and lie will not by any
means be able, iVom the found, to afccrlain the obiett fiir-
niiied. The word is a repetition of coo coo, which cxiC.i
in Greek under tiie form of -. caa, and which in Pcrfian
Jignifies the found made by a Urong emifiion of the breath.
Hence tbe Perfians cxprefs the ox-kind by caa, which we
have borrowed and confined to the female roo', which origi-
nally meant a lou-ing animal. In Chaldee, cuclto means a
magpie, the found o*' whofe voice is very different from tlial
of the cuckoo. We cannot help remarking, that if a limi-
litude between found and feiife obtained in any part of lan-
guage, it would appear more irianifell and predominant in the
moll ancient languages, and efpccially in Hebrew, which we
conceive by tar the moll aiieicnt, even of the Afiatic tongues.
But we venture to affirm, that not a lingle inllancc ot the
kind can be produced in that tongue. And this early fpe-
cimen of human language is a fair prefumptien, that the prin-
ciple of faftitious founds did not in the leaft obtain in the
firft formation of fpeech.

From the above explanation we infer, in the third
place, that the names of things, at firit, were names of indi-
vidual objeds, and that man learnt in youth, to form general
ideas,yc//i"/y by means of language. Thuawith refpeCttotheabove-
mentioned youth, when he has connected the found book with
the thing fo called, the word is only a fign of the individual
book whicli was iiril prefented to him. Prefentiv, however,
he perceives the fame found applied fucceifively to other ob-
jcfts of the fame kind ; and this application leads, and in a
manner compels him to note thofe pecuhar circumllances
which diltinguifh each book, and thofe, on the other hand,
which belong to tliat whole clafs of objects. As the found
is not repeatedly alfociatcd with the former, he forgets, and
confequently oi-crloois them ; while he combines the ideas
belonging to the clafs, and retains them in a clofer and yet
clofer imion, under the term which was his inftrument in
forming thofe ideas. - In this manner are all our ab/lraa
ideas acquired; and language, as the ftiind rifes by means of
it, from the contemplation of one to many objects, from \m-
dividuals to clafTes, is the fole inilrument in acquiring them.
Some indillintl idea of this procefs was probably the cir-
cumftance which led our celebrated grammarian, Mr. H.
Tooke, to fay, (vol. i. p. 36.) " That the compofition of
ideas was merely a contrivance of language ; that the only
compofition was in the terms, and that they are not ideas, but
merely terms which are general and abllract.'' In another
place, he denies the operations of the mind as influencing
fpeech, and talks of the operation of language. Thefe, and
fuch other rcmaiks are, however, fo palpably erroneous, that -
we cannot afcribe it to ignorance or inattentioir in fo
enlightened a critic, but fuppofe them to have proceeded
chiefly from a delire which pervades his works, of
re'jefting tlie ideas of others -as unjuit, becaufc tliey
were knoivn, and confpieuoiidy difplaying his own as
right, bccaule they were nezL: 'Flie compolition of terms in
grammar, is merely the derivation'or combination .of terms,
by fuch laus as cullom or analogy have previoufiy determin-
ed. Comporuioii of this kind, with which a grammarian, as
fuch, has any thing to do, is as dillinct from the compofitioB
of ideas, as fonnd is from fenfe, or grammar is from logic.
Language has no power but what it has derived from ajoci-
alion ; and he who fpeaks of tlx- oper.Ltion of language, in- '
Head of the operation of the mind, ac"ts the abfurd part of
a man wlio afcrihes to the pen, the motion of the hand which
directs it. If wc can judge -from his works, Mr. Tookc
appears not to have ftudied the true theory of the human
^ 1) iiimd ;

G R

A M ]\I A R.

mind ; and fiom the want of juil iikaa on tliis fubjeft, he
has, as \vc fliall lliow in the fequel, plunged himfelf and his
readers in deep and manifold errors.

As general or abftradl ideas, v.-liich are the chief ma-
terials of fcience, are formed folely by the inftrumcntahty of
language, we may hence fee the reafon wliy the ftiidy of lan-
guage ought to form the Ittfis in every fyftem of education ;
and why fcience can flourilh only among a people previoufly
acquainted with the arts of eloquence and compofition. The
philofophy of grammar, moreover, as it retraces the track of
the human mind, in the formation of its ideas, through the
medium of fpeech, is the beil guide to the knowledge of its
powei'S and -operations, and confequently to their proper
direflion. Hence the only fyltems of metaphyfics and logic,
wortiiy tlie attention of a philofophical enquirer, are thofe
which are built on the foundation of grammatical analylls.

But further, as words in the very commencement of
every man's education denote individual obiects, and become
figns of clalTes or kinds by the luccellive application of each
word to many individuals of that clafs, we might conclude
that in the original language of mankind, if iolely tlie effeCl
of human invention, each term at firlt wa^ but a proper
name of a thing or of a quality, and afterwards reprelented
a greater number of individuals as tlie mind advanced in the
principle of generalization. But this inference is contrary
to the faft. The Hebrew tongue carries us back almoll to
the infancy of human iociety, and, wliether it be the original
language of mankind or not, it prefents us with much fairer
fpeciinens of what language muil have been, than we can
gath-r from any modern dialect. The primitive words of
•hat language are founded upon the moft comprehenfive ana-
'/"•s.; and tlie learner, in acquiring that tongue, inftcad
c. being carried up from the individual to the fpecies, and
from the fpecies to the genus, finds himfelf on the top of
the moft extenfive clafs ; and in the formation of words he is
made to defcend from general to fpeoiiic terms, and from fpe-
cific terms to proper names; fo that all the proper names which
we meet with in the Hebrew records are really derived from
general appellations. This phenomenon appears to us complete-
ly to annihilate the fuppofition, that language is folely the
fruit of human ingenuity. Mofes, in his hillory, obliquely
ftates, and, with his ufual brevity, accounts for the t'aCl :
" And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beaft
of the field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them to
fee what he would call them : and whatfoever Adam c:.lled
every living creature, that was tlie name thereof." The
Arabic traiillation, we apprehend, alone places this verfe in its
proper light, by rendering to fee, to caufe to fie, i. s. tajhcja.
The author then intimates that God (hewed or directed
Adam in the application of names to things. And what
can be more probable, than that He, who formed the organs
of man, fhould at firll inftrutt man in the proper ufe of them,

Lajlfyt it follows from the above explanation, that
words, as they are at firll afibciated with ideas, are in ftricl
propriety figns of ideas, and not figns of things. For unlefs
the idea he previoufly in the mind, there can be no union by
alFociation of fenie with found. The aflbciation takes place
in t?ie mind, and where the idea of the thing, and that of the
found do not meet, there can be no formation of articulate
found. The learner, however, is not fenfible of any diftinftion
between his ideas and the external objefts which are their
origin or prototypes ; and he refers the found immediately
to its prototype, witJiout being confcious that an impreffion
or idea of it exifls in his mind. As, however, we know nothing
of things but through the medium of our ideas, and as ideas
nyift depend for their properties ajid dUUnttion upon the

things tliey reprefent, the above overfight is not productive
of any error or inconvenience ; and we may fay that words
are figns of things, or of the ideas of things, without any
prejudice to philofophical accuracy. This leads us to the
clafiification of fpeech, or its divifion into parts.

The common dillribution in our own tongue is into
nouns, articles, tidjec/ives, pronouns, verbs, participles, adverbs,
prepofitions, conjunSions, and interjeffions. This divifion has
obtained with little variation in other modern languages, and
has been derived, on the authority of ancient grammarians,
from the languages of Greece and Rome. The above claf-
fification, however general and convenient in a popular view,
is bv no means to be admitted in a philofophical grammar.
And the few writers of this kind in Englifli, or other tongues,
have been fenfible of the inaccuracy of tlie popular divifion.
The Oriental grammarians admit only three parts of Ipeech,
the verb, the noun, and particles derived from thefe. Plato,
whofe notion of language as a fcience mull have been form-
ed in Egvpt, mentions only two, the noun and the verb ;
torn. i. p. 261. Edit. Ser. And Arillotle mentions no more,
where he treats of propofitions. {De Inter, c. 2.) But Mr.
Harris, Herm. p. jS. thinks that thole philofophers were
not ignorant of the other parts of fpeech, but ipoke with
reference to logic or dialeetics, confidering the eflence of
fpeech as contained in thefe two, becaufe they alone com-
bined to make a perfect atfertive fentence, which none of the
reft without them are able to rft'ect. But Ariftotle, in his
tix-atife i)f Poetrv, v.liere he was to lay down tlie elements of
a more variegated fpeech, adds the article and conjundion to
the noun and verb. The latter iStoics, improving on the
authority of Arifl:otle, inftead oi four parts, made [five, by
dividing the noun into the appellative and proper. Others
increafed the number, by detaching the pronoun from the
noun ; the participle and adverb from the verb ; and the
prepofition from the conjunftion. The Latin grammarians
went farther, and detached the interjection from the adverb,
A^ithin which by the Greeks it was always included as a
fpecies.

Mr. Harris, following Ariftotle and the elder Stoics,
divides fpeech into words that are fignificant as^Wnf/^/r, and
thole which are fignificant as nrr^Wcj, including under tlic
former clafs fitbjlantiv.s and attr'dnttives, and under the latter
definitives and conne3ivcs. This dillribution is fet afide
and ridiculed by Mr. Tooke, who fays, vol. i. p. 47 ; " In
Engliih, and in all languages, there are only two iorts of
words, which are ncceffary for the communication of our
thoughts, and they are noun and verb. And as to the parts
of fpeech, they may be cither two or twenty, or more. In the
ftrict fenfe of the term, both the necelfary words and the
abbreviations are all of them parts of fpeech ; becaufe they
are all uleful in language, and each has a different manner of
fignification. But I think it of great confequence, both to
knowledge and to languages, to keep the words employed for
the different purpofes of fpeech as diftinft as pofhble. And
therefore I am inclined to allow that rank only to neccjary
words : and to include all the others, which are not necelfary
to fpeech, but merely fubjlitules of the firft fort, under the
title of abbreviations." In thin boafted divifion, as we ihall
preientiy fee, there is neither utility nor accuracy, and tlie
author was betrayed to it by a fecret vvilh to place the novel-
ty of hjs own fyftem in the moll confpicuous light, namely,
that conjunilions and prepoCiions are but abbreviations of
nouns and verbs.

Now it IS fingular, that the divifion which we
think the moll philofophical, and, therefore, the moft fimplc
aad ufeful, is l^at which is thus profcribed in a very laboured

traatik .

GRAMMAR.

treatife on grammar, in tlie EncyclopaeJia Britannica, (ar-
ticle II.) "The divifion of words into thofe whicli arc
p.gnijiiant of thtmfclvcs, andtliofe which are fignificatit by re-
lation, is abfolute nonfenfe, and has been productive of mucli
error and myftery in fonie of the moil celebrated treatifi-s on
grammar. It is indeed probable, tliat any attempt to elln-
blilh a different clafTilication of the parts of fpeech, from
tnat which is commonly received, will be found of little utili-
ty, either mpraake OT mfpeciilalion. As far as they>;) /wr is
concerned, the vulgar divifion feems fufficiently commodi-
ous ; for every man who knows any thing, knows wlien he
tifes a noun, and when a verb. With refpeft to the latler,
not to mention that all the grammarians, from Arillotle to
Home Tooke, have differed on the fubject ; it (hould feem
to be of more importance, after having afcertained, with
preciiion, the nature of each fpecies of words, to dcterniine
in what circumftances they differ thaji in what they
agree."

If thefe remarks be juft, any attempt at a philofophi-
cal arrangement of the^ parts of laiigiiage mufl be frivolous
and ufelefs. But we regard the paragraph as a inanifeft ac-
knowledgment that the writer knew of no fuch arrange-
ment, and that, as is often the cafe, he endeavours to confole
himfelf and his readers, under tlie abfence of this knowledge,
with the confideration that if attained it would not be ufeful.
We iliall, however, attempt briefly to do what he thinks
unneceffary to be done : but what we think not only ufeful
and necelTary, but even efTential, In a philofophical trcatife.
An accurate diftribution of our words, is but an accurate
diftribution ofourideas^ and as in logic we cannot think
juftly, unlefs we knovr how to diftinguifh our thoughts; fo
we cannot with precifion reafon in grammar, unlefs we have
pre\ioufly diftinguilhed the parts of fpeech. The fource of
this dlil'nilion muil be fought in the nature of the ideas
exprefTed by thofe parts, and the enquiry, how many forts
of words there exiil in human language, is merely, when
dicefted to its proper objedl, how many forts of ideas there
are in human knowledge.

We have then ideas of things: we have ideas of the
properties or attributes of things : we have ideas of the con-
nedion of things, i. e. of the arrangement of things, or of
their increafe or diminution: finally, v.e have ideas of the
relation of things. Nor have we an idea which may not rank
with one of thefe claffes. And as language confills of terms
«xprefnng ideas, it confills of terms which esprefs either
ideas of things or the attributes of thinge, or the ionneelion of
things, or the relation of things. The terras exprelTnig
things are nouns, including fubflantivts and the perfonal
pronouns, which arc only fubjlitults for nouns, and there-
fore, in their nature, names of things. Siueet is an attribute
of fugar, and fo is to think an attribute of a man ; tojiy of
a bird ; to be of a being that exills, and io, moreover, lov-
ing, hating, are attributes of fome creatures fufceptible of
love and hatred; finally, the circumilances which define
things or diftinguifh them from others, may be confidered
as attributes or properties of the things fo defined. The
terms exprelTing attributes may be called atlrilulives ; and
include adjeftives, verbs, adverbs, participles, and defini-
tives. Tlie terms expreffing the relations of thiggs are pre-
pofitions ; wlule thofe which exprefs the conneftion of things
are conjunftions. And thus the moft comprehenfive, and,
as we conceive, the mod philofophical divifion of fpeecli is
into four parts, nouns, atlritutiru, prepoftions, and eonjunc-
tions or connectives ; nor is there any language, liowever few
or numerous its terms may be, which is not capable of
being dillributed into theic four claffes. As to the inter-
jfHion, it mull be regarded as a foiu>d wlijch is eitlicr inar-

ticulate, or which, as far as it partakes of articulation,
partakes of the nature of a noun or of a verb. Having
noted this diftribution, we, as not fyllcmatically writing on
gramnuu-, fiiall, in our remarks, follow the popular divi-
fion.

Nouns and attiibutivcs, to ufe Mr. Harris's language,
are fignificent as principals, and wc do not depart from phi-
lofophical accuracy, when we fay that prepofitions and con-
neiftives are fignificant by relation. Our notions of thr
relations and connections of things arife by the principle of
abftrac^ion from our notions of the things themfclvc% fo
related or connected If all ideas of things or aclior.» were
obliterated from our minds, the ideas of tTieir affociattd re-
lations would be entirely obliterated willi them. And as
our notions of relation fpring from the objecls fo related,
fo language, following the rife and progrefs of ideas, bai
derived thofe terms which exprefs relations and conneclious,
from the terms cxiircHing the things and operations fo re-
lated and connected. In other wordi, prepofitions and coii-
junction.s are words which, by affociation, flowed firom nounn
and verbs as their real foiirces. If this be correct, what fhalt
we fay to Mr. H. Tooke, who affirms prepofitions, con-
junctions, and other particles, to be fubflitutes for thofe neccf-
fary words, the noun and verb. If thii affertion be put
in clear language, it means that the relations of things, or
of the operations of tilings, are fubjlitutes for the things fo
related ; that is, the relation of caufe and effect is a fubflitute-
for caufe and effect; the relation of &;f»nn;'nj is a fabftitute
for things which begin ; the relation of injlrumentality is a
fubilitute for that which is inftrumental; and the relation
of end is a fubilitute for that which ends. Moreover, the
feparation or concatenation of two or more alfertions is s
fubilitute for the operations fo feparatcd or connected.
This is not philofophical reafoning, calculated to throw-
light on language, but a fophiflry calculated to confound
the moil dillinft ideas which the human mind is capable of
forming, and a jargon not to be equalled by any error or
contradiction, which Mr. Tooke has io fevcrely cenfured
and ridiculed in Mr. Harris. Befides, terms to exprefs the
relations and connections of things are not lefs neceffary
than thofe which denote things and their operations. A
language without conjunctions and prepofitions is not merely
a fledge, (to ufe his own words,) which cannot he drawn
along as fmoothly, and eafily, and fwiftly, as a carriage
with wheels, but is a fledge which has nothing to connect it
with the horfe ; nothing to direct it in the way along whicli
it Ihould be dragged. The noun and the verb indeed may
exprefs a complete propofition; but the inllances in which
fuch fimple propofitions occur are very few, compared with
thofe more complicated cafes where tlic ule of prepofitions
and connectives is abfoluteiy neceffary. The diftribution
of fpeech into necelTary words a!id abbreviations, is there,
fore, in this point of view, alfo frivolous and erroneous.

The Origin and Properfiei of Kovni.

Nouns are the names of things, or figns of thofe
ideas by which we come to the knowledge ot things. The
term is a corruption of nomen, which is from r>-nu->, while
ntime came probably from the Perfian njam, which fecms to
be of the lame origin vi'.h the Greek word. Nouns liiav
be divided into three dalles: names of imiividuals, names of
fpecies or hinds, names of abjtraci ideoi. To tliis may be
added, as a fourth clafs, xiie pronoun, which is made the fub-
ilitute or reprelentative of all other nouns. But we fhall
conhder this in the place ufually afllgned to it by gramma-
rians. On each of llie above claffes we beg to make a few
brief remarks.

4 D .; Kan'.cs

G 11 A r-.I MAR.

Names of iinlividuuls ilo not enter into the compo-
fition of language ; bccaufc individual objcfts are too nume-
rous to liave each a dilliiift name; and becaufe language
would then bo changing in endlcfs fuccefiion, each term dy-
ing away with the objctl it figniiied, and another riling to
occupy its place. This is the reafon why proper names
cannot be trandated from one tongue to another, the indi-
viduals fpecified by them, being confined to one time and
one place, are not capable of bting the prototypes of words
in other times and places. Individuals, however, among
men, animals, and places, which the purpofes of life ren-
der it ncceflary to fpecify, have appropriate nanifs given
them to diftinguilh them from all other individuals. And
it fometimes happens that when individuals alnong men bc^
come eminent for any attainment or profeffion, their names
are ufed to defignate others who are eminent in the fame
■way. Thus proper names are fometimes converted into
common names. The former are called proper, as being
peculiar to individuals, in oppofition to fuch names as are
common to all the individuals of a clafs.

The perceptions of the human mind, as we have ob-
ferved, commence with individual ohjeCls: but we arc foou
induced to compare thofeobjefts; and on comparing indi-
viduals together, we readily difeern a refemblance between
them in foine things while they differ in others. The mind
then feparates the particulars in which objefts differ, and
eollctts into one idea their points of iimilitude. Thus it
forms ideas of claffes, or in logic called Jpecics, compre-
liending under them various individuals, rifter this the
fpecies themfelves foon become fubjefts of comparifon ; and
excluding from each its individual qualities, the human
mind formed thofe more general aggregates termed kinds,
comprehending under them different Ipecies, as the fpecies
comprehend different individuals. Thus mankind clafii-
iied all the objects around them, and acquired fpecific and
generic ideas in nature, in art, and in abllraft qualities.
Having, as it is fuppofed, firil advanced in the clafTifiea-
tion of their ideas, men gave names to each clafs, and tlius
Required thofe general terms which are called fpecific and
generic terms. But we have already fhewn that the pre-
cefs of the human mind, in the principle of ab'lraftion, is
the reverfe of this: general terms do not arifc, as will
appear evident if we attend to the commencement of edu-
cation in ourfelves and others, from general ideas, but, on
the contrary, general ideas arife from general terms. The
former have noexillence till they are generated in the mind
folely by the inllrumentality of language; the learner being
iwooluTilarily and pajjlvelf led by the luceefTive application
of the fame word to different individuals of the fame clafs,
to compare thSm, to feparate their component parts where
they differ, and to combine. them where they agree. In
this point of view, grammar is the foundation of logic ;
and language, inflead of being the offspring of human in-
vention, is the fole medium of awakening the firll dawn
of intelligence in llic huuvin mind, and points for its ckHU
ence to fome intelligence fiipericr to man.

Speeific and generic ideas being thus formed, the
fubjett matter of language is reduced, fo as to be commen-
Jurale with the limited faculties of man ; becaufe, though
individual objifts are infinite, the clafTes comprehending
them are comparatively few. The fubjeft matter of fpecch
by this means, nioreover, is rendered pernument and iini-
iterj'al, or unconfiiied to points of fpace and tim.e; becaufe,
though particular things are local and tranlient, the fpecies
and kinds of things are univerfal and eternal. This is the
reafon why words whie-h are unintelligible in one age and
country are underftwod iu other ages and caantries: and

may be trandated from one tongue into another, without
ambiguity or error, where the prototypes exlll in common.
Farther, though general terms are often indefinite and un-
certain, yet whenever they exprefs fpecies or kinds, they
may be defined by afcertaining the feveral ideas which con-
ftitute thofe fpecies or kinds. And as the properties which
conftitute each clafs are found complete in each individual
of each clafs, the name of the kind is applied to each of
the fpecies; and the name of the fpecies to each individual
included under it: and thus generic and fpecific terms are
employed by the alTiflance of certain adjuntls hereafter to
be confidcred, to denote individuals.

General ideas may be confidered as abftraft ideas, a?
they are generated by the mind feparating or alJlrOLling
from each objccl thofe particularities wiiich conlHtuU-
individuality. But they arc to be dllllnguilhed, at leail
in a grammatical view, from that numerous and importan;:
clafs of ideas whicti we acquire by t!ie uiore limple aft ol
fcparati.ig from a thing the quality which belongs to it.
Thus, the attribute to think becomes thought ; and ^ood i:>
converted into ^oodnefs. Abllraft nouns of this kind are
all, without exception, derived from v.rhs and adj. dives,
and formed by the fimple power of withdrawiRg a property
from the fubjeft which fupports it, and giving it an inde-
pendent exillence in the imagination. Now, it is a faft
worthy of attention, that as general, fo abflrafted, ideas
are formed by the fole agency of language, and would not
have exilled in the flightefl degree, if words had not pre-
vioufly been applied to exprefs the qualities oi things. For
as foon as a property was marked by an appropriate word,
the feparate and independent exiilence of tliat word, recog-
nized by the eye or by the ear, induced the mind, without
an effort and, perhaps imperceptibly, to give the property
fo defignatedan independent exiilence alfo. Mr. Tooke re-
jefts tlie principle of abfiraftlon, and would introduce in the
room of it what he calhfiduuidition. Tiius, according to him,
goodnefs is that which is good \ frying is that which flies : and
under this erroneous and circuitous mode of explaining ab-
ftraft qualities which he has borrowed from the neuter parti-
ciple in Latin, he has attempted to bury out of fight the ope-
ration of the mind in forming abllraft ideas. The exiflence
of this operation, however, is too obvious to be denied with
efftft, and too important, in philofophical grammar, to be
abandoned on the authority of any perfou whofe acutenefs of
intcllcft may enable him fometimes rather t) perpL-x than to
unravel truth. In conformity to his own theory, Mr. Tooke
fuppofcs fuch words as_/i-it-«<:f, dUigetice, which are abflraft nouns,
derived from the l^aUn fcientia, diligen.'ia, to be neuter parti-
ciples plural in etitia, a luppofition contrary to the ana-
logy of the Latin tongue, which affords not a fingle iu-
flance of plural adjcftives being converted into abflrait
nouns.

We cannot help noticing in this place an obfcrvation
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 13 i " As all the objefts
which exill muft be either in the fume flate in whicli they
«'erc produced by nature, or changed from their original-
ftatc by art, cm- abflrailed from uibflanees by the powers
of imagination, and conceived by the mind, as having at
leaft the capacity of being charaderized by qualities ; this
naturally fuggelts a divifion of neuns into natural, as iran,
"vegelnlle, tree, &e. ; arlijicial, as houfe, Jiip, ivaich, SiC. ;
and ahjlratl, as ivhit^nefs, motion, temperance, &c." This di-
vifion lias been borrowed from Mr. Harris, in Ills Hermes,
andiiorrowed without confideration. 1^ bflraft ideas are the,
chief materials of fclence, which, giving birth to arc, ex-,
tended to the produftions of art, as its genuine oflspring,
the ule of its own terms. Accordingly, all artificial terms arc

abllraft

G R A M M A R.

aViflrai?^ terms, or terms derived from adjectives and verbs.
Thus, Jlahh denotes an artiiicial production, and is at the
fame time an abftracl noun ixavaJlahV.is ; zniL plough is taken
from the Hebrcv.- ]7£}, plmlng, and means an inllrument
of reparation. And even natural objects are often expreifed
by abllract nouny, 'a'i crcat'wn from tiie verb create. And if
abilract nouns are extended by alfociation to delignate na-
tural and artificinl objefts, they cannot with propriety be
fjid to form a clafs of nouns diftinft from nature and art.
AbSlraft nouns, expreffing ideas properly fo called,
are very nurjierous in oin- language, and worthy of attention.
They are chiefly taken from the Latin ; as thofe in tion or
f:on, mcnt, enrt, ty, or tiide ; s.sfiflion, collufion-, commandment,
eonf^rptence, piety, alt'ititd:. And all the nouns of this termi-
irdt!o;i, with others in iijl- and t, fuch as expanfe, merit, are
alio from this fource. Many others are derived from the
Anglo-Saxon or Gothic, fuch as all thofe in nefs,fome, and
hood ; as goodnefs, noifome, neighbourhood. The far greater
part of Mr. Tooke's fecond volume is occupied in tracing
nouns of this delcription. Plis etymological refearches are,
in many refpefts, ufefiil and important ; but we cannot help
bearing our tellimony againft his work, as tending to direct
the labours of philological enquirers to wrong objects, and
to witlidraw their attention from thcfe fources, whence
Engliih and all otlier European languages, ancient and mo-
dern, have iprung. But let us hear his own words : " The
bulk and foundation of the Latin language is Greek ; but great
part of the Latin is the language of our northern anceitors
grafted upon the Greek. And to our northern language
tiie etvmologift muft go, for that part of tlie Latin which
the Greek will not furniili; and there, without any twilling or
turning, or ridiculous forcing and torturing of words, he will
cafily and clearly find it. We want, therefore, the telli-
mony of no hillorians to conclude that the founders of the
Roman Hate and of the Latin tongue, came not from -/IJui,
int from the north of Europe. For the language cannot lie.
And from the language of every nation we may with cer-
tainty coUcit its origin. In the fame manner, even thougli
v.o hillory of the fact had remained ; and though anotl'.er
Virgil, and another Dionylius, had again, in vcrfe and profe
brought another jEneas from another Troy to fettle modern
Italy, after the deitruclion of the Roman government, yet,
in fpite of fuch falfe liiilory, we lliould be able, from the
modern language of the country, (which cannot poiTibly
lie,) to conclude with certainty, that our northern anceftors
had again made another fuccefsful irruption into Italy, and
Rgaiu grafted their own language upon the Latin, as before
upon the Greek. For all the Italian which cannot be
eafily lliewn to be Latin, can be eafdy fliewn to be our
northern language. Mr. Wakefield had, fhortly before his
death, agreed with me to undertake, in conjunttiou, a divi-
fion and feparation of the Latin tongue into two parts ;
placing together in one divilion all th.it could be clearly
Ihewn to be of northern extraiition.'' (Vol. ii. p. 140 ) In
p. 299, he gives the following inftances, with many otliers,
cf Latin words derived from the northern language :
Habian, habere Dilgian, delere

Hnaecan, necare MaUni, molere

Higan, ire Erian, arare

Flentan, hendere Tillian, toUere

Wealopian, -vo'vere Gnittan, ^ „

Fleuan, Jltiere Nigtan, j

Spiran, fpirare Kerfan, crefcere

Speowian, Jpucre Tekan, tang, re

Spitwi, J'i>ulare Denian, danmare

Milefcian, mukert Pro'lan, proba're

Meolgian, mut^rs Reafian, rapire

Pinan, punlrc Suegian, fuadtre

Pyngan, pungere Bidddn, petere.

IVgan, Ji^tie

According to Mr. Tookc, the words in Roman letters
are plainly of northern origin, while thofe correfponding t<»
them in italics are Latin verbs derived from them. Tiie
reverfe of this pofition we can prove to be true. The
Anglo-Saxon, or Gothic words, wh'ich this author digni-
fies as northern primitives grafted on the Latin, are ni>
otiier than Latin words borrowed and corrupted by the
northern barbarians when they over-ran the Roman empire.
This pofition, if proved, will render the far greater part
of Mr. Tooke's labours perfeftly nugatory ; and nothing
more is neceffary to prove it than to fhew that the originals
of the Latin words exill in Greek, or in one of tiie Ori-
ental tongues, and exiil too in fuch a form, as to evince that
the/e are the primitives, and confequently that the northern
words are only corruptions derived from thence. Thus the
Hebrew r]T, taph, is a hand ; Jience capio,lo take in hand,
and by foftening c into an afpiratc, as is often the cafofc_
haleo, to hold in the hand, ;. e. to have. The Greek ,nr.,
overthrow, is the parent of the Latin neco, corrupted into
hnxcan ; in; I go, eo, higan ; xx-.l^;, hendo, Lntait, to feize ;
■i>.!i, -colnio, luealopian, to roll; Z>\,x, fuo, Jicuan,X.o fi<j\s ;
tiZ'^ fp'h and nDP'/P"'' fignify Zips; hencey/ao, or fputo,
the action of the lips in throuing out of the mouth, /. e.
fpue,fpit; //.y.AKKifi-, to fotten, mulceo, milefcian; xuCy^-, mulgco,
mcolgian, to milk ; v-cira, recompence, punifhmcnt, punic,
pinnan, to punilli ; ^rvyr, a X.dM, pungo, pyngan, to act as a tail
does, /. e. to prick; ~r.yy, fgo, fjtgan, to fix; >.ryju:, [eo,
deleo, to wadi down, to obliterate by walhing, di'gian; ,ui>.>.i,
molo, Goth, ma'an, to mill; Chalccan y*lX» '"'"J 'i''^! aro,
erian, to plow ; 7!A?.i', to rife, toUo, liFian ; ni.-y to fpin,
twill, n'eclo, gniHim, or nigtan ; &r,-,i, lego, or tango, letan,
to touch ; ix^uKi, damno, demon i Jojpn, food, prolo, to tafte-
food, prc^an, to prove ; ctjrra^i-, tranfpofing r, as is often
the cale, rapio, reafian ; ^oS.i, to defire, pclo, to feck in con-
fequence of defiring, biddan.

Though this lift clearly fiiewsthat the Northern language
is, in a great degree, a corruption of the Latin borrowed
from the Greek, the Hebrew, and other Oriental tongues,
yet Mr. Tooke gives it as exhibiting inftanccs of the Nonhcrn
dialeft grafted on the Latin. The primitive languao-e cf
tile Nortli could have been no otlier than a branch of the
primeval language of n\en, conve) ed there by t!ie firft cmi-
grants, diverfilied and enriched by communications with the
Eall on the north of Afia, by early irruptions into Greece,
as is mentioned by Herodotus, and, in far later days, by
amalgating with the Latin, when in the dark ages the tribes,
of the North invaded and difmembered the Roman empire.
In this ilate, the Northern language became the parent oF
the Euglifli ; arid though a multitude of its words, efpecially
monolyllabic words, are, no doubt, immediately from the
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic ; yet few inftances, we believe,
can be produced, which may not be traced, by a compclcriL,
etymologiil, through the medium of thofe corrupt changes,
to their primordial purity in Italy, in Greece, and in the
Eall, the fole origin of language and literature. But
Mr. Tooke reveries this natural and neccdary order ; and,
without the teftimony of hillorians, without anv documents
of t'le la guage fubli.lling in the North, antecedent to that
Avhich was fp(>ken in the middle ages, he fixes on corruptions
borrowed from the Latin, and holds them up as the origin
wheuce Latin, Greek, and Euglifti have been derived. Hi*
theory, thus far, is ridiculous and mifchievous ; rldic.ulous,
tecaufe it is a palpable error, profefiing important difco-
*cries ; and mlfcliievOus, becaufe, while it pretends to trace

GRAMMA R.

wordT to tlicir Kcnuinc roots, (lops up aU the true fources
of informalic.n on the fubjodl of language. As we have
pafll-d this cenfure on liis fyftem, we feel ourfelves called
upon to juftify it by more numerous inllaiices. And we
think this the more nccoffary, as fahfcquent grammanans,
and the pubhc in general, feem willing to aequiefcc ni his
portions as incontrovcrlibly iull.

In doing this we (hall adopt the words which prclent
themlelvest without much fclefHon, referring our readers to
tlie page where they occur in his fecond volume. It was im-
poflible to err as to the derivation of ri^ht from rtiliim ; but
fime'.h'ws ordered is not the leading idea of the term, though
Mr. Tooke employs many tjuarto pages m explanung it on

prafticc very frequent in Latin ; and hence tlie Anglo-
Saxon yrj'jvrn, to flieer.

One of thofe broad analogies by which the Latin fcpa-
ratcd from tlie Greek, is to convert a guttural into a labial,
as in yj.on, jlos, yQ^'xe^o-, fiortdus. Thus it may be, cultus
became, as it were, fid/ns, fid/,Jield, 1. e. a cultivated ground,
and not a place felled, p. 41. Coward is the participle of
cower, to bend ; but the parent of this verb is corruo, to
flu-ink, p. 42. Bread is beared, ;. e. the produce of the
carlli, as beam, offspring, is Loren, fometliing bqrn, and not
from the obfolete iray, to pound, which is taken from the
I^alin frlco or franco ; both of which originated in the
Arabic T)"^^, pharac. Fiend, foe, is the participial termina-

this principle. The primary fenfe of ri^ht in flraigli*, a re- tion of,5.i, or pisiiji., violence, in which, as Socrates fays, there
iativeterm, denoting the means to an end. Thus, virtue is is etimify ; while friend is the fame form oi frau, a woman,

;.././,

.-ivM, becaufe it is the fhort or direA road to happmefs.
Tliat hand is ri^ht, which does its work in the JJ.wrlef wav.
Property is ri^ht, becaufe it is the ilraight road to the wel-
fare of lociety. In this fenfc we may fay of God, if we fay
it with reverence, that it is right in him, becaufe, when he
has an end to anfwer, right means the Ilraight way to ac-
complilh it. " The left-hand is that which is leaveel, or
which we are taught to leave out of ufe on fuch occafion,"
p. 10. This app'ears to us nonfenfe. Left is the Greek
;.xio.-, and Latin 'Uvus, with /, the ufual termination of nor-
thern words. Lex, l*"r. lot, and our leiw, is from lego, and
means fomething read or diclated, and not fomething placed,
p. S. The Anglo-Saxon, leegan, ponere, is but a corruption
of locare, to place. Jujlus, indeed, means fomething com-
manded, ju/^Z/m, homjubco. But this lall is the Hebrew 21>
gob, and tlie Arabic jaab, to anfwer or affent. Hence, m
Latin, jukre legem, to enaft a law, i. c. to allow it to pafs,
and promife to obey it,

" To ciicnl is to do as the euckow does," p. 21. Few
people know how the euckow does ; but all know
how a cock acts on fuch occafions. Kokoraa is an Eallern
word, which, coming into Italy, gave birth to cicurio, to
trow ; and, changing r into the connate /, as is often the
cafe, to loiolaa, which, in Celtic, is iilog and iilegee, to aft
as a cock does with a hen. This, we prefume, is the origin

(from ?)!;a i. e. the bearing animal,) and fcems at firft to
mean a female loved. The letter /, being of the fame
organs with n, is often changed for it in all languages,
as yj/ji^n, lympha ; '7n-vij.a,pid/i20. On the fame principle, the
Hebrew 0X3 > naaph, to marry, became laaf, or love. The
Hebrew fi'p, hhit, and the Perfian hhod,felf, pafling to the
North, gave birth to the pronoun kit, or, as it is farther
corrupted, it, which, like ;'</ in Latin, diredts the attention
to fomething going before, and is a fubilitute fur it. Gothic
haitan, vYnglo-Saxon hstan, or gietav, to fpeah or command,
is, perhaps, the Greek rxi/'riocu, which, in Celtic, is givyd, in
Enghfh quoth, and in Latin in the compound form of in-quit,

P-53- . .

Tight, i e. tieA, and the Gothic /wn, is from ttkuj-i-. In
fold up, 67. Ttuijl is tortus or ttjlvs, and not that wliich ia
iiuiced. Quilt is coiled, (xnXn,) twilled. Draught, drag,
is T^axcci; traho. Tilt is tilted, lifted, from -riWu, tollo. " Bar-
ren, i. e. barred, clofed, fliut'', p. 72. The verbs 9?fi-,
fero, bear, paro, parco, pario, with tJie numerous tribes of
words derived from thefe in all languages, owe their exift-
ence to the Arabic barron, the earth, or that which produces
all things : and barren, we prefume, mea:)t primarily an ani-
mal having produced ; and thence it denoted infrrundily, con,*
fequent on produftion, or, more general! ), incapacity to
produce. Tlie Hebrew "i'^, _/ltr, denotes any thing r/o/f,
of cuckold. Hen-pecked is a figure of the fame nature, and Jljarp, or hard. Hence the Greek r!??"-, frm, rigid ; and
from the fame fource. " Alert \% all-creHa,'' p. 24. No, ourflern, -p. "j^. The fame word in Arabic means a harfli or
we prefume it is all-ert, or all-art, i. e. all adive. The word acute found, and hence fecmingly the Englith Jlir. The
tirt, fignifying Ikill, came to fignify that diligence by which Arabic *TJJ^, ferr, which we Ihould pronounce_y7fi;r, denotes
flvill is attained. The oppolite, which fanttions this cty- to flow, or to move as water does. Hence the Anglo-Saxon
mology, is inert, not aclive. A knave, i. e. a man cunningly fliran, which means to caufc a Ihip to move, which is the
fliilful, came, by the fame afTociation, irom gnavus, dihgent. meaning of the hence-dcrivedy/iYr. Stern is that part of a

" La/Jj, (French lafche) of a whip, i. e. that part of it
which is /:■/ loofe," p. 32. Rather from Auyo?, an of/er.
The French lafche, or the Italian lafciare, is the Latin
lasare, from ^uyoi', to bend. To bren, or to burn, gave birth

(hip which is thus moved. The Hebrew "T|J, gur, to turn,
has given birth to churn, turning or (lining cream being t! e
means of obtaining butter, which in Anglo-Saxon hgyran,']6i
to year, which is a revolution of time ; to yarn, which means

to brand, i. e. a mark by burning ; — brandy, i. e. fpirits therefore fomething turned or twijkd, and not prepared,
which burn ; — brown, i. e. bread burnt ; — brunt, brunt of the riiXo;, pilus, means hair on the head ; hence it fignified to form

battle, ;. e. the heat of the battle, or the place where the
battle burns. The origin is furnus, an oven. Odd is not
the participle owed, i. e. fomething owed to make up a
pair, p. 38 ; but the Hebrew "inSN "had, one, hngle, fin-
ijular, i. c. one that has no other to make an even number,
or pair, with him. Thus we lay, an odd man, i. e. a fin-
gidar man. Loud, p. 39, is, we prefume, from yJ.ii-or, a
voice heard. The Anglo-Saxon, derived from this word,
lias preferved the k afpirated, hlowan. In Celtic it is cloed.

hair, or to grow into a head. And this is the origin of our
words pile, build. Bold or bald originated in validus, bodily
(Irength naturally infpiring mental energy, 79 ; but bolt, p. 128,
h Bo,o;OT iSxnza:, the thing call, 129. .Soar is the Hebrew
"l^yD' ^"'"f) a (lurdy (lupid animal ; but brawn we think
is not baeren, but pork, porken, proken, brawn, from porcust
and therefore it means the flclh of a pig, 87.

Chop, chip, is fomething cut off, frora>:o~7a'. The Anglo.
Saxon plihtan, to pledge, is from xXncrs-iJ or rrXn-) i', to flrike.

that which is heard in praife of a man. The Latin has plight being a bargain llruck. i'/;;;/ is the fame in fenie and

rejefted the guttural altogether in laiido. The Greek found with the Arabic *7jy, _/?;«//. The Anglo-Saxonyrrf^in

poets have applied the epithet y.>.i/To: to fuch animals as is nothing but the Hcbivw fi^>,_/Zi//, ?m/(v; and hence it came

bleat ; hence low : Jhred, or Jljerd,fhur,Jhjre, (as plough to fignify the aftion of the nates in throwing away the excre-

fliare) p. 41. come from xtij.., to clip, by prefixing s, a ments. We fhal! merely add the following lift, and all the

7 worda

GRAMMAR,

tt'ords in the laboured chapter on ahj}ra8kn are, with few
exceptions, capable of being Ir.icrd in the fame manner ;
and we defire our readers to compare the derivations here
given with thofe of Mr. Tookc in the pages referred to.

Gj-v-XXfi', to divulge or cxpofe ; trull, a public woman, p. 153.
TooTTii, to turn, drab, a woman that turns about, a vagabond
woman, 154: hence the Gotliic traliiin, to drive about, or
turnout, 155. The Arabic fl'^V', a/j>h, racdM^ food, fiip-
port , and hence /oiif, the means of fubfiltence. The Anglo-
Saxon has preferved the nafal afpirate hLif, 157. From Ao^o-,
a hUl, came the Anglo-Saxon hl'ijiau, to raife to an high place ;
hence too lofty, lift, 162. ]y~|, rhcn, Anglo-Saxon gre-
tiian, virefcerc, grettt. r»jaa-xai, Anglo-Saxon geregnan, to
decay. Grey, 167, the colour of old age. '^•'^^, Jliar,
Jhotver. fTlj^', yZvVf, principality. Shire, fire, fir. Ruga, a
wrinkle. Rcugh, Anglo-Saxon rof, 177. Tfi/, uveive, -woof,
Anglo-Saxon luefan, 178. Tas-o-o.', to arrange, bind, com-
mand; hence tcxo, to lueave ; lax, tribute, i. e. lag, the
thing fallened, 179. T£^^w, to rife ; hence tollo, tall, i. e.
what ia r.ufed, Teaai; fignifies alfo to command, and thence it
came to denote voice, or found in general ; tell, tale, toll, the
lOuud of a bell. T.v.o , a tribute, talio, to pay, toll.
Aov^(Li■, to Have, to tail, or, as it was formerly fpelt, tueil,
val ; tool, the medium of toil, an inftrument. Hence,
moreover, Anglo-Saxon tiU'ian, till, i. e. to flave on the ground,
cultivate the ground, 180. ~)]3, bar, fomethi'ng added on
the outfide for tlie fake of defence, is the origin of bar :
n'"113' bareich, is burgh, borough, a place barred, i. e.
fecured, wliich in Greek is ■^v^yoc, a tower, and in
Englifh park: moreover, the bari of a tree is p"!^,
tirk, or that which feparates from the tree. The
Arabic horhaan, a nobleman, is the parent of baron,
and to this fenfe of the word St. Paul alludes, in
AAs, xvii. " the Berenns were more Hoi/c_than thofe of Thcf-
falonica." "iVQ' phalk, in Arabic means afhip, and this, by
changing /into r, gave birth to bark and barge, 182. 11^,
lur, pit or grave, bury. Xi'^ij is Jlore, Jreafure, 185.
Q^,*, flarm, to inundate, is the Anglo-Saxon_y?j»-m<;n,to rage
as a flood, and hence _/?/•/?-»), 183. ^^ .1, dana, in Arabic
means a body of people come together ; hence town, 201.
JT3, beet, means a houfe, a place that, holds or contains ;
hence bed, abode, pot, in Greek /?r.:iTi-, in Celtic bedh, the
laft abode of man, ai'.d^;V. Caufo, to plead, to deliberate, gaVe
hM\i to choice, the effccl of deliberation, and to cozen, i. e.
to deceive by pleading. The '?tx'i\7cnjl.nraab, is vine, juice;
and hence the Latinyirfoo, and the Engli(li_/^7-«/,_/Z>/-uZ', 2oy.
*^n2' "nehur, morroiv, Anglo-Saxon mcrgen, viorn. ©ifu.
So heat, to dry, to evaporate by heat ; hence Anglo-Saxon
drygan, drain, 224. \'r,yrj , a garnn'nt, rug, rig T^i-p^j;!',
triiho, Anglo-Saxon drag, dragen, drone, an infeft that
drags itfelf. ^"3Ji,S fkaU protiuced fkdl. The Anglo-
Saxonfcylan, to leparate, feenis to have come from itxeX-),-, leg.
i. e. to put the legs in action, to feparate one from the other.
Sea!:, to difperfe, is o-xiXXi', ja3o ; \\\ii\<: fcale, to weigh, is
*^p5y, ^fl^iakl, 233. &i'X'', ''ii''X'"-, is brook. <I>avXo;, Joul,
Anglo-Saxon fytan, file, defile. Ym, genu, inee. A'uo,
nulus, nod,2^j^. 'VsXo-:, talio, toie, dole, dollar, deal, Z^6. JJ/*^,
X>.!>/', Angio-Saxon hlian. Ta^t^o-tfalted curds, tart iTtyo,-, a
roof, Anglo-S.;xonj(.'/ji7n, to afcend the roof. Sty, a place cover-
ed for hogs. Stage, a place covered for adtors to entertain the
people. Xl\u.,Jluo, by tranfpofing /, is fill, Jill- I'Vrveo,
fretum, the boiling fea ; hence bruit, noife ot the boiling
waves, and the Q>tA\c food, alfo/r;/. Pifci, to feed, An-
glo-Saxon byfcian, to be occupied in feeding cattle, biify.
V"l, din, dun, dint, 305. Kf^^ua, a fm:Jl piece, crum, An-
glo-Saxoii grymman, to prepare taall pieces by fice. Dano,

to produce, yield, is the parent of do. QT^, dum, mult,
dumb. Miifi, /x^jo-j mors, Anglo-Saxon myrran, mar. "ir»r»«j
famad, truiAw:, finite, fnilh, f miller, 416. If " X> <"''s> '»
Arabic (7ar/Zr, f(2/7Z>, 417.

Thefe fpecimens (and they are ample fpecimens) will be
fufficient to enable us to form ajuilcHimate of Mr Tooke'S
merit as an etymologift. If the above are well founded,
they fliew that his hii)ours have been greatly over-rated. His
great error ii, that by forced analogies, or rather contrary
to all analogy, he has yoked togetlier words as of a common
origin, wliich have flowed from verj- different fources ; and
this error has arifen from his Ihidied inattention to the opcra-
tionsof the human mind, toll s entire want of acquaintance with
the Oriental tongues, whence all the European dialects, an-
cient and modern, have been derived ; and to his prepodc-
rous attempt to deduce Englllh, Latin, and Creek, from
the corruptions of Latin and Greek by a barbarous people in
the dark ages. Before we ijuit this lubjeA, we fliall make
one or two obfervations worthy the attention of thofe who
trace the ramifications of modern languages from their an-
cient fleiiis.

Li the Oriental tongues gutturals abounded, wiiich, like
other confonants, contained in theml'elves the vowels nccef-
fary to their pronunciation. But it is the tendency of every
guttural, when become habitual, to foften dov.-n,'iii the ra-
pidity of utterance, into a mere afpirate, till it at length va-
niflies. Thus to/-nK has degenerated into horn, and yj^iJ'^:. into
humus, and into homo, a creature of earth ; fo in the Greek,
the Oriental khaan, a king, became ai.T,ro-i, to reign, which
Homer pronounced *xva<r-.i. This principle has obtained
m the formation of many words, derived into Englilli tlirougli
the medium of the Anglo-Saxon and the Gothic. And
theinllanees are Hill more numerous where the afjiirate, in-
llead of vanilliing, has been converted into the labials v, f,
or J'. Thus ii'icked is the Arabic "Ipp, hagiiad ; <warni,
the Peril an _f(7;/n ; all, h.-.^, ii-hole, the Hebrew 'i^, tal ;
wori, £fyo , the Cli.ildean pl}^, aari. ^^^, cheil, Jlrenglk ;
hence iL'eal, 'wealth, the ftrength of a tlate ; -wall, the
llrength of a town ; heal, health, the Itrength of the human •
body. LDTH' harl, turiie.

An inattention to this principle has betrayed Mr.
Tooke into many errors ; thus he derive sjfc/</ from felbd,
that is, a piece of ground in which the wood is felled ;
whereas we conceive it is a corruption of cullus ; as if full us,
fuld, field, i. e. a cultivated piece c f ground, precifely in the
fame way as ;j^X--^, became_/7w, and x'^'i fh g"ll- Ths fub-
llitution of the labial fora guttural or afpirate obtained in an
early period of the Gfeek, and conllitutes the origin of
what is called the digamma. This digamma prevailed in the
age of Homer, when the language was chiefly oml. But
his poems, as being written, prckrved the guttural or afpi-
rate, the true original character, which being (ludied, caufed
the afpuate to prevail in time over the digamma ; and thus
it reitoitd the language to its primitive purity. But the
I>-.itin, having flou ed from the Greek at an early age, when
the caprice ot oral founds ipread uncontrolled by 'u.r.'ttfn
letters, and having no monument of genius like the Iliad and
Odyffey to correct that caprice, as was tlie cafe in Greece,
adopted the digamma, and thus feparatcd, by a broad line of
dillinctioM, from the parent tongue. We now return to the •
properties of nouns.

The properties of nouns are gender, number, and
c.ife. Gender, as meaning the diilinition of fex, was by no
means a neceflary property of nouns, for the fignification
wus fulTicient to Ihew the fex to which- it belonged. • Thus, as

Uktc

GRAMMAR.

llicrc were but two fc-Kcs, tliere fiiould have been two genders, .
liiafculiiic.aud fcminuic, iioims meaning males being ranked
under the former claf;;, thofe meaning females under the latter ;
while the nailer or neither gender comprehended the names of
inanir.iate things, or fueh animals as had tlieir fex not dif-
cernible, or not necelTury to be dillinguillied. But unfor-
tunately the termination of nouns beeame a mark of gender
independent of their fignilication ; and thus nouns were con-
fidered as mafculine, feminine, or neuter, as tliey happened to
have the ending"; which cuftom ufually aiTigned to eith.er of
ihcfe three clail'es. The Hebrew tongue, in its primitive pu-
rity, appears to liave been exempt from this unhappy embar-
vafhnent, and the only languages known to us which have
maintained the empire of common fenfe again II the caprice ot
cuftom are the En;;lilh, the Perfian, and the Bengalefe. In
Greek and Latin the dictates of reafun liave fo far prevailed
as to caufe all tliofe nouns, whatever be their terminations,
which mean males and females, to be deemed mafculine and
feminine ; while the names of inanimate objedls only are de-
termined by the .termination. In other languages, inch as
the Arabic, French, and Italian, this ablurdity has been car-
ried much farther, the names of inanimate objects being
faid to have gender : the neuter, which is only the negative of
fex, is excluded ; and the learner has his memory loaded with
the gender of noims which really meant things without lex,
and tl:is without any one advantage to counterbalance fo much
fruitlefs trouble, and fuch glaring facrilice of common
fene.

The Englifn language, as conforming to nature in rc-
gai-d to the diflindtions of gender, has greatly the advantage
over other tongues : wlien rifing to the rhetorical and poetical
ilile it addreffes the fancy by perfonilication. This figure is
elfential to poetry. In order to intereft the imagination, the
fubjecT; of difcourfe, when inanimate, muft be invefted with
the form; and attributes of living beings. Now, when things
are thus perfonified or fpoken of as perfons, tiiey muft be
reprefented as mnk or femah: May they be made either ?
Or IS there any analogy to give one the preference over the
other ? Let us hear what Mr. Harris ( Herm. p. 44. )
fays on this fnbjecl. Having obferved that iome nouns are
of fuch a gender from having fuch a termination, he thus
proceeds : " In others we may imagine a more fubtle kind of
reafoning, a reafoning which difcerns even in things witliout
fex a dillant analogy to that great natural diftinftion which,
according to Milton, animates the world. In this view we
may conceive thofe fubftantives to have been confidered as
mafculine, which were confpicuous for the attributes of im-
parting or communicating, or which were by nature aftive,
ilrong, and efficacious, and that indiferiminately whether to
good or to ill, or which had claim to eminence either laudable
or otherwife. The feminine, on the contrary, were fuch as
were confpicuous for the attributes either of receiving, of
containing, or of producing and bringing forth ; or which
had more of the paffive in their nature than of the aftive ; or
which were pecuharly beautiful and amiable ; or which had
refpeft to fuch excefles as were rather feminine tlian mafcu-.
line." On this principle the fun, as imparting light, is maf-
culine ; the m«/3«, as receiving it, feminine. 'i^\\ejly, or elha;
time, death, the ocean, the Supreme Being are all mafculine;
while the carth,J].vp, cily, virtue, religion, are feminine. And
yet Mt. Tooke roundly pronounces this reafoning fallacious.
" As for Mr. Harris's poetical authorities, the Mufes are
bitter bad judges in matters of philofophy. Befides, that
Reafon is an arrant defpot, who, in his own dominions, admits
of no authority but his own. And he is particularly un-
fortynate. in the very outfet : for his very firit inftancc-.

\.\\e fun and the moon, deftroy the whole fubtlety of this kind
of reafoning. For Mr. Harris ought to h.avf known- that in
many Afiatic languages, and in all the nf)rthcrn languages of
this part of the globe which we inhabit, and particularly
in our mother language, the Anglo-Saxon, fun is feminine,
and moon is mafculine," vol. i. p. 54. The author of the
learned treatife on grammar in the Eucyclop. Britannica, 17,
reftingno doubt on the authority of Mr. Tooke, thus pro-
nounces on the reafoning of Mr. Harris ; " Such fpecula-
tions are wholly fanciful ; and the principle on which they
proceed are overturned by an appeal to fatls. Many of the
fubftantives that in one language have mafculine names, have
in others names that are feminine, whtcli could not be the
cafe, were this niattcr regulated by rcff/in or luiturc.''

The languages from which the objeAion to Mr. Harris's
theory is deriv.ed are net regulated in regard to the diftinttion
of gender by reafon or nature. And facls borrowed from
them are not furely to be admitted as conclufive againil a
principle in a language which is regulated by reafon and na-
ture. Mr. Harris deduced his theory from the Englifh,
though he has applied it with perhaps more fancy than truth
to fome inftances in the clafiical languages. Our own tongue,,
as making all things neuter which have no life, admits the
operation of fancy in perfonifying inanimate objcfts ; and
where perfonification is admitted, the analogy to the natural
dillinttion of the fexes muft neceftarily be admitted alfo.
But, Mr. Tooke ?nd his abettor fay, it is fanciful be-
caufe it does not obtain in other tongues. Their argument
is briefly this : — 'i'he fun, by perfonilication, is not made maf-
culine in Englifti, where the confideration of gender is
founded on realon, beeaufe it is made feminine in Iome lan-
guages where the termination, and not reafon, determines the
gender. Reafoning of this kind is not only inconclufive,
but frivolous ; and the analogy ftated bv Mr. Harris inva-
riably and ncceffarily operates on our own tongue, and would
have operated in all tongues, if, like the Englifti, they liad
conformed to the ftandard of nature ; and we ought no more
from their caprice to argue againil the dictates of reafon
and analogy, than we ought to deny a regard to the dif-
tiniflion of fex in the nouns of one language, . beeaufe the
gender of the fame nouns in others is regulated by confi-
derations independent of fex.

When a noun reprefents its objccl as one, it is faid to be in
thi^JJngular, and ^/«/W when meaning more than one. This
property alfo can hardly be faid to be necefl'ary to nouns, as its
place might have been fnpplied with greater accuracy by
numerical adjeftives w'hen extended to exprefs numbers, as
/TOO men, three mQii, &c. "Bengal-nouns," fays Mr. Hal-
hed, in his excellent grammar of that tongue, p. 68. "have
neither dual nor plural numbers, I may add that neither is
wanted. The dual is found in no modern language, and
probably never exifted but in the Arabic and its branches,
in the Shanfcrit and in the Greek. That the idea of multi-
tude is not confined to the plural number, is clear beyond a
doubt, beeaufe ftngnlar nouns are ufed in all languages withi
a colleilive fenfe, almoft as frequently as plurals, thus: min
love to finely, and man loves to flui'y, are phrafes perfetHy
equivalent. So alfo we join to a noun in the lingular num-
ber an epithet of indefinite plurality to conve)' a plural
meaning : many a man is written by the Bengaleie bchoot ma/>-
hoojb. Perliaps it niight be fafely urged that the fingular
•number has more occafion for an accurate fpecification than
the plural ; at leaft this is the only circumftance which can
account for the cxtenfive ufe of the article or reprelentativp
of- unity in ir.oft of the modern dialetts of Europe."

'i'he plural n.uinber in its origin .was no other than a notir.

GRAMMAR.

•f multitude, annexed to tliat preceding it, in order to mark
its extenfion from one to many. Thus in Hebrew, ivhofe
)iigh antiquity unfolds to the philofophical enquirer the feve-
ral fteps which mankind took in the formation of fpecch :
"OCn Ji'^ZN' ai'o/lj henioii, a man multitude, became
contrafted, for the fake of brevity, into O'tih^K' """•
Jh.tm, mm. In the Chaldean and Syrlac the fmal ni was
changed into n. Hence the Hebrew rem in Chaldean be-
caiue em, in Arabic oon, in Perfian aan, to denote tlu; names
of animals, and a^ inanimate tilings. And from this fource
are derived the plural terminations in an or a in the Anglo-
■ Saxon and German tongujs. Tiie letters n and s being of
the fame organ, the Chaldean ecn became s,- in tlie formation
of the Greek, or es in the third dcclenfion of Latin nouns.
Hence, too, the plural termination s in Enghfh and French;
while the Italian exclulivcly follows the analogy of tlie fecond
Latin declenfion in i. Thus the plural termination in all lan-
Tuagcs, ancient and modern, appears to have been derived
from one fource : and that confiiled of the annexation of a
noun of multitude to the fingular form of a preceding noun.
And it is remarkable that in the Bengalefe, wliich is but a
branch of the Shanfcrit, this mode of exprefrmg plural nouns
is preferved to this day ; as, prnjaa, a peafant,^ry'(7rt-/o;f , pea-
fant-people,/ir';/,MM, peafnnts ; lok fignifying people annex-
ed to the fmgularnoun wliatever it might be. We (hall only
obferve, tliat the names of clalfes only admit the plural form ;
\\\\\\<i proper names in all languages are, by their fignification,
confined to the fingular, unlcls many individuals by accident
have the fame name. The names oi families and nations mud
likev.ife be excepted, which, from a regard to their iignilica-
tion.are necefTarily/A/ra/.

We come next to the confideration of cafes, which are
properties of nouns, perplexed and undefined, as is evident
from the different, and we may add, erroneous accounts
friven of them by moft grammarians. The bcfl and
furefl way to afcertain the nature and origin of cafes, is to
attend to the manner in whicli they were at firft conlldered
in the Peripatetic fcjjool. We adopt the words of Mr.
Harris, p. 277. "The Peripatetics held tlie nominative to be
no cafe, and likened the noun in this, its primary and original
form, to a perpendicular line, fuch for example as the line

A B. The variations from the nominative, they confidered
as if A 3 were to fall from its perpendicular, as for example
to A C or A D. Hence, tlien, they only called thefe varia-
tions ^TK5--i;, :nfus, C'lfes, or fallings. The Stoics, on tlie
contrary, and the grammarians with tliem, made the nomi-
native a cafe alfo. Words they confidered (as it were) to
fall from the mind, or difcurfive faculty. Now, wlien a noun
fell thence in its primary form, they then called it -7171; of&«,
cafus rea.is, at. ereci or upright cafe or faUing, fuch as A B,
and by this name they diilinguifhed tlie nominative. When
it fell from the mind under any of its variations, as for exam-
ple in the form of a genitive, a dative, or the like, fuch va-
riations they called m'j.'u-;i; T'layiai, cafus obliqui, oblique cafes
or fide-long fallings, (fuch as A C or AD), in oppofition
to the other (that is, A B), which was erect and perpendicu-
lar. Hence, too, grammarians called the method of enume-
ratin^T the various cafes of a noun r.>.tm, declination, a dtcLn-
Vol. XVI.

J!on, it being a fort of progreflivc defcent from the noun's
upright form, through itj vario'is declining forms, that is,
a delcent from A B to A C, A D."

We c«py this account becaufe it is very plaufihle, thouglt
we regard it ai erroneous ; the learned author and A n.nionimi
(De Intei-jiret. p. 35.) from whom he derived it, being mif-
led by the figurative language borrowed from geon.ctry.
We beUeve that the nominative is faid to be in the right cafe,
not becaufe it is an credt or upright falling from the mind,
but becaufe the nominative, the verb, and its objedt following
each other in direct fucceflion, form one fimple propofitiun.
The nominative is the lea<iing noun or agent, and the accufa>
tive IS the Cj^ed, in which the adion ftraightway terminates.
And when other nouns are introduced, they arc fpoken of
not directly as the agent or fubjed.but collaterally or obliquely t
as objefts to which the direct noun fomevTay belongs. Tbu«
the accufative as well as the nominative are right cafes, or di.
red parts of a propofition ; whereas the genitive, dative,
ablative, and vocative are oblique cafes, or indired parts of
a propofition.

From this fimple ilatemcnt, which we recomm.end to our
readers as important, we infer, that a cafe did not at firil
mean a change in the termination of a noun, but ihe pq/itioa
of a noun cxprefTiiig its relation to fome other word in the
fentence. And our next objed is to afcertain thofe leading
relations which the pofition of a noun, or foir.e other mejn*
more fpecific, expreffes. God made man is a fentence in
which the_ agent, the adion, and the objed follow each
other in the order of nature : Cod, as occupying the place
of the agent, is the nominative ; and man, as correfpond-
ing to the cfFed, is the accufative. But in the fentence
God is good, we cannot fay God is the agent, becaufe the
verbw does not exprefs an adion, but ferves only to conned
the epithet foof/ with God. The nominative, therefore, here
expreifes not the agent, but the ftihjeri of the attribute con-
ncded to it. The nominative cafe, then, is that leading Rate
or pofition which expreffes the fnijed of a conncding verb,
and the agent of an adive verb. And the aocufative is that
pofition which expreffes the effect of an adive verb, and thus
far iimple pofition will carry us : and the nominative and
accufative have evidently to each other the relation which a
caufe has to its effect, and that for no other rcnfon, but that
their order corrcfponds to the order of caufe and cffed.

But fiippofe that my purpofe was net only to exprefs a
caufe or agent, but the origin of that caufe, or the injirumera
by which it ads, or the end for wliich it i.cts. In iuch caiV*
fimple pofition will hv of 10 avad. I muit have reconrle to
fome otlier expedient, and no expedient fo well can fer/e as
fuitable words to expreU orijjin, inllrumenlality, and end.
" Thus, the Sen of God redeemed mankind — he redeemed
them iy his death — he redeemed them yir happinefs. In the
lirll fentence, of means beginning or origin : and God, luc-
cecdingit, as being the origin oifm, \i fa-.d to be iu the geni-
tive cafe. In the fecond, /')• denotes injirumenl.ility, or ir.edi-
iim ; and as death is the inllrument or medium by which
Clirid redeemed man, it is faid to be in the ablative cafe, and
might more jiroperly be faid to be in the in/Irumititjl or me-
dial cafe. In the tliird inflaucey'or exprcfTcs the en.d for whicii
Clirifl redeemed man : the noun happincfs fucce<.\iing it, U
therefore in the final cfe, or as it is commonly, though un-
meaningly, called the dative cz(e."

The cafes, then, or thofe leading pofitions of a noun that
anfwer the purpofes of fpeech, are the noininaiive, accufa-
tive, genitive, ablative, and dative. Let it be added, that lli*
nominative, as it implies tlie name of it.s objed, is often
ufed merely to addiefs a perfon, and thus to fix his attention.
In lids flate.the noun is faid to be in the fvcutive cafe, and u
4 E fom?-

G R A M M A R.

Jbmctimes preceded by tlie ■interjection O ! But we have
not yet done : the nomiimlive and nccufative are cxprefl'ed
by pylition ; while the oblique cafes, the genitive, ablative,
aud'datiye depend on words exprefling beginning, medium,
and end... Let iis a little contemplate the confequence of
tliefe.w;ords, or \yprds of the fame import, when firtl intro-
duced into difeourfe. As the i-clations of things are in the
•rdec of our ideas confcqiatU upon the things fo related, pK-
pqiltions denoting thofc relations mull at urft have fuccecdcd
the lioujis. which they now precede and govern. Tluis in the
abftve inllanccs, the order would have been Cod of- — dcnth by —
hapfinefsfar. And it is r/?markablc, that in the liindooflanic
the prs^pofitions to this day generally fucceed the dependent
nouns, inilead of going before them, as in oilier tongues.
The confeqiience of this was, that tlie prepofitions, abbrevi-
ated perhaps into fmgle letters, coalefced with the prccedmg
*,)iin, forming thereby one word with it. Thus godof, godhy,
go.lfor ; ;md the>,variety of terminations given by this means
to the noun is the origin of cafes. Modern tongues, in re-
je_iling this variety, and fiibltitutiug prepofitions, have only
reeurred to the original purity of language.

Grainmarians have generally concurred in defining cafes to
he changes of termination. In this, if the above account be
jull, they are mi(laken,not only hecauic pofi/ion is the prima-
ry and effential idea of a cafe ; but becaule while, they reject
pcepoiitions as marks of cafes, the cafes defined by them are
no other than the prepofitions whieh they reject. Conform-
ably to this notion, they maintain that the Englifli noun has
no other than the potfefTive cafe: and Dr. Lowth and Mr.
Liindley . Murray, purfuing the faine error to its coiife-
<Iuences,.comprchend nouns expreffing the relation of efledl,
tiie relation of beginning, the relation of mediimi, and the
relation of end, under one unmeaning phrafe of olji^'ive cafe,
thus confounding, relations the moll neceffary to tiie purpofes
of fpeech, the moll dillinft in themfelvcs, and moft reqiiifite
to be kept dhlinft in tlie mind.

The ideas of the moll acute and learned grammarians
have hitherto been confufed and contradictory on the lubjedl
of cafes, efpecially the oblique cales. And the author of
the treatife in the Encyclop. Britannica has jull left the
matter obfcure and uncertain, as he found it. " Tiic genitive,
fays he, is the moll general of all the cafcp, and gives notice
that fome conncdlion indeed fubfifls between two objedls,
but docs not point out the particular kind of connecilion.
That we nuiil infer, not from the nature or termination of the
genitive itlelf, but from our previous knowledge of the
objecls connetttd. That the geniiive denotes merely rela-
tion in general, might be proved by adducing innumerable
examples, in which the relations expreffed by this cafe are
different." TJiefe obfervations clearly Pnew that this writer
did not himfelf unde; ftand the meaning of the genitive cafe,
\thich, inftead of expreffing fom: connexion between two
objects, 01 -itKTc n-laticn in general, uniformly eNpreffes one
and the fame relation, namely, that oibt'g}r.n'n:g,fo'.jru', and ori-
gin ; and of, the mark of it, has uniformly the lane ieirfe with
from. Thus a table of wood, a table from wood ; wood
being the origin of the table, Rays o/" the fon, myi from
the lun, tlie lun b^ing the origin of the rays. And beginrihig
will appear to be .the primary idea implied in of, if we trace
it to i:s origin ; of, ah, a.-',, "2;^, ab, parait, ft:r,i, root. Thiis
nifo in LaimZ)«^ra//«,ti,e grace of God, the ffrace from God,
the grace -of which God is the folircc. Of the phrafe injuria
regis the writar.fays, no man can know whctlicr rlie injury
liieirtioncd be an injury fuffi-rsd, or an iniiiry inflitlnd by "the
king. We deny this ; .it tue terms be ulcd in Uriel propriety
thev muft. mean an injury from the king, an injury of which
ii»e king ic the iourte luid author ; and, if they are intended

to denote an injury received by I'.im, the expreffion 13 in-'
correct and ambiguous, though the ambiguity would be
removed by the context : and this leads me to remark, that
as the beginning of a thing is the author of it ; and as thi-
author has a full right to the fruits of his labours, io that'
ft^ate of the noun which expreffcs beginning came to fignify
tlie O'U.'ner ox poffejfor. And thus the genitive in Greek and
Latin exprclTcs the relation of poffefTion, and anfwers to what-
is called in Englifii the pojfjpve cafe. Thus, niy father's
luill may mean the will of which my father is owner ; it
means alfo the will which originated in my father. The
pofieflive cafe, in our tongue, is an evident abbreviation oft! e
genitive termination of the third declcnfion in Latin, father '!
hoife, father's houfe, the apollrophe above fupplying th(.'
place of the excluded vowel.

The fame writer has not defined tlie meaning of the dati-J.'y
though the relation denoted by it is the moll obvious of any,,
contenting himfelf with faying, that it has nearly the fame
fenfe with the accufative, 19. No two relations, howeyeiv
can be more dillinft ; as the acculative exprefies the elFcA
of an aftion, and therefore Hands immediately conneftcd
with that aftion ; whereas the dative denotes the end to
which a motion or adlion tends, and in which it terminates,
or the point to which the attention is directed forward, as
that to v.'hich foniethhig elfe is related. Thus, in tiie in-
(lance given by him, comparo VirgiHiim Homero. 1"he imme-
diate objeft ot comparifon is Virgil, and Hom-:r is the point,,
or flandai-d placed before me in making that comparifon.
The two hrll words exprefs the aftion and its efrcdl, the
hifl. holds to view the point to which they are diredled. ,'It
is true that in this and iimilar inllances, the mind brings
under one view the perfon compared and the perfon to whom
the comparifon is made ; and this proximity or juxtapofitioa
conllitutes the affinity which the writer trroncoufiy fuppofes
to be between the two cafes. Antonius heftt Ciceronem, and
Antonius nociiit Cieeroni, he farther fuppofes to be exprelTions
of the fame import ; but in this he has been niifled by the
geniu.i of our tongue, which would exprefs each phrafe by
Antony hurt Cicero. But this is the exaft meaning of tlie
iirll claui'c only. In the fccond claufe nccuit exprefies not'
an ailion, but afierts a quality. Antony was hurtful to
Cicero. Antonv washurtful, and Cicero was a perfon to
whom his hurtful behaviour was dircdttd.

The dative cafe Hands oppofed to the genitive as end to<
beginning The latter is the point where motion begins, the-
former where it terminates, and the ablative is the n.edium or-
inftrnment between both. In confequence of this connec-
tion between the ablative and the geniiive, on one hand, it
came in Latin, by the mere impulfe of repeated afiociations,.
to mean in many inllances the fame relation with the geni-
tive, and this is the reafon why the lame word- often governs
a genitive or an ablative, why in our -Cwn tongue of and
from have precifely the fame fignification, and why the
French and Italian exprefs the genitive by thofc prepofitions
yhicii in Latin govern the ablative. On the other hand, as
the inllrnmcnt or medium is connefted with the end, the
ablative holds a fimilar connefiion with the dative. Hence
in Latin thefe two' cafes are often uftd one for the other,,
which is certainly a great iniprc.priety in that language,, and
which occafions much perplexity to the learner ; while in
Greek, which has not a dillindl ablative, the relittions of
inilrumcntahty' and end are cxprefftd by the fame termina-
tion, which is certainly a great defcft iir that elegatit and
copious language. Inlirnmentaiity 'wwyiiKi concotnitaccf ; but
this is not the primary fenfe of ihe-ablative, as the. author .of
the above treatife erroiicouily fuppofes, , ' .

. . The

GRAM M A R.

The Origin and Propert'iei of AJjcB'i'ves,

Tilings or fubftances are known and vahiable on account
of their qualities ; the qualities of things therefore firil
engaged the attention of mankind. And as they perceived
that the fame quality exilled in the fame or in a diflcrent
degree, in different tilings, men, however rude or uninformed,
learned to form ideas of qualities independent of the fub-
llances to which they belonged. Hence they acquired that
clafs of words called adjcclivcs, which are only the names of
qualities. Now as qualities refult from things, tht~ names
of qualities are derived from the names of things ; and, as
moreover qualities are conllant concomitants of the things
they charaflerizc, the names of qualities are conftant adjunits
of fubilantives expreffed or implied. Hence they arc fome-
times called nouns, bccaufe tlv.'y have been borrowed from
nouns ; and always-called adjudives, bccaufe they are always
adjected or added to notnis, and for this reafon they have alfo
the name of adnouns. From this account of adjeftives we
deduce the following inferences, whicli are worthy of atten-
tion.

. Firll, adjectives exprcding the fimplc qualities of natural
objects, which do not imply ct.9//«« or ij(7;o«, are derived from
nouns, by the mind firll. abltracling the quaUty from the
thing it qnalilicp, and then generalizing it fo as to -make it
an epithet expreiTive of a (iniiiar quality in different things.
Thus in ir^nM, fl j?f^^.roftt',' the quality_y?ri;_^, contemplated
firll as a quality ot that particular thing, the mind foon
learned t" confider as Jlparate from the rock, and hence to
make it a general term of the like quahty in other- objetls.
Thus was dei'ived the adjective tj -.i;,-, pronus, prone.- And
in the manner this fingle adjeftivc is formed, are formed all
the adjedlives which cxiil; in all languages.

When adjeitives became numerous in any language, ana-
logy or cuilom toon afligncd them a particular termination.
Hence, on every converlion of a noun into an adjective, that
adjective immediately- affumed the ending which analogy had
appropriated to words of that clais. Thus (PoffbV, food,
rel'ijli, was changed into ^r)//'a.r, fignifying agreeable food or
wholefome relilh. Thus alfo luood, 'wind, became tvooden,
■nv'indy, in our own tongue. It is obvious from this to ob-
ferve, that in the earlier periods of human language, adjeftives
approached nearer in meaning and termination to the nouns
whence they were derived ; that is, they v\-ere lefs abftracted
and generalized. But the principles of abftraftion and gene-
ralization were greatly facilitated, when a quality was once
cxprefTcd by an independent word ; the eyes and the ears
being made by that means to aid the conceptions of tlic
mind. This i.s the reafon why a barbarous people have few
' >r no adjeftivcs ; and why, in the more ancient dialefts of the
Eafl, the ule of adiectives is far lefs frequent than in the
more recent languages of Europe.

In fpeaking of the qualities of things, fimd'tlude or re-
fcinblance. is an idea of high importance and frequent recur-
rence. A perfon dilcourilng to another of fomething iin-
inozun, naturally fays, that it is liLe to fome other that is
known.- Thus in Greek uw-, image; ulo;, firm ; iio?, lite ;
are combined with nouns in order to exprefs liken fs ; xvOjis-ixo,-,
'/lan-liie ; Hy.re^iir,;, having I he form of Hector, Hector dile, i. e.
'he fon of fiedor; aA^^-r.ii;, man-IHe. Tliis lail terminatiop,
by inferting s, gave birth to the Latin adjedlives in of is, and
lo our adjctlives in ous ; pecimia, pccwiiofus ; glory, ghrious.
The numerous adjectives and adverbs in Englifh are formed
J. un the fame principle. Earthly, i. e. earth-like, which is the
Greek ^lyzio-. Gladfome is gladfame, the fame witli glad;
■fomefirfime being, we conceive, corruptions of Jimilis. The
.termination j/h is originally the Perfian ttuffh, added to a

noim to exprefs likenefs; as j^^.mer, ihi mon; gomcr-^-nfl:,
nwonifli, like the moon ; vomanijb, lili a -u/oman. The termi-
nation en, derived, it is allowed, from the nortlicrn Linguagi-,
is borrowed by that language from the Greek participle
in on. In the fame manner we form fome adjectives after the
analogy of the pafl participles in ed, as honied, 'wjcj^d;
while that of y is the Anglo-Saxon ig ; but this is only tlic
Latin termination rus ; as aniens, Anglo-Saxon nn'g, any.

But it muft not be omitted that a very numerous clafs of
adjeclives is derived from verts, and that independently of
participles. Of this origin are all thofe adjectives whofe quali-
ties jire-fuppofe motion or action ; and they imply greater
power of abllrattion than thofe derived from noun?. Mr.
Tooke, indeed, denies this power as a principle influencir."
language ; and by this rcjeflion is led to deny the exiftenci:
of adjectives as a clafs diilhict from nouns. His definition
is the following. " An adjective is the name of atliirg, which
is direfted to be joined to feme other name of a thing.*^
(Vol. ii. p. 241.)

As his authority on the fubjcft of language is fo high
in the eftimation of many, we (liall briefly examine and
refute the above definition. His arguments are thefe ; " I
think you will not deny that gold and Irafs and Jilt is
each of them the name of a thing, and denotes a fub-
flance. If then I fay a gold-ring, a brafs-tube, a filk-
ftring, here are the fuljlantives ufed adjectively, yet names
of things, and denoting fubitances. If again I fay a golden
ring, a brazen tube, a fi!':en firing, do gold and brafs and
filk ceafe to be the nsmes of things, and ceafe to denote
fubflances, becaufe, inllead of couphng them will ring, tube,
and firing by a hyphen thus (-), I couple them to the feme
words by adding the termination en to each of them ? Do
not the adjeitives which I have made fuch by the added ter-
mination ^c/f.'f«, irazcn,flLncor.\ey to the hearer's mind, and
denote the fame things as gold, brafs, and fdk ? Surely the
termination fn takes nothing away from the fubilantives
gold, brafs, and filk, to whicli it is united as a termination :
and HS furely adds nothing to their fignitication, but this
fmgle circumftance, viz. tiiat gold, brafs, and filk are de-
tignated by this termination en to be joined to fome other
fiibllantive;" p. 430. Again he fays, p. 442, " But if, in-
deed, it were true that adjeftives were not the names of
things, there could be no attribution by adjectives ; for you
cannot attribute nothing. How much more comprehcnfivc
could any term be by the attribution to it of nothing ? Ad-
jeflives therefore, as well as fubilantives, mull equally de-
note fubflances ; and fubftance is attributed to fubllance by
the adjcffii'e contrivance.'' He concludes with what Dr.
Jonathan Edwards fays of the language of the Mnhh.ckancw
Indians. "The Mohegans have n» adjedlives in all their
language, although it may at firft feem not only fingular
and envious, but impoffible tliat a language fliould exill
without adjeftives, yet it is an indubitable faft.''

This account, inflead of unfolding that limplicity and
precifion which mark the proccfs of the human mind in the for-
mation of language, tends to crafe the very clcmeiiti of
knowledge, and to confound ideas the moll palpable and dif-
tindt. ()ur ideas naturally and obvioutly divide into two
clafles, ideas of qualities and ideas of things. The dif-
tincftion between thefe clafles is univerfal ; it is common to
the philofopher and the bulk of mankind ; and is moil rea-
dily comprehended even by children. As we have then
ideas of qualities, language mull have -u-ords to cxprofs' thofe
qualities, i. e. it mult have adjeOives ; aad as our ideas of
qualities- are in their nature diflinct from, tluiugh con-
comitant ideas of things ; fo adjeftives mull in their nature
be diftinft from, though adjunfts of nouns..

4E*i The

The ilrft ftep in the formation of acijoftives is abjlrad'ion ;
the mind being led to conceive of tiie quality independent

thins

of

g, lu coniequtnce oi perceiving it in

dijferent

of the

things. The frequent recurrence of the quality, wliich is
one and the fame, and therefore remembered, while the fub-
■flances which prefeat it are numerous and fucceffive, and
therefore forgotten, greatly facilitates our abftraA concep-
tions. A fnnilar facihty, as we have already obferved, is
afforded by the independent ufe of words to exprefs quali-
ties. The dependence of adjeftives on the principle of ab-
llratlion is evident from one circumftance. Like is a very
abllraft quality ; and the union of this word with nouns
is one copious fource of adjeftives in moft languages of
which we have any knowledge.

The next ftcp in the formation of adjeflives is affoc'iathn.
Tliis principle is fo powerful and inflantaneous, that it
changes the nature of a word, in confequence of its con-
neClion with other words, and of our previous experi-
ence. Thus, "the ladies _/(zn themfelves'' — "The plumy
people eye the falhng verdure.'' Becaufe we have expe-
rienced the middle term of a fimple direct propofition to
be always a -verb, we inilantly, in the above examples, con-
clude \.\aX.fan and eye do not here denote the things ufually
jiKant by thcni, but the operations of thofe things ; that is,
affociation and experience convert the naxm^fan and eye into
verbs, without any thing to aid er indicate that converiron
but affociation fuggefled by the collocation. This conver-
fijn of a noun into a verb by fimple experience, ilhiifrates
the converfion of a noun into an adjedtive. We place a
word hgnifying a quality before a word denoting a fub-
ilimce ; and as we uniformly find that qualities belong to
the things which th?y qualify, and firft aft upon our percep-
tions, we inilantly infer from the collocation that the lirll
fcxprefles an attribute of the fecond ; and this attribution
is not indicated by the termination of the attributive, but
an iiiferente of the mind founded on experience. The tcr-
Eiination en fignifying to be added is a conceit of this gram-
marian, and has no foundation in truth : for it is the Greek
participial termination in on, borrowed by the Goths. The
formation of language did not require fnch petty, circuit-
ous contrivances ; but points to the broad and hmple prin-
ciples of abllraftion and affociation as the copious fources of
all its phenomena.

From this it appears, that a peculiarity of termination is
not neceffary to form an adjective, the collocation beinn- fuf-
iieient to afcertain its charader as fuch. An adjective may
liave the fame ending with any other noun, or with the very
noun from which it was derived ; and it has this identity
of termination in Greek and Latin, and yet no ambigu-
ity arifes as to its nature and ufe. The inference, which
vve inftantly, and we may fay, imperceptibly, draw from the
ju.xtapoj'uion in our own tongue, and from the fimilarity of
terminations in the claffical tongues, is an unerring guide in
thel'e relpedls. And this is the reafon why, in abarbarous
language, it is poflible that the name of a quality may be
alwai-s the fame with the name of the thing to which that
quality belongs, and yet abound v.ith adjedfives, i. e. abound
wilh nouns converted into adjeftives by juxtapofition. Y\nd
this is all that can be meant by the teltimoay of Dr. Ed-
wards, in regard to the language of the Mohegans. If there
exifted a language which had no verbs, but nonns converted
(as in the above inftance of fan and eye) into verbs without
any variation of termination, a perfon who did nut underiland
the nature of the human mind, and who had been accuilom-
i:d to clafllfy words only by their endings, might fay of that
language, that it had no ■verbs.

The foundation of Mr. Tooke's error, is the circiunftance

GRAMMAR

that mofl
nouns in i
mind in the conltruftion of 1;

adjeftives were originally nouns. .As they were
nouns in their origin, and as he rejefted the operations of the
conltruftion of language, he inferred with con-
fidence, that they were nouns yM, thus confounding in o;ie
promifcuous mafs our ideas of qualities, and our ideas of
things; yet, notwithilanding this confufion, he writes thus :
" If in what I have faid of the adjeftive, I have expreffcd
myfelf cleariy and fatisfaftorily ; you will eafily obferve that
adjettives, though convenient abbreviations, are not necejary
to language ; and, therefore, are not ranked by me amongll
the parts of fpecch ; and, perhaps you will perceive, in tlie
mifapprehcnfion of this ufeful and fimple contrivance of lan-
guage, one of the foundations of thofe heaps of falfe phi-
lofophy and obfcure (becaufe miftaten) metaphvfie with
which we have been bewildered.''

Adjeaives, as expreffing not things, but their qualities,
cannot, in flrift propriety, have any gender; but, as in Greek
and Latin, they have the fame terminations with nouns, they
are faid to be mafculine, feminine, or neuter, merelv as thcv
have mafcuhne, feminine, or neuter terminations.

In moll languages, adjeftives vary their endings to corrc-
fpond with the plural form of nouns ; in Englifli they hav<?
no fuch variation, nor is it neceffary, fince qualities are not
fufcoptible of numerical diftinCfion, being the fame, vvhethor
applied to one or to many.

There is, however, one variation which adjeftives have in
all languages, namely, the variatien to exp.-efs the three de-
grees of comparifon. The qualities of things differ in dif-
ferent objeas, and they muil be expreffed with augmentation.
or diminution, as they are compared v%ilh others more or lofs
iiitenfe.

When a quality is expreiTed without reference to any other,
the adjettive is then faid to be in \.\\ii pofitive deoree. When
expreded with reference to the fame qu.nlitv or to another
more or lefs intenfe, it is faid to be in the ' ccmtarath-e de-
gree ; and when in the higheft or loweft degree of all, it is
m thc/«/..-T/,;//i./f. Different languages have different wavy
of forming the comparative and fuperiative ; but in ahnoif
all, both thefc degrees are derived by certain fvliablcs added
to the poiitive : the adjective itfelf, by being thus hn^thni J,
IS made to correfpond with tlie augmentation in fenfc, which
the quality acquires by companion. The mode of cxprcfT.
mg the degrees of qualities being only t^vo, and tlicrefore
very general and impeitect, while the qualities themfelves
vary in endlefs gradations, a more adequate mctliod is ufcU
by having recourfe to thofe attributes of an inferior order!
called adverbs, as much good, tolerably good, exceedinrrh good,
more good, mojl good. ^J^

As it is not our objea to detail the minute rules of gram-
mar in our own tongue, ;ve (hall conclude this part of the fub-
jea with one or two obfervations on the three degrees of com-
parifon. The pofitive degree, though not implying an imme-
diatc companion with the fame quality in a liigher or lower
degree, often conveys a relative or eon./^anitii-e^des. ; and fo.-
this reafon may, by the afhllance of a pvepofition, be made
to exprefs the comparative or fuperiative degree, as " BlefTcd
among women, ;. e. the moff blclfed of women." And
this_ relative or comparative idea, imphcd in the pofitive, is the
rea.on why the politive has fomethues after it the cafe which
IS ufed alter the c(;mparative. On the other hand, the com-
parative and fuperiative are ufed in a pofitive fenfe, or ufed
to exprefs a high degree without any immediate objea of
companfon. Thus Virgil fpeaks of Venus : " Triflior et
laerymis oculos fuffufa niteiiteE."-r;7,ft>.r, more fad than
iilual, /. e. very fad. This is more ufual in the fuperiative
degree, vir doa'ifimus, a very learned man. The comjjaraiive
18 ukd with propnety only when tivo thing.s are compared ;

the

GRAMMA R.

llle fuperlatiVe when a thing is compared with mnny. The
elder of the two — the eldeil: of all. Ncverthclcfs it is to be
allowed, that multitude may be the objeft of the comparative,
if preceded by all or luhok, to give it a collcdtive idea ; as,
" he is vvifor than all his teachers, i. e. he is wifer than the
whole body of his teachers, — he is wifer than them all put
together ; — or, compared with his teachers one after another,
he is wifer than them all."

The Origin and Properties of Pronouns and Dejinitives.

Pronouns have been dehned fublUtutes for nouns, to pre-
vent their too frequent recurrence. Mr. Harris accounts
for pronouns, or, as he calls them, nouns of the fecond order,
in a different way; and, as his explanation is curious, we Ihall
here place it before our readers. " All converfation pafTcs
between individuals, who will often happen to be till that in-
ftaiit unacquainted with each other. What then is to be
done I How fliall the fpeaker addrefs the other, when he
knows not his name ? or how explain himfelf by his own
name, of which the other is wholly ignorant ? Nouns, as
they have been defcribed, cannot anfwer this purpofe. The
firft. expedient on this occailon, ieems to have been pointing
or indicating with the linger or hand ; fome tr;- :es of which
are Hill to be obferved, as a part of that acli'),i which natu-
rally attends our fpcaking. But the authors of langu.io;?
were not content with this : they invented a race of words
to fupply this pointing, which words, as thev always ilood
for fubftantives or nouns, were charafterifed by the name of
pronouns. Thefe, alfo, they diftinguilhed into three fevcral
forts, calling them pronouns of the Hrft, the fecond, and the
tliird perfon, with a view to certain diftinftions, which may
be explained as follows.

" Suppofe the parties converfing to be wholly unacquaint-
ed, neither name nor countenance on either fide known, and
the fubjefh of converfation to be the fpeaker himfelf. Here,
to fupply the place of pointing, by a word of equal power,
the inventors of language furr.ifhed the fpeaker with tne pro-
noun I ; / write, /fay, I defre, &c.; and as the Ipeaker is al-
ways principal with refpeft to his own difcourfe, this they
called, for that reafon, the pronoun of the iiril perfon. Again,
fuppofe the fubject of the converfation to be the party ad-
drefled. Here, for finiilar reafon, they invented the pronoun
thou ; thou writeft, thou walked, &c. ; and, as the party ad-
drefled is next in dignity to the fpeaker, or at leafl comes
next v^ith reference to the difcourfe, this pronoun they
therefore called the pronoun of the fecond perfon.

" Laftly, fuppofe the fubjctt of converfation neither the
fpeaker nor the party addrefled, but fome third objeft dif-
ferent from both. Here they provided another pronoun,
he, Jhe, it, which, in diftinfiion to the two former, was call-
ed the pronoun of the third perfon. And thus it was, that
the pronouns came to be diilinguillied by their refpeftive
perfons.''

Tliis account, which the author, as he fays, received from
Apollonius, is arbitrary and erroneous. The uie of tlie
pronouns is not to fupply the names of perfons unknown to
each other; nor can they be faid to have been invented ^ for
though they anfwer the moll ufeful purpoi'ts, they origin-
ated in circumltanccs in wliicii dtfign had no concern. The
origin of the two firil pronoiir.s we conceive to be this.
They are the adjeclives orie, t'wo, loilng their muncral ilgni-
lication, and coming to mean the fpeakt-r and the perfon
addrelli-d, by the mere force of affociation with the verb.
Let us fuppofe that a perfon wi(hcd, in the infancy of lan-
guage, to exprefs the propofition I love tl^ee. If Englilh
were his words, he would have faid, one love two, 'i his
form being repeatedly ufed, and the perfon uftng it accom-

panyinc( the loading term cne with a confcioufncfs of himfclff
that term would gradually drop its charadler of one in op-
pofition to tivo, and derive a new cliaracter by affociation
from the verb, namely, one that was fpcaking in oppofition
to the other fpoken to. Thus the fame procefs which con-
verted one in general into one fpeeiking, converted iico into
the perfon addreffed.

That the pronouns /, thou, were originally one, two, will
appear probable from hence. In Hebrew, the moll an-
cient language, the pronoun aiifwcring to / is evidently the
parent of the numeral one ; and tuio has a clofc rcfemblance
to thou. Thus '<Jf^, ani, ego, is -f in Greek, and untu in
Latin, and the other form '3;X> «'"f'\ is unicut. Moreover,
nriN' "'"■> ^y dropping {< fcems to have produced ti , tu, thou ;
and r,v'., duo, two. And in other tongues the pronoun thou
and the numeral t<u;o have fuch reiemblance as to befpeak one
common origin in Hebrew. Befidcs, the pronouns /and thou
ftill retain their origin in their names ; / being ihejirfl perfnn,
thou ihe fecond; not bccaufe the former is the tirit and the latter
the fecond in dignity, but becaufe thefe were their original
meaning. Moreover, the numerals one, ttvo, mull have been
among the iirll adjeftives formed by abilradtion from fuch
things as nature produced in pairs, or thofe which alternately
fucceed ench other, fuch as day and night. And as difcourfe
is but a', alternation or interchange of ientiments between t'wo
perfcns, the numeral adjedtivcs in queilion were die moft
hkely to be ufed on fuch occafions. Remains of this iifage
may be tlill traced in fome languages, as we fay, One thinks fo,
or in French, On dit ; one being not as Condiliac (fee his
Works, torn. v. p. 184.) afferts, a corruption from homwe,
but of the Latin unus, and is not a fubilantive, but a lublli-
tute for a lubllantive, ;'. f. a pronoun. Finally, weobferve
that no words but numerals were capable of being fornr.ed
by allociation into pronouns. 'i'\ie Ipeaker, indeed, iright
ufe his own name, and which, when repeatedly ufed, ihe
verb would convert into the tirll perfon. But on the
fame principle another would employ his own name, and
thus the allociations of one man would counteraft the afio-
ciations of another ; and neither name would be received as
the rcprclentative of the fpeaker.

From this ftatement of the origin of the pronoun,
fome particulars refpefting its nature and ufe may be
deduced with precilion. I ril, the adjeftivc, in being changed
into a pronoun, lofes tlie Generality of a numeral, and al-
fumes an individual char.'.di r ; that is, the charatlcr alHgned
to it by the verb. But as iny other perfon may ufe that
term in finiilar ciicumilances, the pronoun /, which was
changed into the indrx of an individual by afToclation, be-
comes again general by fucceilion ; each fpeaker having a
right in his turn to ufe It : and thus the pronouns / and tiou
became fubtlitutes for the names of all p; rfons in a change
uf fituation. Secondly, / aiid thou are not, as has been fup-
pufed, fubllitutes for tlie names of the fpeaker and the per-
fon addreiled, to avoid their t'-) frequent repetition, nor yet
fubditutes for thofe ii;.mes wliile yet unknown, but repre-
fentatives of thofe perfons in that limited or rellritftcd cha-
radler which they derive from the afiociated verb. Now
as fpeaktrs there is no difference between a man and a wo-
man. A nan that ipeaks and the woman that fpeaks, in
that particiJar function, is tlie fame : and the fan.e thing
holds in regard to the perfon addreffed. The firil and fe-
cond perfons, therefore, have not, in any language, the dif-
tindlion of gender merely ; Kcaufe tliey reprelent human
beings in that particular charaAer whicli excludes the idea
of fex. Thirdly, there is, properly fpcaking, no fuch
thing as a third perfon ; this being a definilivt, marking the
fubjcft of difcouri^c, and ftiid to be tjie third perfon in refer-
ence

GRAMMAR.

cncc to thcJiiJF^nifaonJ, and thus reprefentcd as fomcthing
dilliud from thcra, and not included under them. Thus
{iflPT ^'"'> '" Hebrew, and he in Englifli, were, as we (hall
prefcntly fee, but the article ; and fo c, ouio.-, ix.um;, butc? in
Greek, and hie, ilk, is, ipfe, in Latin, are all a fpecies of reftric-
tive or definitive adjectives, agreeing with the defined noini
expreffed or implied. As the firft and fecond perfons i-epre-
fcnt two individuals in peculiar circumftances, they comj-re-
hend no other noun under them ; whereas tlie third perfon
is only in general a fubjeft of difcourfe, and therefore^ it
comprehends any noun in the language, excepting the firll
and fecond : accordingly every fubjccf or agent in every lan-
cruan-e is the third perfon fingular and plural, except {-our, /,
7hoii° tue, and j'f, or their equivalents. The firft and fecond
perfon, we have fcen, exclude tlie idea of fex, whereas it is

■ a charafter often ncceffary to be marked in the fubjcCl
or ao-ent : for this reafon pronouns of the third perfon have
the triple diftindlion of mafculine, feminine, and neuter.

All the three perfons admit the plural number, as each is
capable of reprefenting numbers. In our own tongue /, we,
thou, you or yf ; he, Jhe, it, they. Here it may be obferved
that y; is a corruption of you or you abbreviated ; and as
this abbreviation naturally takes place in the nominative or
vocative, when the perfons addrelied are called ; and as it
is neceflarv to be diiliucf when expreffing tlie addrefled per-
fons as aftetted by a verb, ye is ufed with propriety only in
the nominative or vocative, and_}'OK in the accufative. Men of
rank, beinn- ufu;dly furroundcd with attendants, it became a
con-.pliment to addrefs a perfon as fuch ; in the fame manner
as in Greek, « -t^i aiiscuoy,lhofe around Priam, was a refpect-
ful way of delignating Priam. Hence in common dilcourfe
we ufe you for thou ; and on fuch occafions the verb alfo
fiiould be in the plural ; as j'Om were and not you -was. But this
compnnientary llyle is not applied to the Supreme Being,
who is always addreiled by thou, from a regard, probably, to
his unity, numbers being not able to add to his dignity or
greatnefs. The regal llyle lue has refpeft to the king's
<;ounl"ellors, who arc fuppofed to advife the fubjeft of dif-
courfe, and who are refponfible for it. With regard to the

. third perfon, though it be convenient to mark the gender, it
is not effential : for the plural they is made to reprefent men,
women, and things, without any inconvenience or ambiguity.
The perfonal pronouns, contrary to the analogy of nouns,
have each three terminations, or three variations, to denote
cafes. This is owing to their being derived from the Greek
and Latin, with their refpeftive inflexions. Their genitive,
dropping the primary fenfe of beginning, has uniformly the
fecondary fenfe of pojejfwii. Hence it is called, in our
tongue, not improperly, the p^Jjefl've cafe.

In Hebrew, Arabic, and Perilan, the perfonal pronouns
arc converted into adjedlives, by being annexed to nouns,
vvhich, from their pofition, are called affixes. In this ftate
they are fomewhat abbreviated and changed : but however
changed when connetled with nouns, they are always adjec-
tives, but retain their perfonality when affixed to verbs.
In our ov.'n tongue the perlonal pronouns are changed into
adjeftives from the genitive or poifeflive cafe : as mine, my ;
tJjlne, thy ; hers, ours, yours, theirs ; her, our, your, their. Thus
formed, they are properly called pronominal flc//r5/'ivj— adjec-
tives, as qualifying nouns, and pronominal, as derived from
the perlonal pronouns. His mull be confidcred, by coa-
lefcence, as an adjective of this kind, through the genij
tive he's. Thefe pronominal adjetlives, as derived from the
frenitive, may be refolved into the fignifix;ation of that cafe :•
as my of me ; thy of thee; his of- him, though feldom in
t KngUfh ufed in their perfonal form.: ; The reafon is, that
.our tongue has a Iliong proper.fity to convert nouns into
8

adjeftives by juxtapofition, and thus to ufe then\ for tlie
fake of brevity, inflead <.f the -genitive: as when we fay
Jtlk-Jlring for firing of Jill:, and gold-ring for ring cf gold.
The Greek and Latin do not abound with the fame analogy,
and therefore frequently ufe the perfenal pronoun in the
genitive as equivalent to the pronominal adjertives.

The reciprocal or reflex pronounyj^'is added to thefe pro-
nominal adjectives : as myflf, thyfdf, &c. The third periop.
fingular and plural by analogy.fliould be his-seJfiixA ihcirfelivs :
but in order to humour the ear or the organs of fpeech,
thefe are changed into him/elf :ind themfehes. Self means an
individual in oppofition to another, and is derived from the
Latin folus, alone, through the medium of the Anglo-Saxon
foUis, foul, Anglo-Saxon yJi/r'Ayi/y.- hence -Aio foul, which
means that part of man in which confilts the vital principle in
oppofition to the body : oivn, often ufeJ to precede feif, is a
conniption of the Anglo-Saxon ogen, which by the mlertioii
of the letter g, after the analogy of that language, is bor-
rowed from the Latin unus. O-jntfelf, therefore, is onefelf.

Mr. Harris gives the following account of that fpecies of
adjefti\<?s called de/initives or articles : " The vifible and indi-
vidual fubftances of nature are infinitely more numerous
than for each to admit a particular name. To fupply this
defeft, when any individual occurs, which either wants a
proper name, or whofe proper name is not known, we
afcertain it as well as we can, by referring it to its fpecies ; or
if the fpecies be unknown, then at leall to fome genus. For
example, a certain objeft occurs with a head and limbs, and
appearing to poilefs the power of felf-moticn and fenfation :
if \%c know it not as an individual, we refer it to its proper
fpecies, and call it dog, or hrrfe, or lion, or the like. If none
of thefe names fit, we go to the genus, and c.iU it animal."

" But this is not enough : the thing at which we are look-
ing is neither a fpecies nor a genus. What is it then ? An in-
dividual. Of what kind ? Known or unknown ? Seen now
for the firfi; time, or feen before, and now remembered ? It
is here we fhall difcover the ufe of the two articles a and
the. A refpeCls our primary perceptions, and defines indi-
viduals as unknown : the refpecls our fecondary perception,
and denotes individuals as known. To explain by an exam-
ple : I fee an obje<3; pafs by, which I never faw till now.
What do I fay ? There goes a beggar with a long beard.
The man departs, and ' returns a week after. What do I
fav tlien ? There goes the beggar with the long beard. The
article only is changed, the reft remains unaltered. Yet
mark the force of this apparently minute change. The indi-
vidual, once itague, is now recognized as fomething known,
and that merely by the efficacy of this latter article, which
tacitly infinuates a kind of previous acquaintance, by re-
ferring the prefent perception to a like perception already
paft.

" The truth is, the articles a and the are both of them
definitives, as they circumfcribe the latitude af genera and
fpecies, by reducing them for the niofl part to denote in-
dividuals. The difference between them, however, is this ;
tlie article a leaves the individual h(e\{ unafcertained, whereas
the article the afcertains the individual alio, and is for that
reafon the more accurate definitive of the two.'

We give this t^atement as that of an eminent grammarian,
without fubfcribing to it as jufl in all refpecls. It is not, we
conceive, true, to fay that the individual defined by a is always
unafcerlained ; nor does the necclTarily imply a previous
acquaintance, by referring the prefent perception to a
like perception already paft. And we cannot help obferv.
ing that, -if Mr. Harris and other writers on the fulijeft had
traced thefe words to their fources, and thus alcertained their
primary meaning, their readers would have been more inform -

GRAMMAR.

ei in one paragraph, than thej' othcrwifc (rould by the moll
elaborate trcatifc.

The article a is in truth the numeral adjeftive 'u in Greek,
xmus in Latin, c:n, an, an-, i:i Anglo-Saxon : and the import
of it prccifely correfponds with its original lignification of
onf. ul book is one book ; a man is one man. Hence we
may learn with certainty the foUmving particulars. That it
is enveloping the word in myltcry to call it an article, inftead
of calhncr it by the more appropriate name o{ numeral adjsdkv.

ihian or thegan, lo tah;. But thcfe dt-finitivei txijl in that
language, and why fhoiild he attempt to derive them from anV
word, when they are already formed and employed in tLe
fame fenfe ? He fccms to have been aware of this Objection.
And he adds, vol. ii. p. 60, "7/;<'(oiir article, as it is
called) is the imperative of the fame vurb thean, which may
very well fupply the place of tliecorrcl'pondent Anglo-Saxon
article fe, which is the imperative of feon, videre. For
_ _ _ _ . it anfwcrs the fame purpofe in difcourfe to hr—fu man, or

or d-fimli'vs. That as it means one it cannot be prefixed to plural tai- man." The Engliih tale, and the AnglolSaxon tte-ca,
.._i,i-, .i.„i u. »...„„ ... ii„»i..„ i,.,r. Tu.. which tiiis writer would lead us to regard as a primitive-
northern word, is only the Greek c-=x'^; la aecef>! — 'I'aie tbis^
therefore, means, receive this.

Light is the medium of fight, and hence, in the mod an-
cient languages, the word fignifying light gave birth to verbs
lignifying lojle. Tims the Hebrew (Xi;;, Isa, pronounced

nouns, unlefa tliofe nouns be taken in a collective fenfc. That
the ufual rule, a becomes an before a vowel, (hould be juft re-
vjrfed in order to be true. •' yln becomes a before a con-
fonant.'' That the equivalent of the article n exills in Greek
and in Latin, but is rejected as ulelels in thofe languages ; and
that the frequent ufe of it in Englifti and other modern lan-

guage is fo far from being ncceifar)-, that it is an incumbrance in Arabic thao, but in Pedian/-f(7, light, is tlie parent of the

iJ L- II LI I Anglo-Saxonyr-5« and our_/(-c, which accords with t!;e Perfian

pronunciation, and alfo of the Anglo-Saxon article fe or fee,
or, as we found it, conformably to the Arabic, the. It 13
remarkable tl-e article h in Greek is founded entirely on the
fame principle, though derived from a very different word For
its original appears to have been the Hebrew article ^, which
probably was founded hu or ho (hort, and which is but an
abbrenation of j«{n, ha. ■ Now the ufe of this lall confifts iu

itiid inelegance. I fee man would be as intelligible as when
we fay / fee n irMn ; and they read Loot, as definite, as they
re.i.ia iooi ; and this, from the nature of the cafe, ^ull as in
I.aiin, video hominem, legunt Hhnia, where uruim would be
bo:h unaeceffary and inelegant. I'he Englifh /fee man, and
the Latin vicLo hominem, are both equally indefinite in-
themfelves ; but they are fufficiently limited by the nature
of our perception, and by previous experience. " The inde-

finite article," fays the author of the treatife on Gram'- direding the attention to an objeA, and anfwers to <-n or rfrr
mar in the Encyclop. Britannica, "is much lefs ufeful in Latin, and ^(Z'lW in Our own tongue. And as tiie nccef-

thnn the other ; and therefore the Greek and Hebrew Ian
guages have it not, though they both have a definite article.
In languages, of which the nouns, adicdlivcs, and verbs liave
inflexion, no niillakc can anl'e from tlie want of the indefi-
nite article ; becaufe it can always be known by the termina-
tions of the noun and the verb, and by the whole circum-
ilaiices predicated of the noun, whether a whole fpecies or one
indi'.-idual be intended. But this is not tlie cr.fe in Englifh.
In that language the ad;edtives having no variation with re-
fp^Ct to gender and number, and the tenfes of the verbs
being for th? ir.oil part the fame in both numbers, it might
be often doubtful, had we not the indefinite article, whether
the fpecific name was intendjd to exprefs the whole fpecies
or only one individual.' All this reafomng, however, ap-
pears to us fallacious, and only (hews that even a wife and
able man, fuch as the writer of this article certainly is, will
readily think that necefiary and ufefid to which he has been
siccuftomed, and therefore will feldom be at a lofs for foirie
plaufible reafons to juilify it. In truth, the inflexions of
adjectives and verbs in the learned languages alluded to,
have no influence whatever in defining the extent of the ge-
neral term, but ferve merely to ihevv- that they qualify that jed intended ; but therellridion of llie' fpecific or general

fary coniequencc of looking upon a thing is to fee it, as
dillinguiflied from other things, hence n in Hebrew, i ia
Greek, the in Englifn, from' fignifying to perceive, through
the medium of hgiit, came to iignifyan cftect of perception,
namely, <he diftinctiun or oppofition which the thing fo feco
has to other things which may be related to it.

From this account we may gather the following particulars
refpedling the natuie-aixi ufe of the definitive article. It%
primar)-' force confiils merely in direfting the cjf or the CT//rn-
ion to an objecl ; and the definitive power alligned tp it is
rather an eflVtt of the fight where the ob;ecl is prefent, or
of the miiid in dr.^wing the neceiTary inference, where the
object is previoudy defcribed or fpecified. If this account
be jull, the aflertion of Mr.'Tooke, that the article, in com-
bination witha general term, is a mere fubilitute for a parti-
cular term, (fee vol. i. p. 69 ) is erroneous. The -article is"
only an /Wf.i- ; having indicated the thing intended it does no
more : the eye or the mind does the reft, and the general
term is defined or made particular, by being brought under
immediate infpeftion. It is necefiary ta fubi^in tlie general'
terrn to the article, becaufe it is necefl"ary to fpecifv tlie ob-

term, and depend upon it. The very example adduced by
this writer (he-.vs the fallacy of his realoning : Eyr-iro aZ-i^x^o;
a.Tr;rx>fj.!nc ':rx^ Stou i' oovia Ix^nn;. Here avjfsT^; as clearly
denotes not the whole ffiecies, but an ir.dividiiali as if- it A«as
written si; a-,Spi-ro.:, and that not becaufe of the fiiigular cor-
refpondence of lyr.^rc, nor from the temiitiation of az-sr^V^"'-
Of this there is an evident proof; !>e»'to and r-.-craXfuto; would
be dill the fame, though di-jc-^Tro r had a fjecific or colleftive
.fenfe. Bat the individual fenfe of the noun appears from
the nature of ihe cafe, from the context, and efpecially frpm
the claufe, -whofe name a-.7j John: and thefe circumftaiice«,
wliich fjiiHcientlv define it in Greek, would be fuiBcient to

noun to that individual objeA is a confeqiitnce of the article,
rather than a power beloi.ging to it. The article therefore
cannot be a mere fubftitute, to do that which is done by an-
other principle, namely, the ej-e or the mind.

The article fervesas an index to fpecify an obje£l hitlierta
unhiown, as well as one previouily known ; and thus Mr.
Harris's dillinction, that a refpeCt* our primary perception,,
and denotes individuals as unknown ; /A? refpefts our fccon-
dary perception, and denotes individuals ajinsa-n, i? unfound-
ed. Tlie index indeed may be direded to a pall event or ob-
jeA, thus to E-.ake it the lubjecl of infpedlion a fecond time.
In this view Mr. Harris's pofition is true, but the ufe of the

'le-

idefine it in Englifh, were it written " Man was fent from mticle is far more general, and by no means confined to fuch>

cafes.

The article /^^ is the fame in origin, and often in ufe tlie

fame with ihat, a: d indeed in the nglo-Saxon thai is only tlie

neuter gendorof //^t- ;and Mr.Tooke ought to Ravemade this re-

' Mr. Toeke derives the and that from the Anglo-Saxon terb mark iiillciid of reprefenting each as iudep eo^eat of the other.

Thi

God whofe name was John." It is impolTible to feel in this
ai y ambiguity ; and the exprefSon fecms uncouth only be-
caufe we have been accuflomed to the ufe of a man was -fent
.from God, &c.

GRAMMA R.

Tliis dofiuitive is in our tongue vaiioM fly applied ; and the ob-
jofts of its application arc to dilliuCt <ind diflorent, that it has
been tiioii-rlit to cliaiijTO itsnatiir.;. and to bf long to different
parts of f|eecli. And Mr. Took.- lias the merit ol being the
tirll to lliew that in all circumftances, ihat retains one and the
fame charaAer. Let us briefly conllder its various applica-
tions. And fuJI, it is nfed to bring under the eye of the
mind, /'. e. to deline individual objects ; as that book. In
this fenfe it is oppofed to this, ani'wering to ilte as oppofed to
lik in Latin. Ille, that, denotes therenioterof two objects; hie,
//j;x,the nearer. "Alexander and .luliusC.efarvvere great com-
manders, that (ille) conquered Afia; this (hie) fubdued the
Gauls — ih.it, meaning Alexander as the farthell olF; this,
Julius C;tfar, as the neareft.'' In fi:ch a fentence it would be
more ufual to fay the former and the latter. Secondly, that
is fre<juently ui'ed to characterize a ivhole claufe, which is the
objeA of a tranfuive verb, thus fi;rving to fix tlie attention on
what is going to be faid, and by that means to render it empha-
tic and prominent. Thus, "Iwiihyou to beheve /Z>i!< (that
thing which I am going to fay, namely,) I will not hurt a fly ;"
which Mr. Tooke thus relolves, " I would not willingly
hurt a fly ; I wifii you to believe //j^/ aflertinn.'' In this ap-
plication it anfwers to quod in Latin. Thirdly, thnfk an index
to point (Hit the end or purpo/e which a perion has in view,
and as fuch precedes a verb in the fubjunctivc mood, ex-
prefiing that end thus : " Tiiieves rife in the night thai they
may Ileal." — " Thieves rife in the night, that being their
purpofe, namely, they might Ileal.'' In this fenfe it cor-
refponds to the Latin conjunftion ;/.', which, perhaps, led to
the error of conlidering that as a conjunction in the fccond
and third fenfes. Fourthly, it is an index pointing to a noun
in tlie preceding claufe, and is a fubflitute for that noun, or
rather it agrees with that noun implied, though never ex-
prciTed. " The man, that hatli not mufic in himfelf, is fit for
treaion.'' Here the firil claufe, the man, is reprefented as
definite, while the reader as yet is not able to recognife it as
fuch. Wiiat man is fit for treafon ? To preclude the necef-
lity of this queition, a claufe is introduced, that man, namely,
he who hatli not mufic in himfelf. In this fentence that is
thought to be a relative equivalent to avho, which may
be fubftituted for it. But in reality it is Hill a definitive,
ufed to afcertain the preceding fpecified noun, which has the
form of being definite without being really fo ; and the pre-
ceding noun is to be repeated, or, as that is deferiptive, a ge-
neric or i'pecific noun of the fame import is underilood to be
introduced. Thus the man, namely, that fort of man, who
hath not mufic in himfelf, is fit for treafon. The fubjcft of
difcourfe may be plural, and yet the fingular form of that
may, on this fuppofition, be ufed. " The men that have not
mufic in themfelvcs, are fit for treafon," i.e. the men, //v(<
fort of men, namely, who have not mufic in themlelves, are
fit for treafon : and this is the folution of the apparent ano-
maly of that being ufed in both numbers, without variation,
w hen taken relatively.

We come next to fpeak of the relative pronoun, which Mr.
Harris thus explains, p. 77. " But befides thofe there is an-
other pronoun (in Greek c.;, i,!,-, in Lathi qui, in Englilh ivho,
twhich, that), a pronoun having a charadter peculiar to itfelf,
the nature of which may be explained as follows. Suppofe
I was to fay light is a body, — light moves with great celerity.
Thefe would apparently be two diilinC\ fenteuces. Sup-
pofe, inl^.'-ad of the fecond light, I were to place tiie prepo-
fitive pronoun it : Light is a body ; /'/ moves with great
celerity ; the fentence would be ftill dillinct and two. But
if I add a connective (as for example an and) faying light is
a body, and it moves with great celerity ; I then by connec-

tion make the two into one, as, by cementing many ftones
1 make one wall.

" Now it is in the united powers of a conneftive and
another pronoun, that we may fee the force and charadter
of the pronoun here treated. Thus, therefore, if in the
place of anr/ it we fr.olUtute that ov '-.uhich, faying light h
a body, ivhich moves with great celerity ; the fentence Hill
retains its unity and perfection, and becomes, if poifible, mor,-
compact than before. ^Ve may with jult reafon, therefore,
call this pronoun the fidijumlive, bccaufe it cannot, like the
prepofitive, introduce an original fentence ; but only lerves,
to fubjoin one to fome other wliich is previous."

This account, though elegant and fpecious, we neverthe--
lefs deem erroneous ; becaule the relative pronouns in all Ian-,
guages are the fame in their origin and ufe with the articles
or definitive pronouns. In Greek c.- is only the article u with.
; annexed after the analogy of that termination in Greek
nouns. Hence the reafon why i and cs are, by the more an^
cieiit writers, luch as Homer and Herodotus, ufed for one
another, "either as demonllrative or relative pronouns. The
Latin hie is alio the article c. with a guttural annexed — hoc;
while qui, which Scaliger, and after him Mr. Tooke, derive
from Kai I, is no other tium the Perllan ke or che, tvho, which.
Moreover, qnis is the Oriental Lis, who or tvhat ; and it is re-,
markable that in Hindooflan Lis is redoubled Lis Lis, and
this has been imported into Latin quifquis. Finally, our who is
the Greek I, having the labial iv fublHtutcd for the afpirate,-
which is a broad and general analogy, by which words in
Latin and the Anglo-Saxon are formed from Greek or from
the Oriental tongues. IVhirh is the neuter termination of
c, formed 011 the fame principle as hoc in Latin, that is, a
guttural is annexed to ivho, luhoc, which. And this is the
reafon that, wliile who is applied to perfons, which is made
to Hand for inanimate things.

As the relative and definitive pronouns have the fame ori-.
gin, they are alfo the fame in ufe. For in Latin the relative
always fuppofes the antecedent to be repeated, and is
repeated v.-lien obfcufe or doubtful. In our own tongue,
indeed, who never coalefces witli the antecedent noun, and is '
therefore ?i fuhjlitute for it, and this pecuharity in our own
tongue has cauled who, with its other cafes whofe, whom, to.
drop its nature as a definitive, and to become really a pronoun,
('. f. a fubflitute for a noun. Tliis peculiarity has alfo ob-,
tained in regard to he, which was the Hebrew and Greek .
article n, ha, or 0. And this is the reafon why the ai'ticle in
Homer may be often rendered by he in our own tongue. Dr.
Middl'ton, not perceiving this circumilance, was led, in a vo-
lumiiK.us work publifhed on the Greek article, to fuppofe
that the Greek article is in its nature a perfonal pronoun, and
may be always refolved into a pronoun. The foundation
being thus fallacious, the whole fuper-ftrutture, liuwever
learned and elaborate, is frivolous and ufelefs.

We obferve farther that hie, ille, and ;".', which are really,
definitives, often refer, like qui, to a preceding noun, and
for this reafon have a claim equally juft to be called relative
pronouns. Thus, " Deus nobis 1i:ec otia fecit ; namque
erit ille mihi temper Deus ; illius aram fjepe tener nollris ab
ovilibus imbuet agnus." Here the firil i/le is ille homo, or
ille juvenis, meaning Augujlus, elegantly kept out of fight,
the reader being left to conceive of him only as a god; while
illius is illius dei, of that god. " Tres littore cervos profpicit
errantes, hos tota armeuta fequantur^ i. e. hos cervos."
" Cognofciinus Deus ex operibus ejus,'" we know God
from the works of the lame — ejus dei.

Becaufe the relative qui is thus a definitive, the defined,
noun, when not antecedent, is made to fuccced it in Latia

and

GRAMMA R.

and
<]uam

in deck, as " Maximis labonbus confequuntur cnm, Rrammarians, wlio followed his autliority, into error. " \Vc
n ex difcendo capiunt, voluptaU-m;"— litL-rally, j with are now," fays !ic, "to defccnd to t!,e common herd J

the grcatcft toil they purfue that, which pleafiire, (for tliat
pleafure, which) they derive from Ihidy. " Quas condidit
arces, ipfa colat,'' — let her inhabit which citadels (he built,
Jiir, let her inhabit the citadels wliich Ihe built. In o:ir own
tongue fuch an arrangement is not allowed, or even ii.t--l-
ligible, becaule here the relative is really a fubllitute for
tiie noun preceding it, and refufes to c;)alefee with it as an

aflertion clfewhere, an it or tutu, to complete the f-nteoce,
Cicero is wife, Cicero ci-tw eloquent. On the contrar)|
when we fay Cicero turilelh, Ciccrn iv.iHnh, in inftanccs like
tliefe there is no fuch occafion, becaufe the words 'Mrii.'th
i\ud//>tfiiiet/j imply, in their own form, not an attribute onlv,
but ajferlion likewife. Hence it is they may be refolvcU the
one into is and nvritin^y tlie other is and lualting.

attributes, fuch as bhul and white, to -VL-rite, to/p.at, to toalk.
&c. among which, when comparH and oppofed to eacii
other, one of the molt eminent dillinaions appears to be
this. Some, by In-ing joined to a proper fubftar.tive, make,
without fjrthcr help, a pcrfeft alTertive fcntencej while tie
reft, tliough otlierwife perfe.:t, are in this refped deficient,
'f'" explain by an example, when we fay Cicero eloquent,
adjeftive. And it is obvious to remark in this place, that Cicero •wife, thefe are imperfeii fcntence3, though they dc-
with the exception of who in Englidi, the articles or deli- note a fubtlance and an attribute. The reafon is, that thcv
uitives are not proniuns, but adji-ai-ues, numeral or rellritlive, want an iliertion to {hew th.it fuch attribute appertains to
agreeing with a noun exprefled or underllood, and to be fuch fubllance. We r.iull therefore call in the hdp of ai,

fupplied from the context or the preceding claufe. We -"— •:■-- -■■---' • ...

remark, linally, that as articles are delinitives, the Latin
tongue h.is not only one but feveral articles, which it is
erroneoufly fuppofed to want. Thus, hie homo, this miii,
ille homo, that man, is homo, the fame man, ipfe homo, that
•ocry man, are phralei, either of which is equally definite
I and emphatic with our the man, and on many occalions pre-

cifely the fame with it. " Now all thefe attributives, wlucli have "this complex

Before we quit this fubjeft we (liall advert to a queftion power of denoting both an attribute and an afTertion, make
popofed and folved by Mr. Tooke, vol. i. p. 273. "What that fpecies of words which grammarians call •acr^- If we
is AS? — The truth is that as is alfo an article; and however, relolve tlus comj)Iex power into its diltinft pnrls, and t.ike
and whenever, ufed in Englilh, means the fame thing as it, the attribute alone, without the affertion, then hive we
or that, or which. In the German, where it Hill evidently participles. All oilier attributives, be.lde.'; the two fi)ccie=;
retains its original iignilication and ufe, (asyi alfo does,) it before, are inehided together in the general name of adiec-
is written «." Now, if Mr. Tooke had properly under- lives; and lluis it is that all attributives are either verbs
Hood the nature of the article, he would not have made this participle.^, or adjeclives. Betides the diftir.itions abovc-
aflertion. As indeed, like the article, is an inde.x; but it is mentioned, there are others which dcfcrve notice. .Some
an index directing the mind from one objeft to another, and attributes have their eflence in raoti.in ; fuch are to wa/i t»
t!ie coivfequence of its being fo direfted is the perception of J!y, to J/riie, to live. Others have it in the privation of
fome repmhlance between them. Accordingly aj is to--, an motion; luch are /o_^i?/), to n/l to ccafe, to die. And laltlr
adverb of fimilitude in Greek, which being inverted (as is others have it in hibjed.s which ha\e nothin<T to do with
often the cafe with monofyllabic words), has become yi. either motion or its privation; fuch are the attributes of
On the other hand, the confeqnence of the indication con- great and little, white and blacl; wif: and fooli/h, and in a
veyed by the artici? is not to the obfervance of lome like- word the feveral qunnlilies and qualities of ail tb.ings. Now
ncfs between the objeils fpecified, but the limitation of the thefe lall nre tidjeiiives ; thofe which denote /nt/Zonj or tjieir
general term to the individual objert, circumfcribed by the privation are either leris or participles "
eye or the mind by being fo indicated. "Of all the conftituent parts ot fpeech,'' fays the writer

In a note this writer adds : " Dr. Lowth, amongfl fome in the Encyclop. Britannica, 58, " none has given' the gram-
falfe Englilh which he has recommended, and much good maricuis greater trouble tlian the verb. The va!t variety
Euglifh which he has reprobated, fays, Jh-as, was uied by ot circumftances which it blends tuo-ether in ore word'
the writers of the lall century to exprels a confequenee in- throws very confiderable difficiJties in the way of him who
ftead of fo-that. Swift, I believe, is the Lift of our good attempts to analyfe it and afcertain its nature- at the fame
writers who has frequently uled this manner of cxprefiion." time that by its eminent ufe in language, it is entitled to all
If that denote erul or confequenee, the third fenle we have the attention wkich can be beftowed ui)Cn it. It (houkl
iT^nci/to itin theprecedlngpage, aiidif i/j, on theother hand, feem that the lirll object of our inveltigation ought to be
iignify fitniUinde between two obj'Cls, fo as is, as Dr. Lo\\th the charadcrijlic of the verb, or that w^hich all thefe words
ftates, very improper; \\\vXe fo that alone is good Englilh have in common, and which conllitutes them verbs, dillin-
and good fenfe: and Mr. Tooke is himfelf guilty ofthe guilhing thorn from every other fpecies of words. Kow it

is obvious to the flighteft attention, that every verb, whether
active, palfive, or neuter, may be refoKvd into the fuh-
ftantive verb ;V, and -inoxXv^x attributive : for l(n\ti is ofthe
ft'.me import as is lovrg; and avtal \\\x.\\amans cjl.

'■'■ V>\A loving and am<j;w are not verbs; whence it follow,'!
that the charaCterillic of the verb, that which conllitulrs
it what it is, and cannot be exprell'ed by other words, raujl
be that which Ls (ignined by the word ;V; and to us that
appears to be neither more nor lei's than ojfcrtioa.

" Alfertion therefore, or predication, is certainly the verv
effence of the verb, as being that part of its office, aji'4
that part only, which ca,nuot he difcharged by other kimis
of words. Every other circumftance which the verb in-
cludes, inch as attribute, mode, time, &c. it may be pofiiblc
traft from Mr. Harris, becaufe his opinion, though plan- to exprcfs by adjectives, participles, and adverbs; but with-
iible, is erroneous, and has been the means of leading other out a verb.it is impollible to preJica/e, to affirm, or deny,
• Vol. XVI. . a-'P any

charge he brings againft Lowth, namely, of recommendin^
fome falfc, and reprobatiag much good Englifli. AVe can-
not help obferving that the objeCl of comparifon marked by
<is is often implied, and is to be gathered from the context ;
H'i in the followincr ftanza:

Save that from yonder ivy-mantled lower.
The moping owl does to the moon complain

Of I'hch rt,r, wandering near her fecret bower,
Molell her ancient folitary reign.

i. <-. complain of fuch prrfons, as thofe who wandering.

The Origin and Properties of Verbs.

We fliall begin this part of our fubjecl alfo with an ex

&c.

G R A M M A R.

anyone thing' of any other tiling. The -office of the verb,
when ftrippeJ of all accidental circumftances, feems to be
merely this: to join together the fubjeft and predicate of
a propofidon; its powers • are analogous to tliofe of the
fign + in algebra, which does not affeft the fcp^irate value
of the quantities between which it is placed, but only -in-
dicates ihm union or coahfcence.'' The writer then, in illuf-
tration of this theory,- takes the examples ufed by Mr.
Harris, and then adds, " in refolving every verb, whether
aftive, paffive, or neuter, into the fubllantive verb is, and
another attributive, we have the honour to agree with all the
grammarians."

We refpeft the opinion of other grammarians, and that
of this writer in particular, but we cannot thnik it an honour,
to agree with him and his predeceilors on this fub.eit ; but
we rather think it an honour to differ with tbe;n, bccaufe
we conceive them to be in an error. Now the molt fure
way to afcertain the charafteriilic of a verb,' or that which
conftitutes its elfence, is to attend to that operation of the
human mind by which verbs have been formed. But as
the affirmative is is thouglit effential to all others, we fhall
begin with this. And Mr. Harris thus explains it, p 88,
"Previous to every poliible attribute, vi-hatever a thing
p;ay be, whether black or white, fquare or round, wile or
eloquent, writing or thinking, it niufl_/>/? of necellity c.v//?,
before it can pofhbly be any thing elfe. For exillenoe may
be confidered as an univerjhl gc-ntis, to which all things, of
all kinds, are at all times to be referred. The verbs, there-
fore, which denote it, claim precedence of all others, as
beino- effential to the very being of every propofition, in
which they may ftill be found either exprefled or by im-
plication; expreffed, as when we fay " the fun is bright;''
by implication, as when we fay "the fun rifes;" which
means, when refolvcd, " the fun is riling.''

According to this explanation exijlence is fthe primary idea
of(V; and ^Ir. Harris is little confillent with himfelf when,
in refolving aftive verbs into this and another attributive, he
fuppofes it to mean ajjcrtion. But let us deduce a more
adequate idea of it from examples — God is good; His food
ivas locujh and wild honey; If ive be virtuous tue Jliall be
hnphy. In the lirft of thcfe examples ;j- connefts good with
Cod; fo in the fecond ivas coimefts locujls and luild honey
With food, and afferts, that with regard to .lohn they were
the fame. In the third inftance, happy is, by fhad be, re-
prefeated a quality of lue. For this reafon the following
ternis would be more appropriate than any other. The
leading noun the _/i/i/Vt7,' the thing connected the predicate,
and tlV< verb conneAing them the coimeiling verb. Thus,
God is the fubjeS, if tlie connefting verb, and good the
predicate; and lo in all other inftanccs.

If then is be the charafteriilic or effential idea of every
verb, and if farther, as appears from faft, the primary idea of
is denotes cnnedion, it follows that not a/fertiou, as the gram-
Inarians have hitherto fuppofed, but conneSion, is that which
conftitutes verbs, or that which diftinguifhes them from other
fpccies of words. But the connefting verb itfelf wdl not ap-
pear nectjfary, if wc judge of its ufe in the ancient languages,
xVt jiixtapojttion of the fubjetft and predicate being fufficient
to fupply its place. Thus fiicna.fi« u CK-n^o^i-, hlejjed the nur-
ciful. Here /.cxjcct^ioi, being placed by the fide of oi £Xs»|U.ov:-.-,
fuggefls that it belongs to it, and by virtue of this fuggeftion
conveys to the mind as full and complete a propofition as
though the connefting verb had been inferted. Thus too in
Latin, Homo pracipuum opus Dei, man the principal work of
God, meaning man is the principal work of God. Thus
alfo in Hebre'vV, " And Mofes faid unto the Lord, I not elo-
q^aent, I. e. I am not eloqaent, Exod. iv. lo. And Mofes

faid unto God, who I, that I (hould go unto Pharaoh ; and
God faid, certainly I will be with thee, and this token unto
thee, i. e. thk Jha/I be 3. token unto thee," iii. 11, 12. In
this tongue, indeed, the fubllantive verb is comparatively of
rare occurrence, and its place is fupplied by the collocation of
the terms to be connected, a principle in itfelf extremely
fimple, and fuggeiled by the great law of the human mind.
In Greek and in Latin its ufe indeed is more frequent ; and
it is remarkable that uhere it does occur, it generally occurs
either in the beginninj; or the end of the claufe, and not in
the middle, a circumllance which arofe from a defire of keep-
ing together words that are related as fubjeft and predi-
cate. Now Mr. Harris and other grammarians, overlooking
the force of juxtapofition, and judging of the importance of
the fubllantive verb from its frequent ufe in modern fpeech,
have hence fuppofed that it is abfolutely neceflary to the
exiftence of language, and that no propofition can be com-
municated without it. And what is more remarkable ftill,
" they have reprefented a word as eflential to a verb, which,
fo far from being neceflary to a verb, is not neceffary even
to language."

Verbs exprffs the operations or the aftive qualities of
things ; and as the growth of words correfponds to the.
growth of our ideas, it follows that verbs originally were
the names of things ; but by combining them with the per-
ional pronouns, they became, in confcquence of the affocia-
tion of ideas, lo exprefs not things, but their operations.
The converiion of nouns into verbs we will illullrate by
an example in the Greek tongue, Mr. Jones, in his Grammar
of that language, has Ihewn that the perfonal terminations
of the Greek verbs are but corruptions of the perloiial pro-
nouns, and all the variations of mood, tenfe, number, and
perfons have originated in thefe fix elementary principles,
tlius :

yyui u, 1, Xjji{iq OjUsv, lue,

cv !i , thou, Vjj-ui 17'., ye,

cu £i, he, ovToi oia-i, they.

Now let thefe in their corrupted ftate be annexed to any
noun, for inftance to oi'vo-r, -wi/ie ; and we fhall have cwc-i',
ivine /; oi-^o-E*:, ivirie thou ^ oivo-si, tuiue he', otvo-o^iv, ^ivine *we ^
cir.6-fTf, ivine ye ; orjo-oim, luine they. When the attention of
the fpeaker or hearer was fixed on the firlf of thefe combi-
nations, the union of the two words which fignified himftlf
and -wine could not fail of bringing to his mind the circum-
ftances which he had previoufly experienced or obferved in re-
gard to that liquid ; and hence he necefiarily recalled the
idea of mahing or tajling ivine, or drinhing ivine. Con-
fequently, the two ternis thus combined he naturally em-
ployed to exprefs one of thofe notions. A fimilar procefs
took place with regard to the remaining five combinations.
And thus have we in Greek, and other languages, verbs di-
verfilied by fix perfons. This exteniion of the nam.es of
things to fignify the aftions which thofe things have been
obferved to perform, is, it is obvious, founded on the law of
aflbciation, and may be iiluftrated by many inftances in all
languages. But the principle is not fo clear in any tongue
as It is in Hebrew, where the perfonal pronouns annexed to
the verb are preferved with little variation from what they
are in their independent ftate.

In the above, and fimilar other examples, the agent, and
that wliich is the effeft or objeft of the aftion, combine to
exprefs that aftion ; but in other inftances, the name of the
agent alone is fufiicient to exprefs its operation. Thus,
" the ladies fan themfelves ;" " the plumy people eye the
falhng verdure." Now having previoufly obferved the ufe
or aftion of xXiefin, and learnt in ourfelves the eJi-H of the,
eye, being alfo previoufly aware that in a fimple direft pro-
7 pofition.

GRAMMAR.

pofition, the fecond ufually denotes operation, we fhould bic XPN '^ a verb which fignifics motion to a place or oh-
immediately infer that /an and c^^ here exprcfs not the things jed. Hence in CeUic {alio, it) became a prepofition denotinz

meant by them but their aftive quahties ; in other words,
our previous affociations would inftantly convert tliofe nouns
into verbs, though we had never feen them fo ufed before.

From this account of the deduftion of verbs from nouns
and pronouns, we may afcertain their nature and properties.
A verb is a word' borr»wed from a thing to exprefs the
aAion of that thing. It imphee conneBion, the conneftion
of an agent and its objeft, or more generally the connexion
of caufe and its efFeft. But this conneftion is not exprelTed
by an independent word but by the juxtapufition, or the
combination into one word of the agent and its objedl. On
the other hand, it does not imply affirmation or ajprtlon, as
grammarians have hitherto fuppofed, becaufe no word ex-
prefilve of this enters into its compofition. The operation
of a verb is indeed pofitive ; and therefore that implication
which wi iters on this fubjecl call ajfcrlion may be conlidered
to belong to it, but this is rather an inference formed by the
mind than a property inherent in the verb ; and is confined
to a certain mood or form of it. We underftand the indi-
cative to aiTerl, but this alTertion is loft in tlie imperative, fub-
jundi-M, and infinitive. So that if ajfertion be efTcntial to a
Verb, a verb ceafes to be a verb in thefe moods.

A verb implying an abftraft idea, and therefore often in-
definite and obfcure, may be afcertained in regard to its mean-
ing by recurring to the noun from whence it has been derived.
This noun, which probably is the name of fome fenfible
object, fuggefts its primary fcnfe, a circumftance of gi-eat im-
portance in the conllruttion of a philofophical didionary, a
work exifting in no language, and much wanted in every
language. " The moil necelTary verbs," fays Dr. Crombie in
his EnglKh grammar, p. 8 1 . in every language, are tliofe,
the figniiication of which is the moll extenfive, and which
would originally be of mod general ufe, fuch as verbs de-
noting exiftence, pofleffion, ailing and being adled upon.
Of this kind in our language, are the verbs to be, to do, to
haver

We will take thefe, which this grammarian has cited, as
■ examples to illuftxate our theory. In the Great Indian lan-
guage, baa-o is air, and air is the medium of exLftence ; it

an end, or the point to which motion tended. In parting to
Perfia it dropped the initial rowel, and in the form of taa it
denotes, in Perfian, the interval in which motion reaches ita
objedt, or that objeA itfclf, and thus btcame tlie parent of
our lo, which it perfeclly refembles in found and fenfe. T»
then denotes that point of time or place to which motion or
ailion tends, and in which it terminates ; and prefixed to au
infinitive verb, thus con\f rted by abltraction into a fpecics ai
verbal nouns, holds it forth as the objeft to which the pre-
ceding verb is diredled ; thus, I defin lo !earn, I defirc, and
the objeft or end of that defirc ia learn or learning. Hrr
commanded me to tell you, he commanded, and the objedl
wliich that command refpec^s, is, that I ihould tell you.
This explanation appears jull, from the circumftance that
when the infinitive verb is the immediate fubjetl of aftion
rather than a more remote objett to wliich an action tends, the
prepofition lo is dropped ; as I do plow, i. e. I ufe the plough,
or acl the plough.

Lat us next fee what Mr. Tooke fays on this fuhjei'l.
" The prepofition to," fays he, vol. i. p. 350, " is tlir
Gothic fubrtantive taui, or lauhls, i. e. a8, eJpS, refuh,
confummatian. Which Gothic fubftantive is, indeed, itTelf
no other than the firft participle lauid, or tauids, of the verb
taugan, agere. And what is done is terminated, ended, finijhed .
After this derivation, it will not appear in the leaft myfte-
rious or wonderful that we ftiould, in a peculiar manner i.n
Englifti, prefix this fame word lo to tlie infinitive of our
verbs. For the verbs in Englilh not being diftinguifhed, a<
in other languages, by a peculiar termination, and it being
fometimes impoflible to diftinguifh them by their place,
when the old termination of the Anglo-Saxon verbs wai
dropped, this word to, i. e. ad, became neceflary to be pre-
fixed, in order to diftinguifti them from nouns, and to invert;
them with the verbal charaftcr. For there is no-difTercnce
between the noun love, and the verb to love, but what muft
be comprized in the prefix lo." And he goes on, p. 35c,
•' Do, the auxihary verb, as it has been called, is derived
from the fame root, and is, indeed, the fame word as to.
The dilfercnce between a / and a </ is fo very fmall, that an

gave birth to the verbs of being in moft languages. Hence etymologift knows by the pradlice of languages, and an
lodan in Perfian ; be in Anglo-Saxon and Englilh ; fSmu in anatomill by reafon of that praftice, that, in the derivation
Greek, asd the digamiTiated vivo in Latin, and bvjy in Cel- of words, it is fcarce worth regarding. And, for the fame

tic. On the fame principle the Hebrew "^^J^, aivr, light, air,
.is the parent of our words are, ivere, <was, and of the Latin
era, eram. To do is to put forth power : and this, with
other verbs of the fame kind, are borrowed from fuch objedls
as put forth their fruits, fuch as herbs, trees, the earth.
Thus, TTOir,, the grafs, gave birth to ro.s^', to produce. Hence
fuch phrafes as troifiv xa^izr-i , to produce fruit ; !i^v:, is the oak ;
and hence Jian, to bring forth as the oak ; ?a>o;, the beech.

reafon that to is put before the infinitive, do ufed formerly
to be put before fuch other part-; of the verb whicli likcwile
were not diftinguiflied from the noun by termination. As
we iliU fay — I do love, inftead of I love. And I doed, or
did lo\e, inftead of I loved. But it is worth 'our while to
obferve, that if a diftinguilhing termination is ufed, then the
diftiuguidiiug do or did niuft be omitted, the termination
fulfilling its office. And, therefore, we never find — laid

hence facio, to yield fruit as the beech ; j-\''\Q.pharag, means lo%<ed, or he doth loveth. But I did love, he doth love.

a flower ; hence t^'j^'/u oc Tr^amru:. to cfiorcfce or fruilijy. In
Chaldee p"l^?, and, is the earth ; hence in Greek !f»,o., tpa^j.,
and our verb tuork. In the fame way ^cu, do, to give, yield, is
the real fource of the Englifti to do.

Now, it is very evident tliat the princijile wiiich converted
one of thefe nouns into a verb, is tliat which converts all
other nouns into verbs. If this be the cafe. Dr. Crombie
- and other followers of Mr. Home Tooke arc miftaken, when
■ they fuppofed that the junction of one of thefe verbs to a
noun, caufedthat noun in procefs of time to alTumc the cha-
rafter of a verb. And here we may obferve that an infinitive

It is necelTary briefly to expofe what we conceive to be
the fallacy and abiurdity of this realoning. To, in found and
fenfe, is the fartheft pofllble from tlic Gothic laugan, which is
only the Greek -(ix-'< to fabricate, the true origin of /» being tlie
Perfian /<j,j, which has precifcly the fame me-aning witliit. I tit
altogetlier unnecelfary to prefix the/5, in order to diftinguifh
the verb from its correfponding noun, becaufe this is dime
by the context, or the collocation of the verb ; and what
is moil remarkable, when lo is prefixed, the verb lofes its
verb.il character, and becomes a noun by abftraclion. That
an infinitive verb has the nature of an abftraCl noun, i«

verb, as feparated from its agent or ftibjcdl, is in reality an manifeft from this. In all languages it may be made the
abflraB noun. In this ftate the prepofition /o is prefixed to it, fubjeCl or objeit of difcourfe ; and, in Grevk, it admits of
aad its ufe is to be afcertained from its etymology. In Ara- the article before it, as nouns do y and 'in all inftaflccs what.

4 r a ever.

GRAM IVl A R.

an

ever, an abftraA ncun, wlieve fuch cxifts, may be fubftitutcd
Tor it.— I dL-firc to learn, i c I dcHre learning.— To excel
in learning is honourable, .». e. excellence in learning is
honourable. So then, according to Mr. Tooke, to is put
before a verb to diftinguilli it as a verb when it has ceaied
to be a verb — when, from a verb, it is become a noun. And
the reafon why wv fay ke doth love, inilead of he doth lovcth,
13 not that the' termination fupplies the place of to, but be-
caufe lovclh and /ore are one a verb, the other a noun, which
lall does not admit fuch a termination.

The convcrfion of to into do, fo as to become a verbal
index, is a conceit of this writer, equally unwarranti'.ble. Bo,
as wc have (lieun, is the identical I^atiii do, to give, to place, ^ to
produce, or put firth, where it has fuch meaning, in the tol-
iou-ing phrafe — dare operam, to put forth exertion, ;. e. to ex-
ert, endeavour. And yet Mr. Tooke has been followed and
fupported bv all fubfequent grammarians in the above incor-
redand inco'nclulive reafoiiing. " Theform/' fays Dr. Ciom-
bie, p. 83, " of the inliiiitive to love, is, doubtlefs, tlie fame as
do love, thus denoting the fimple energy of the emotion, figni-
tied by the noun, d and t being kindred letters, and eafily con-
vertible. To love, therefore, means aS love, do love, the
word do or to invelting the noun with a fort of verbal cha-
^acler. The infinitive, then, expreffes fimply the adion or
energy of that attribute which is denoted by the verb, un-
compouiided with the various accidents of mood, tenle,
number, and perfon." This lall fentence is a juil defcrip-
lion of the infinitive mood which Dr. Lowth very properly
■lis the fuhjlantive mood ; and it is a correct defcription of
1 abllrad verbal noun. How then can to or do inveft the
noun with a fort of verbal charafter ; when, if it be an
index of any thing, it is an index of a verb changed into a
noun ? A refpeftable writer on grammar, in the New
Britilb Encyclopedia, p. 31, following the tract which
Home Tooke has pointed out, thus adds : " The infinitive
mood, as it is commonly called, is the verb divelled of its
peculiar force, r;V of aflfirmation, and uncompounded with
thofe words which render it expreffive of perfon, number,
&c. and in the modern languages of time : but it feems
erroneous to confider this as the fundamental form of the
verb, where it has any diftinguifhing termination ; it is
then the nnmjlale of the word, with a termination added to
it, to fliew that it is to be employed as a verb. Thus, in the
Anglo-Saxon thean, the is the fundamental form of the verb,
and an is the verlali%ing adjwiH. Now, as the imperative
form of the verb is nothing more or lefs than the fiinple
verbal name, unattended with the inference of affirmation,
this may be confidered the fundamental form : and in the
Latin ill particular the variations of flexion are traced with
the greateil advantage from this fource."

it is curious to obferve the contradidtions and abfurditics
into which writers plunge themfclves, when they haVe
adopted erroneous pofitions to account for the phenomena
of language. Mr. Tooke, aflenting to the ancient Stoics,
thinks the pun II ttate of the verb to be the infinitive, and
vet agrees with his follower.; in making affirmation or ajfertion
to be the eflence of a verb. But it is allowed that a verb
drops its affirm.ation iu the infinitive ; fo that, according to
thi^ reafoning, a verb is in its pureil ftate when without its
elTence. Again, the infinitive is here not improperly called
t'le nounjlate, i. e. an abftratl nOun, with the prefix to in our
tongue ; but in the Anglo-Saxon v.-ith the affix an, to ihew
that it is a verb : and as this is a new idea, an, in a new lan-
guage, is called the •uerhalizing adjunS. But what evidence
is there for faying that an performs this office ? No evi-
dence at all, but a falfe afi'umption. We have already faid
that the Gothic and Anglo-Suxon an is but the Greek in-

finitive n-i, or (in verbs in zv), «/, which is the fame witfi=»
out tlie change of a letter. We have this further evidence
of the derivation of the Northern language from the Greek,
in this rcfpeft, that in this latter the imperative, inilead oF
being the fundamental form of the verb, is, by corruption,
derived from the infinitive. Thus, '>;z?!v was tlie o!d in-
finitive : -/ftifiv was alio tlie imperative ; but the final » being,
by degrees, dropped, it became y-/J.^i- And it is remarkabls,
that ill the Anglo-Saxon the imperative is derived from tlie
infinitive, in the fame manner precifely as tlie imperative is
from the infinitive in Greek ; and this correlpondence,
added to the identity of the termination, we deem a fufficient
proof that the Northern, in this refpeft, is no otlier than the
Greek tongue. The Latin imperative is borrowed from
the Greek, as is evident on infpeftion ; — yja??, y^a^nu: ;.
fcribe, fcribeto . And the pofition, that the variations of in-
flexion may be traced with advantage from the Latin impe-
rative, is a fancy, which is contradicted by that broad ana-
logy by which the Latin verbs are formed from the prefeirt
tenle. It is worthy of remark, that the old Greek accords
with the Hebrew, where the imperative is the lame with
the infinitive, and fucceeds it in the paradigm of verbs. We
iliall only, on this fubjeft, exprefs our iurprife that, if theie
fenlible men were deceived by adopting the notions of
Mr. Tooke, they were not repelled by what appear to us
to be contradictions. This grammarian gravely tells us
tliat deliberate art had no concern in the formation of lan-
guage : yet, in examining its phenomena, he recurs to
minute mechanifm and petty artifices, which, as being un-
wiUing to allow the agency of a rational law in the human
mind, he calls the contrivances of language.

We now proceed to confider briefly the ufual divifions of
verbs into adive, pajfive,3.n& neuter : and this divifion of verbs,
we pronounce to be extremely unphilof'ophical. And firft,
as the exprcffion of aftive qualities is effential to verbs, there
is no fuch thing as a neuter verb. There are, indeed, verbs
which denote rejl, or the cefiiition of motion ; but we cannot
life even thefe without connei^ting with them p^ofitive ideas i
and as action is neceffary to deltroy or fupport action, wie
can refolve all apparent neuter into aftive verbs. Thus
to Jtand, is to caufc to Jlop ; tojleep, is to enjoy repofe ; to fit, is ,\>
hold one's feat. Secondly, the divifion of verbs into attive
and palTive, though convenient in fome ;angu;iges, is incor-
rett and even abUird in our own tongue. I'or all active
verbs imply paffion ; while all paffive verbs on the other hand
imply action. Hence the one may affume the form of the
otiicr without altering its nature. Thus, ille amat parentcs,
he loves his parents, is the fame in fenfe as parentes amantur
ab illo, his parents are loved by him. Tiie only difierence
is that, iu the firfl inftance, the agent is nominative, and
the objedl accufatrve : in the fecoiid, the objeiit, becominir
the fuhjeft of the verb, is put in the nomuiative, and
the agent in the ablative. An agent, while it atts, is
adted upon. Every aftive verb, therefore, has the com-
pound fenfe of active' and paffive. Thus, in the above
lenience, he loves his parents, the firit part, he loves, is ac-
tive ; the lail, loves his parents, is paffive. In the fame fentence,
converted into the paflive form, bit parents arc loved by him,:
the firit part is paiiive, and the lalt: adtive. In the infancy
of language, the diflinction of active and paffive was in all
probability not known. In Hebrew, the difference but im-
perfectly exills, and in the early periods of it probably did
not exilt at all. In Arabic, the only diitindtion which ob-
tains, arifes from the vowel point;,, a late invention, com-
pared with the antiquity of that language. And in our own
tongue the names of adtive and paiiive would have been un-
known, if they liad not been imported from the Greek and

Laua

GRAMMAR,

Latm grammars. In Englifh fhp pafTive form of the verb
Ls cxprolTed by the connefting- verb It, be, and the perfect par-
ticiple ; anil in converting an aiAive into a jiaifive propofition,
\ve need only change the verb to its perfect participle,
and fubjiiin it to the connecting verb in the lame mood and
tenfe, and annexing the agent with its correfp. indent prepo-
iition in tb.e ablative cafe. Tims, we wordiip (iod, becomes
Goiih 'wirjh'ippid by ns. Hence it appears that verbs which
are tranlitively adtive can be made pallive, becanfe they liave
an objeA, which, in the padive form, is made the fubjedt of
difcourfe ; and that verbs intranfitively active cannot have a
pallive form, becaule they have no object.

The pallive voice, in all languages, is expreffed by the
connecting verb, and the perfeil participle for its predicate ;
and it is curious to obferve, that this combination is its origin
in the Greek, tongue, the iubjecl of dilcourle being com-
bine<l with the perlonal pronouns in the dative cafe. Thus,
oino; fio , iouff for me, which do not, as before, coalefce as a
fubjeft with an agent ; but as a fubjccl with the perfon to
whom it belongs, and for whom it was inteaded. Hejice
their combination came to convey the idea/ am houjed, I am
built ; for the auxiliary am ferves only to alTert that houfcd
or hu'ilt belongs to the pronoun preceding it, and to ce-
ment their union in the mind as fubjedl and predicate. In
the fame manner, if trji, to, be annexed to the word oi^.o.-,
we have oir'j,- <7oi, ono^THthoufs for thee, houfe for him. And
thefe contraftions, by flight changes, became oixi^ojuxi,
wf.iii-7%1, cr-.i^577-i, I am built, thou art built, he is built.

A verb, if its operation pafs over to another thing, or if
it have an object to exprefsthe effeft of that operation, may
be csW^A trarjitive ; but if its influence do not pafs over, or
if it have no object, it is intranjltive. Verbs, on the other
hand, not expreffng action, but being, pojlur:, continuance,
and ferving to aflbciate two things, as a lubjeCl and predicate,
may with propriety be called rannci^/ng- verbs. Of this clafs
is am, with all its branches, or the correfpondiiig verbs in
Latin and Greek. And here it is proper to obferve that
verbs of motion came in all languages to lignify continuance,
pojlure, and the like, becaiife we can meafurc duration, or
even rejl, and privation of motion, only by ideas confequcnt
on motion. Thus, in our own tongue, " a ddigent boy will
become a learaed man." " By thee difpofed into congenial foil,
Jlands each attractive plant," ;'. e. is difpofed. So in I..atin,
" Quum placidum ventis_y?ai-rt mare,'' when the [i;:\ flood [i. e.
tuas continued) tranquil from the winds. V'cniet lenior,
{he will come milder, i. e. will be or become milder. Vixilfet
immundiis fus, he would have lived, i.e. he wotild have be-
come a filthy pig. Ego inccdo regina, I walk a queen,
»i f I am a queen. Theocritus, fpeaking of the irafcibility
of Pan, writes Kui U asi Sfiitny. ;^o>.x toti j'r.i y.xd'Tat, keen
anger al.vays fits in his nofe. / e. the breath of anger always
continues in his noftrils, or, he is ever irafcible. On this
principle it is that ;x.'> '" Greek, as implying continuance or
pollure, came to have the fenfe of am — '.xXx- exv, J am
ii'ell ; and that u, / am, and n-x, I go, were originally the fame.
And in Latin coco became, for a fimilar reafon, into efceo,
which occurs in Lucreti;is in the fenfe of ejl. From e.vire the
Italians have derived z^irf, to go out, end, And ufcio, e.xilus,
a door, or a.venue. Hence we have derived to ujher. The
Italian itato, fcfn, owes its derivation hom Jlo, to the fame
mode of thinking. All verbs, then, are either tranfitive or
intranfitive, or connecting verbs. And this divinon appears
to us obvious, ufefi.l, and philofophical.

The properties of verbs are mood, tenfe, number, and
perfon. On thefe properties, as tlv.y are difcufTed in all
grammars, (fee L. Murray's valuable Grammar of ihe Eng-
Ifh Tongue ! Dr. Crombie on Etymology and Syntax j

Dr. Prieftley's Philofophical Grammar, and particularly
iMr. Pickbourn'i excellent Difertaticn on the Engh:h
\ erb,J we (hall content ourfelvcs w ith a few obfervatjons.
Mr. Tooke, vol. ii 473, fays that mood, tenfe, number
and perfon arc no parts of the verb. But this opinion will
appear to be erroncoas, if we reflect on llie manner in which
verbs are ilerived from nouns. For the pcrfonal pronouns in
each number enter into the compofition of a verb in the an-
cient languages, where it is dilUnguiflied by perfonal termi-
nation ; thougli W.J acknowledge the afferti'on to be jull in
Englifh, where the vcib is known only from the annexed
pronoun, or its connection with the agent and objea. Again,
it we reflect on a verb in its formation, we perceive it to
contain an idea, the rcfult of obfervalion and experience-,
which, affiaj?, h certain, ahfolute, and unccnditioriiil. This cer-
tain, abfoluie, and uiicon<li:ion.il form is elfential to the verb,
and It conilitutes that mode or manner called the indicative
mood. As the indicative mood refpecis the pail time ; f»
the fubjunctlve, in rcfpeft to it, regards the future- And
as all future events, at leall with refpect to man, are uncer-
tam, relative, and conditional, all verbs, expreifing an un-
certain, relative, or conditional fenfe, are in the fubjunaive, '
fi) called from its being fubjoinid to a verb in the indicative.
All verbs, moreover, expreifing an ra</ or intention, as being
from their nature uncertain, are ufed in the fubjundive ; and
for this reafon it might be called iWf.nal mood. In this view it
has a clofe affinity to the infinitive, which, as we have already
obferved, is only an abllract noun with the prepofiliun /ov
denoting the end or objert to which the preceding verb is di-
rected. Accordingly, tliey may be fubllituted one for the
other, in all inibnces. That.,' I dejire to learn; Idi-firc,
the objed of my defire being karning ; I defirc that I iTiould
learn; I defire, //a;/ being my end, I Ihould learn. Hence
it follows that the lubjunctive mood is not efl"ential to lan-
guage, and for this reafon it docs not exill in Hebrew and
lome other tongues. As a command is necelTarily given in
the time now, the imperative has no tenfe but the prcfent,
nor can it, in ilrict propriety, liave a firft perfon, fingular or
plural ; becaufe it would be abfurd in a perfon to command
himfelf. Let me love, then, is not t\v: jirfi but t\\c ficcad per-
fon, as may appear by fubfl;ituting/i.rm;/ for its equivalent
let. Permit thou me te love

Finally, if we reileft on the verb in it.s clement, we ftiall
find that timepajl is efl'cntuil to it, becaufe ttic convcrfion of
a noun and the annexed pronoun into a veriris in confeqiionce
of paft experience or obfervation. But as prefcnt feeling or
confcioufnefs coalefces with our refledtion o:t the paft, the
verb, which owes its exiilence to the paft, comes to fignify
alfo the prefent. And this is the reafon why in Hebrew,
the moil ancient language, the fame form of the verb cx-
prelfes the pall and the prefent time ;i;nd this too,appeai-s to
be the reaijun why in F.oglilh and all otlicr langiiagts a verb
in the prefent tonfe isoftcn ufed, in au extend'-d fenfe, to con>-
prehend all time, prefent and pail. As, the fun rifes e-vcrf
day ; birds fy.; truth is always one. In thefe and fimilar iii-
ftances no reference is made to the/«,'urf ; unlefs the future,,
by aftbciationjinfenfibly in our minds coalefces with the paft.
But men iooa bec;une fenfibleof the necelfity of limiting the
verb in regard to time. They foon acquired a dilliaCt no-
tionof the thivo divifions of time into prefent, paft, .iiid fu-
ture ; and in order to vary the terminations of-the verb, fo as
to correfpondto thife divifions, nothing marc was neecfrar\-
than to follow the impulfe of alfociatiou. adding on accidental,
corruptions. Htnce the origin of tenfe.s, which, as the word
implies, are the e.vlenfion of the verb by diftinguiftiing termi-
nations to exprefs the divifions of time. And here we
cannot help obferving, how improper it is to calltcnfca,
2 aad

GRAMMA R.

■and fimilar contrivances, ahlrcvialmis, (as is done by Mv.
Tookf,) a name, the very reverfe of what a tenfe purports
to be. The formation of the tenfes in Hebrew \% wortliy of
■attention, and (hews tliat the human mind, under the influence
of a rational law, without perhaps the exprefs exertion of
reafon, may produce a contrivance for its beauty and
liniplicity truly admirable. In that language the dilliu-
■guiihing termination is the perfonal pronoun, annexed or
prefixed. Now, fuppofe '/I, /;, a fragment of the firft
perfonal pronoun, to mean /. It will alfo become a na-
tural index of the time no/.', whenever the fpeaker ules it
in connexion with a verb, becaufe he meafures the prefent
moment by the ufe of it, or by reflefting on himfelf when
iifing it. This being the cafe, a verb preceding t\ will be
a pad verb, by pointing, as it were, the attention back-
ward, as Pegod-t'i, infited /, or / i^ij'ited ; while a verbyi^c-
ceeding the fame particle cxprelTes \X\<t future time : the pro-
noun, being the uidex of the prefent time, points now the
attention forward, as t\-pcgr>d, I •uiftt, (meaning / ivill ■v'lfit).
But for //(I, the other fragment of the perfonal pronoun, is
tifed apegod. In modern languages which have no diftin-
guilhing terminations, the notification of time future is but
an inference drawn from verbs of volition or defire, in con-
fequence of the conltant affbciation of the objeCl of that
volition or defire with time to come : as / will ham, which
meant, at firll, / am refolded to learn, and then the time
when the i-efolution is to be performed. ThusyJo// and
twill, which are the Hebrew SnK'' fi^i^U and the Greek
0ov\w, volo, m a fecondary fenfe become indices of time to
come. It is here of importance to remark, that though
Jhall, will, with do, may, have, S:c. are called auxiliaries,
they are ftill leading verbs, and govern thofe, which they
are fuppofed to fubferve, in the infinitive mood.

The Greek has been reprefented as very like the Shan-
fcrit ; but in truth, the old ^olic dialeft, whence the Latin
is derived, claims a much clofer affinity with the great
Indian language ; and in that dialeft of it which is fpoken
in Bengal, the mark of the future tenfe is bo. Thus
hoibo, I Jhall be, is the future of hona ; juft fo is the Latin
amabo, the future of amo ; abo being originally awo, a form
of the verb denoting cmifative, unA thence fucceffion, or tran-
fition in regard to time. Mr. Tooke, indeed, in his ufual
manner, fuppofes amabo to be an abbreviation of amahoule,
amaboul, amabo, fee vol. ii. 434. But the primary fenfe
of /SokXw is to will, or deliberate ; and upon the fame prin-
ciple that this verb became an index of future time, any
•ether verb or form of a verb would be made an index of it
by affociating its objeft with futurity. The ideas which
this grammarian had of language are altogether mecha-
nical ; and by rejefting the principle of mind, while conti-
.nually hunting after blind mechanifm, he feems to us not
.to have fullained the charafter of a philofopher in explain-
ing its phenomena.

Tke Origin and Properties of Participles.

Mr. Harris's account of participles is as follows : Every
complete verb is exprefllve of an attribute of time, and of an
ajferliun. Now if we take away the affertion, and thus de-
.itroy the vei'b, there will remain the attribute and the time,
which make the eflence of a participle, p. 1 84. This flate-
ment has concilenels and fimplicity to recommend it, though
we do not regard it as correft. Mr. Tooke gives us the
following account of participles. " This fort of word is by
no means the fame with a noun adjeSive. The participle has
all that a noun adjeftive has ; and for the fame reafon, i-iz.
■for the purpole of adjeSion. But it has likewife fomething
more than a noun adjeftive has j becaufe the verb has Home-

tiling more than the noun. And that fomething more (aS
Perizonius proceeds to aflcrt) is not only the adfignification
of time, for every verb has a fignilication of its own,
diftintt from manner and time. And language has a3 much
occafion to adjeSive the diiliuft fignification of the verb,
and to adjeftivc alfo the mood, as it has to adjediive the time.
And it has, therefore, adjcifived all three — the diftinft figni-
fication of the fimple verb, and the verb with its moods,
and the verb with its tenfes. I (hall at prefent notice only
fix of thefe verb-adjeftives, which we now employ in Eng-
lifh, viz. the fimple verb, itlelf adjeftive ; two adjeftive'
tenfes, and three adjeftive-moods.

" We had formerly in Englifti only the fimple verb-adjec-
tive, and the pall tenfe adjeftive. In addition to thefe two,
we have now the convenience of four others, which I mud
call the potential mood affive adjeilive ; the potential mood
pafTive adjective ; the official mood paffive adjcftive ; and
the future tenfe aftive adjeftive. As the noun adjeftive
always fignifies all that the unadjeftived noun fignifies, and
no more, except the circumftances of adieftion ; fo muft the
verb adjeftive fignify all that the unadjeftived verb fignifies,
and no more, except the circumilance of adjeftion. But
it has been ufual to fuppofe, that with the indicative mood,
as it is called, is conjoined alfo the fignific?.tion of the pre-
fent time, and, therefore, to call it the indicative mood prefent
tenfe. And if it were fo, then indeed the word we are con-
fidering, befides the fignification of the verb, mufl:- likewife
adfignify fome manner and the prefent time ; for it would
be then the prefent tenfe adjeftive as well as the indicative
mood adjedlive. But I deny it to be either. I deny that
tl;e prefent time, or any time, or any manner, is fignified by
that which is called improperly the indicative mood prefent
tenfe. And, therefore, its proper name is merely the verb —
indicative, if you pleafe, i. e. indicative of being merely a
verb.''

Our readers, we are fure, will not be able to perufc this
account without furprife ; and we (hall endeavour to fet it
afide by a more fimple and rational account of the parti-
ciple. The prefent participJe denotes the operation of a verb
without regard to any agent ; the perfcil participle denotes
the ftate, power, or habit, generated by that operation in
a perfon or thing which is the objeA of it. If this llate-
ment be juft, the participle in its gCHuine ftate is rather a
verbal noun than a verbal adjedive, and has a clofe affinity
to the infinitive mood. Hence, we can account for the
origin and ufe of the participle. The Hebrew, and more
efpecially the Arabic, form their verbal nouns by what is
called nunnation, or the fyllable on added to the verb ; and
this is the Greek participle in ui, which the Latins have con-
verted into ens ; but which we, by giving n a nafal found,
have corrupted into itig.

As the participle is a verbal noun, we fee the reafon why
in all languages it is either ufed as anoun, or gives birth
to various clalfes of abllratt nouns. The prefent participle,
as expreffing an operation, naturally coalelces with an agent,
and this is the reafon why in Hebrew, in Greek, and fome-
times in Latin, it denotes a doer, or a perfon who afts ; as
I y^a.^-jit, he turiting, the ivriter ; amans, he loving, the lover.
From its facility to coalefce with a noun, the participle
lofes its nominal charafter, and becomes an adjeSive ; and
as it denotes an aftive quality, or a power in energy, it
forms, with the connefting verb to be, the three aftive com-
pound tenfes — I a?n writing — he was writing — they Jhall be
writing.

Farther, as all operations are in time, and we acquire the
idea of time prefent by reflefting on fucceffive .operations,
. the prefent participle implies time unlimited, and, in its aflb-

ciateU

GRAM M A R.

ciatcd efFeft time prefenl, i. d time prcfeht, not abfolutc, but
re/alhc. Thus, / am luriUng, i. e. I am now writing ; I
was WTJting, i. e. I was writing at the time then prefent.
And, in general, the participle is delincd by the concomitant
verb in the fentcnce which may be either prefent, paft, or
future. If the verb be pail, it marks the pall time as then
prefent ; if future, it marks the future as hereafter prefent.
And thus is refuted the opinion of Mr. Tooke, that there
is no adfi^natlon of tlmt; m the prefent participle. But as
he iTiay pronounce this argument a mere evafion, I will
illuilrate it by a parallel inllance in Greek. The fubjimc-
tive verb Tu.l<f, rv4-r-, &c. is thought to be ihcjir/l aorl/l ;
but it is really the Jitjl future; and this is proved by its figni-
fication as well as by analogy, for in all inllanccs this ex-
prefles a future time, not indeed abfolutely fo, but future
in regard to another verb connefted with it in the feiitence.
For example, " and they alked him, faying, if it be lawful
to heal on the fabbath-day, that they might aceufe him,''
U:t, Ko-zny ,on--ii(Tit. To accuie him was their end in a&ing,
and in regard to that aft was future, though now long pall.
Fnially, things whicli aft in conlequencc of afting, acquire
a difpof.thju to aft, juft as bodies when moved have a ten-
dency to move. Repetition, moreover, imparts to the aft-
ing quality additional llrength, protenlion, and permanence.
To exprefs it with the propenlicy and vigour thus attained
by ufe the participial termination kv in Greek is added to a
noun or to an adjeftive, which, as receiving an additional
meaning, is called an augmentalt've. Thus, sijjjv, fpcaking,
means alfo one who is prone to fpeak, which is the cha-
rafter of the fcoffer or diffemblcr ; aTraim, deceiving, one
given to deception, a great deceiver ; kk'.o; xxkiv, more
luicked, increafiitg in •wickednefs. And from this the Italians
have derived one way of augmenting their nouns. Hence,
owT falooii, (a great hull), balloon, and, perhaps, poltroon,
the augmentative of paltry.

The f erfeft, or pail participle, is certainly derived, as Mr.
Tooke rcprefents, from the pail tenfe. — Amamt, amavitus,
amatus ; — doc nit, dccuitus, doSus ; — legit, hgitus, legtus, i.c-
lus ; — audivit, I'udivitus, aiiditus. Us, wliicli is the Greek
'/--, is added to the third perfon as the analogical termina-
tion of nouns, to (liew that the verb is now abllrafted into
<4 verbal noun, denoting the effeft of tiie aftion. Accord-
ingly amatus, dofftis, ledus, auditus, and the like, are every
<ine cither abllraft nouns of the fourth dcclenfion, or ver-
bal adjeftives coalefcing with another noun. And here
we (hall quote a paflage from the lincyclopa;dia Tritan-
niea, (p. 86.) to Ihew into what errors grammarians have
fallen, by not having attended to the nominal character of the
participle : " From thefe obfervations and examples," fays
the writer, " we (ball be able to underlland the two ufes of
llie adjeftive. ]t is either employed to njlrid or modify a
general term ; or the abllraft fubllantive contained in the ad-
jetlive is modilied by the noun with which, in the concrete
or adjeftive form, tiiat abftraft fubllantive is joined. The
firll-may be called the dirett, the fecond the inverfe accepta-
tion of adjeftives. Livy, fpeaking of the abolition of the
regal authority at Rome, fays ; " Regnatura ell Roms: ab
urbe condita ad ULeratam annus ducentos ([uadraginta qua-
tuor :" Monarchy fublliled at Rome, not from the city built
(which would convey no meaning,) but from the building of
the city, to its deliverance. Both the participles condita
and itbcratam are here ufed inverfely, /. e. the abllraft fub-
ftantives contained in condita and liberatam are modified
and reftrifted by the fubllantives urbe and urlem, with
wliich they unite. Again, Ovid, fpeaking of the conteil
between Ajax and Ulyiles for tlie arms vf Achilles, has
thefe lines ;

" Qui licet eloquio fidum quoquc Nellora vincat
Haud tamen efficiet, defertum ut Neflora crimen
Nullum cfl'e rcor.''

Here alfo the adjeftive or participle defertum is taken in- ■
verfely, and the general notion of deferlion contained in it is
modilied or rendered particular, by being joined with the fub-
llantive Nejlora. The meaning of the paflTage is, " I will
never be induced to believe, that the defertion of Neftor was
not a crime." Were defertum to be taken direftly as an ad-
jeftive, modifying its fubllantive, the fentence mull be tranf-
lated, " I cannot believe that Nellor defertcd was not a
crime." But it is evident that this is nonfenfe ; as Nettor,
whether deferted or not deferted, could not be a crime.''

This writerwas ledby Mr. H. Tooke toconlider every ad-
jeftive as a noun in its nature : lie then makes a difcovery in
which he feemingly blames himfelf, \i'liich is this : inllead of
the adjeftive qualifying its noun ; the noun inverfely quali-
fies its adjeftive ! This able writer would not have ufed
this language, if he had trulled to his own underllanding,
and had not allowed himfelf to be mifled by his guide.
The participles condita and liberatam, though they here coa.«
lefee with another noun, iUU retain their original charaftcr of
a fubllantive, and the hillorian has apprized his readers of this
charafter by the collocation, where condita is rendered promi-
nent and emphatic by fuccecding the qualified urbe. The
fame oblervation applies to defertum Neflora, whicli is cquiva- -
lent to defertionem Nfloris.

As the pall participle exprefTes the effeft of an operation, .
it has been called i\\c pajjive participle ; but whfn the fubjeft
of an operation is a moral agent, that effeft is habit, or a
voluntary principle of action. And thus it is, that the per-
feft participle often expreffes or implies aftion ; as, adrni-
ratus, having admired ; locutus, having fpoien. Sometimes in
Greek and Latin it conveys a reflex lenfc ; aijlratus mem-
bra, having projl rated his limbs ; ir!— ^-lu/uiio,- tia^^sXioF, having
the gofpel entrujled to me. And lallly, as the perfeft par-
ticiple is derived from a pall verb, and, as it fignifies an ef-
feft already produced, it points to time pall; neverthelefs, as
that effeft is a habit or power capable of aftion, it implies
time prefent, and thus the pall particij)le, comprehending
both tnues, anf« ers to the denomination of perfect prefenl.

The Origin and Properties of Prepojitions.

Mr. Harris defines a prepofition to be a part of fpeecli,
devoid itlelf of fignificalion, but fo formed, as to unite two
words that are figniticant, and refufe to coalefce or unite of .
themlelvts. This definition is undoubtedly erroneous, and has
beenjuftly cenfured by Mr. H. Tooke. We venture, how.
ever, to affirm, that the account given by the lalUmentioned
writer, is by no means fuch as a philofophcr, who accurately
underftood his fubjeft, would give of prepofitions. " As tiic
ncceffity, fays he, vol. i. p. 319. of the article, or of fome equi-
valent, follows from the impofiibilily of having in langu.ige a
dillinft name or particular term for each particular indivi«
dual idea ; fo docs the neceflity of the prepijitjon, (or of lonie
equivalent invention) follow from the impolfibility ol having
in language a diilhic't complex term for each dilfcrcnt tol-
hltion of ideas, which we may have occaQon to put together
in difcourie. The addition or fubtraction of any one idea,
to or from a coUeftion, makes it a difierent colitition : ar/d if
there were degrees of impofiibihty, it is ftill more impc.lCbie
to ufe in language a different and dillinft complex term fvj ■
each different and dillinft eoUcftioii of ideas, than it is to u'c ,
a dillinft particular term for each particular and individual
idea. To u'.pply, therefore, the place of the complex terms
which are wanting in a language, is the prepofition employ-,

GRAMMAR.

«d, by wKofe aid complex terms are prevented from being
infinite or too numerous, and are ufed only for thofe collec-
tions of ideas which we have mod frequently occafion to
mention in difcourfe. And this is obtained in the moll fim-
ple manner in the world. For having occafion, in communi-
cation, to mention a coUeftion of ideas, for which thei-e is no
one fingle complex term in the language, we eitlier take that
complex term which includes the greateft number, though
rot alt of the ideas we would commiuiicate, or elfe we take
that complex term which includes all, and the fcweil more
than thofe we would communicate ; and then, by the help
of the prepofition, we either make up the deficiency in the
one cafe, or retrench the fuperfluity in the other. For in-
ilance, " A houfe iv'ilh a party wall," " A houfe withoiil a
-party wall.'' In the firfl inllance, the complex term is defi-
cient. The prepofition directs to add what is wanting. In
the fccond inl-lance, tlie complex term is redundant. The
prepofition directs to take away what is wanting."

Now this ftatement appears to us to be more properly de-
fcriptive of coiijundiom than of prepofitions, it being made
altogether in reference to lu'ith, which has, in the above in-
ftance, only a conjundive fenfe ; as, a houfe ami a party wall,
i. e. a houfe add a party wall, or, as Mr. Tooke explains,
ivtih a houfe _/w'« a party wall. The following we deem a mere
jull reprefcntation. Prepofitions exprefs the relations of
things ; and, as our ideas of relations are affociated effefts,
arifiug from our ideas of things, fo the words cxpreffing re-
lations are borrowed from the things related, that is, prepo-
fitions originated in nouns and verbs. But we have feen,
that the relations of thin;4s are alfo expreffed by cafis. Cafes,
therefore, and prepofitions, have the fame meaning ; the
former, indeed, being no other than the latter combining
with nouns, and thus giving them different terminations,
bearing dillinCl fenfes. The three leading relations v^e have
farther feen expreffed by cafes, are beginning, injlrument or
medium, and end. Thofe prepofitions, then, which fignify
beginning, require tlie noun fucceeding them to be in the
original ilate or pofition, or, agreeably to the ufual language,
govern the genitive cafe. Thofe fignifying injlrument or me-
dium govern their dependent nouns in the injlrumental or
medial, or, as it is commonly called, the ablative cafe ; while
thofe denoting the objeft or end to which an aftion or mo-
-tion relates, to which it tends, and in which it terminates,
have their governed nouns in thcjtnal or dative cafe.

We now proceed to afcertain the meaning of the leading
prepofitions, by deducing them from their origin. And we
(hall find that Mr. Tooke, as his ideas are unfatisfadlory and
imappropriatein regard to the ufeof prepofitions, is millaken
in almoll every inltance, in refpcft to the fources in which
they origiEvated. And here we mufi; premife, that our ideas
of beginning, nvjdium, and end, are fo palpable and diftinft,
and fo effential to dillinttnefs in our other conceptions, that
they are nearly coeval with our ideas of things and of mo-
tions ; and confequently muft have cxifted in the language
of men, as foon as it reached a form deferving of tliat name.
And as we naair.tain, tliat all tlie varieties of human fpecch
which now exill, or have ever exided, are but branches pro-
pagated by various caufes, (like the human race itfelf,) from a
few parental Hems in the one primeval language of mankind;
fo we maintain, that mod prepofitions in different languages,
are but the fame original words, differently corrupted, agree-'
ably to the genius of the people who borrowed them from
their ancellors ; and that the Englifh prepofitions, in parti-
cular, are antecedent to Anglo-Saxon and Gothic corrup-
tions, or, as Mr. Tooke would fay, abbrsviations , and origi-
nated in oriental words, dtrived in many inftances through
^he medium of Greek and Latin. The derivation of the con-

iunftions and prepofitions is, indeed, the moR fpccious part
of Mr. Tooke's fyftemjand not only in his own opinion,
but in the opinion of the public, he lies fo ftrongly fortified,
that no adverfary can difiodge him. We fiiall, however
make an attempt for this purpofe.

" 1 imagine, fays he, p. 367, that ^ (in the Gothic and
Anglo-Saxons/") is a fragniiiit of the Gothic and Anglo-
Saxon ajara or afora, pnjleritas, offspring, that it is a noun fub-
ftantive, and means always confequcnce, offspring, J'uccejji'jn, or
follower." Now as to afora it is nothing but the Greek ?c;w,
produce, from ?!fi, and the meaning oi of is quite thereverfe of
confequence, &c. Thus, in the phralc rf/VJ of the fun, of 'pomX.i'
to the futi as the origin of rays. It means, therefore, fource,
origin, audits derivation is ^ji, ab, root, ftem, sttc, x^,ab.
The genitive cafe, which correfponds to of, further proves
this, Solis radii, where is, annexed to fol, furely does not
mean that the fun is a confequence of the ravs, but that it
is the origin of the rays. The fource or caufe of a thing
is before that thing in the order of nature. Hence, accord-
ing to the ufual arrangement in Latin, the noun in tlie ge-
nitive is put bfore that which proceeded from it, and this
is the reafon why in Englifli we always fay father's houfe,
(father is houfe,^ and never hoife father's, having copied not
only the genitive termination ot the third declenfion, but
alfo the collocation of the noun aflPeCled by it. Mareover,
not of but after came from the Gothic afara, bccaufe thi;,
meaning offspring, came alfo to denote fucceffion, or tliat ■
which conies after thofe who gave it birth. And in the
Gothic it is ufed as a prepofition fignifying^i?/?, after, where
the / is introduced to humour the pronunciation, as i is in-
ferted in xvi^o,- for czvsjc;, or a-.^o.;.

As of means beginning, it has the fam.e fenfe with from ;
■which lafl Mr. Tooke derives from the Gothic and An-
glo-Saxon frum, meaning Jirjl, beginning. This may be
admitted But whence did _/);«« originate ? The Latins, it is
well known, converted the Greek teruiination v into 7r.
Thus the accufative iv became im or em ; the genitive plural '
IV, tim, and the neuter ending ci, is alfo um in Latin. On
this principle ^fi> is the parent of primus. This lafl the
Goths of Wallachia, where, as Miciiaelis obferves, aLatiu
colony had been eflablillied, and whofe language, after thus
blending with the Latin, is the only fpecimen of the Gothic
preferved in modern days, have borrowed and corrupted in
the form oi frum, which retains the original fenfe of initium,
principium. But we are not yet arrived at the origin of the
word. The Arabic y~l£', phra, among other meanings,
denotes the head of a family ; which being rendered more
general and abllraft, gave birth to the Greek t^h, irfii, to
the Latin ^/-(T, to f ram the Icelandic, Novfe, Danifli, Swc-
difli, tofry'm Frilch, and_/;-«c in Scotch. And thus the Ara-
bic origin of the word accounts for the different forms of from,
fra, fry, frae, in the Northern dialefts, the firfi. being derived
through the medium of Greek and Latin ; the others imme-
diately from Afia. Mr. Tooke happens to be right in the
meaning of y;oOT, merely becaufe tl.e Gothic corruption of
frum has correftly retained the original fenfe of primus.
He thus illuflrutes its lignification. Figs came from Turkey ;
lamp falls from cieling; lamp hangs from ciehng Figs can:e,
beginning Turkey, that is, Turkey the place of beginning
to come. Lamp falls, beginning cieling ; cieling the place
of beginning to fall. I^ainp hangs, beginning ceiling ; ceil-
ing the place of beginning to hang. This explanation is
rational and jufl : but when he adds came is a complex term
for one fpecies of motion ; falls is a complex term for an-
other fpecies of motion ; hangs is a complex term for a
fpecies of attachment, though very true, this is iiothing to
the purpofe. Came, falls, hangs, imply each motion or

direction,

GRAMMA R.

•direftion, and from points to the origin of the motion or
direftion in each, without any riifcrence whatever to their
peculiar meaning.

To the prepoiitions o/"and from, Hand oppofcd to, till, and
for. Mr. Tooke might, with equal propriety, derive to
from his own name, as derive it from tiie Gothic taugan, to
aft, which is but the Greek t!'j;^v, to fahricale. liqually
abfurd is it to fay, that the Latin ad is from actum. The
parent word, as we have fcen, is the Arabic XnK> "'''i to
move to a thing. In Celtic, the u ord has pi-eferved its ori-
glnal form (atto,) in the exaft fcnle of to. B-.it in Per-
sian, lofmg the initial vowel, it became taa ; whereas,
in Latin, retaining the firft and dropping tiie lall, it exifts
under the form of ad, aiid in Englilli under that of at. To
and at have a fignification correfponding to their kindred
origin, the former denoting the objcdt of motion, the latter
coalefcence with that object after its reaching it. " That ////
ftiould beoppofed to from, fays he, only uhen we are talking
of time, and upon no other occafiun, is evident for this reafon,
iftz. that //■// is a word compounded of to and tuhile, I. e. tiir.t'.
And you will obferve, that the coalefcence of thefe two
words to, while, took place in the language long before the
prefent wanton and fuperfluous ufe of the article /Ac, which,
by the prevailing cullom of modern fpeech, is now interpofed.
So that when we fay, " From morn /;'// night,'' it is no more
than if we faid, " From morn to time night.' ' When we fay,
" From morn to night," the word time is omitted as unnecef-
fary. So we might fay, " From Turkey to the place called
England, or ioplac; England," p. 363. But while, or, asit is in
the Anglo-Saxon, hwile, does not mean time but 2, period, or
revolution of time, fuch as a day, week, &c. and is derived
from the Hebrew ^'\}, gul or geel, to revolve, andjvij-,
or, as our anceftors fpelled it, ^ear, is derived from "ITJ,
gure, or in Greek y^joi'. The Hebrew j^c-f/ is alfo the parent
of our wheel. To points to a final objeft either in place or time,
while ////, in ftrict propriety, is applied to time only, and is
derived from r.'AXi-, to rif, and was at firil exprelfive of the
rifingfun. Thus, " I will wait/;// morning," «.f. I will wait the
rifing morning. As //// denotes time, riling, or alternation of
time, the word is always underllood to be followed by feme
Aange implied in the context, but never exprelfed : thus,
" We are always infenfible of a bleffing, //// (or until) we
lofe it," then, "we are fenfible of it," is a claufe implied.
« They will iiav /;// morning ;" and they will then depart,
is to be underltood. Till exifts in the Cimbric language,
and tiiis is an additional proof, tliat the uncouth compofite
to while is a mere fiftion of Mr. Tooke.

Mr. Tooke Cakes for to fignify caufe, as oppofed to of,
fignifying confequence, from tiie Gothic fubllaiitive ferina,
a caufe, p. 367. He thus illuftrates them, 1 am fiek of my
hultand, and _/or my gallant. Love makes her fick »/' and
iicky«r. Here of and for feem almoll placed in oppofition.
At leall their effects in the fentence are moll evidently
different: forby the help of thefe two prepoiitions alone,
and without the alTilbuiceof any other words, (lie expred'es
the two contrary affections of loathing and delire. Her
difguit was the offspring of her hufband, proceeded from
lier liulband. Her gallant was the cauf of her love. But
if her difgull proceeded from her hufband, he was tlie caufe
ot her dllguil : and of and for, inllead of being oppoled
to each other, as they certainly are, mean jult the lame
thing, namely, caufe, and not caufe and confequence. But in
truth, the matter isjullthe reverie of wliat our grammarian
reprefeiits. (y means caufe or origin, and for means conf-
quence (jr end. She is fick of her luifliand — llicis lick, her
nufljand is the fource of it — (he is lick for her gallant, and the
objeft to which (lie looks with delire is her gallant. Accord-

VoL. XVL

'"gb'> /<"■ always fuppofcs tlie attention hot directed bad-
wards, as to the caufe, hut forwards, 3C t'; fome end ; and its
etymology is this, Tsp.i-, to paft over, -rte, or per, the medium
of pafling to an objeft : the French pour, for, the objeft or
end to which paffage is made. Jolinfon gives for forty-fix .
different meanings. But tlierc is not one inllance in which
it does not bear a fenfe deducible from its primary lignifica-
tion of end OT oljeei . Tlius, Chrilt died /or us ; Clirill died,
us, (/. e. our redemption,) being the end or obiect of his death.
To fight fr the pubhc good ; to light, tiie public good
being the end or objeft of lighting. He does all things .
for the love of virtue. He does all thingr,, tlie love of
virtue being the end or motive of all liis actions, and fo in
all other inttances.

By (in the Anglo-Saxon hi, be, big) is the imperative of
byth of the Anglo-Saxon vcrbfoow, to be. And our ancef-
tors wrote it indifferently be or by. So then, accordmg to
this, our auxiliary be and th.e prepofition by are of the lame .
origin : and what analogy in the name of common fenfeis
tiiere between them, excepting the accidental refemblance
of lound. l.,et us apply this etymology to the folution of
lonie exam.ple, " He was (lain by the Iword," i. e. he was
(lain be a fword, or, " let a fword be." \Ve might a(k let
a fword be what ? Mr. Tooke has anticipated the quellion
by faying this prepofition is frequently, but not always, ufcd
with an abbreviation of con llruftion : fubauditur, in/lrument,
cauf, agent. Sec. Really it appears to i-.s furprifing, that a
man ot tulle and underltanding (hould write tlius. In He-
brew ^2' ^""t '■* f'> p'lf-f} and is the parent of pai- in Greek.
In Arabic and Ferlian it became a prepofition, fignifying the
medium of motion. In tiiis fenle it gave birtti alio to the
Latin via and to the Englilb way, bye, and alfo to the An-
glo-Saxon prepofition bi or be, and the Englidi by, which lad
was ufed by our old writers to fignify the interval of time
during which motion is continued ; as, " By fo long a time,'*
/. e. for lo long a time — By his life. /'. e. during his life.

Tlien it came to ligaify the medium or inllruinent by
which any action in general was performed. He was (lain
^_v the fword — He was (lain, tlie fword being the medium
or inftrument of his fiaughter. The derivation of with from
•wyrthan is no lefs abfurd. What has with to do with wir, or,
as we have it, were] The parent of this verb, which lignifies to
exi/l, is the Hebrew TlfC' "«'•"■, light, air, the medium of exill-
ence. The Greek u-n-rx, denoting connexion, concomitance, in/lni-
menlalily, has palfed into the Anglo-Saxon in the form of /«/'</,
where it is corrupted into with, and exills in the fame fenlc
in liotli (onus. The letters m, v, w, are of the fame organs,
and often change one for anothei". Many Greek words are
borrowed from the Hebrew, by changing ;2 into ; ; as '^j;?*^*
mafal, is ,iy.y,Xnij^,torule ; and all the \\ ellb words borrowed
from Latin ha^e m corrupted into v, arma arve ; mare voer;
me ve. Inllances of this fpecies of corruption occur in An-
glo-Saxon and Gothic. Thus, the Gothic weis is the Greek
,!^(i,-: and hence the Anglo-Saxon, and the Englifli ■&•<•.
Even withan, from which Mr. Tooke alio derives with, is only
the Latin milto, to feat, tu put. And not withan, z^Ue fays,
but ga withan lignifies /o/'o/n or put together,

" The Engliih prepolitio 1 through, fays our author, is no
other than the Gothic 1 bllantive daura, or the Teutonic
fubllantive thuruh, and like tiiem means door, gat:, pajfage,-
p. 3H " And he ad Is in the next paifage, " After having ,
ieen in what manner the liibiiantive Zio.'/- became a prepofi-
tion in tlie French, you will not wonder to iee (/ocr Iwciing,
a prepoiition in the Enghlh ; and though in the lirll intlance
it was mure e ify for voii to lee the luture t>t the Freaicitf/Vjii
becaufe liavin ;" no prepofition correlpondiiig to it in Engliflj ;
yet I am pcrf laded you will not charge tliis to me as a fan-
4G . tallica!

GRAMMAR.

tallical or far-fetched etymology, when I have placed before
you at one view the words employed to fignify the fame idea
ill thofe languages to which our's has the neareft affinity."
After doing\his, he adds, '' Though it is not in Afia or its
confines that we arc to feck fur the origin of this part of our
language, yet is it worth noticing here, that the Greek, to
v/hich?he Gothic has in many particulars a confiderable.re-
leinblance, employs the word Bvcc for door." All this is very
Specious, and being confidently advanced, it has the afpeft of
truth, though it be mifreprefentation. The prepofition through
exills, as Mr.Tooke has fiicwn, in all the collateral languages;
and it m.ay be obferved, what he has not, that there is a
guttural annexed to the word in all. Thus in Englilh through,
Anglo-Saxon thiin//j or thiir/i, Gothic thir/j, German iliirrh,
Teiitonic durac or dunih, &c. Thjs uniformity in retaining
agiittural, (hews tliat a guttural was an original part of the
word. And it is no other than the Hebrew -| ~|-|, thiri,
rOi.'d, pnjt!g<', which has given birth not only to tiiis prepofi-
tion, but to a multitude of other words in all languages.
He came through Greece, he came, Greece being the road, a
pajfagc- of his coming. The genial fun warm.s through the air;
the genial fun -^-arms ; the medium o\- pnffage by which it does
this, is the air. Wc fliall only addon this fubjeS, that the
prepofitions down, math, beneath, exHl in the Arabic, with
little or no variation, and in tlie fame fenfe ; while among is
the Perfian w.eenn, in the midjl, the fame with the Celtic mewn.
Li the Hindooitanic it is founded with a nafal guttural, as if
written meng, and by the fame analogy that jnif/ became i7«;/W;
bei>e, above ; Lout, about ; meng became among. The corre-
fponding word in Hebrew is t';^, bin or beat, u-hich meansyf-
paration, dijiinaion, an idea the very rcverfe of that contained
in mengnn, to mix, from which Mr. Tooke derives it.. From
figm^ymg fcpai-alion, it came to fignify the interval between
tuo things feparated, and hence the Hebrew bin (or written
with the nitnnation binon) is the parent of the Anglo-Saxon
iinnon, between, luithin. The Greek ttf^Si', to overturn, is in
Latin -verto, to turn, which the Anglo-Saxons have iurther
corrupted into iveard-an, to turn to. Hence, in the form of
ward it came to fignify the objcdl to which the attention is
diretled ; &s eajjward, i. e. eajl prnfpeS. We add only the
genealogy oi o-ver, Anglo-Saxon ofer ; Greek ir.;^; He-
brew "1 T J,', ober, to pafs over.

■ We have already obferved, that Mr.Tooke'sdefcription of
the nature and ufe of prepofitions belongs more properly to
the conjunctions. But wc ought rather to fay that it belongs
to neither. Prepofitions exprefs the relation of things, and
thofe relations are the fame, v^hether things or .the complex
names of things are few or many : and the nccefiity of pivpo-
Jitions arifes not from the impoihbility of having a diftinc"t
tomplex terra for each diiFerent collcdtion of ideas, but from
the neceffity of thofe ideas we have of things and their opera-
tions. It is therefore utterly erroneous to fay, that the prepo-
fition is em^doyed to fupply the place of complex terms. On
the other hand, the conjunftions fcrve topropofe or to com-
pare OBr ideas, to combine or to k-parate them : and this ufe is
entirely independent of the number or variety of c'implex
terms. If the complex terms of a language be few, they can-
not be fo fev/ as not to need being feparated; and if ihcy be
ever fo numerous, they cannot be fo numerous as not to
need being joined in coinpofition. Indeed what Mr. Tooke
fays on this fubjeft is indillini't, inappropriate, and even nuga-
tory: thougli fonie fuhfequcnt grammarians have gravely
copied his reafoning as oracular wifdom.

The prepofitions and conjunftions in .Englifh exifl in the
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic. But this circumllance Mr. Tooke
has kept out of iight. He knew it would appear ftrange
U> deduce words of this kind frora verbs nad noiias in.the pa-

rent tongue, while the very fanse words exifted in that tongue
coeval, and in many inftances antecedent to the nouns and
verbs reprefented to be their origin. But whence came
thofe conjunftions and prepofitions to the northern language !
We have anticipated this quellion by proofs from faft. Thefe
branches of the northern tongue, as the northern tongue it-
felf has done, originated in the oriental languages. The
ftruclure of thofe languages is fuch, that the verb is the
leading part cf fpeech, and not only the fubordinale parts,
but even the noun is derived from it. This doftrine is in-
culcated and fupported b,y the mod e.\tenfive and obvious
analogies, and taught in the popular grammar, fo that no
learner, who has made any progrefs in them, can be igno-
rant of the true origin whence thofe particles including ad-
verbs, prepofitions, and conjunctions, are derived. The-
verbs, from fignifying in the Afiatic dlalefts the actions of
things, degenerated to exprels the relations and conneLlions ot
thofe things ; and with fome neceflary variations incidental
to founds, palled into Greek, Latin, and other tongues, jii
the form of prepofitions and coiijunClions ; and they were
thence propagated, with ftill farther corruptions, into the
Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and other European dialefts. Lofing
much of their primary forms, and changed in fignificatioii,
European grammarians foon confidered them as dillinft parts-
of fpeech. And much uncertainty, confufion, and obfcu-
rity, hung for ages on the fubied, till Mr. Tooke role and
diflipated the mill, by afferting their true origin to be nouns,
and verbs. This he acknowleges, or rather boafts to have
been a mere eonjeSure at firfl ; and it has this fmgular fate,
that, while the conjecture itielf is perfe£lly ju't, almoil
every inflance alleged to fupport it is erroneous and futile.
Having no acquaintance with the oriental tongues, and fcem-
ingly little accjuaintance with Greek and Latin, but. endowed
with a powerful mind, as we conceive, under fome wrong
biaffes, and actuated by a dcfire of opening new paths of {'pe-
culation, he boldly imputes the dignity of an ancient and in-
dependent language to oral corruptions, chiefly made by a
barbarous people, fo late as the dark ages.' On fome of
thefe corruptions he lays his hands, and holds them forth to
the p'.iblic as the parents of thole words v\hich long exifted
antecedently to thole corruptions. This wc believe to be a
jull: repreieutation of the queflion, and our readers will hence
be able to appreciate the merits of his fyftem. The follow-
ing is the table of genealogy, which he gives of the leading
conjnnftioiis.

If n

'■Gif 1

'Gifan, to give

An

^

An

" Au-an, to grant

Unlefs

o

Onlefs

t Onh{<m, t<f di/mijs

Eke

Eac

^ 1 Eacan, to add

Yet

■^ 1

Get

.S ' Getti\n, to get

Still

>L

Stell

'S ; Stellan, to put

Elfe

Ales

-£-<!

Alefan , to difmifs

Though

u

Daf

V.

Dafian, to alloiu

Biit

^

Bot

Botan, to hoot

BCit

o

Beutan

.a

Beon-utan, to he put.

Without

rt

Wyrthatan

o

Anan-ad dare congc-

And

_An-ad

ricm.

We will briefly examine thefe. Skinner, before Mr. H*
Tooke, has derived _ej/^ from the Anglo-Saxon ^j/n«, dare;
an<l perhaps this very word is the foundation of his theory,
though he has not mentioned (and he may have forgotten)
the circumllance which gave birth to his conjedlure. , It is,
however, important to obi'erve, that the ufe oi gif, as a prepo-
fition, is not of a late origin : for the Anglo-Saxons ufed it
in that fenfe, and derived it in common with the verb gifart
feora.lhe Hebrew, Arabic, and Perfinn word p^, haph, the

^a!m

G R A M M A R.

J-jlm cf .'he hanil. Now tlie action of the luiiid is tv.-o-fold, to
give or I'j receive. In the latter ienfe it iias pafled into Latin,
and produced aip'io, citpio, and even Iiabeo, mKS.nn\g to LoU ; in
the former it has given birth to the Anglo-Saxon verb ^f//",
which fignifics the action of the hand in imparting. Our
word keep is apparently of the fame origin, meaning to hold.
Mr. Tooke obfcries, that ^/n is ufed in our Northern coun-
tries, and by the Scotch in tl.e fenfe of if, and he jullly fays,
that it is only a contraClion of the participle _5^;V?n.

ylii, uied by old autliors, means if, as in the following
lines, quoted by Juhnfon :

" An honeft mind and plain : he muft fpeak truth
Jin they will take it fo ; if not, he's plain :"

That is, if they will take it fo. This Mr. Tooke derives
from aitan, to grant, which is only the Latin pnmio, Vo ajfent
to ; whereas an is the Arabic particle ;J^, an, whicli is pro-
nounced as if written in, when meaning if. We borrowed
it from the Gothic, where it is employed, as it is alfo in
Latin, to mark an interrogation. The derivation of tinhfs,
or, as it was formerly wiitten, onks, from on-Ies, feems at
firft. fight not to be difputcd. The application of the An-
glo-Saxon oiihs does not appear forced ; as Troy will be taken,
cnles the palladium be prcfervcd, /'. e. Troy will be taken,
difmifs the palladium be preferved, or, difmifs that circum-
ftance, namely, the pivfervation of the palladium, and Troy-
will be tak<jn. And yet we arc perfuaded that this is not
the true interpretation of inilefs. Mr. Tooke is not fair in
explaining the words from which he would derive this and
other particles ; but, in order to anfwer his own purpofe,
gives them a meaning which they really do not bear. On-
Ifan is interpreted by lye, un-leefe fe. im-loofe, folvere, and it
has no other meaning : and in this fenfe it is incapable of
folving the difficulty. — " Troy will be taken, unhofed tiie
palladium be preferved," wiiich is hardly fenfe. Mr. Tooke
acknowledges that the Anglo-Saxon writers have not given
us inftances of or.les in a conjunftive fenfe : " but, inilead of
it," adds lie, " they frequently employ nymth: or ncmthe,
which is evidently the .niperative nym or nem of nyman or
ncman, to wliich is fubjoined the, i. e. that : and nymihe, tahe
away that, may very well fupply the place of onles the, ex-
prefTed or underftood, difmifs that. But nyman figmiics not
merely to take, but to take coiinfe!, it being derived from the
Greek mi^^u:, to confult or deliberate ; while the Latin nempe
is nfj.u Ti; by law, by right, rightly, truly : leafe is a lecu-
■ ritv by law, and uidefs, we conceive, is a corruption of
unleafed, i. e. unpro-vided, unfecured. Thus, Troy will be
taken, iinlefs the palladium be prei'erved, i. e. it being unpro-
vided, or it being not provided, that the palladium be pre-
ferved ; or, provided that the palladium be not preferved,
Troy will be taken. This author adds les, the imperative
of hfan, which has the fame meaning with on-lefan, is like-
wife ufed by old writers inftead of uniefs ; as, " But will
not bide there lefs yourfelf do bring him.'' To this he fub-
joins, in a note, p. 173, " It is this fame imperative hfs, placed
at the end of nouns, and coalefcing with them, which has
given to our language fuch adjeiilives as bopelefs, rcjUefs,
deathlefs, molionlefs, &c. ;. e. difmifs Iiope, reit, death, mo-
tion." But les, we think, wliich, though not in a compara-
tive form, conveys a comparative idea, is the offspring ol
the Greek Ai.-, (as little is of Aito,) both fignifying /fW/,
flender. From denoting fomething minute, it came, as the
Latin minus, to exprefs negation. On this principle, a /leep-
lefs night, meant at firll not abfolutely a night without (leep,
but a night having lefs fleep than is necelfary, or his than

ufual, though ill time it came to convey abfoluloly a negativi*
idea. Ilopelefs without hope ; bollomUfs, having no bottom ;
and wc appeal to our readers, whcll'rr lliis • xj^laiiation bf*
not more fimpic and natural tlian dfmifs lie lollotn. If this,
derivation be jull, lijl or /<•<//? is not the pad participle Lfd
of lifen, to difmifs, but a contraftion ol LJJlrt, tlie analogical
fuperlativc of lefs, and it means the lead degree of fomc con-
fe<[Ui:nce that follows the preceding claufe ; as, " Let tliofc
who (land take heed U\>Jl they fail ;'' which means, let thofe
who (land take heed ; if not, they will fall, and that is ihc
lead that may happen.

Eke, and, in the Latin ac, is iiliimately. derived from the
Greek atji, or as it is in Latin angen, to increafe, though it
may come more immediately from cacan, the Anglo-Saxon
offspring of atji'. An obfcrvation of Mr. TooVe goes cer-
tainly to prove the latter, if we can depend on its c< rreifl-
nefs. " In each language,'' fays lie, " where this impe-
rative is ufed conjun61ively, the conjunction varies juft as
the verb does. In DaniHi, the conjunction is og, and the
verb Dger. In Swedilh, the conjunction is och, and the verb
oka. In Dutch, the conjundtion is cck, from the verb oeclcn.
In German, the conjunction is auch, from the verb auehon.
In Gothic, the conjundtion is auk, and the verb is aulan."
Thi.i example ferves to fliew how nearly allied tliefe lan-
guages are one to another, .ind how a large portion of tliem
is derived from t!ie Greek and Latin.

Tet is affuredly the Anglo-Saxon get or gut, cdhuc, cliam,
though Mr. Tooke has referred it to the verb to gel. This
grammarian feenis not to have fufiiciently fludieJ thofe ana-
logies by which the genius of a language is formed. The
Anglo-Saxon, delighting in gutturals, forms many of its
words by prefixing the particle ^fc, or the lettcr_f. Thus,
gefryri, pridem, is o;ily the Greek rr^f, with ge ; and ge-
mang is our among. This peculiarity gave birth to the
German mode of prefixing ge to the perfect participle, and
is the principle on which the Greek -ti, in Anglo-Saxon is
corrupted into getei, gel, or gul. The Anglo-Saxon Jlellan,
the Gcrmnn flellen, the Swediih _/?.7//fl, the Daiiifli yW/ir,
originated in the Greek rsAJ.i-, which denoted firft to lav
'down the fails of n flip- Hence in the above iTiintioned
modern tongues, it came to fignify, to place, compcfe, or
ad';uj} : but the general confequcnce of putting down the
fails is to give flillnefs or tranquiirtty to the fhip. Hence
s-=XXi- gave birth alfo to the Anglo-Saxon fiillan, and the
Englini to fill, and to the conjunction fiUl. The Anglo-
Saxon and Gothic ufed it conjunctively in the form of JliUf
or Jlylle, and its immediate parent undoubtedly \s Jlillan, and
not fiellan, as Mr. Tooke would have us believe.

Elfe, with no lefs certainty, is the Anglo-Saxon cUet, the
Latin alias, and the Greek ^Wu:, and has uotliing to do with
a'efan, to difmifs, and it means not exception or difnnjfcn, but a
change or diirercncc in the confequence, or in the condition
of what is expreffed in the preceding claufe. Thus, let
the derivation be juft, elfe it will not be received, /'. e.
otheriuife it will not be received : let the derivation be iuit ;
if otherwife than jurt, it will not be received. On Mr.
Tooke's principle the folution ftands thus : let the deri\-a-.
tion be jull, difmifs it «i!l not be received, an interpretation
at once unnatural and unmeaning ; and in order to give it
tlie appearance of fenfe and coherence, he is forced to fiip-
])ofe a clasfe underjhod. Let the derivation be juft. difmifi
the derivation being juft, or difmifs that circumftnuce, it
will not be received : fee his rcfolution of fuch examples in
vol. i. p. 247. The con'iunCtion o>.a.s , like «>,Xj .-, is a mo;
dilicatiou of the prcyioun aX>.o,-, anotlia-, and may be re-
folved in the fame way as eife isj Engliftt. P-.». o.-tt xa7s^v79l,
462 ix>:i.n'

a>^x r:\r.e-^7«.i, I tame not to deftroy,

came not to dedroy, another tiling, (i. e. I came for another

thins-,) I came to iultil. , i , ,

JNlr. Tooke derives but fiom two different words botan, to
ioo/, and hutnn, or /,.- «to«, to be out, or /(7 M,p!, and accord-
inn-ly alTKTiis the word two ditfere.it fenfes, as it is taken trom
the one Sr the other. In oppof.tion to this, we maintain
that but is tlie AngU)-Saxonj5///o«, or ^u/an, and has the fcnle
which it bears in thiit language of esrepi, ivithoul, and no
other but this, or one reiolvable into this. We farther
maintain, that the Anglo-Saxon baton is the Arabic and

Hebrew fl"'. *'"^. "> "'' ''■'''"''' ^"^ " '■'".'^'. '", -j '
former with the nummtion, is iK«o« ; and the principal idea
implied in it is fip.u-citkn. With but have flowed trom the
lame fource bit, a morfcl feparated ; fc., to feparate with
the teeth Let us applv the word thus explained. I law
none but two pl.ui's— two plants being leparated I law
none, or two planted being excepted or taken away, I law

none. . . r 1

In fiich inftances as tl'K-fe, the negative is often omitted
for the lake of brevity ; but it imilk be fupphed betore the
fentence can be explained. Again, " I have much to iay on
this fubiea, but 1 muR proceed to another." Mr. I.ocke
obferved, that in f xh inilances, but intimates a Itop oi the
mind, in the courle it was gomg. But, fays our gram-
marian, the truth is, that hut illelf is the farlhcll or any
ord in the language from intimating a (lop. '^" "'«
ntrary, it intimates fomething more, lomcthiKg to follow,
juid, therefore, whenever any one in difeomimg hnillies
his words with but, the quelHon always follows, but what f
p 205 Now, we hefitate not to lay that Locke, though
not right, is nearer the truth than Mr. H. Tooke. " I have
much to fay on this fnbjetl, let that liowever be ieparate
or that being feparated or laid alide, I proceed to another
■ Here then but denotes the remoial of the thing which alreacy
occupied the mind, and the fucceedmg word or words
mark that which is introduced to fill its place. On fuch
a removal the mind naturally looks forward to the mtro-
duftion of fomething elfe ; and its expetlation m this
refpcft forms no part of the meaning expreffed by iu^ but
is a habit formed by experience or affociation. Knott
■having rem-arked, that the Catholics prayed, conferred
places, and confultcd the originals ; Chilhngworth replies,
<< you prav, but it is not that God would bring you to the
true religion, but that he would confirm you m your own.
You confer places, but it is that you may confirm or colour
over with plaufible difguifes your erroneous doftnnes ; not
that you may judge of them and forfake them, if there be
reafon for it. You confult the originals, but you regard
them not, when they make againlf your dottrine or tranf-
In all thcfe places, but does not, as Mr. Tooke

G R A M M A R.

but to fulfil I On the con]\m8.\on althou^^h, or though, we quote t!ie fol-

\vc
com

An

rated.

lowing reiKark from the learned Dr. Jamieion, in his Etym.
Diftionary. " Mr. Tooke derives though from the Anglo-
Saxon thafian, or thafigan, to allow. But there is not the
fame evidence here, at with relpeiil to fome other conjunc-
tions illuftrated by this acute and ingenious writer. It
certainly is no inconfidcrahlc objeftion to this hypothefis,
that it is not fiipported by analogy in the other northern
languages. In Anglo-Saxon, thtiih fignifies though, Ale-
mannic thnch, Icelandic tho. I (hall not argue from Moes
G. than, in ihaujaba, which Junius views as fynonyinous with
though ; becaufe this feems doubtful. In old Englifli thaS
wa-i written about 1264, fee Percy's Reliques, ii. 210. which
nearly approaches to the Anglo-Saxon theah Inftead o{ thoch
in our oldefi MSS. we generally find thrcht, althocht. Th'e
might feem allied tothc Icelandic //6nc«,qnanivis, which, accord,
ing to G. Andr. is per fyncop. for tho. at, from tho, licet,
ptti ; Lex. p. 266. But it is more probable, that our term is
merely Anglo-Saxon thohte. Moes G. thnhta, cogitabat,
or the participle pall of the verb from which Englilh think
is derived ; as in latter umcs proviJftI, except, &c. have been
formed. Refolve althocht, and it literally lignifies " all be-
ing thought of," or taken into account ; which is the very
idea given by the conjtindion. The Synon, in German ex-
hibits lome analogy ; <Aic/)/f, being the imperfeft and participle
pait of dtnhen doch, although, may have been formed from
the fame verb." Though this etymology be pl.iulible, we
do not agree with it, merely bccauic a more jud and fimple
one may bt pointed out. Although uihovgh con;bined witli
all, as in the verbs albeit, alone, (tor all one,) alone, at one.
And though means net th-^rght, but coneejf;on or alloiuancey
and is derived from the Greek obfolete .5ik. , to give, to grant ;
and as this verb is '5»', or ^ixj> (which gave birth to the
firil aorill sJij-.y,) fo this derived conjuniSion is tho or though..
Its refolution m.ay thus be illuftrated : " Though the book
be long and tedious, I will read it with attention : be it
granted, that the book be long and tedious, I will read it
with attention." It is obfervable, that in its fimple form
the word is hardly capable of being explained on Dr, Ja-
miefon's principle. " Be it thought that the book is long and
tedious, I will read it with attention;" wliereas, on our
hypothefis, the compound form is eafily fufceptible of illuf^
tration. Be it all granted, that the book, cr grant that tlie
book be all long and tedious, &c. It is obfervable that tha
word has Ipread as is fecn above, from the fame root into
all the kindred northern tongues. So has indeed to think,
but this conies from foiy)!, to exprefs, which in its derived
form was naturally employed to denote the operation of the
mind in iupplying the materials of difcourfe, ;'. c. in think-
ing. The noun ^Gi-.^o; is alfo the parent of our word
/^'n^, which fignifies any objeft th.at is the fubjcCl of thoufjht.

i&rts dir^ea'' fomething "to' br'ar/fl't-^ or fuppUed, but de- We" only add^hat the Anglo-Saxon thafan is certainly of

' "on or removal of fomething .liat ought not the fame origin with though, the guttural gh being corrupted

d. You pray not that God would into the labial / in the orthogr.aphy, as well as in the

notes a feparation

to be feparated or remove . .

bring you to the true religion ; you pray, motive bamg

apart, that he (hould confirm you in your own. You con-

is leparated when they make ag; - . , , , ,
lation. Thus, whatever fcnfes may be alcribed to but, ttiey
are all refolvable into one original fignification. Nor have
%ve need with this celebrated grammarian to trace it into two
diftinft verbs, a thing in itfelf very improbable and contrary
to all analogy, nor would he have adopted fo unlikely
an hypothelis, if it were not uecedary for fupporting his
fvftem.^

pronunciation.

Skinner's account of and'iiMs. " Nefcio an a Lat. addcre.
q. d. add interjefta per epenthefin », ut in render a red-
dendo ;" whii h we think a more proper etvmology than
that of Mr. Tooke, who derived it from annar.-ad ecngeritm
dare, a combination and a fenfe of his own invention. But
this word exills in Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, not only as a
conjunclion but as a prepofitinn combined with words. In
thele characters it figiiilies c-.nnedion, union, reciprocation, or
oppojuion ; and thefe fignilications dcmonftrably fliew that
its origin is the Greek avn, fo fimilar to it in found, and
precifcly the fame with it in fenfe. When one perfon or
thing meets another to unite or co-operate, a>7i, exprefliiig

this

GRAMMAR.

this union, or co-opcratlon, ii the copulative anJ,' but when
a pjrfon or thin^ oppofos or coiinteratts auothor, «y.-i, in the
fbrn of an(l, is combined with another word to cxpTi.-k rj^ainjl
or in return ; as unthuyrj, a luortl in return for a zvjrri, i. e.
annnf'U.'er ; a>u[fitrts,a'^(n:tjlthej'im, fee Hicks's Anglo-Saxon
Grammar, ,) rfy When objeds a'ft upon the orjfans of
fenfe, the mind is fuppoiod irt return to act upon the im-
preflions of thofe objei^ts in order to perceive them, and
the perception fo acquired is called in Greek o-.vn/.r.ii .
Hence, in Angli-Saxon ancl^it, if we attend to the com-
pofition of the wor;!, means thit fenfe which tlie mind aSs
pr acquires by a reciprocal atlion on its own organs.

The conjunftion, according to Mr. Harris and otlier
o-rammarians, connecls not ivorJs hut /enteitces, fo as out of
two to make one fentence. Thus, you and I and Peter
rode to London, is one ientence made of three. But this
notion Mr. Tooke refutes by tlie following example : two
and two are four, A B {inJ B C atul C A form a triangle.
John and Jane are a handlome pair. Does A B form a
triangle, B C form a triangle ? Is John a couple ? Is Jane
a couple .' Are two four ? p 221. In truth, conjunctions
as well 33 prepofitions affect words and not fentences, and
their office is to combme the words fucceeding to the
words going before them, i. e. to combine a verb coming
after with a preceding verb ; a noun coming after with a
preceding noun, an adjective coming after with a preceding
adjeftive, &c.

Mr. Tooke has not given the etymon of than, though it
exifts only in Anglo-Saxon under the form of thonne, and in
Oothic under that of thana. But in order to come at its
origin, we muft attend to the effect wiiich external objeCls
produce on the organs of fenle. When two qualities, un-
equal in degree, are compared, that which exceeds appears
to receive by means of the contraft an immediate augmen-
tation ; while on the other hand, the lefs feems to diminilh.
This being the cale, and human nature being the fame in
all ages and countries, the fame form of exprelTnig the
degrees of cemparifon has obtained in all languages.
Thus in Hebrew tub min Lherujl, good from gold, i. e. bet-
ter than gold. The Arabs borrowed the Hebrew min to
exprefs their comparative ; and the Perfians denote it by
ee, a word of the fame import. The Latin tongue in
this inltance is founded on the fame general principle —
Ctarior fok, brighter from the fun. The French di and tlie
Italian di are taken from the Latin de ; and as the ufe
of cafes in thefe languages has for the moil part given way
to prepofitions, they exprefs their degrees of comparifon
by thefe particles in the fenfe oi from. In our own tongue
the mode of exprefling the comparative leems alone unin-
telligible. But by tracing then to its root the myitery
vanifhes ; and we recognize the fame great principle of
nature. The imperative of the Hebrew \^l, natlan, which
has given birth to correfponding verbs in all otlier lan-
guages, is ^J^, than, which is precifely our Englilh t/jctn,
retaining not only its original found, but moreover its
original fenfe of give, put, place. Thus, his face was brighter
than the fun. Put the iun (namely by tlie fide) his face
was brighter. Lighter than gold. Put gold, it is lighter.
From the juxtapofition of gold it becomes lighter ; or
as in other languages lighter from gold. I Ihall only add
that von, from, of the Germans, is a corruption of tlie He-
brew r^, min or mon, jn, b, v, being interchangeable let-
ters. Accordin.gly the Germans lay in the fuperlative, der
befte von feine;i brudern, the bell from his brothers, the
bell of his brothers.

It llill remains that we notice the adverbs and inlerjeltiont,
but as we have already occupied fo much of our readers at-
tention in dilcuffir.g the other parts of fpccch, wt Ihall dif.

patch thefe by one or two general remarks. Adv^'rbs, or as
Mr. Harris defcrib-5 them, attributes of a fecondary kind,
an; corruptions from nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbj.
Tlie name of adverbs given to fiich corruptions is not, it
(hould be oblerved, defcriptive of their nature, as diftinft
parts of fpeech, but o' their ufe in modifying the verb or
adj.ctive to which tin y ar- annexed An adverb is often a
fiib htutc for a whole clnufe, as here, for in this place ; then,
for at that tim^. In this view, adverbs arc the only word*
which properly coiie under the denomination of aiireviationt,
a term of which Mr. Tooke is lo fond, and to which ho fo
improperly refers feveral other parts of I'peech. As to intcr-
jeclions, it may be quellioned whether or not thev can be con-
lidered as arlieulnle founds, though they have been ufually
honoured with a dilUncl department in language. One ton-
fideration, however, is calculated lo leave them in poireffioii
of their hitherto enjoyed honours. Interjcdions, it is true,
are not dillincl names of our feelings and palTions, and there-
fore they have not, like other words, derived articulation
from the affociation of fenfe with found; neverthelefs they
confiil of certain exprejfions or cries, which, as founded in na-
ture, arc as well calculated to recal to our minds ideas of
certain emotions, as if, like other words, they had been by
common confent made the figns of thofe emotions.

Gii.\.MM.\R is alfo ufed for a book concerning the rules
of grammar, which obtain in any language. See L.\N-

OLAGi;.

The ancient grammars are : for the Hebrew, that of rab-
bi Juda Chiug, which is commonly held the firil Hebrew
grammar that appeared ; though it is certain, rabbi Saadias
Haggaon, who lived before rabbi Juda, compofed two works
of the fame kind : one exprefsly of grammar ; and the other
of the elegancies of the Hebrew tongue.

For the Greek, the oldetl grammar is that of Gaza: the
Latin ones are the works of Martianus Capelhi, Prifciao,
and Afconius Pedianus.

The modern grammars are ; i . For the Hebrew, that of
Pagninus, the edition of Hen. Stephens, or le Preux ; at
Geneva, in 1592 ; that of Petrus Martinius at Rochel
1502 ; that of Buxtorf ; that of Ludovicus Deus, in three
languages ; that of Sixtinus Amama, which is a coUeftion
from Nlartinius and Buxtorf; that of Bellarmine, with the
notes of Muis ; thofe of Y. Sglanthcr, of W. Schickard,
and of Vift. Bythner, to the latter of which is annexed a
brief account ot the Chaldee, are ufeful for beginners ; and
thofe of Gronovius, Stluiltens, Schroeder, Bayly, Bennet,
Robertfon, &c.; and for the Hebrew, without the Maflbretic
points, the exccl-ent grammar of Mafclef, to the fccond edi-
tion of which, publillied at Paris in 1743, arc annexed Chal-
dee, Syriac, and Samaritan grammars; thofe of Sharp, Wil-
fon, Bates, Parkhurft, &c. 2. For the Clialdee, the bed are
thofe of Martinius, Buxtorf, and Lud. Deus, in three lan--
guages. 3. For the vSyriac, thofe of .Aniira, Myricxus, Wa-
ferus, and Bevcridge; with the Chaldee and Sj-riac ones of
Buxtorf, of Lud. Deus in three languages, and that of Lemb-
den. 4. For the Coptic, the Prodromus Coptus, and Lingua
yEgyptiaca RelHtuta of Kircher. 5. For the Arabic, that of
Erpcniiis, and that of Gohus. whicii is only Erpenius's a little
augmented. 6. For the Ethiopic, that of J. Ludolphus.
7. For the Periian, that of Lud. Deus, and that of llr
\Villiam Jones. 8. For the Sancrit, thole of Wilkins
and Carey. 9. For the Armenian, thofe of ScliriX'der
and (^.alanus. 10. For the Greek, thofe of Mart.
Rulandus Sylburgius, F Moquct, VolTlus, Gaza, Her-
man, Bufhy, Port Royal, Manutius, Bell, Milner, Moor,
Parkliurll, Valpy, Jones, &c. ii. For the Latin, thofe of
Diomedes, Defpauter, the Minerva of SanCtius, thofe of
VolTuis, Ward, Clarke, and Sprat ; that of Port Royal, whitk

6- is

G R A

G R A

is OHly a colleflion from tl:e reft ; thofe of Lowe, of Eton,
of Jones, &c. 12. Fertile Italisii, tliofe of Berger, Lanfre-
dini, Port Royal, and Vcnoroiii, Baretti, Sec. 13. For the
Spanidi, thofe of Salazar, Port Royal, the abbot de Vairac,
&c. i 14. For t"lie Portuguefe, tliat of Pereira. 15, For
the French,: tjiofe of the abbe Regnier, and F. Buflier, &c.
16. For the High Dutch, thofe of Claius, Hertfbiirgenfis,
Schottclius, BoeJichcr, and Stsinbach. 17. For the Ger-
man, that of Wendeborn, iScc. 18. For the Eiiglifli, thofe of
Wallis, Brightland, Greenwood, Lowth, Prieftley, Mur-
ray, Cronibey, &c.

Grammar is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with elements ;
as geographical grammar.

GllAMMAlt, PkUof'jphkr.I, is tliat which, without regard-
ing the fjveral idioms of particular languages, only relpefts
thofe principles that are clTential to them all. One of this
kind was propofed by lord Bacon ; not upon the analogy of
words, but fuch as ftouid diligently examine the analogy or
relation between words and things. He clifapproves too cu-
rious an enquiry about the original impolition and etymology
of names. This he thinks an elegant, and, as it were, a
waxen fubjeft, that may be handfomely wrougl.t and twitted,
butis attended with little truth and advantage. But, fays
he, it would be a noble kind of grammar, if any one well
verfed in languages, both the learned and the vulgar, lliould
treat of iheir various properties, fltewing wherein each of
them excel and f.dl (hort : for thus languages might be en-
riched by mutual commerce, and one beautiful image of
fpeech, or one grand model of language, for jullly expreff-
ing the fenfe of manliind, be formed like the Venus of
Apelles, from the excellencies of feveral. And thus, at the
fame time, we fnould have fome confiderable marks of the
peiW'.is ar.d m.anners of people and nations, from their refpcc-
tive .languages. See Bacon's Dodrine of Delivery, J' 7.
and De Augm. Sclent, vi. i.

The object of philofophical or univcrfal grammar is fpeech
or language, as divided into its ccnftituent parts, ns a ftatue^
may be divided into its ieveral limbs ; or elfe, as refolved
into its matter and form, as the fame ftatue may be refolved
into its. marble and figure : and thus it is dillinguiflied from
the art of logic, which confiders fpeech as combined or
compo\inded ; fo that by this fyntlielis, fimple terms are
combined to produce a truth, and two tnuhs are com-
bined to produce a third, S;c. In this kind of grammar,
the .delign is to point, out the feveral powers and modes
of expreffion which founds are capable. of, to trace their
connexions with, or relation to the ideas they rcprefent ;
and to fn^w the aftual variety of the external exprcUions
of the fame mental conceptions which different languages
exhibit. By this companion we fliall be enabled to judge
which is the moft adequate and convenient method of ex-
preffion, what is defeciive and what is redundant in the
llrufture of any particular language, and direft to the motl
proper method of fupplying the defeft, or leffening the in-
convcniencies arifmg trom the fuperfluity. (See L.vx-
OUAGE.) See an excellent and well-known work of this
kind, by the ingenious and learned Mr. Harris, called the
Hermes, or a Philofophical Enquiry concerning Univerfal
Grammar, 2d ed. 176;. See alfo Tooke's Diveriions of
Parley, and the pnxeding article Guamm.'VR,

GiiAM'siAK, Charaaers in. See Character.

GRAMMARIAN, GuaiM.maticus, a perfon well verfed
in grammar ; or who teaches grammar.

The denomination grammarian is, like that of critic, fre-
quently, though unjultly, ufed as a term of reproach ; a mere
grammarian ; a drv, plodding grammarian, &c. The gram-
marian is conceived as a perfon wholly attentive to the minuti.e
of language'; induilrioully employed about words and plirales;

and incapable of perceiving the beauties, the delicacy, finenV,
extent, Sic. of a fentiment.

Scaliger, hovv-ever, confidered grammarians in another light.
" Utinam eli'em,'' fays he, " bonus graniinaticus ? fufiicit
enim ei, qui omnes auftores probe vult intcliigere, efie gram-
maticum."

The title grammarian, it is certain, was anciently a title of
honour ; being given not only to fuch as applied themlelves
to o-rammar, or excelled in philology ; but to all viho were
reputed learned in any art or faculty whatever, as is fliewn
by Ger. Voflius, in his book of grammar.

The word was properly a title of literature and erudition,
and \vas frequently given to perfons who excelled in all, or
many arts, Cidled alio polyhijlores .

Thus, Philoponus, a famous philofopher in .TulUnian's
time, remarkable for the extent and variety of hi-s know-
ledge, was furnamed Gramiiuit'icus, as appears from Photius's
Bibliothec.

So Saxo, the Danidi hiftorian, in the 13th century, got
the appellation grammatictis : and as late as the year 1580,
Thomas d'AverIa, a celebrated Neapolitan lawyer, was fur-
named the Grammarian.

The title grammarian was anciently befiowed on thofe we
now call cril'ics, men of learning, erudition, letters, &c.
and particularly fuch as wrote well, and politely, in every
kind.

It is in this fenfe that Suetonius intitlcs his book which
he wrote on the belt Latin authors, " Of the celebrated
Grammarians ;" and that Cornelius Nopos calls the com*
mentators on the orators and poets, grammarians ; and
laftly, it is in this fcnle the appellation is attributed by the
ancients to Apion, Philoponus, and Solinus.

The moll celebrated grammarians of the fecoiiJ century
were Aper, PoUio, Eutychius, Proculus, Athenaeus,
Julius Pollux, Macrobius, and Aulu.; Gellius : the works
of tliefe hill authors are an afiemblage of abundance of
very different things, and fubjcfts relating to, the criticifm
of the ancient writers, and the polite literature.

If the name have loft its ancient honour, it is through the
fault of thofe who have alfumed it ; by their treating of
grammar in a low, pedantic, dogmatic manner ; reducing it
.to words and fyllables ; and dwelling altogether on trifling
puerile remarks and cenfures : whereas its ancient ofiice was
to make an accurate and thorough examen of an author';
to enter into all his views ; to point out the beauties, and
the defefts thereof; to diftinguifli the true beauties from
the falfe ; and the genuine productions of an author, ■ from
the fuppofititious ; that is, a grammarian was then, what we
call a critic now.

Thofe who only taught to read, underfland, and explain
authors, were called grammatiils, gramraatilla ; in contra-
diftinclion from grammatici ; though, in courfe of time, the
grammatift-.e have rifcn in the place ot grammatici, who are
now preferred to that of critici.

GRAMMATICAL, fomething relating to gram-
mar.

We fay, grammatical conftruftion ; grammatical fignifi-
cation, &c. Idioms, as Anglicifms, Latiniims, Grecifms,
Gallicifms, &c. deviate from grammatical ftrittncfs. Such a
phraie is not grammatically jiift ; it is an idiom.

Gk.ammaticai, Cnfuifm. Sec Cnn'KiSM.

GRAMME, in the new wei^-hts of France, is the weight
of a centimetre of diftillcd water at its maximum of deidlty,
=: 1H.8247 French- grains = 15.44.]. Englilh grains ;=
.002206^ Englifh avoirdupoife pounds.

This weight is the ilandard, or unit, of the new fyftem
of weights ; 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 times its weight,
being expreffed by the prefixes, ckca, htSo, kilo, and myiia,

rcfpcc-

G R A

refpeftively ; and ,-Vitli, -r'n^'ii and^-^^-jcItli, by tlie prefixes
(if!!, r.'iiti, and niilH. Thus, lieftogramme lignillcs lOO
grummes, and centigramnid iigriifies tlie loodth part of a
gTaniin?.

C;RAMMEL0UC, in Katm-^! HUhry, the name of
jn F.all Indian iTirub, very common in the woods and foreds.
It grows to iiv or (ix feet higli : its leaves are very long
and narrow, and terminate in a point ; they are of a lively
green ; the fruit is carried in a bag of a triangular fliape,
of the lize of a hazel-nut, but fomething longer ; on open-
ing this there appear throe cells, in each of which is con-
tained one fruit, refembling the feed of tlie palma Chrilli,
but covered with a tranlparent pellicle, and a black one
under that : the infide of the fruit is white, and is of a fliarp
and pungent tafte. It is a very violent medicine, operating
both by itoo! and vomit, and th.at often, fo as to endanger
the life of the pcrfon who has taken it. They allay its
operation by eating betel. Mem. Acad. Par. 1609.

GRAMMICA, in BoUmy, from y^xjj.jxty.o-, linear, allud-
ing to its (lender thread-like form, Lourcir. Cochinch. 170,
appears evidently by his defeription to be a fpecies of
Cvjcufo; or Dodder. See Cu.scuta chmenjis, n. 6, which is
probably the very pl:int.

GRAMMITIS, from •jj^/^^a, a line. Swartz. Fil. 21.
Clafs and order, Crvplogamla Fi!'::a ; feCl. Amiulalte. Nat.
Ord. FUlces.

•Eff. Ch. CLi!>,'\i'.es in ftraidit fcattered lines. Cover
none.

This genus differs from Po'f/>oi!iu:n, in having its capfules
difpoled in ftraight continued lines, inllead of round dots.
The ir.volucrum is wanting in both. Dr. Swartz defines
twelve certain fpecies. Of thefe fucli as have a fimple un-
divided frond, like G. lanccoliita, Swartz. t. i. f. 4, form
the moft natural aflembhige. The genus has, however, the
advantage of admitting fome ferns, which preceding writers
did not well know how to difpofe ofv as G. Ccterach, (Af-
plenium Ceterach ; I.,inn. Sp. PI. 1538. Scolopendrium
Ceterach ; Sin. Fl. Brit. 1 134. Engl. Bot. t. 1244.) '""^
G. leptophylln, Swartz. t. 1. f 6, which Linnrsus and other
botanills had hefitated whether to reckon a Polypodhim or
an Afpler.uim.

Dr. Swartz mentions two doubtful fpecies ; the Polypo-
dhim gram'incum of Lamarck, perhaps his own Grdmmitis
Uneeiru ; and the ylfpletuum fuhftjjik, of Cavanilles lectures,
n. 627, a native of the Philippine idands.

GRAMMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftritt of Audcnarde, built at the foot of a mountain
by tlie Goths, and thence called " Gotteghcm." When
Baldwin de Mons, count of Flanders and Hainaut, pur-
ch-il'ed the Icrdfliip of one Gerard, in ic63, he built a tov.-n,
calling it after the name of the former lord, Gerardmont ;
and hence, by corruption, Grammont. It is partly fituated
on a hill ; and the river Dender, which runs through it,
divides it into the Higher and Lower Town ; 20 miles W.
of Bruflels. The place contains 5948, and the canton
16,000 inhabitants, on a territory of 92? kiliometres, in
17 communes.

■ GRAMMUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 44
miles N. of Serin,!:;apatam.

GRAMPIAN HiLL.s, a range of moimtains, extending
from E. to W. througli ahnoll the whole breadth of tlie
kingdom, from Lech Lomond to Stonehaven, and deriving
their name from one of them, the " Mons Grampius" ot
Tacitu?, where' Galgacus waited the approach of Agrlcola,
and where was fought the battle fo fatal to the brave Cale-
donians; Tills chain of hills forms the fouthern boundary

G R A

of the Highlands; though four or five counties on the N E.
of that chain have, in their caflem and northern parts, the
name of Lowlands. The tranfition to the Grampians is
gradual ; the fird chain, according to general Rov, con-
fiding of the Sadlcy-iulls on the E., the OchiUs' in the
middle, and Campfy-hilb on the W. To the Grampian
chain belong Pjen Lomond, 3262 feet high; Ben Ledy,
3009 ; Ben More, 3903 ; B^ii L.uvres, the chief foirmi't,
4015; Schehallien, 3564; Ben Verlich, 3300; and other
lefs confiderable elevations on the cad.

GRAM POUND, a fmall borough and market town,
in the hundred of Powder, and county of Cornwall, Eng.
land, is fituated on the banks of the river Fal or pale, in
the paridies of Creed and St. Probus, the eadcrn part of the
bcn-ongh being in the former parifli, and the wedern in the
latter. Grampound is fuppofed, by Borlafe, to dand on
the fcite of the Voliba of Ptolemy. E.xtcnfive privileges
were conferred on this town by king Edward I., parti-
cularly a freedom from toll throughout Cornwall : and the
remains of a Cacdefnla, or Felon Wood, granted with all
the lands in it by this monarch, arc dill extant. The right
of holdiog a market was a grant from John of Eltham,
carl of Cornwall, and brother to Edward III., who, after
the death of earl John, coniirmed the fird charter, and made
the town a borough : but no reprefentatives were returned
to parliament till the reign of Edward VI. Two members
are now eleiSled by the magidrates and inhabitants payino-
feot and lot ; but the whole number of voters is only 25.
The corporation confids of a mayor, eight macriftrates, a
recorder, and a town-clerk. The church is about half a
mile from the town, in the parilh of Creed ; but a fmalJ
chapel of eafe dands near the centre of the borough.
Grampound is 263 miles S.W. from London ; has three
annual fairs, and a weekly market on Saturdays. In tic
return under the late aft, the inhabitants amounted to 525,
the houfes to 80. PoKvhele's Hidoiy, &c. of CornwaU.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.

GRAMPUS, in Ichlhyahgy, the Delphi.vus orca of
Linnajus ; which fee.

GRAMZOW, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg,
in the Ucker Mark ; 8 miles S.E. of Prenzlow.

GRAN, or EszTERC-.ON-, or Slrigon'm, a town of Hungary-,
fituated near the conflux of the rivers Gran and Danube ;
the fee of an arehbilhop ; 55 miles S.E. of Prefturg. N.
lat. 47^44'. E. long. iS .

Guam, a fmall iiland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 62 l'. E. long. 17" 22'.

GRANA, a fea-port of Spain, in Galicia; 2 miles W.
of Ferrol. N. lat. 43 29'. W. long. S 15'.

Graxa Figlia, in the Materia Aledicj, tlic fruit of a
fpecies of licinus.

Gn.'VNA Paradifi, or Greater Cardamoms, are the feeds of
the amomum of Linn-.ieus.

Guana Rrgia, tlie feeds of the common ricinus, called
by fome palma Chridi.

GRANAD.A, or Guekada, fometimes cillcd Upper
Andiihifia, in Geography, a kingdom or province of Spain,
occupying half of the eadcrn extremity, and all the fouth-
ern part of Andalufia as far as the draits of Gibraltar,
has the form of a pyramid with its bafe to the ead. on tl^e
kingdom of Murcia, and its apex to the fouth-wcd towards
the Straits. Its length is 58 leagues from the E. to the
S.E : the breadth at its apex feven from the S W. to the
N.E., and at its bafe 28 from S. to N.. To the E. and
N E., it is bounded by the kingdom of Murcia ; to the S.
and S.E. by the Mediterranean ; to the W., by the king-
dom of Seville ; to tl»e W. and N, W. By thai of Cordova ;

and

GRANADA.

and to the NW and N., by that of Jaen. It lies between But the aftonilhing fertility and wealth of this country

56' 20' and ?8 N lat and between 5' 5' and i' 30' W. paffed away with its old inhabitants, and were fucceeded by

lon<r • and contains about 661,600 inhabitants. This pro- a deplorable degree of indolence, poverty, and mifery. _
vince has three fea-ports on the Mediterranean ; dz. that of Granada, or Grniada, the capital of the province

Amunccar defended by three forts of little importance ; above defcribed, and an archbifhop's fee, is a large

that of Almeria, wliich was celebrated under the Arabs ; city, which was entirely built by the Moors m tlie tenth

and that of Mala<ra, now tlie moil flouriniing and moll century; and in 1235, after having previoufly belonged to

frequented -Its pnncipal towns are Granada, the capital, the dominions of the kings of Cordova, it became the

Malaea Almeria, Guadix, MotrH, Murbella, Velez-Ma- capital of a new empire, and foon acquired great celebrity

o„' .^T ^^ , T • o_„.-„ \? :. XJ,,.S,-^ A ti _ ui l-lii> MMnrifli ^nnnl^ T'liis; town, vvhlch 111 a fllort tlFTie

spulation, wealth, and
buildings, became, in
_ _ e and l.ill bulwark of

dtr" Brava'ta/ 'Mar^iaiir Ahnancara, Aguas, Culebras, the autliority of the Moors in Spain. We have already
and' Guadalete. This province is very mountainous ; its given an account of its furrender to the Catholic kings,
chief mountains being the following, t'vz. the Sierra Ver- At that period it was three leagues in circumference, its
raella or Vermcja, i.e. red mountain, fo called from the co- nmiparts were defended by 1030 towers; its walls mclolcd
lour of the foil, the Sierra de Filabrc, the Sien-a de Bujo, 70,000 honfes, and a population of 400,000 inhaliitants. It
the Sierra Blanquilla, or white mountain, denominated from had an army of 6o,coo men ; and the number tliat defended
its appearance at a dillancq, and the Sierra de Javal-Cohol, its ramparts in 1491 and 1492 amounted to 100,000. It
The Sierra Nevada is a gnuid and beautiful mountain fitua- was proteded by two fortreifes, each of wlucli was large
ted nearly. in the centre of tlie province : it takes its name enough to contain 40,000 men.

from the fnow that remains on it tlirough the year. It is Tins town ilands on two hills, at tlie end of the plaia
very lofty, can be fcen at a very great diltance, and is well called Vega de Granada, near the Sierra Nevada, on the
known to' mariners, who difcover it far out at fea. The banks of the Darro which runs through it, and of the
Sierra Alpuxara, hkewife in this province, is formed by the Xenil which bathes its walls. The two fortieses jull men-
contiguity of feveral lofty mountains, and generally called tioned are on the fummits of the hills on eitlier fide, thus
the Alpuxaras. Thefe afforded a retreat to a conhderable commanding the town, which itfelf commands the beautiful
number of Moors driven from Granada, who remained adjacent country ten leagues round ; and its fituation is de-
there 120 years, till their total expulfion from Spain. The lightful. The plain, at the extremity of which it ilands,
Sierra de Ronda lies on the fouthern and eailern part of is fomewhat iloping ; its diameter is from nine to ten leagues,
the province of Granada ; ftretching N. and E. in that of audits circumference 30: on the N. it is bounded by the
Seville, and running S. towards the ftraits of Gibraltar. Sierra Nevada and the mountains of Elvira, and on the
Granada, although mountainous, contains plains of confi- other fides by fucceffive and varied ampliitheatres of hills
.derable extent, and pleafant valleys abounding in fprings. agreeably planted with vines, olives, mulberry, lemon, and
Granada, as a part of AndaUifia, was firll known to the orange trees, &c.; it is watered by five rivers, interfefted
Phccnicians and then to the Carthaginians, who were ex- by various canals, fupplied from limpid rivulets with a
pelled by the Romans ; and they alfo were expelled, in the number of fprings ; and it is covered with meadows, forells
fifth century of the Chriilian era, by the Vandals; and the of oak, woods of orange-trees, orchards, fugar-c-anes, corn,
Goths, led by Euric, afterwards took poffelTion of the flax, and in ihort all kinds of fruits and vegetables,
country. The Arabs entered Spain by Andalufia in the Granada was formerly divided iito four quarters, vix.
year 7 1 1 ; and after the battle of Xeres, which decided its Granada, Alhambra, Albayzin, and Antiquerula. Of
fate, as well as that of Spain, it belonged to the caliphs of thefe, the tirft, or Granada, is the handfomell, moft im-
Uamafcus, and then to thofe of Bagdad ; till at length portant, mofl agreeable, belt built, and bell inhabited part
Abdal-raliman, or Abderame, a prince of the blood-royal of the town. It occupies the commencement of the plain,
of the Ommiades or Almohades, feized on the throne of and a part of the vallies between the two mountains ; it i6
Spain in 755. In the year 1027 the empire of the Moors cmbellilhcd with a number of fountains, lar-ge gardens,
in Spain was difmembered ; and in 1 221 the kingdom of handfonie fquares, and fine buildings: it is inhabited by
Granada was diifolved. Soon after this period, vi^. in 1236, the nobility, clergy, magiftracy, and the richelt of the ci-
Mahomed Alamir, or Alhamar, founded anew the kingdom tizens ; and the principal markets are fituated in it. Tiie
of Granada ; and his defcendants preferved for about 2i quarter of Alhambra, properly fpeaking, is only a great
centuries the throne, which he tranfmitted to them. It was fortrefs fituated on a mountain, called Sierra del Sol, or
referved for Ferdinand V. and Ifabella his queen, to give mountain of the fnn ; it was the refidence of the kings,
the lail blow to the power of the Moors, by depriving them whole palace ftill poneffes great beauties. (See the defcrip-
of the kingdom of Granada at the end of the 15th century, tion of it under Ai.ii.\.\iiil!A.) The q larter of Albayzin
The capture of Malaga, Aug. i8th 1487, facilitated the refembles a f.mxbourg raifed on a hill, where v,-as formerly
fiege of Granada, the capital of the province, into which a fort, which commanded and proterted the town, from
the Moors had collected tlieir whole force. They were at- whicli it is feparated by a rampart. It contains about 40O:
tacked in 1491, and after a fiege of upwards of a year, the houfes. Antiquerula has the appearance of another faiix-
town was obliged to furrender to the Catliolic armies; and bourg built upon the ])lain ; it was pei)plcj by fettlers from
thus in 1492 the Mooiifli empire in Spain terminated. The Antequera, and is at pretent chiefly inhabited by dyers and
extent of Granada at this time was 70 leagues long and 30 filk weavers. Among the numerous fquares of (Jranada
broad; it contained, as it is faid, 32 great towns, 97 fmaller we may fpecify as the handfomell. El Caiiipo, in wliich is a
ones, upwards of 2000 boroughs and villages, and 3,000,000 holpitnl ; the Plaza Mayor, which is Ipacioii.'-., and ufed for
of inhabitants. The^revenue derived from it amounted an- public Ihows, particularly the bull-fealis ; and the J)i\aram-
iiually' to 700,000 ducats; and gold and filver abounded bla, embelliflied by a beautiful jalper fountain, and by the
iiiore in this kingdom than in any other country of Europe, two line edifices of the Alcu.\cria, whicli was ufcd by ttie

Moors

GRAN .\ 1) A.

water not only for donv;ilic purpofcs, but for modcnitinjr
1iy its cooliitfs the heat of a climate extremely warm in
lummer.

Granada is an arclibir.iopric, worth 25,000/. a year, con-
taining a catlicdral chapter, fix collegiate chapters, and
194. parifh ch'.nxhes. This city is the feat of a royal chan-
cery, divided into fix chambers, and compofed of a prefi-
d:nt, twenty-five counfellors, two folicitors, andonealgna-
a\ mayor. The intendant of the province refides here ;

Moors as a bazar, and ftill appropriated to the purpofc of rice and cotton, all ii)trf>duccd by t'rni ; in tlirir prcjliar
a market-place, and containing about 200 (liops ; and the breed of horfes ; and in the mannfadiires of fdk, of paper,
palace of the chancery. To tliefe two buildings we may and of gnn-])Owder, firll brought into Europe by them'
add an ancient mofque, now a parifli-churcli, the cathe- The mannfaftnres of Granada, however, continued to b-
dral, two hofpitals, and the two palaces of the Alhambra. fomewhat flonrifliing ?.bot!t the middle of the fixtecnth CMu
The cathedral is not large, but has ahandfome dome, rciling tury. Some regulations, favourable to them, were adopted
on twelve arches, fupportcd by as many large pilaflers ; the and eftabhn.cd in 1 552. At that time great attention waj
v.iult is full of paintings and richly gilt, and two rows of paid to ttic production of filk in Andalufia, and the trade in
gilded balconies run round it over the arcades. Statues of it was profpcrous. But, in proccfs of time, as the confc-
the twelve apoftles in bronze, gilt, and as large as hfe, are qiience of the expuifion of the Moors, the privileges and im.
placed againll the twelve colunms. The vault of the church m>-.nities granted to the hidalgos or knights, bearing in the
of the Chartreux is covered with fine paintings in frefco, by kingdom of Gnmada the proportion of 19-9 to 652,990, the
Antonio Palomino. In many of the houfes are found re- wliole mmibcr of inhabitants, and various' opprcffive rellric-
niains of baths, confiruftcd by the Moors ; and moii of tions and bursh'^ns, agriculture languilhcd, filk was neg-
the houfes are emlellifiied with fountains, which fupply IcAed, tiie manufactures decayed, and in the feventeenth cen-
tury few or no.-.e remained. Some attempts have been bte-
ly made to revi-e tJiem ; fome new ones have been eftablifli-
ed,^n whicii ribbons and lilk iluffs are made; but they liave
not been very profpcrous. Here is a manufacture of gun-
powder on the king's account. In the production of nitre,
at tlie falt-works near this town, about 100 men are employ-
ed in funimer, and 26 in winter ; and from thcfe govern-
ment obtains 3000 quintals annually. In the vicinity o(
Granada are fome confiderable plantations of the fugar-
r.nd the town has a criminal judge, two alcades mayors for cane.
-he adminiltration of juitice, a municipality compofed of a The environs of Granada are delightful ; the public walks,
certain number of regidors, a war auditor, and a tribunal of which the moil fiequented are thofe on the banks of the
jf the inquifition. The Alhambra has a jurifdiclion pecu- Xenil with cooling ni:ide and refrefliing fountains, and an-
!iar to itfelf. The city is divided into twenty-three parifhes, otlier, more wild and romantic, by the fide of the Darro, are
with forty convents, three beatarios, feventeen hermitas or plcafant ; and the country all round the city anpears to be
chapels, nine hofpitals, and eiglit colleges. Granada has an well cultivated. The market gardens appear like a wildcr-
uaiverfity, founded A. D. 1 531 ; and an academy for paint- nefs of fruit trees, and yet are covered with the moil luxuriant
iiig, fculpture, and architetlure, conducted at tlie king's crops of all kinds of vegetables. Every cottage has a little
cxpcnce, and free for all. The extcKt of Granada is nearly court, or bower, formed by a lattice frame, and wholly (haded
tlie fame as it was under the Moors; but its population ij by the vine; under which, in thcevening, the peafanta'ifemble*
very much dimiiiidied. In 1614, at the period of the total his family to take refrolhment ; whilil the nightingale from
expulfion of tiie Moors from Spain, a very confiderable every tree is uttering his plaintive note. Thefe gardens are all
number of the families of that people left it. The town, plentifully watered. Granada abounds in marble?, remark^
which had counted 400,000 individuals within its walls, and able for their variety, and finenefs of grain and beauty ;
\rliich had armed 100,000 warriors in its defence, is now re- and it has alio a variety of alaballers, jafpers, and other pre-
Juced, according to the government returns Hated by Mr.
Townfend, (Travels in Spain, vol. iii) to 52,325 fouls;
althougli, upon good authority, he fays, they may be rec-
koned 8o,coo. Under the Moors, Granada carried on a
great trade, a;id was famous for its own productions ; it
niaJHifaflured cloths, various kinds of woollen lln.ffs, and a
f;reat quantity of filks. Indeed, it is not poilible to think
of manufartures in Granada, witliout calling to mind the
cxpulfion of the Moors, and paufing to examine the pohcy
)f that ttronsr meafure. They were nnmcrour., and, in

cious Hones. Its mnieral waters are alfo various and
abundant.

GR.\NAn.\, a fmall town in the province of Nicaragua,
foatedat the S.E. extremity of the lake of Nicaragua. It
lias confiderable commerce in indigo, cochineal, hides, and
fugar. In the year 1680, this town, and alfo Leon, the ca-
pital of the prorince, were pillaged by the buccaneers of
America. N. lat. ii" 15'. W. long. 86' 15'.

GiiAN-AD.A, A'c-Tf, a viceroyalty of the dominions of
Spain, in S<nith America, extending from tlie river Tum-
confequence of their indudry, accompanied with frugality, bez. to the Caribbean fea ; that is, from S. lat. 3- 30', td
t'ley had acquired opulence and power. It is faid, (fee N. lat. I2\ or about 930 geographical miles; its medial
Townfend, ubi i'upra,) that of 100,000, condemned by the breadth may be ftatcd at 4" or 240 geograpliical miles. Thil
1 iqaifition for ai)ollatizing from the Chrillian faith, 4000 grand and opiJent viceroyalty, though it dates its origin
had been burnt without any goodeffecl. Philip III., in the from the year 1718, was, after a long fuppreffion, only efta-
\ear 1609, baniflied to Africa 140,000 out of the kingdom blifhed finally in 1740. It is fometimes called from its capi.
>( Valencia ; and in the three years following, 6oG,000 from tal Santa Fe, and comprifes the following provinces : r.'

Seville, Murcia, and Granada. If to thefe we add the mul
titndes that peri(hed by famine, and by the fword, we fhall
be inclined to Hate the lofs to Spain at one million of its moil
aclive fnbjefts. This lofs, added to what the country had
f illained by the previous expulfioii of 800,000 Jews, with
all their wealth, in the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, was,
under fuch a government as that of Spain, irreparable. The

.Taen de Bracamoros, Loja, Cuen^a, Macas, Riobamba,
Guayaquil, Quito, Tacamcs, Paftos, Barbacoas, Popayan,
Rapufo, Novita, Antioquia, Santa Fe, San Juan de lo»
Llanos, Merida, Santa Marta, Carthagcna, Zinu, Choco,
and the Tierra Firmc, including the tliree dillrids of Da-
rien, Panama or Tierra Firme proper, and Veragua. The
am.ple provinces w'lich form this viceroyalty wei-e molllv dif.

Moors are acknowledged by the bcil Spauidi writers to covered and annexed to the dominions of Spain about tha

have excelled in agriculture, particularly in watering tlieir year 1536, by Sebr.llian de BemJcazar, and Gonzalo Xi-

l.mds, in the cultivation of mulberry trees, the fugar-caue, aaesos de Ql5efad;^ two of the bravell officer* enip!oye4

\i)U XVI, 4 H ii

G R A

in the oonqueft of America. TIic former, wlio commauJ-
fd at Quito, made an attack from the fouth, and the ktler
from Santa Marta on the north. As the original inhabitants
of tliis region were farther advanced in improvement than
any people of America, but the Mexicans and Peruvians,
they defended themfclves with great refolution and good con-
dilift. The abilities and perfevcrance of thefe two officers
ultimately prevailed, after encountering many dangers, and
reduced the country into the form of a Spanifli province.
The kingdom of New Granada was at fu-ft governed by tJie
royal audience founded in 1547, and by its prefident the
captain-general. In 171 S this arrangement was changed,
and the viceroyalty was eftabliflied ; but it was fuppreffed in
1724, and linallv ellablifhed in 1740. When the conque-
rors firll took pofleflion of this country, it was more po-
pulous than the generahty of the other Hates ; and its want
of population at' this time prevents its being rendered one of
the richeft in America- Tlie government refembles that of
the other viceroyalties ; with a royal audience at Santa Fc-,
the capital, atribunal of accounts, a treafury, and a royal nv.nt.
The royal audience fits in the fame hall for civil and criminal
caufes ; there being five judges, a fifcal, a proteftor of the
Indians, amd other officers. The governments, compre-
hended in the royal audience, are Carthagena, Panama,
vSanta Marta, Maracaibo, and Porto Bello, with the dif-
trift of the river Hacha ; in the interior are Antioquia,
Choco, Veragna, Mariquita, Giron, Neiva, and the Llanos.
There is alfo a royal audience at Quito, and a governor and
prefident, who rules the fouthern provinces in iubordination
to the viceroy of New Granada. But Quito remains a
bifhopric while Santa Fe is an archbirnopric, founded in
1562, with Popayan and Carthagena as fuffragans. In
1783 the archbifhop was named viceroy. There are alio
feveral miffions in the country called Los Llanos, and on
the Apari, Meta, and Cafanari, with fome little villages or
ttations. Thofe on the Upper and Lower Orinoco, and
river Negro, affigned to the Capuchins in 1769, belong to
the government of Caraccas.

The population of this viceroyalty has not been accurately
afcertaincd ; but if the general population of Caraccas
amounts to 728,000, it is probable, fays Mr. Piukcrton,
that rather more than one million may be allowed for that
of Granada. Of the am.ount of its revenues we have r.o
certain documents ; but from the amount of the annu.-.l
coinage at Santa Fc and Popayan, and allowing a tenth to
the king for the expences of government, they cannot be
lefs than 22C,coo pounds. The ftate of the military force
is inconfiderable ; nor would it be eafy in thefe dillant pro-
vinces to collect an efteftive force of five or fix thoufand
men. The capital of this viceroyalty is Bogota, or Santa
Fe de Bcoia, for an account of which fee thofe articles. Of
the other principal cities and tov^ns notice is taken in the
pron-refs of tliJs work. The commerce of this viceroyalty
has very much fuffered by tlie fuppreffion of the galeons ;
and though it has been encouraged by the freedom granted
in 1778, it is not yet recovered. Tiie contraband trade,
carried on'hy the Engliih on the Mufquito ihore, and from
tlie Portuguefe fcttlenr.Mits in Brazil, and the Caribbean fea,
lias impeded the exertions of the Spanifh colonifts. Its com-
merce is allowed to be very difproportioned to the dillm-
guifhing advantages of this territory. Its exiftence almOit
depends on the gold from the mines, a few manufaftures,
and fome native produfts. The manufactures are carried
en chiefly at Tunja, Socorro, Velez, and other towns and
villages towards tiie plains ; and they confiil; of cotton cloths,
carpets, counterpanes, and .woollens of various defcriptions,
that fupport internal trade. The northern provinces pro-

3

G R A

duce excellent wood for the conftruftion of fhips ; and 1! .-
dyeing woods are fuperior to thofe ol Cair.pechy. 'I'i.o
mahogany of Panama is exquifitely beautiful, and fupcrio.-
to ail others. The chocolate from the banks of the Magda-
lena is elleemed equal to that of Caraccas ; and vail harvefts
of cotton and tobacco might be gatliercd, while the navi-
gable rivers Magdalena and Atrato, and the ports of Cartha-
gena and Santa Marta, offer eaiy and commodious outlets
to the F<uropean markets. Its intermediate mart of Ha-
vanna prefents another convenience to the traffic of this
viceroyalty. The culture of coffee and chocolate is in a
profperous ftate in the province of Guayaquil. The falutai-}-
and ufeful vegetable produtlions of tliefe extenfive pro-
vinces are fo numerous and divcrfified, that induftry alone
is wanting to open all the fourccs of commerce.

The climate of this extenfive viceroyalty prefents great
variety ; for though it lies under the equator, and in its
vicinity, the enorm.ous and fublime chain of the Andes,
running N. and S. from the Table land of Quito and Cuenca
to the Caribbean fea, and environs of Santa Marta, occafion
every diverfity from the fnow and ice of the poles to the rain
and heat of the tropics. The great rivers Mag'ialena and
Cauca rife and terminate in this province. The animals are
in general luch as are common to the wholu- continent of S.
America ; and the inhabitants breed a number of horfes and
mules which they fend to Peru. The ir.ineralogy of New
Granada cannot be reckoned unimportant ; Alccdo, cited
by Pinkerton, obferves, that gold is here more abundant
than in any other part of America. The richeft provinces
in this refpeCl are thofe of Choco and Antioquia ; and they
are eafily acceffible by t'-^e rivers Atrato and Guacuba,
which enter the gulf of Darien, and are navigable for a con-
fiderable extent. Silver is alfo rem.ark.ably pure ; and the
mines of Marc[uetones, in the diftritt of Pamplona are fo
rich, that if they had a fufficient number of labourers, they
might rival thofe of Potofi, as they fometim.es yield eight
marks of filver in the hu.ndred weight. Copper and lead
alfo abound, but they are not much valued ; and the various
kinds of precious ftones are plentiful. Platina has been
thought to be the peculiar product of Choco. Salt is ob-
tained in great abundance. The natives ufe maize, or the
CalTava root, inftead of bread. Game is abundant; and the
rivers and lakes furnifli an ample fupply of fifh. The natives
are tall ; and weai- thick, white, or variegated cloaks, which
they tie round the waift wiihafaffi. They adorn their heads
with ilrings of painted flowers very ingeniously made of
cotton. Robertlon's America, vol. iii. Pinkerlon's Geog.
vol. iii.

GRANADIER, Gren.Adier, or Craimdeer, a foot-
foldier, who is armed with a firelock, bayonet, and in fome
fervices a hanger, and a cartridge-box that will hold 36
rounds. They wear a high cap, fronted with a piece of
brafs, on which the king's arms is generally rcprefentcd,
• &c. and a piece of cloth upon their Ihouldcrs, called a wing.
In fome armies they have better pay than a common
loldier. They were firt^ eflabliflied in France in 1667,
and foon after formed into companies : they were iird
ki.c.vn in England in 1685.

Gr.^nadieks, or Grenadiers, Hcrfe, called by the French
grsnadieri -vo/ans, or flying granadiers, are fuch as _are
mounted on horfcback, but fight on foot and on horfcback.
Thefe were firft eftabhflied in France by Lewis XIV. in
1676, and formed into fquadrons.

Every battalion of foot has generally a company of gra-
nadiers belonging to it ; which generally take the right oF
the battalion ; and, being the tallcll and ftoutefb men,
frequently are the firft in attacks.

We

G R A

Wc h?.vc liad in England two troops of liorfe granadier
g!iards ; the firft railed in the year 1693, and ths fecond
ill 1701.

GRANADILLA, in Bolany, the diminutive of the
Spani(h name of the Pomgianate, Granatin, iifc-d in the
AVell Indies, and retained by Tournefurt and Adanfon, fur
the Paffiflora of Liiuiaeus. This appellation is particularly
aj)phcd to the fniit of Pajfiflora quadrangiilnns, much
clleemed by Weft Indians, and fometimes ripened in
England.

GRAN.VDO, Granada, or Grenndc, in the Military
All, a hollow ball or fliell, of iron, brafs, or even jrlafs, or
j)otter's earth, filled with gun-powder, and fitted with a
fuzee to give it fire.

The name granado takes its rife hence, that it is filled
with grains of powder, as a pomegranate is with kernels.

Of thefe there are two kinds ; the one large, the other
fmall : the hrft are to be thrown at the enemy bv a mortar,
properly called bombs, or Jhells. The latter to be caft with
the hand, and thence denominated hand-graiiados.

The beft «ay, Cafimir obferves, to fecure a man's felf
from the cdetl of a granado, is, to lie flat down on the
ground, before it burll.

The common, or hand granado, is a little, hollow ball
of iron, tin, wood, pafteboard, or other matter, filled with
ftrong powder, lighted with a fiizee, and thus thrown by
hand into places where men ftand thick ; and particularly
into trenches and lodgments. Thefe are now funk into
difufe.

Their compofition is the fame vith that of bombs ; which
fee. For fize, they are ufually between two and three
inches in diameter, aborit the bignefs of a common iron
bullet, and weigli about three poimds ; as to dimenfions,
they are commonly in thicknefs one-eighth, one-ninth, or
one-tenth of their diameter ; their aperture, or oriiice, about
■^•~ wide, as prefcribed by Calimir.

Thuanus obferves, that the firft time granados were ufed,
was at the fiege of Wachtendonch, a town near Gueldres ;
and that the inventor was an inhabitant of Venlo ; who, in
making an experiment of the effect thereof, occafioncd two-
thirds of that city to be burnt ; the fire being kindled by
the fall of a granado.

Bombs were known long before the invention of granados.
The ancients had a fort of oUae, or fire-pot«, fomewhat of
the fame nature with our granados, but they were much
lefs perfect.

Cafimir mentions a fort of blind granados, without any
aperture, or fu7.ce, as not needing to be lighted ; but being
thrown v.ith a mortar, they take fire of thcmfelvcs whi never
they fall on any hard folid obicdl.

GRANARD, in Geogmphy, a neat, new built market
and poft town of Ireland, in the county of Longford. Ad-
joining is a remarkable hill or mount called the J\Iodt of
Grannrd, ihoi'.ght to be artificial, and the fcite of a Danifh
fort, which commands from its fummit a moft extenfive
profped into fix or feven adjoining counties. It is 52 miles
from Dublin, and 12 from Longford.

GRANARY, in Agriculture, a building contrived for
laying up and ftoring corn, in order to preferve it for a
length of time. They have, near Grand Cairo, magazines
or granaries, called " Jofeph's granaries," defended with
wooden walls, in which vaft quantities of grain are annually
preferved; and many parts of Africa abound with granaries
of this kind. They are frequently deep pits made in the
folid rock ; the defcent into them being juft large enough
for a man to go down ; but they grow larger as foon as the
perfon is in, and are ufuaily fquare, from thirty to forty

G R A

feet in diameter. In thefe the great men of the country-
preferve their corn; tliey firft cover over the floor u-itfi
ftraw, then they Ly on the corn, ftill, as the heap rifes,
placing a thin bed of ftraw between the corn and the fides,
as tlicy did at the bottom. In thii manner they proceed
till the whole cavity is filled: when this is done thtv cot-t
the mouth or entrance with a fort of hurdle of grrcu bou''iu
of trees, interwoven one with another. This tliey cover
with about two feet thicknefs of fand, and over this raife a
ridge of earth, well beaten together, in order to throw off
the rain both ways, that none may fettle on the place and
foak into the magazine. The corn thus ftored up keeps
three, four, or more years very good; and, not uufre-
quently, the proprietor being taken off by the feverity of
the eaftcrn gOTernmcnts, under which they live, the maga.
zinc is forgotten, and fome accident difcovcririg it many
years afters', ards, the corn is almoft always found
perfectly good in it. All the care they take, in regard to
the grain, is to expofe it two or three days to the fun's heat,
to dry it thoroughly, before they carry it into the maga-
zine.

It may be ftatcd further, that in the duchy of Lithuania,
and in the Ukraine, the people alfo preferve tlieir corn in
the fame manner, in wells or pits made in dry places: but
in thefe countries great care is to be taken in the 0",cninT of
thefe ftore-rooms; for, if people defcend into them before
they have had fuflicient comnumication with the frclh air,
they are often killed by the damps; this, however, is eafily
guarded agaiiift. By thefe, and numerous other inftanccs
of the practice of other countries, it appears evident that
fubterranean granaries may occailonally be highly ufeful
for the purpofe of preferving grain in particular fituations
and circumftances.

But the common granaries may, with proper care, be
rendered much more ufeful than they are at prefent. The
grand caution neceftiuy to this purpofe is, to guard a<'ainll
the too great humidity, which is often the cafe in places
where there is a great number of doors and windows. A
too free accefs of the external air is alfo to be guarded
againrt ; as this has not only a tendency to produce the
above effect, but is liable to bring in with it the ova or
eggs of a number of different infects, which prey upon and
dellroy the corn. A third caution is, when the corn \%
the produce of the country where it is preserved, not tf>
lill the place with the crop of one pkce only, but to mix
the harvefts ot two as diflerent provinces as may be, the one
dry, the other moill, orotherwife differing as much as may
be; thus the contrary qualities of the one mav prevent the
deftruftion of the other. Thefe are the principal rules to
prevent the corrupting of corn: but when tlie mifchief is
once begun, it will be very difficult to ftop it ; all the care
that can be employ cd fttould, of courfe, be taken in regard
to thefe as fpeedily as poffible.

It may be obferved, that the chief points to be attended
to in the ereiting of granaries, are to make them fufficicntly
ftrong, and to give them fuch a fituation as mav cxpole
them to the moft drying winds. But in conftruc\iu<T a
granary merely for the accommodation of a farm, it is
unncceffary, Mr. Balefon obferves, in the fecond volume
of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, to attend
to all thofe circumftances refpoding ftrength, fituation, &c.
A-hich ought to be obferved in building an extenfive gra-
nary, where large quantities of graia are fometimes de-
polited. A farmer feldoin wifties to have a great deal of
Ills ihralhed corn on his hands at once; neverthelefs there
ought, on every farm, to be a place of fecurity, capable
of containing, at leall, one-third or one-lulf the grain pro-

4 H 2 a':.-d

GRANARY.

duced annually on tlie farm. Where the praftice of houfing
corn is followed, there is little or no room, he remarks,
within the barn for a granary; but where this is not the
pra6tice, particularly where there is a thrafhing mill, the
granary may be eafily made over the barn; which, with
proper tackle for hoifting the facks from below, is, he
thinks, the mofl convenient and leaft expcnfive place a far-
mer c?.n have it in.

The ordering of the corn in many parts of England, after
being feparated from the chaft, duft, and other impurities,
and well fcreened, is this: after bringing it into the gra-
naries, it is fpread about half a foot thick, and turned from
time to time, about twice in a week; once a week they
alfo repeat the fcreening. This fort of management is con-
tinued two month.-, and after that it is laid a foot thick
for two months more, and during t'.iis time turned once a
week, or twice, if the feafon be damp, and now and then
again fcreened over. After about five or fix months, it is
raifed to five or iix feet tiilcknefs in the heaps, and then
turned once or twice in a month, and fcreened now and then.
When it has lain two years, or more, it is only turned
ence in two months, and fcreened once a quarter; but how
long foever it is kept, the oftener the turning and icreen-
ing are repeated, the better the grain wiU be found to keep.
It is proper to leave an area of a yard wide on every fide
the heap of corn, and other emptv fpaccs, into which it
may be turned and tolTed as often as there maybe occalion.
In Kent they make two fquare holes at each end of the
floor, and one round in tlie middle, by means of which
they throw the corn out of the upper into the lower rooms,
and fo up again, to turn and air it the better. Their
fcreens are made with two partitions, to feparate the duft
from the corn, which falls into a bag; and when fufficiently
full, this being removed, the pure and good corn remains
behind.

By thefe means corn has been kept in granaries thirty
years; and it is afferted, that the longer it is kept the more
flour it yields, in proportion to the corn, and the purer
r.nd whiter the bread is, the fuperfiuous humidity only
liavihg been evaporated in the keeping. At Zurich, in
Swifierland, it is faid that corn has been kept eighty years,
er longer, by the fame methods of management.

It is ftated that the public granaries at Dantzick are
feven, eight, or nine ftories high, having a funnel in the
midft of every floor, to let down the corn from one to
another. They are built fo fecurely, that, though every
way furrounded with water, the corn contracts no damp,
and the velTels have the convenience of com.ing up to the
walls for their lading. The Ruflians prcferve their corn in
fubterranean granaries, of the figure of a f u n-ar-loaf, wide
below and narrow at top: the fides are well plaftered,
and the top covered with ftones. They are very careful to
have the corn well dried before it is laid into thefe ftore-
houfes, and often dry it by means of ovens^ their fummcr
dry weather being too fliort to effedt it fufficiently for the
purpofe.

Different contrivances have been propofed by Til. Du
Hamel and Dr. Hales, for ventilating or blowing frefi air
through corn laid up in granaries or fiiips, in order to pre-
ferve it fweet and dry, and to prevent its being devoured
by weevils or other infefts. This may be done by naiJinj;
wooden bars or laths on the floors of the granary, about an
inch dillant from each other, when they arc covered with
kair-c!uth only ; or at the dillance of two or tliree inches,
v/lien coarfe wire-work, or bafket-work of ofier, is laid un-
^er the hair-cloth, or when an iron plate lull of holes is
ksidupoatliem. Thefe latbs may be laid acrofs other laths,

4

nailed at the diftanee of fifteen inches, and two or more
deep, that there may be a free pafTage for the air under
them. The under laths muft come about fix inches fiiort of
the wall of the granary at one end of them, on which end
aboard is to be fet edgeways, and Hoping againll the wall:
by this difpofition a large air-pipe is formed, which, hav-
ing an open communication with all the interftices between
and under the bars, will admit the paflage of air bflovr
forcibly through a hole at the extremity of it, into all the
corn of the granary, that will confcquently carry off the
moift exhalations of the corn. The ventilators for fupp'y-
ing freih air may be fixed againlt the wall, on tlie infide or
outfide of the granary, or under the floor, or in the cieling;
but wherever they are fixed, the handle of the lever that
works them mull be out of the granary, otherwife the per-
fon who works them will be in danger of iuffocation when
the corn is fiuned with brimflone, as is fometimes done for
deftroying weevils. Small moveable ventilators will anfwer
the purpofe for ventilating corn in large bins or in fmall
granaries, and m.ay be eafily moved from one bin to another.
If the granary or corn-fhip be very long, the main air-pipe
may pals lengthwife along the middle ot it, and convey air,
on both fides, under the corn. In large granaries, large
double ventilators, laid on each other, may be fixed at the
middle and near the top of the granary, that they may be
worked by a wind-mill fixed on the roof of the building,
or b\' a water-mill. The air is to be conveyed from the
ventilators through a large trunk or trunks, reaching dov n
through the feveral floors to the bottom of the granary,
with branching trunks on each floor, by means of which
the air may be made to pafs into a lar^e trunk along the
adjoining crofs walls : from thefe trunks loveral k-rcr trunks,
about four inches wide, are to branch off, at the dillance
of three or four feet from each other, which are to reach
through the whole length of the granary, and their farther
ends tobeclofed: feams of one-tenth or one-twelfth of an
inch are however to be left open at the four joinings of the
boards, where they are nailed together, that the air may
pafs through them into the corn. In fome of thefe lefTer
trunks there may be Aiding fhutters, in order to Hop the
paffage of the air through thole trunks v.hicii are not
covered with corn ; or to ventilate one part of the gianary
more lirifl<ly than others, as there may be occafion. 1 here
muit alfo be wooden iTiutters, hung on hinges, at tiieir upper
part, fo as to fhut clofe of themfelves; thefe ir.uil be fixed
to the openings in the walls of the granary on their out-
fide: by thele means they wdl readily open to give a free
paflage for the ventilating air, which afceiids through the
corn, to pafs off, but will inilantly fluit when the ventila-
tion ceafes, and thereby prevent any dampnefs of the ex-
ternal air from entering: to prevent this more fnily, the
ventilation fiiould be made only in the middle of dry days,
unlets the corn, when firft put in, is cold and damp.

B'Jt in fmaller granaries, where the ventikitors muil be
worked by hand, if thefe granaries ftand on iiaddles, fo as
to have their lo-uer floor at fome diltance from the ground,
the ventilators may be fixed under the lower floor, between
the ftaddles, fo as to be worked by men llaiiding on the
ground without or within the granary. A very con.mo-
dious and cheap ventilator may be had for fn-.ali granaries,
by making the door of the granary lerve the purpofe, vvhicli
may be eafily done by making a circular fcrcen, of the fize
of a quarter of a circle, behind it; but in order to this, the
door muft open not inwards but outwards, of the granary',
fo that, as it falls back, it may be worked to and fro in
the fcreen; which muft be exacUy adapted to it in all parts
of the circular fide of the fcreen, as well as at the top and

bottom^^

GRANARY.

Ijottom. But there mufl be a ftep at about eight or ten
mchcs diftance from the wall, to prevent the doors falling
back farther, that there may be room for a valve in the
fcreen to fupplv it with air: wh ch air v.ill be driven in by
the door, through a hole made in the wall near the floor,
into the main air-trunk, in which there muil be another
Talve over the hole in the wall, to prevent the return of the
air from within.

Bjt with the view of ficilitating the labour of frequently
ftirr!ng and veritilating the grain, and of leffening the ex-
pence of fuch buildings, a member of the Society for the
Encotiragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in a
letter to Dr Templeman, recommends a new-invented gra-
nary, of which the following defcription is given. It con-
fills, he fays, of feven ftories of floors, and may be built of
any dimenfions, provided proper proportions are adhered to.
The form of it is fquare, fuppofe fourteen feet fquare
within the roon-.s or ceils. The diftance from the floor of
one cell, to the floor of that above, is five feet ; and the
whob building ftiould Hand on ftrong pofts, more or lels in
number, according to tlie dimenfions, at the diftance of fix
feet from the ground. The fmall flairs, or rather ladder,
to go to the feveral cells, muft be fixed on the outlide of the
build'ng fideways, with a leading rail, or rope, to prevent
fallinj^ The whole granary to be built of what is generally
called brick noggin ; that is, it is firft framed in ftrong tim-
ber work, and the interftices filled up with brick. The
floors, beams, and joifts, are to be made ftrong to bear the
weight of the corn ; and the iniide of the cells well lined
v\ith dry oak-board, clofe jointed, and the outfide weaiher-
boarded, the boards being ftrongly nailed to the timber-
work of the fram.e, and afterwards payed over with pitcli.
The floors of the cells are to be fo contrived, as to ilielve
tovvards the middle, in which part is to be an aperture ii.'C
inches fquare, to be opened or clufed by means of a Aiding
fliutter, which muft liave a long handle, reaching in a groove,
without the granary. On three fides of the rooms there
fliould be windows ftrongly latticed, covered with wire, to
keep oat large infects a:id birds, and with ftrong fliutters,
to defend the corn from the weather. On the fourth fide is
a door to each room, to open from without. The v.indows
are to be fmjll, and as dole as pofiible to the cieling. Over
the upper room or cell is a loft, on the outCde of the door
of which is fi.^;ed a crane, to be worked within by a winch
and fliers. The ufe of the windows in the fides of the rooms,
is to give the corn all the benefit it can receive from the wind
and frefh air. The door, when the cell is empty, admits
the workman to fweep, duft, and clean it. The method of
managing corn in this fort of granary is as follows : when
the wheal is properly cleaned, it is Iwifted in facks to the
loft above, and emptied througii a hole for that purpofe in
the floor. The apertures in the floors of the cells being
all open (except the two undermoft, which are clofed by the
Aiding fliutters), the grain falls tlirough till it reaches the
undermoft cell but one : when this is filled to the height of
about tv.o feet, which mav be fcen through the wndows,
the api-rture in the floor of the next cell above is Aiuc by
its flider. This being filled in the fame manner, the next
above it is alfo fliut, and fo on till tlie whole are filled, if rc-
<jnired, except the undermoft, which is left empty. In this
condition the corn is left for a week or more, if it was got
in very dry. When it is to be ilirred, the floor of the un-
dermoft cell is to be fwept very clean, the door is again fhut,
and the flider in the floor above drawn back, which allows
the corn to fall through into that cell. When the cell above
is empty, tiie flider is again flint, the floor iwept very clean,
and the Hiderin the ne^t floor over that is opened. In this

manner they are all managed, till at laft the uppermoft cell
remains empty ; and tlie v, indows having all been open while
the corn was falling from one cell to anotlicr, render great
benefit thereto, by admitting a current of air to pafs through.
Under the aperture in the floor of the lower cell, a proper
fcreen is fixed ; at the end of this fcrcen is fixed a conductor
or fpout, to which a fack is hung, its bottom rjfting on a
miller's hand-barrow ; the Aider is then drawn, and tl^ corn
let fall on tlie fcrcen, from which it runs into the fack : when
the fack is full, the Aider is for a moment fliut, till another
fack, on anotlier barroiv, is put under the conductor ; the
workman then wheeLs the iirfl fack to the outfide of the gra-
nary, and, faftening the crane rope to it, it is drawn up by
another workman in the loft. The fame method is purfued
till the lower cell is emptied. If it is necefiary to fcreen all
the corn at this time, a fmall fcreen is fixed under the aper-
ture of the next cell to be emptied, fo contrived, as to have
a box at the back of it for receiving all the duft, feeds of
weeds, &c. that pafs between the wires ; and this fcreen is
fucceflively fixed under every aperture as tlie cells are fuc-
ceflively emptied. After tlie fiift month, tlie com need be
ftirred in this manner only once a fortnight, and after the fird
fix months, only once a month, unlefs the weather fliould
prove in autumn very Jiot and damp. The advantages of
this granary, as defcribcd by the inventor, are, that it is
built at a fmall cxpence ; that it contains a great de.il of
grain in a fmall compafs ; and that the grain is eafily fliifted
and ventilated, without the tedious mode of turning it with
fliovels, or other fimilar means.

However, the plan of a granary, taken from one built on
his own eftate, by a vei-)' refpe£lable and intelligent gentle-
man in Cliefliire, who has found it to anfwer extiemely weiJ,
it is conceived, by an able writer, will perhaps be prefer-
able to the above, not only from its cheapncfs, but from
its iimplicity, and the i-afy mode by which the whole body
of grain is ftirred, and the air conveyed and circulated through
every part of it, at whatever thicknefs or depth it is laid, and
one floor only is neceflary, liowever high the building may be.
There can be no doubt, but that n- granary of this nature
may be very ufcful and conver.ient in many cafes.

This fort of granary is rtiewn in Plate Granary on ^gricullure,
ill which^^'. I . difplays the front elevation of the building ;
a is the door into the lower part ; b, the door into the loft
above, to afcend to which a ladder is neceflary ; c, a crane
ior hoifting facks up from below ; d, d, d, are air-holes for
ventilation. At_;^. 2. is fcen a feAion or view of the infide
of the building ; a, a, a, a, a, arc wooden fpout s, which reach
from the air-holes on one fide of the granary to thofe on the
other. Thele fpouts are formed ot inch deal, about fix
i'nches bi'oad. and made with an angle fimilar to tliofe fpouts
that are employed to convey off the rain water from the eaf-
ings of houfes. Tliey are placed acrofs the granary with
the angle upwards, as rcprcfented at Jl^. 3 ; b, b, b, are
the ends of fimilar fpouts, which crofs the others, and alfo
reach betwixt tlie air-holes on the otlier two fides of the
building, as fcen aljig. 4 ; c, <-,(■, are half fpouts, extending
in the fame manner to air-holes on each lide. It is neceflary
that the air-holes fl.iould decline outwards, in order to pre-
vent the entrance of rain or fnow in ftormv weatlier ; and
they Ihould likewife be fecured from infecls and vermin by
v.ire cloth ; d d, the floor of tlie granary, which is three
yards fquare, and divided eacli way into three hoppers, r, e, e,
of one Iquare yard each, making in the whole nine hoppers,
as leen at_/ff 5 ; y"is a large lioppcr, that encompulfcs all the
reft, and has a flider at g for opening occafionjlly, as may
be neceflfary in taking out the grain. And there is another
fmal'cr hopper /, which is fulpcndcd to this by four iron

hafps.

G R A

G R A

hafps /•, I, I 1-, that may be readily unfadencd «licn required,
frtjm t!ie fqiiare deal box o o, fixed to the large hopper.
Through the iide of this box, the handle h of the ilider iiuift
extend. This hopper is principally ufed for the convenience
of taking out a fniall quantity of grain, but is removed when
a large quantity is to be taken from the granary ; ;re is a
finall loft into which the facks of grain are hoilled, and emp-
tied over the iides or rails ;j, ti, from which it falls down, and
pafles through the hopper e, e, tilly' is filled (the (lider g
being clofed); and as the corn continues to be emptied from
the loft, the granary is gradually filled until it is up to the
top if neceflary. The fpouts being all inverted, as noticed
above, and open below, it is obvious that, although the gra-
nary be filled to the top, the corn will not, like a fluid, rife
within the fpouts above the level of their lower edges ; and
thus there will be a vacuum lelt v.'ithin every fpout, through
which the air will freely jiafs. Thcfe fpouts are placed three
feet diilant from eacli other, horizontally from angle to an-
gle, and eighteen inches vertically ; that is, from thofe in
one tire, to thofe in another, which is the next, and crofTes
it. The holes in the bottoms of the hoppers e, e, e, fiiould
be fo proportioned, that one may not give vent to the grain
faller than another.; for which reafon, the aperture of the
middle one a. Jig. 5, fliould be the fmalleft, becaufe there is
the leall obftruftion there. The apertures b, b, h, b, ought to
be fomewhat larsfer, as the (jrain will meet with forae little
obllrnclion there ; by the fides of the large hopper ; and the
apertures or openings c, c, c, c, (liould be the largert, as the
obllruttion in the angles will be greater than in any other
part of the work.

GRANASUOLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Amona ; 6 miles N. of Faenza.

GR ANATAN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erz-
geburg ; iz miles N. E. of Frevberg-.

GRANATARIUS, in Mhhlle Jge IVriUrs, an officer in
monafteries who took care of the provifions.

GR.\NATE, popularly called garnet, in Nalitra! Hif-
tory. See Garnet.

Ghanate Pqfie. The counterfeit garnet in palle, is
formed with three different proportions of the ingredients,
•W'hich are thefe :

Take prepared cryftal two ounces, common red-lead fix
ounces, manganefe fixteen grains, zafier three grains ; mix
all well together ; and put them into a crucible : cover
it with a lute, and fet it in a potter's kihi for twenty-four
hours.

Or, take cryfial two oimces, minium five ounces and a
half, manganefe fifteen grains, zafTer four grains ; mix them
well together, and leave room for their fwelllng in the pot ;
bake them t\\*entv-fonr hours in a potter's kiln.

The !ai\ method is this : take crvital prepared two ounces,
minium five ounces ; mix them, and add manganefe fifty-two
grains, zafFer fix grains ; mix them well together, snd let
all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter's kiln for
twenty-four hours.

The firll of thefe makes a very handfome garnet of the
common tinge ; the fecond, a deep one, with fomething of a
violet tinge, as many of the natural garnets have ; but tiie
third makes much the fined and brightell. Ncri's Art of
Glafs, p. 134. See Gla.s.s and Paste.

GRANATINE, a name given by Kirwan tp fevcral tri-
ple Bompounds, profellcdly of the granitic kind ; but as it
includes alfo combinations that have no more than one ef-
fential ingredient of granite (fuch as the combination of
quartz, jade, and garnet), it is obvious, that many rocks,
thus united into one clafs, are far from having all the cha-
racters of granitic compounds.

GRANATITE. See STAURonrr,.

GRANA'i'RlSTUM, in Surgay, denotes a boil, or a
carbuncle.

GRANATUM, in Botany, and the Materia Medica.
See FuNicA. .

GRANBY, in Geography, a towndiip of America, in
Effex county, Vermont, containing 69 inhabitants. — Alfo,
a townlhip in Ilr.niplhire county, Maffachufetts, E. of S.
Hadley, about 94 miles W. of Bollon ; incorporated in

1768, and containing 768 inhabitants Alfo, a towndiip in

Hartfoi-d county, Connecticut, on the line which feparates
Connefticut from Maffachufetts ; 18 miles N. of Hartford,
and containing 2735 inhabitants. — Alfo, a fmall town on the
Congaree, in South Carolina ; a place of coufiderable com-
merce, having a curious bridge, the arches of which are fup-
ported by wooden pillars, fixed by iron-work, in the iolid
rock, 40 feet high above the level of the water, with the
centre arch 40 feet in the clear, for admitting the paifage of
large trees brought downi by the flood,

Granby Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Dominica. N. lat. 15 ' 42'. W. long, ei"" 25'.

GRANCEY-EN-MoxTAGXE, a town of France, in the
department of the Cotc-d'Or, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrid of Dijon ; 21 miles S. E. of Cliatillon-
fur-Seine. The place contains 687, and the canton 4071
inhabitants, on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in II com-
munes.

GRAND, a term rather French than Englifii, though
ufed on manv occafions in our language. It has the fame
import with great, being formed of the Latin grandls.

In this fenfe we fay, the grand mailer of an order, the
grand mafter of Malta, of the free-mafons. Sec.

So alfo, the grand fignor, the grand vifier, S:c. grand-
father, grand-mother, &c.

In the French polity and cuftonis there are divers officers
thus denominated, which we frequently retain in Englifli ;
as grand almoner, grand ecuyer, grand cham.bellan, grand
voyer, Sec.

Graxd, Anthony Le, in Biography, who flourilhed in
the 17th century, was a native of Douay, and is denomina-
ted by fome writers the " abbreviator of Delcartes.'' He
was author of many works on the fubjeft ot pbilofophy,
the chief of thefe are, " Inilitutio Philofophioe fecundnm
Principia Ren. Defcartes," 410. " Curiofus Nature Area-
norum Perfcrutator.'' Notes on the Phyfics of Rohtuilt,
which have gone through many editions ; and " Hiftoria Sacra
a Mundo condito ad Conflantinum magnum,'' which is laid
to be his beil performance. Moreri.

Grand, .Ioachim Le, a French political and hiftorical
writer, was born in 1653 at Thorigny, in Normandy. In
early life he entered into the congregation of the Oratory,
which he quitted in 1676, and went to Paris, where he en-
gaged in the education of two young men of rank, and at
the fame time applied himfelf with all dihgcnce to the ftudy
of hiftory under the direftion of father Le Cointe. He
firll appeared as a writer in the year 1688, in " A Hiftory
of the Divorce of Henry VIII. and Cathaiinc of Arragon,"
in three vols. i2mo. The main objeft of this work is to
refute certain fails and arguments contained in the two firll
books of Burnet's Hiftory of the Reformation. This pro-
duced a controverfy between Le Grand and the Enghfli
prelate, vv'hich has long fince ceafed to be intcrefling. In
1691 he addreffed three letters to the bifiiop, on his cri-
tique of Boffuet's Hiltory of the Variations of Proteftants.
Alter this Le Grand was taken from his literary purfuits
by the apponitment of fecretary to tlie abbe d'Ellrtes, in
h!s cmbafTy to Portugal. In this fituation he continued till

the

G R A

theyeariC97. Tt.^ Icifure which his diplomatic fuiiclions
allowed was employed in trandatiofis of Voyages and Tra-
vels from the Portuguefe. In 17C2 he accompanied the
fame rr.inifter in Spain, where he remained about two years
as fecretary. Soon after this the marquis de Torci, minif-
ter of ftate, took him into his ferviee, and employed his
per. in tlrawi;ig up feveral memorials concerning; the Spanith
nioiiarchv, and other political topics, in which he was of
great ufe to his patron, and acquitted himfelf with great
ability. As an author his lall printed work was a treatife
"On the SuccefTion to the Crown of France.'' This was given
to the world in 17 18, and is reckoned a curious and ufeful
performance. He died at the age of 80 in the year 1733.
He had been poflefled of church preferment, and had held,
for a time, the office of cenfor royal of books. Moreri.

Grand, in Geography, is a denomination applied to a
variety of places, as in the following inflances.

Grand ylnfe, or Jcreime, a well-built town in the weftern
part of the ifland of Hiipaniola ; the roacf of wliich is fo
bad, that vclTels, in order to efcape the wind, are compelled
to take fliclter behind Cape Donna Maria. N. lat. 18^ 15'.
W. long. 7+^ 5'.

Graxd Bay, a bay on the S.W. coafl of Newfoundland,
fomewhat S. of Cape Ray.

GR.\SD-Bourg-Sii/agtiac, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Creufc, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Gucret. The place contains 2525, and the can-
ton 7828 inhabitants, on a territory of 215 kiliometres, in
eight communes.

Gr.vxd Canal, in Ireland, is an eflabli.liment of which
■we have given fome account in our article Cakal, and
have lijre to correct an error which crept into that account,
in dating that the canal terminates in the Shannon at
Tarmonbury, infiead of Shannon-harbour, two miles above
Banaghar. The branch to the Barrow joins that river at
Athy ; with a collateral branch from Low-town near
Mo:iaftraven to portarlington.

When the new part of the canal was finiHied in 1804,
from Tullaraore to the Shannon, a general repair and
deepening of the old parts took place, in which 3CC0 men
'were employed for expedition, and the whole line was fconred
out, fo that 60 ton "boats might pafs. At Tuilamore there
are wharfs and ward.oufes for goods, and alfo at Shannon-
harbour, with inns atid other accommodation for perfons on
bufinefs.

The Doonare and Boulavoneen collieries in Queen's
county, belonging to this company, were in February 1809
worked bv I CO men, and they advertifed for 200 more, in
order to work 100 acres of a coal three feet four inches tliick,
which had then i-ecently been laid dry : the canals and river
navigations admitting of their being conveyed to Dublin,
Limerick, Waterfcrd, Athlone, &c.

Kildare aqueduft, eight miL>s from Dublin, is 100 feet
high, according to M. De Luc, Geology, p. 320.

GRA^i'D-Champ, a town of France, in the department of
Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrid of
"Vannes ; feven miles N.N. W. of Vannes. The place con-
tains 4139. and tiie cr.nton 7850 inhabitants, on a territory
of 202 kiliometres, in four, eommunes.
. GR\^D-Couronm, a town of Fraiice, in the department
of the Lower Seine, and chief pb.ce of a canton, in the
dillricl of Rouen. The place contains 8000, and the canton
12,795 inl'^bitants, on a territory of 182^ kiliometres, in
13 communes.

GKXSvt-Fa'.heri, feveral large detached mountains of
America, in the S.E. coper of TenefTec, in which are the
head-WLi.crs of Fjsendi Broad, and Cataba ri-vers.

G R A

Grand Foro, a town of Africa, on the Sbve Coaft,

Gkandk IJlaiul, an ifland in the Atlantic, on the coaft
of Brazil ; 16 miles long and two broad. S. lal 23 15'.

Grand JJlanrl, an ifland of America, in lake Superior,
on the N. fide of the lake.— Alfo, an ifland in Niagara
river, about (ix miles long and three broad ; its S. end is

four miles N. of Fort Erie ,'\lfo, an ifland at the moi:th

of lake Ontario, within the Britifii territories; 20 miles
long and at its greateft breadth four miles.

Grand IJ!^, a new county of America, in the N.W.
corner of the (late of Vermont, incoqjoratcd in i8c2, and
including the towns of Nordi Middle and South Hero,
Vineyard (late ifle Molte), and Alburgh.

Gra.nd IJla, two large iflands in lake Champlain, each
about eigiit or ten miles long, and forming a townftiip be-
longing to Vermont.

Grand JunU'ion Canal. To the full account wliich we
gave of this very important inland navigation in our article
Canal, we have here merely to add a few particulars
which have occurred fince that account was printed. The
aft of the 50th Geo. III. for the Grand Union canal pro-
vides, that a canal with locks is to be fubftituted for the
railway-branch from Gayton to Northamptor., in order to
open a communica;ion by water, from the head of the
new navigation, the detign for the continuation of the Lei-
cetterfliire and Northamptonfliire Union canals further fouth
than Market Uaihorougli, where it now terminates, being
dropt, in confcquence of the adoption of the Grand Union
above-mentioned, which will connect the above canal with
the Grand Junftion. The three aqueduct arches over the
Oufe at Wolverton having been made flat elliptical, inftead
of the curves of equilibration, and the foundation alfo in-
fufficient, they gave figns of great infecurity immediately on
their centres being (Iruck, and in February 1808 two of
them actually fell in and euiptied the canal, as far as the ftop-
gates : fortunately, the old line of locks acrofs the valley had
not been diilurbed, and the trade has fuffercd no interrup-
tion in confequence. -A caft-iron aquedud on brick and
(lone piers is now fubllituting for tlicfe three arches, un-
der the direftion of Mr. Benjamin Bevan, who is now the
engineer to the company. In 1807 a new refervoir was
compleated near tlie (ide-ponds on the northern lide of the
1'ring fummit, for fupplying water to the locks below the
fide-ponds in dry feafi.ni.

In examining the Krata and fprings on the north fide cf
the chalk funm it, between Tring aid Wendover, with a
view to better fupplying the Wciidover branch and fummit-
level with water, Mr. Bevan difcovered, that dilTerent water-
tight beds in the lower chalk held U]) (prings a coniidcrable
height above the canal, ov-iiig to their dip to the fouthward;
and in order to avail himfelf of this water, a fough or tun-
nel was began in the upper bank of the canal near Wen-
dover, and has been driven about half a mile fouthward,
interfefiing dilTercn.t (Irata of chalk from benea'.h, and
increafing in its fupply of water as it proceeded ; but ob-
ferving that the principal vent of this water was in the
winter and early fpring months, when the other fources were
more than fufiicieiit for the fupply of the canal, it occurred
to that ingenious gentli man to place a ftrong and water-
light valve in the irod favourable part of this tunnel, which,
as foon in the autumn as the canal is amply Aipjlied from
its \)ther feeders, is (hnt, and kept (o, until thr,fe begin
again to flacken in their fupply ; the water in the im:v.f nfe
planes of tliefe beds of chalk, in the mean time accumu-
lating, as in a v.ift fubterranenn refervoir, the Ipriopsrife
to the level which they originally did before this tum;i-i «-as
begim, about 20 feet above the cauol ; and for many w eeks

aiitr

G R A

alter the opening of the valve, in the beginning of fummer,
tliey pour forth a mod furpriling flream of water into the
canal, which otlier\\ile would have vented miles off in the
tlialk vallies, or (louly have made its way down through
the joints and lifTures in the ftrata to fprings at th.e bottom
of the chalk, which vent below the level of the canal.

In 1808 a twelve-horfe fr.igle Bolton's fteam-engine was
crefted near Nalh-mill, in Hertfordfaire, to lift the water
again, the rife of four locks, for better fupplying the mills
durino- feven or eight months of the year. The company,
in 1806, canfed boats to be litted up for conveying fat
jheep ahve, in tiers one above another, rrom diftant places
in the county, to the London markets, inllead of fatiguing
them by driving along the roads, the feheme of thus bring-
ing oxen having been previoufly tried, and foimd not to
anfwer ; but after a fair trial, the expences were found to
over-balance tlie advantages expefted from this alfo ; we
are forrv alfo to add, that the cattle-market at Paddington
has failed, and that the pens eretSted for it by the company
have been fold and removed.

The limited quantity of coals brought to Paddington, or
within 20 miles of London by this canal, now pay a duty
of io.f. ()\d per ton (of 20X i lalb.), which is equivalent to
the duty on Newcaftle coals in the Thames : in confequence
of this heavy and opprelfive duty, many waggons and carts
are employed in fetching coals by land, from the next wharf
beyond the limited dillance, near Watford. The Grand
Union aanal above-mentioned is begun, and is to join this
canal near the S.W. end of the Braunfton tunnel. The de-
fign of a branch from near Tring, through Aylefbury and
Tliame, to the Thames and Ifis navigation and V/ilts and
Berks canal near Abingdon, has been again revived, and it
fcems probable, that an acl for that pnrpofe will pafs in
the enfuing feihons of parliament {181 1 ).

Towards fupplying water to the inhabitants near Pad-
dington, a transfer of the company's rights has been made
to a feparate water-company, which is expefted to be con-
firmed by parliament in the enfuing feflions.

In November 1806, the company declared the firit half
yearly dividend of i\ per cent, on the original (hares, which
has regularly increased to 3 per cent, half-yearly, exelu-
five of property tax. The affairs of the company feeni
now fall retrieving from the effefts of their great mif-
management for many years after its ellablidiment, and to
be now in a very profperous ftate ; the Ihares (of 100/. )
were, in September 18 10, reported to be currently fold at
302/. each ! although, at one period, the fame could with
difficulty be difpofed of at 65/. to 70/. each : fuch are the
cffefts of good or bad management, and of abihties and in-
tegrity in thofe entrufted with the direftion and manage-
ment of an immenfe concern hke this, in infpiring confidence
in commercial men to enter into trade and ipeculations
connected with the canal, and in capitalifls to invefl. their
money in the company's (liares. A refolution of the
general affembly of proprietors, on the yth of June 1803,
for appointing a general fuperintendant of their concerns,
principally led to this beneficial change. On the i ith of
Jinie following, Charles Harvey, efq. was appointed to this
office by the committee, and, after much oppofition from
certain powerful individuals, was, on the nth of July, con-
firmed therein, by a general aflembly called for the fpecial
purpofe.

Grand Key, a fmall ifland among the Bahamas. N.
lat. 26' 54'. W. long. 77'' 48'.

GliAND Lake, a lake of Louifiana. N. lat. 32^. W.
long. 03° 5'. — Alfo, a lake in the province of New Brunf-
wick, ncBi the river St. John's, faid to be 30 miles

G R A

long, eight or ten broad, and in fome pl.iccs 40 fathoms
deep.

GuAND Luce, Le, a town of France, in the department of
tlie Sarthe, and chief plitee of a canton, in the diftrici of
Saint-Calais ; 14 miles S.E. ^f Lc Mans. The place con-
tains 2045, and the canton 10,493 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2277; kiliometres, in 8 com.nunes.

Grand Manen IJland, an ifland of the Atlantic ocean ;
6 miles S. by S.E. of Campo Bello ifland, oppofite to
Papamaquoddy bay on the eaftern border of the United
States.

Grand Rulge, is a term often ufod, (fee our artielr
C.vn'AL,) for the water-head, or fummit line, acrofs an ifland
or continent, from whence the rain waters fall by oppofite
courfes to the ocean. It refults from the admirable fyftem
of vallies, which the great Creator has fpread over the
whole face of the earth, leaving no part, perhaps, originally
of the furface, witiiout a defcent and out-fall to tlie fea ;
that the ridges, or fummit-lines, form a fyftem not lefs
beautiful and perfeft than the vallies ; and whence it hap-
pens, that, from any hill whatever, it is prafticable to mark
on a good map, and to travel to every other hill in the farcn?
ifland or continent, hovi'ever large, without croffing any-
running water, however fmall, but conftantly to pafs along
a ridge or waterfliead ; whence the waters on the furface
fall oppofite ways from your route. It feems furprifing,
that no one has attempted to illuftrate this fubjeft by a good
map, fliewing all the connedtions and windings of thcfe
ridges in England, or even any local diftricl, until of late,
that Mr. Farey has prepared a fquare of map, including
Derbylhire, fliewing the ridges, and the fituation of all the
hills and principal eminences upon them, which is intended
to accompany his report to the Board of Agriculture on
that interefling diilrift.

The triangular form of the Britifli ifland, and the fituatioH
of the two principal rivers, the Thames and the Severn, (or
rather the Briilol channel,) occafion the grand ridge of
England to divide into two branches on the Chalk Downs, a
few miles N.E. of Devizes ; one of which, (the fouth-
weftern,) proceeds to Rundaway-hill, and erodes the deep
cutting of the Kennet and A von canal, near to Devizes,
near Ead Lavington, "Warniinfter, Wincanton, Beaminfter,
Crewkerne, Chard, &c. by a moft circuitous route, paffing
almoft to the north and to the fouth coads alternately, until
it reaches the Land's End in Cornwall : having, in this
long route, probably delcendcd to no lower ftrata than the
red ground or marie, of which we fhall fpcak further pre-
fently.

The other, or fouth-eaftern branch of the grand ridge,
proceeds along the chalk and the clays and fands above it,
acrofs the deep-cutting of the Kennet and Avon canal, near
Burbage, by High-cleic, (near which it probably occupies
the highed dratum in the whole Britidi feries,) near to Alton
and Haflemere, when it foon defcends ofl" the chalk into the
great fouthern denudation, (fee Philofopliical Magazine,
vol. XXXV. p. 130.), and purfnes the under meafures, tlirough
the wealds of Suftex and Kent, by Alford, Lv ith-hill, Hands-
crofs, (on the Londoii and Brighton roads, being there on the
lowed dratum but one which appears in that road,) by Turner-
hill, Nutley, Crewboroi'.gh, Rothcrfield, Wadhurd, Tenter-
den, Shadoxhurft, Lympe (near Hythe), where it again af-
cends the edge o{ the chalk, and proceeds on it by Paddlef-
worth, Swiogfield, and Lydden, to the coaft at King's Down,
near Walmer caille.

From the point of branching, N.E. of Devizes, as above
defcribed, the grand ridge follows the chalk northward by
■White-horie hill, near Chcrhill, &e. till within a few miles

•f

G R A

lof S>vin(3on, wTien it turns to the N.W., and dcfccnds to
liie marie, and other ftrata below the chalk, eroding the
Woburn fand llratum, not far from Wooton-BafTet : and,
pading to the Bath free-ftone range, it crofTes the Salperton
tunnel, on the Thames and Severn canal, and proceeds near
to the wellern edges of the fame ftrata, by Charlton-Kings,
near Cheltenham, Stanvvay-hill, Broad-way-hill, Lemington-
hill, Long-Compton-hill, and Epwell ; foon after wliich,
the grand ridge begins to leave the free-ftone, and take to
the dark blue clays, &c. under it, except ciofling fome
points of the ftone, and traverfes the Fcnny-Compton tunnel,
on the Oxford canal ; thence by Hellidon, and nearDaventry,
it crotFes the Br lunfton tunnel, on the Grand Junction canal,
at Well-Haddon, and at Hufband's-Bofworth, the tunnels
of the Grand Union canal ; when, turning north-well, the
ridge paflls Gihnoitou ; and not far from Lutterworth it
croffes the Lias clays and lime-ftone ftrata, and dcfctr.ds
to the red marie (above mentioned), and quickly, by a
great fault, or fudden lift of the ftrata, is brought upon the
coal-meafures of the Bedworth-field, and croftes the deep
cutting of the Coventry canal, through Bedworth tov.n,
acrofs the late fir Roger Newdigate's canal, and fivejps
round to the weft, fouth-weft, and fouth, to Kenil worth ;
when, having croflcd another fault, and got again upon the
red marie, it croii'es the deep-cutting of the Warwick
and Birmingham canal, near Baddefiey-Clinton, and of the
Stratford canal, near Hockley ; thence by Aftiley-heath,
and croftes the Weft-heath tunnel of the Werceiter and
Birmingham canal, and the Lapal tunnel of the Dudley
canal : after whicli, the grand ridge crofies the bafaltic
hills between Rowley and Dudley, (which belong to the
red marie ftrata,) and, defcending to the coal-meafures,
crofles the Dudley tunnel N.W. of that tov.n, and proceeds
by Sedgley ; then crofting an ereft and denudated patch of
the yellow lime-ftrata, it croffes the deep-cuttings of the
Old Birmingham canal, the Wyrley and Ellington canal,
and of the Staffordftiire and Worcefterftiire canal, all near
Wolverhampton town ; then by Taterhall, Wrotteftey,
Blimhill, Cowley, Wooton, (near Ecclcftiall), Broughton,
Afhley, Maer, Madeley-park, to Keefe, (near Newcaftle-
under-line, ) where it has again got upon coal-meafures, by
Bignole-hill, and acrofs the Harecattle tunnel, on the Trent
and Merfey canal, by Golden-hill, Wickinftone rocks, and,
crofting an immenfe fault, defcends to the lime-ftone fliale,
(fee Mr. Farey's feftion in Plate IL vol. xxxi. of the
Philofophical Magazine,) on Biddulph Moor ; tlience palTos
the top of the Great Rudyard refervoir, to Gun-hill, and
crofting to High Roches rocks, it there afcends the firft
grit ; then croffes a fmall trough of the firft coal-ftiale and
fecond grit, and defcends again to the firft grit, or Ram-
{havv rocks, and ftill further, on the linie-lloue fliale, at the
Royal Cottage, along which it proceeds to the N.W. fide
of Flafli, and then afcends the firft grit again, on South-Axe-
edge-hill ; it again defcends to the fti;de lime-ftone in
crofting Middle and Great Axe-edge-hills ; from whence it
afcends acrofs the firft grit and firft coal-ftiale, and afcends
the fecond grit on Thatch Marfti ; this it purfues to the north
of the Macclesfield and Buxton road, and then turning N.E.
again defcends to the lime-ftone fliale, and follows it acrofs
the Manchefter and Buxton road ; foon after, it afcends the
firil grit and firft coal-fliale, on Comb's-mofs, and again
defcends to tlie ftiale, paflTes Sitting-low, (il mile S.E.
of Chapel-cn-le-Frith,) when, turning eaflward, it croffes
the Great lime-ftone fault, (N of Dove-holes,) and
is found upon the third lime-llone, on which it croffes
the quarries and rail-way of the Peak-Forell canal ; foon
after, it paftes over the ballet-edge of the thii-d load-llone,
Vol. XVI.

G R A

and defcends to the great fourth liine-flone in Peak-Foreft,
which is probably the /cwf^ ftratum, to which the grand
ridge paffes in its route through . England ; this lime-rock
having been eftimatcd to be four miles at leaft of perpen-
dicular thlcknefs below the top of the chalk, from whence
we commenced our defcription ; much the greater part of
this vaft feries of ftrata having in tlJs route along the grand
ridge been loft fuddenly by perpenciicubr lifts of the llrata
or faults, which, in proceeding to this point by more favour-
able routes, might have been ften baffeting in fucceflion.
For about one and a half mile the ridge proceeds upon the
fourth lime, then again afcends a point of the third toad-
ftone and third line, to the village called Sparrow-pit, in
the Manchefter ard Caftlcton road, where it again croffes
the great fault and afcends to the lime-ftone-ftiale on
Rufliop-edge, whence it proceeds northward, and after crofF-
ing the Lridle-road from Hayfield to Edale-chapel, it
afcends the firft grit on Edale rock, and proceeds acrof; the
mofl'cs on Kii.der-fcout hilis ; thefe it leaves at their N.W,
corner, and cro.Tcs the moffes on the ftiale, and the ancient
Bridle-road called Doftor-Gate, from Gloftop to Afliop-
Dale; it then afcends the firft grit again on fticlf-ftones, and
follows the fan;e to Wain-ftones and blakelow-ftones, which
feems to be the higheft land in Derbyfhire, it then paffe*
N. E. by Round-hiil, and afcends to the firft coal-
lliale, croffes the Manchefter and Peniftone-road at Lady-
crofs ; where, turning N. W. it afcends the fecond grit
reck, and proceeds by Dean and Bretland Edges, to crof«
the Gloffop and Huddersfield road, on the bogs upon this
rock on Holme mofs ; from hence the rid.ge, after fome
diftance, again defcends to the firft coal-fhale, the firfl
grit, and to the limeftone-fliale, crofting the Stanage
funnel on the Huddersfield canal near Marfdcn ; the ridge
then proceeds acrofs Black-ftcne-edge, and croffes the deep-
cutting of the Rochdale canal, near the village of Hun-
dersfi.eld, (which has improperly been faid in the population
accounts of i8oi, to be a to-jjti containing 10,671 perfons ! )
the ridge then paffes Holme on the Burnley and Hahfa;t
road, whence it proceeds, and near Co!ne comes again upon
coal-meafures, whicli are, however, loft again at the great
fauit, in which part of the Foulridge tunnel on the Leeds
and Liverpool canal was driven, and which occafioncd the
extraordinary trouble and expence attending that tunnel,
which is mentioned in oar article Can.m- From hence tlie
grand ridge proceeds, by Barnoldfwick, Weft Marton, near
the Cold-Coniflora, E. of Settleton liir.e-ftonc, over Pen-
nigant-hill, Snays-fell, Nine-ftandards. Kelton-fell, Lune-
foreft, Scordal-head, Milborn-foreft, Aldftone-moor, lime, V
Hartfide-crofs, Geltfdale-foreft, Talkin, and croffes the
Roman or Picts wall on the E. fide of Upper Denton, and
foon after it enters Roxburghfhire in Scotland ; through
wiiich it is much cafier to trace this grand ridge than in
England, it forming often the boundaries between the
Scotch counties, to which this ridge and its collateral
ridges are much better adapted than the rivers and brook-s
which have generally been chofcn as boundaries, both as
being more permanent, and not liable to the changes which
ftrcams of water are undergoing in the botttms of \-ales,
and avoiding thofc difputcs refpcCting, and the delav of
making and improving bridges, fords, navig;itions, ir.iili,
&c. owing to the rivers being part in one county and part
in another, and by which alio many of the moli conlider-
able towns are fplit into 'two or more counties, to the no
fmall inconvenience of their inhabitants, in judicial and other
county matters.

GitAxn Rktr. See Ott.\w.v and OtrsE. — Alfo, a ri-
ver of Africa which runs into the Indian fea, S. Ut. z" S*.
4 I —Alfo,

G R A

»— Alfo, a river of Sicily, which runs into the Mediterranean
on the N. fide of the ifland, N. lat. 38' 3'. E.long. 14" 54'.
— Alfo, a river of America, which runs into tlie Milfouri,
N. lat. 38- 56'. W. long. 93° 25'. — Alfo, a broad river of
America, which difcharges itfelf into lake Micliigan, N.
lat. 43** 25'. W. long. 85° 35*. — Alfo, a river of America,
which runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 55'. W. long.
81" 8'. — Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs into the
Detroit, N. lat. 42' 34'. W. long. 82^ 42'.— Alfo, a river
of Canada, which rims into the St. Laurence, N. lat.

47" 3'-

Grand River, or Rio gfaitrle, a river of Africa, which

runs into the Atlantic, near the Biffagos ifles, N. lat. 11°.

"VV. long. 14 30'.

Grande Seaux, an Indian nation, inhabiting a territory
of the Miflburi, and able to furnidi 800 warriors.

Grakd Sdi-ry-CanaL This canal is yet in the fame
ftate, nearly, as when our account of it in the article
Canal was written, in i8oy, except, that about two
miles in length of it, at its N. E. end, has been brought
into ufe, fince the Croydon canal has been completed ;
and that the dock for fliips, at its entrance from the Thames,
was completed and oT)cned in June i 807, and has anfwered
lb well to the proprietors, that in tlie lall feffions of parlia-
ment, they made an unfuccefsful attempt to obtain power
for a further extenfion of them. In February, 1809, this
company determined on erefting a ten-horfe lleam engine on
the banks of the canal, by the Deptford road, for fupply-
iniT the neighbouring inhabitants with water, intending to
let the furplus power of this engine to feme manufac-
turers.

Grand Tmverfc, a range of iflands, confifting of huge
rocks in lake Michigan.

Grand Tnmi Canal, is a name commonly applied to
the Trent and Merfey canal, which fee in our article
Canal.

Grand Union Cancil. In the feffions of parliament,
1810, (50 Geo. III.) an aft paffed for making the Grand
Union canal, the general direftion of which is about S.W.
23^ miles, in the counties of Leicefter and Northampton,
being confiderably elevated, and crofilng the grand ridge
of the irtand twice, by tunnels, its middle part for about
half its length (Icirting near to the ridge on its weftern
iide, and the two ends being on the eaftern fide of the
ridge. Its objefts are the completing of tlie long-defired
■water-communication between the Ti-ent river and the many
canals which conneft therewith, in Derbyfhire, Nottingham-
fliire, and Leicefterfhire, and the Grand Junflion canal, and
through it to the metropolis, without making the enormous
circuit by Burton, Fradley-heath, near Litchfield, Tam-
worth, Atherftone, Nuneaton, and Braunilone, which at
prefent goods, coming by water from Leicefter, Notting-
ham, and Derby mud do ; it is intended alfo to fuperfede
the neccffity for the fouthern part of the Leicellcrlhire and
Northamptondiire Union canal, between Market-Harbo-
rough and Northampton, which on account of its difficulties
has never been attempted ; the prefent rail-way branch
between the Grand Junction and Northampton is intended
to be changed for a canal with locks, by which means the
people of Nortliampton will have a water-communication
with Market-Harborough, Leicefter, &c. with only about
14 miles longer diftance than the Leicefterdiire and North-
ampton Union would have been, if the fame had been com-
pleted according to its original a<il. Market-Harborough
and Daventry are the only confiderable towns near the line
of this canal, whicli commences in the Leiceiterfhire and
Northamptonfhire Union canal near Gumley, and terAii-

G R A

nates in the Grand .Tunftion canal near Buckby-wharf, nca*
the S. E. end of the Braunftone tunnel. From Gumley in
■'l mile is a rife of 76 feet by 12 locks, and thence to Wat-
ford, 20 miles are level, then in ^ mile is a fall of 53 feet by
eight locks, and thence to the Grand .lundlion canal about
three miles are level ; near Hufljand's Bofworth is a tunnel of
about 1 1 20 yards long, and near Crick another of about
900 yards long. Near Crick it is propofed to make a refcrvoir
of 60 acres above the canal, but below its level, fo that
the furplus water collcfted from other parts of the canal
in rainy feafons can be here referved, to be pumped up
when wanted.

The width of the canal at top is 42 feet and 14 at hot-
tom, and its depth of wa:cr five feet ; the locks are 82 feet"
long and feven wide, calculated for 25 ton boats. This
line was firft furvcyed by Mr. James Barnes in 1803, and by
Mr. Benjamin Bevan in 1808 and 1809, and the latter is
appointed engineer for the execution ot the work.

Grand IVcJlem Canal, is fo denominated in an aft which-
paffed in the vear 1796, as mentioned in our article Canal,
but under which no progrefs had then been made. In
April 18/0, it was reported, that a beginning had at length
been made on t!ie fummit level, in Holcomb, Devon. A
much larger canal, capable of conveying fhips from the
Briilol channel to the fouth coaft, has been fome time m
agitation, for avoiding the very circuitous and tedious navi-
gation round the Land's End j wliich, however dtfirable,.
is fcarcely practicable, we incline to think, for want of
water.

Grand ^IJifi, in Law. See A.s.slse.

Grand Cape. See Cape and Attachment.

Grand Coujlumier, k, an ancient book of very great
authority, which contains the ducal cuftoms of Normandy.

Grand Days. See Day, in Laiv.

Gra'SD Di/lrtfs, dijlriclio magna; a writ of dlftrefs, fo-
called on account of its extent, which reaches to all the
goods and chattels of the party within the county.

This writ lies in two cafes ; either when the tenant or
defendant is attached and appears not, but makes default :-.
or where the tenant or defendant hath once appeared, and
after makes default. On fuch occafions, this writ lies by
common law, in lieu of a petit cape.

Grand JEHxir, gttard, jury, larceny, prior, pro'tsojl of
France, Jerjeanly. See ElixIR, Guard, &c.

Grand Gujlo, in Painting. See Gusto.

Grande, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the dio-
cefe of Drontheim ; 21 miles N. W. of Dronthcim.

GRANDEE is underftood of a lord of the firft rank of
prime quality.

In Spain, the term grandees is ufcd abfolutely to denote
the prime lonis of the court, to whom the king has once
given leave to be covered in his prefence : there are fomc
grandees for life only ; made by the king's fapng fimply>,
be covered. Others are grandees by defcent ; made by the
king's faying, be covered for thyfelf and heirs. Thefe laft
arc reputed far above the former.

There are fome who hare three or four grandeefliips in-s
their family.

GRAND-GOR. A Scotch appellation for the venereal
difeafe.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N"469. feft. 5. we have
a proclamation of king James the IV th of Scotland, ordering
all who had this difeafe, or who had attended others under-
it, forthwith to repair to an ifland in the Frith of Forth.
If the grand-gor was the pox, and this diftcmper came into
Europe at tlie ficge of Naples in 1494J it niuft have made a.
6 very

G R A

ypry quick progrefs to caufe fucli an alarm at Ediuburgli in
1497.

GRANDI EncoLK, in Biograjihy, whom Vafari calls
Ercole da Ferrara, was a painter of the early ages in tlic
art after its revival. He was a difciplc of Lorenzo Colla,
whom he afterwards furpafled in excellence, and at wliofc
death he was appointed to compleat the work of the Cruci-
fixion, begun by the former for Domenico Gargantlli, in
the church of St. Pietro in Bologna, by which he gained
great reputation for the excellence of the colour, and the
truth and force of expreffion ; although it is wrought in the
dry ftyle of Mantegna and P. Perugino. When unfortu-
nately the chapel was dellroyed, that part of the pifture
which was preferved was placed in the palace Tanara. His
peculiar fliynefs of manner made him many enemies in Bo-
logna. He therefore quitted it and went to Ferrara, where
lie pi-odnced many works which are very fcarce now. His
fondnefs for wine (hortened his life, and he died at the age
of 40 in the year 1 53 1.

GRANDI, Fkaxcis Lewis, who flourifhed in the latter
end of the 17th, and the comm.encement of the i8lh cen-
turies, was born in 1671 at Cremona. He was difpofed to
a ftudious life, and cliofc the profeflion of theology, in order
that he might freely indulge his inclination. He entered
into the religious order of Camnldolites, at Ravenna, at the
age of 16; and on this occafion he relinquifhed his own
Chriftian name, and received that of Guy. He became, in
the early progrefs of his ftudics, diftingiiinied fur his pro-
ficiency in the different branches of literature and fcience,
and benig diffatisfied with the Peripatetic philofophy of the
fchools, he was ambitious of contributing to introduce a
more rational fyflem. With this view he offered himfelf ge
n candidate for the vacant profefTorfhip of philofophy in the
fchool of Florence, and obtained his object, tliough not
v.-ithout the moft determined oppo'ition from the prejudiced
adherents to the old opinions. He now applied himfelf to
the introduction of the Cartefian philofophy, while, at the
fame time, he became zealoufly attached to mathematical
ftudies. The works of the great Torricelli, of our country-
man Wallis, and of other celebrated mathematicians, were
iiis favourite companions, scd the objedts of his familiar
intercourfe. He pubhftied a treatife to refoU-e the problems
of Viviani on the conftruftion of arcs, which he dedicated
to the grand duke Cofmo HI., who was fo delighted with
til- performance, that he appointed the author profelTor of
philofophy in the univerfity of Pifa. From this time
Grandi purfued the higher branches of mathematics with
the utmoll ardour, and had the honour of ranking the ablell
mathematicians among his friends and correfpondents. Of
the number may be named the illuftrious Newton, Leibnitz,
and Bernouilli. By his life of St. Peter Damiano, pubhflied
in 1702, and his examination of the legends of St. Romanld,
he gave oifence to the bigots of his community, and was
depofed from the dignity of abbot of St. Michael at Pifa ;
but the grand-duke had too liberal a mind to be ofteuded ;
and to (hew the eftimation in which he held the tihilofophcr, he
immediately appointed him his profeffor of mailiematics in
the univerfity, which, perhaps, led to his re-inllatement in
the abbacy. He now refolved fome curious and difficult
problems for the improvement of acoullics, which had been
prefented to the Royal Society in Dublin, and having ac-
comphfhed his objeft, he tranfmitted the folutions, by
means of the I'ritidi miniller at the court of Florence, to the
Royal Society at London. The principal work of Le
(irandi was " A Treatife on Series and Inlinitefimals." He
appeared likcwife as the defender of Galileo's doctrine re-
fpecting the earth's motion, and obt;untd a complete victory

G R A

over tliofc wlio oppofed it. He was deeply vcrfed in fubjciSt
of political economy, and various difputes were referred to
his decifion refpcf.ting the rights of (ifher)-, &c. Ke wal
appointed commiffioner from the grand-duke and iIk- court
of Rome jointly, to fettle fome diflercnces b'-tv.cen the in-
liabitants of Ferrara and Bologna, concerning the works
neccffar)' to prcferve their territories from the ravages of
inundation. For thefe and other important public fcrviccs
he was liberally rewarded by his employers. Reverting to
his literary labours, Lc Grandi engf.gcd in a contcft with
Lc Ceva, on the fubject of the plsilofophy of the ancients
and moderns. This difcuifion was occafioncd by a preface
to a Latin poem by Le Ceva, in which he maintained that
none but heretics would renoimce the philofophy of Arif-
totle. The remainder of his life this great man fpcnt in
mathematical purfuits, and in the publication of works of
fcience, which are too numerous to be recited here. He
died at the age of feventy-two in the year 1 742 Moreri.

GRANDIER, IThb.-vn, was born in the latter part of
the ijth century. His father, a notary -royal at Sable,
gave him a good education, and introduced him while younjj
among the .Tcfuits at Bourdeaux, to whole fricndfliip he
recom.mended himfelf, as well by his natural genius and fine
underftanding, as by his diligence and prolicienty in his
ftudies. Conceiving highly of his talents, the fathers of the
college gave him the living of St. Peter, at Loudun, of
which they were the patrons, and procured him a prebend
in the church of the Holy Crofs. Thefe benefices rendered
him the object of jealoufy with ecclefiallics, which was ftill
farther heightened by the accomplifliments of his porfon and
the elegance of his manners. With his friends he was eafv,
facetious, and agreeable, but extremely haughty towards
thofe whom he regarded as his enemies. Some of his
brethren of the clergy he had exafpcrated, by the arrogance
with which he triumphed over them, upon gaining certain
fuits in the eccleliaftical court, and he raifed a hint of foes
by his reported fuccefsful gallantries with the ladies, to the
great mortification of difappointcd rivals, inccnfed fathers
and hufbands. A league was formed with a viev.- of driving
him entirely out of Loudun : a heavy charge of debauchery,
irreligion, and impiety was laid againft him, in the bifhops'
court of Poidliers, which produced, lirlt, a fufpenfion of
the prieils' funftions ; and afterwards he was condemned to
refign his benefices, and to the praftice of penance and mor-
tification. From a fentence fo fevere, Grandicr appealed
to the archbilhop of Bourdeaux, by whofe means he was
acquitted, and even allowed to fue for the recovery of
damages, and the reftitulion of the profits of the benefices
during hi.s fufpenfion. The archbifliop, a friend to peace,
earneltly recommended him to change his refidence, but he
was incapable of renouncing his favourite paflion, revenge.
He returned to Loudun, bearing in his hand a branch of
laurel, and in his mind a fixed refolution of humbling hit
enemies. They were equally bitter, and finarting under
the lafh of the victor, they fet about means to compafs his
deilruction. A pricft, named Mignon, denfed a plan, which
ultimately enabled them to gratify all their malignity He
trained up nuns in the Urfulinc convent at Loudun, to ac\
the part of women pofleflfed with evil fpirits : thefe were
inltruClcd to accufe, in their frantic fits, Grandicr of having
fuhjcfted them to demoniacal influence. At firfl he was
indifferent to the reports, confidering the bufinefs as a mere
farce. It had, however, a moil tragical conclufion. Gran-
dicr, at length, finding, from the eft'ecls produced upon the
credulous devotees, that matters were taking a ierious turn,
appealed to the magiftratcs, confcious of his own innocence,
and requeuing them to take cognizance of the aflair. They
4 I 3 hc^im

G R A

G R A

began the inveftigation, and were fatisfiod tliat the whole
was the effect of trick, Ijut when they attempted to inlevpofe
their authority, and proliibit the continuance of fuch dif-
graceful proceedings, tlie priefts wiio had patronized and
inlh-uded the women, and who were bent upon the dellruc-
tion of Grandier, difowued their jurifdiction and defied their
power. An application was made to the archbifhop of
Bourdeaux, vtIio employed phyficians to examine into the
cafe, and by their reports no doubts were left in the mind
of the prelate, that the bufinefs was founded on the moll
o-rofs and fcandalous impofture. Upon this the archbifiiop
TlTued an order, the fcverity of which put the whole legion
of devils to flight. After a time the I'cheme was renewed,
and the authors of it contrived to engage cardinal Richlieu to
favour their malignant dcfigns. For this purpofe the monks
<if Loudun wrote to father Jofeph, one of their fraternity,
informing him that Grandier was author of a fatire, entitled
" The Slioemaker's wife of Loudun," containing refleftions
on the cardinal's birth and perfon, which had excited in the
Lofom of the cardinal the {harpeft ilings of refentment. Be-
lieving that the information was correft, he determined to
make the fatirift feel the full weight of his vengeance.
Grandier was arrefted and brought to trial, and after a
tedious procefs, in which the farce of exorcifmg the pof-
fcfTed was feveral times repeated, and the judge's partiality
and tyranny difplayed in the moll glaring hght, " upon the
depolition of Afhtaroth, a devil of the order of Seraphim,
and the chief of the poffefilng demons, and upon the depofi-
tions of the nuns, who pretended to be pofl'etTed of devils,
the commiffioners gave judgment, declaring Grandier duly
attainted and convided of the crime of magic, forcery, and
pofTefllon, happening by his means in the perfons of fome of
the Urfahne nuns, &c. for the reparation of which he was
condemned to an amende honourable, and to be burnt alive
with the magical charafters." Grandier, umocent of the
charcre, heard the fcntence without any emotion, and after-
wards fullaiued the torture, ordinary and extraordinary with
altonifliing fortitude, never fuffering one repining expreffion
a^ainft his enemies to efcape him through tlie whole fcene.
The laft words which he was heard to utter previoufly to
the flames reaching his vital parts, were in fupplication to
God, to whofe mercy he recommended himfelf. Such was
the fate of Urban Grandier, whofe pride and pafiions appear
to have been caiifes of the confpiracy to which he fell a
vidim, and whofe hiftcry exhibits a memorable example to
fitew to wliat pitch of folly and madnefs the fury of an
incenfed cabal, the revenge of a miniftcr, and the proflitu-
tion of a judge, may be wrought up. The relations of the
er.f^ is given hi " The Hiftory of the Devils of Loudun,"
firil pub'iOied at Amilerdam in 1693, and which has been
frequently reprinted. As an author Grandier is known by
a funeral oration for Sc^vola de St. Martha, wluchis highly
cammendcd for t'ne mallerly ftriskes of eloquence interfperfed
through it. Moreri.

GRANDINES, in Surga-y, fmall tumours on the eye-
lids.

GRANDMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in
tbe department of the Upper 'Vienne, near v. hich was an
abbey, fuppreffed in 1769; 15 miles N.E. of Limoges. .

GRANDOLA, ameanto.vn of Portugal, in the pro-
rince of Eftram.adura, containing 8co hcufes, fituated be-
tween Cadaon and the fea-ccaft. Behind it is the Sierra de
Grandola, that proceeds in two ranges, one behind the other,
from eall to well ; the town is 27 miles S.E. of Se-
tuval.

GR NDPRE', a town of France, in the department
«>f the Ardeunes, and cluef place of a canton, in the dillrict

of Vouziers ; 33 miles E. of Reims. The place contain*
1350, and the canton 8617 inhabitants, on a territory of
242' kiliometres, in 14 communes.

GRANDRIEUX, a town of France, in the depart,
ment of the Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trid of Mende ; 10 miles N.W. of Langogne. The place
contains 1657, and the canton 5389 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 235 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

GRAND-SERRE, Lk, a town of France, in the de-
partnsent of the Doubo, and chief place of a canton, in
thediftridof Valence. The place contains 1491, and the
canton 6J89 inhabitants, on a territory of 232;^ kiliometres,
in 10 communes.

GRANDVILLE, or Geaxville, a town of France,
in the department of the Channel, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrid of Avranches, 12 miles N!W. of it. The
place contains J454, and the canton 12,250 inhabitants, on
a territory of 80 kihometres, in 8 communes. The harbour
can receive only about 60 fmall veflels. The town is feated
on a fltarp rock, forming a peninfula of an oval form, and
furroiuided with walls ; it has two gates, and two faux-
bourgs. Near it is an oyller-hfliery, and on the land fide
quarries of large and very hard ilones. N. lat. 48 50'.
W. long, i' 33'.

GRANDVILEIERS, a town of Prance, in the de-
partment of the Oifc, and chief place of a canton, in the
diiuid of Beauvais ; 14 miles N.N.W. of Beauvais. The
place contains 1633, and the canton 12,655 inhabitants, on
a territory of i670-iliometre,s, in 22 communef. N. lat.
49 39'. E.long. 2 2'.

GRANDWALDEN,or Grax, a town of Norway, in
the diocefe of Chriftiania ; 26 miles S. ot Chrilliania. The
town {lands on an eminence in the midll of an cxtenljve
plain, looking down on feveral conical rocks, covered with
firs, and ren,arkable for two churches in the fame church-
yard, called the " Two Sifters '

GRANGE, an ancient term for abarn, or place where*
in to lay up and threfii corn.

The word is formed of the Latin granea ; or oi graiium,
grain, corn. Sic. Hence alfo granger or graiigier, a grange-
keeper or farmer.

Hence grange is a name which was formerly much applied
to fuch farm-houfes as were provided with large barns, gra-
naries, and other iimiiar offices, for the prefervation of grain,
&c.

Grange is alfo ufed, in a more cxtenSve fenfe, for a
whole farm, with all the appendages of ftabhng for horfes,
ftalls for cattle, &c. and for an inn.

Gr.\sge, Joseph de C'ianxei, de la, in Blogralhy,
born in 1676 of an ancient French family, at Antoniat in
Perigord, exhibited from his boyifh days a fingular pafiion
for poetry and rom.ance. He was educated among the .Te-
fuits at Bourdeaux, and when he was only nine years old,
h.ecompofed a comedy in three ads, which was reprefcntcd
by his fchool-fellows. His early talents feemcd to have
marked him out for diftindion, and his mother took him to
Paris, and obtained for him the place of page to the princefs
ofConti. Before he was fixtccn, his tragedy of Jugurtha
was reprefented in tlie capital, and was applauded as a mcil
extraordinary effort of fuch a ftripling. He continued to
write pieces for the ftage, w hich were produdive of reputa-
tion and pecuniary advantages ; but the work wliich ren-
dered him famous, though it cxpofed him to much mortifi-
cation and fuffering, was entitled " Phiiippiqucs," a fatire in
verfe, dirededagainft Phihp, the regent duke of Orleans.
This appeared in 17 18, and it charged the duke wth the
criae of poifocing feveral branches of the ro^ al family.

, Tile

G R A

The author attempted to efcape, but, falling into the hands
of his purfuers, he was committed to the prifoii of Sl Mar-
guerite. It appears that he was not brought to trial, and that
he contrived to effect an efcape from prifon and the country,
hut upon the death of the regent he returned to France,where
he hved unmolelled. He died at his family feat of Anto-
niat in 1758. His works were collected in five vols. izmo.
ar'. J, xvitli liis own corrections, publidied the year after his de-
ceafe. They confiil chiefly of tragedies, operas, and mifcel-
laneous poems. The tragedies are moft eiteemed : they are
laid to be "artful in the contexture of the plot, and abounding
III interefting htuatious, but feebly written, and trite in Ian-
guageand fentiment." In his latter years he employed his
time on a Liftory of Portugal. In manners he had all the
rire and vanity of a Gafcon : he had few friends, and
iccais to have been more feared on account of his falirical
powers, than beloved for his virtues.

Gp.asge, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Dalecarlia ; 33 miles S S.W. of Falun.

Grange, La, a cape on the N. coalt of the illand of Hif-
paniola. N. I?.t. 19' 55'. W. long. 72' 30'. This cape, with
Point de Dunes, forms the mouth of the bay of Monte
CiirifH, in the county of Stirling.

Gr.vnge Point, a cape on the S. coaft of the Ifle of Wight.
N. lat. 50 38. W. long. I ly'.

Gra.sge RivTi; a river of Upper Canada, which emp-
ties itfelf into a bay of the fame name on the N. fhore of
lake Superior, W. of the Cris. This river leads to Nipi-
gan, a place whicli formerly furnifhed the beft beaver and
martin, and was the farth.efl advanced poft of the French
t.'-aders, at the time when Great Britain conquered Canada.

GRANGE A, in Botany, Adanfon, v. 2. 121. JufF.
184. Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygam'ia-fupcrflua. Nat.
Ord. Compofitx difco'tdcx, Linn. Corymbif.ra, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx imbricated, fpreading ; its fcales
oblong, obtufe. Cor. compound; the united florets of the dillc
very numerous, tubular, five -cleft, regular; females fewer, in
the circumference, tubular, three-cleft. Stam in the united
florets, filamicnts five, capillary, very fliort ; anthers united
into a cylinder, with five teeth. Pjji- Germen fmall ; ftyle
thread-.fhaped, the lengih of the flamens ; ftigma undivided
in the united florets, cluvcu in the female ones. Peric. none,
except the permanent calvx. .Jt-f^ folitary to both kinds of
florets, obovate, compreffed, crowned with a toothed bor-
der. Rcccbt hemifpherical, naked

Efr. Ch. Receptacle hemifpherical, naked. Seed-crown
membranous, toothed. Caiyx imbricated, fpreading. Flo-
rets of the radius three-cleft.

Wc have alluded to this genus under Eti!Ui-i.a, from
which it differs in having a crown to the feed, florets of the
radius thret-.kft, and fcales of the calyx obtufe. It moil
approaches Tanaceium in char.^fter, but is fufficicntly diitinft.
The following are the only fpecies we have been able certain-
ly to determine.

I. G tnadcrafpatana. (Artcmifia maderafpatana ; I,inn.
Sp. PI. 1 190. Tanacetum .figyptiacum ; Jacq. Hort.
Vind V. 3. 46. t. 88. Ablinthium maderafpatanum, fcne-
cionisincani folio, corymbis folitariis in ramulorum falli-
gio fpcciolis ; Pluk. Amalth 3. t. 353. f. 3. A. minus
odoratum gangeticum, floribus chamicmcli folirariis e folio-
rum aiis ; Pluk. Almag. 2. Phyt. t i. f 2.) — Leaves finuat-
fd, fomevhat iyrate, hairy. Flower-tlalks elongated — Na-
tive of the Eait Indies. Root an.nual, tapering, branched.
iS/cmj procumbent, a fpan or more in lengLh, lubdivided,
leafy, downy. Le^rcs alternate, fcfiile, deeply piniiatifid,
in a ly.'ate form, and fmuated, clothed with foft whitifli
Lairs, their feg.T.ents rather rcundcJ. Floiuat yellow,

G R A

almoft globular, near half aa inch ia diameter, on axillary,
fohtary, fimple, hairy Aalks, half as long as the leaves. Lin-
nxus in both editions of Sp. PI. quotes Ph.ki.net, t. 357.
f. 3. Adanfon, his profeffed critic, feems to liave augment-
ed the error in copying Jiim, and cites t. 257. f. 3 ; which
has given us a great deal of trouble ; more efpeciJlly as we
have a plant from the Paris garden for Adanfon's Grargea,
which proves mppia integrifolia, Linn. Suppl. 389, and does
not anfwer to the character or habit of Grangta. Neverthe-
lefs, as it came with fuch authority, we have laboured in vain
to find any thing hkc it in Plukenet, and thought for a
while we had found it in t. 45 f. 3, which bears a rude re-
femblance to our fpccimen, but is Parthen'mm HyJleropl:orut.
Finally, Burmann's Spberantbus afrkaniu, Fl.Ind. t. 6o.
f. 2, which is not that of Linnms, and which Juffieu fuf-
pefts may be a Grangca, is not unlike this Htppia. If it be
our plant, his fufpicion is refuted. The lea-ves in our fpcci-
mtns are occafioiiaily undivided or Iyrate, more cut than in
Burmann's plate, and lefs fo than in Plukenet's t. 45. f. 3.
The calyx, however, which is well expreffed in the latter
for the Parthen'mm, does not accord with our's.

2. G. minima. (Artcmifia minima ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 90.
Burm. Ind. 1 77. t. 58. f. 3.) — Leaves w,.dge-lhaped, blunt-
ly toothed, fmooth. Flowers nearly fefTile. — Native of Chuia,
and the Eaft Indies. We received it in 1803, from the
ftove of the late right honourable Charles Grcville at
Paddlngton, where it was preferved rather for its rarity and
finguhuity than beauty. It is an annual plant, much
fmaller in all its parts than the foregoing, fmooth, prollrate,
of ahghtgreen colour. Flowers the lize of a fmall pea,
axillary, nearly feflile, whitilh, fometimes with a purple
tinge. Their llructure is extremely minute.

We fcruple to admit Ethulia divaricata into this genus,
though fomewhat fimilar in habit, becaufe of its naked
feed, and Iharp calvx. See Ethui.i.\.

GRANGEMOUTH, in Geography, a village of Scot-
land, of conliderable extent, founded by lir Lawrence Dun-
das, upon the angle formed by the jundtioa of the river
Carron and the canal. It dclerves mention as a place of
confiderable trade. Veffels bring into tliis port timber,
hemp, flax, deals, and iron, from the Baltic, Norway, and
Sweden, and grain from foreign markets, as well as from
the coalls of England and Scotland. The trade to Lon-
don is carried on by the Carron (hipping company ; 3 mile»
E.N.E. of Falkirk.

GRANGERIA, in Botany, fo named by Commcrfon
in memory of M. Granger, a furgeon, who travelled into
Egypt and Judea between the years 1 730 and 1736, from
whence he fent numerous feeds to enrich the botanic garden
at Paris. He publifhed, in 1745, in l2mo, Rel.iiicn du
voyage fait en Egypte en 1 730, according to Hallcr, who
mentions him as " not a trilling man, though he touched but
nightly upnn botany. He greatly depreciates the wonders
and fertility of Egypt."- .luff. 340. Lamarck. Illuilr.
t. 427 Clafs and order, Icofandria jHoncgynia. Nat Ord.
Potnacc\T, Linn. Rcjacea, Juff.

Gen.Ch. Gal Perianth inferior, of one leaf, btll-(hap>*d,
with five ovate, acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals
five, roundilh, fcarcely longer than the calyx, iufertcd into
its rim. Stam. Filaments fifteen, awl-fliaped, longer than
t''e petals, inferted into the calyx ; anthers roundilh. Pijl.
Germen fuperior, obo\-ate, wooly ; liylc one, thread-
(liaped ; (ligma obtufe. Peric. Drupa obtufe, lomewhat
triangular. Seed. Nut triangular, of one cell.

Etl". Cli.C;ilyx live cleft, inferior. Petals live. Cerinca
woolly. Drupa with a triangular nut.

I, G . lu.\ifol:a. — Auee, native of the Iflc dc Bourbon,

vhcre

G R A

w^iere it Is called /irbre tk bins, or Box tree, from the fiml-
litude of its haves to the Buxus. Thefe are about an inch
long, ovate, acute, entire, veiny, fmooth on both fides,
nearly feflilc, with a pair of fmall awl.fhape<l_/7;y;!;/<«. Floivers
fmall, in terminal or axillary clullers. Fni'u iomewhat like
that of an olive, but fmaller, and rather angular.

GRANHULT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland : 35 miles N. W. of Calmar.

GRANI, inoury^nacn/ Wtilers, muftachoes or whificcrs

of a beard. .

The word feems formed from the ancient Britilh or Inlh,

greanii, a leant.

It is given for a rcafoii why the cup is refufed to the
laity, " Quia barbati, & prolixos habent granos, dum pocu-
Inm inter epulas fumunt, prius liquorc pilos inficiunt, quam
ori infundunt.'"

GRANIFEROUS, producing or bearing any fort of

grain.

GuANiFEROUS PoJs, a term fignifying fuch pods as con-
tain fmall feeds of fome of the grain kinds.

GRANILITE. Under this denomination Kirwan com-
prehends all varieties of granite that contain more than
three ingredients, fuch as quart/., feldfpar, mica, and garnet :
fuch fupcrnumerary ingredients, however, muft be con-
fidered as accidental, and of too little importance to confer
the diftindtion of a particular name on the granite in which
they occur.

GRANINGE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Angermannland, on a lake ; 40 miles N. W. of Hcrnofand.
GRANITE, an aggregate rock, the elTential ingredi-
ents of which are feldfpar, quartz, and mica, being the
fame as thofe of gneifs, from which granite differs chiefly
in the arrangement of the three component parts : their
"being mingled without order or regularity, produces a gra-
nular ilrufture, while that of gneifs is generally flaty. (See
Gneiss.) It is, probably, this granular nature of the
rock in qucftion which has procured it its name ; though
fome authors are of opinion that the word gran'ile is nothing
but a corruption oi geranites, a name mentioned by Pliny, as
that of a ftone of tlie colour of a iiork's neck. The faft is,
that the word granite, which is now adopted by almoll all
European nations, originated with Italian antiquaries, and
Tournefort was not the ilrll writer who makes mention of it.
The three conftituent parts of granite vary with regard
■to their colour, fize, relative quantity, form, and freflmefs.

The colour of this rock is generally more or lefs reddifh,
becaufe the feldfpar, ufually the predominating part, is
cftencr of that than of any other colour. Sometimes the
■feldfpar is greyifli and yellowhh-white, and fo like the ad-
mixed quartz, that it can be diilinguillied only by its pecu-
liar fracture and lullre. It has been obferved that the red
colour occurs more frequently in the newer, while the grey-
ifli-white appears to be more charaftcriftic of the older
formation of granite. Alfo long continued expoiition of
granite to the aftion of the atmofphere contributes to
render its feldfpath pale or grey. Yellow and green feld-
fpar feldom occur as ingredients of granite. — The colour
of the quartz is ufually greyilh ; fometimes this part is per-
fectly colourlefs and tranfparent, in which cafe, as the grains
cannot be \'iewed by tranfmitted light, it appears deep grey
or black. — The mica is mu:h more frequently black or
grey, tiian brown or perfectly white.

The abfolnte Ji%e of the ingredients of granite is fubjeft
to confidersfele variation ; they are feen from very large to
.very fine granular, the latter being more frequent in the
newer formation. With regard to the j-elative fize of its
Conllitucnt parts, we diltinguiilt equally mixed from une-

G R A

qually mixed granite ; the former being that in which the
magnitude of the three ingredients is nearly the fame.

The quantity of thefe parts is equally various : fo that fome-
times one, iometimes two of them predominate : upon the
whole it is the feldfpar that is found in the greatell proportion,
and the mica in the leall. There are, indeed, fome varieties
of granite in which the quartz or mica are entirely wanting.
Such binary aggregations of the granitic kind have receiv-
ed diftinft appellations by fome authors, Thofe of quartz
and feldlpar, or feldfpar and mica, were called fimple gra-
nites by Wnllerius ; femi-granites by Blumenbach ; and
Kirwan propoles to denote all thefe duplicates in general by
the ntivae granite/!, fpecifying, when neceffary, the conftituent
peculiar parts of each. The aggregate of quartz and mica
is called ge/Iili-/!e!n, orjlell-jleiit, by fome of the older Germarj
writers ; and that of feldfpar and mica, efpecially when the
latter is of a brown or bro\vni(h-red colour, and forms the
predominant ingredient, has obtained the Finlandic name of
Rapakim. Such diCtinttions, however, are unnecefTary and
inapplicable, fincc often in one and the fame granitic mafs
the proportion and number of the component parts are feen
confiderably to vary. Befides, there are many rocks enume-
rated by authors as granitels, which cannot, with any pro-
priety, be ref;?rred to granitic compounds ; fuch as feldfpar
with hornblende, with nephritic ftone, with garnet, lleatite,
or the fame feparately combined with quartz or mica.

There is but very little variety in the form of the com-
ponent parts : they are almoft always maliive and indetermi-
nately angular, and feldom occur in the form of regular
cryftals. The feldfpar is found cryftalhzed in Bohemia,
at Schlakkcnwalde, near Carlibad ; at Tzeidler, in the
Saatz dirtritt ; alfo near Hohenwalde, in Upper Palatinate ;
at Ochfenkopf and Keftein, on the Fichtel-gebirge ; at
Schneeberg, in Saxony; in England; in the ifland of ArraH,
(Sec. The granite in which thefe feldfpar cryftals are feen,
is often of inch fine grain, and the quartz and the mica are
fo intimately united with each other, that they form, as it
were, a matrix for the cryftals: fuch granite is called />or/i/'j-
rriic granite. Part of the pavement on Weftminfter and
Blackfriars' bridge confifts of this fpecies of granite. Some-
thing like cryftalli::ation of the quartz is now and then ob-
ferved in granite, but it is always irregular. In the variety,
called graphic or Portfoy granite, in which the feldfpar
conftitutes by far the greatelt part of the mafs, and which
contains mica in fmall groups, at great diftances from
each other, the quartz is difpofed in luch a manner, that
when the rock is cut in a certain direction, it exhibits forms
which bear fome djftant refemblance to written characters :
whence it has obtained its name. But by fome, neither the
Portfoy nor Siberian graphic ftones are confidered as true
granites. — Alfo, the mica is now and then found cryftalhzed
in granite, fuch as in Siberia, at Waldheim, Metweida, Jo-
han-georgenftadt, in Bohemia, &c. In a variety of granite
of Mount St.Gothard, all the three conftituent parts are
faid to occur cryftalhzed together.

The feldfpar is alfo fometimes found in the ftiape of
cuneiform concretions, reprcfenting on their fraclure a fav-
face comparable to the paws of fome animals, or to the petals
of flowers : this Angular variety comes from the neighbour-
hood of Breitenbnuin, in the Upper Ertzgebirge.

AVith regard to the fre/J;!ieJs or Hate of pref rvation which
thefe three ingredients exhibit, we have to obferve that the
feldfpar, which, in general, has a vitreous hittre and a perfectly
foliated fracture, is alio feen in various itages of decompofi-
tion ; it occurs dull, earthy, friable, and even entirely difin-
tcgrated, in which ilate it is known by the name of porcelain-
earth. This difintegration takes place chiefly near the fur.

face

GRANITE.

lace of granitic mountains, and in tlie immediate vicinity of
veins. Granite, with fcldfpar thus converted into an earthy
ftate, is found in Cornwall, on the Hartz, at Biirkardi-
griin in Saxony, &c. ; and it is probable to Mr. Emmer-
lingthat the giefs-llein, (Saxuni fuforium, Linn ) which, on
account of its loofe texture, is made ufe of in the brafs foun-
deries of Sweden and France, may be granite in a fimilar
ftate of incipient decompofition. Alfo, the mica is fubjeft
to difmtegration, efpecially when adted upon by fubterrane-
ous water and vapours ; the mafs into v.hiih it is thus con-
verted is confidercd as being of the nature of ftcatite. In
this ftate it is found at Fichtelberg, in the Upper Palati-
nate, and in the vicinity of Toriiitz, near Carllbad, in
Bohemia.

Befides feldfpar, quartz, and mica, other foflils are found
admixed, which, not being confidered as eftential, are generally
diftingui(hed by the appellation of acciJen/al ingredients. Tliey
are, l . Shorl ; the moft frequent of all. It occurs m?frive
and diffeminated, iometimes alio cn-ftal!ized, and appears
principally to belong to the old granite -formation : it is
found in feveral parts of Saxony, in Lower Bavaria, Uppef-
Palatinate, Wirtenberg, Tranfylvania, Cornwall, &c. ;
2. Garnet : moftly in fniall grains. It occurs but rarely ;
but has been found near Leipzig (in boulders), at the Grei-
fenftein, and in the neighbourhood of Voigtsdorf, in the vici-
nity of Freiberg, in Saxony, in Lower Bavaria, &c. An
aggregate of quartz, mica, and garnets, is by the Swedes
called norka or murkften. 3. Tinftone ; frequent in the
granite of Geier, Zinnwald, &c. 4. Nephrit or jade ap-
pears to occur not only in gneifs, but alfo with real granite,
in Switzerland. 5. Rock cryftal. 6. Beryl ; in the ifiand
of Alba, and perhaps alfo in Siberia. 7. White common
opal, fometimes occurs in the granite of Eibenftock in
Saxony. 8. Topaze is fometimes feen, together with tin-
ftone, in the granite of Zinnwald. 9. Calcareous fpar,
very feldom. 10. Fluor-fpar, the fan.e ; in Siberia, at
Geier in Saxony. 11. Barytes, equally feldom; in Swit-
zerland.

Foreign beds are lefs frequently met with in granite than
in other rocks. The more remarkable ones are thofe of
tin-ftone, galena, and blende at Zinnwald on the Bohemian
frontiers ; the beds of mica, particularly in Silefia and
Lufatia ; of quartz, and rock cryllal in Switzerland. Alfo
beds of feldfpar are faidto occur m it. The green feldfpar,
called Amazon ftone, is found in large malfes in the grani5e
of the Ural mountains of Siberia.

Stralification of Granite. — Though granite occurs frequent-
ly as widely-extended mafies, in which tlie eye is unable to
difcover any continued traces of parallel feparation ; yet
there can be no longer any doubt that thofe geologilts, who
abfolutely denied the exiftence of ftratified grariite, were
either entirely unacquainted with the flrufture of many of
the European granitic mountains, or too much influenced
by the principles of their favourite theories, to allow the
obferved traces of demarcation to ba any thing but irregiJar
and accidental rents and fiftures. Pini even endeavours,
by mathematical figures, to prove the impoffibility of itra-
tification in granite. Notwithftanding all this, the ob-
fervations of the moft eminent gcologifts appear to
prove that fuch ftratification, even iji the Itrifteft fenfs of
the word, is not uncommon ; but it is often a matter of great
difficulty, for an eye, unaccuftomed to viewing tlie ftructure
of mountains on a large fcale, to dillinguilli the parallelilm,
or to follow the obfcurely marked progrefs of the line of le-
paration of the ftrata, efpecially when they aic of conlidcr-
ablc thicknefs.

But in many cafes, it would appear tliat this ftratification

18 too diftinft to leave any doubt upon the mind of the ob-
fervcr. Nothing can be more convincing than the recount
given by Gruber of the ftratified nature of the granite
compofing the Riefengebirge, that fcparate* Silefia from
Bohemia. The rocks that chiefly compofc this celebrated
range of mountains arc granite and gneifs, which, on the
higheft point.", fuch as the Riefen and Schnce-kuppe, are
feen ill fourfold alternation. Mr. Gruber has afcertaincd the
dip and dircftion of the ftrata in eight places, and proved
them to be perfectly dillin£l from the rents which fare fre-
quently feen nearly at right angles with the lines of ftratifi-
cation.

P'rom Saufture's obfervations, made on the feveral grani-
tical pyramids or " aiguilles'" of the Mont-Blanc, it would
appenr that all the parts of this mojiitain are compofed of
vail layers of granite perpendicular to the horizon, anddi-
reCled from N.E. to S E. Still more diftinct this ftrati-
fication appears on Mount St. Gothard. (See Goill.VKD.)
According to Charpcnlier, Lcfl;e, and others, alfo the granite
of the whole of U])per Lufatia, and of feveral parts of
Saxony, aff?Cts the llratiiied ilruClure.

In a fimilar manner Mr. Gruber obferved the regular
ftratification near Car!ft)ad and Teplitz ; and Dr. Reufs
found the fame in feveral other parts of Bohemia ; fuch as.in
the Eger diilrict, where the ftrata dipped north at an angle of
18' ; in the Saatz diftrict at Lefchkau ; in the Leutmeritz
dilti id on the Saxon frontiers ; at the Wolfsberg, where the
ftrata run from two to fix feet in thicknefs ; as alfo in feveral
places in the diilrirt of Buntzlau, towards the Riefengebirge.
La Peroufe defcribes the granite of part of the Pyrenees
as difpofed in layers or beds.

In the north of Europe, fimilar regularity appears to
prevail in the ftratification of granite ; thus, according to
Croiiftedt and others, in Sweden, on the Kinnekulle and
Billing, in Weft GotlJand, the granite (confifting mcftly of
red feldfpar, white quartz, and black and greenifti mica, in
nearly equal proportion ) is obferved in diftinft layers, with
fuperincumbent ftrata of rocks of fublequent formation.

P.illas followed vaft and continuous layers of granite through
whole t rafts of mountains in Siberia : indeed, part of the
granitic Ural mountains, in the neighbourhood of the lake
Kolywan, are defcribed as having the appearance of huge
artificial ftruftures, in which the layers appear to be loofely
piled on one another.

Dr. Hutton fuppofed granite, when not ftilftofe in it«
ftrufture, to be altogether unftratified ; profcflbr Plav-fair,
however, in his expofition of the Plutonic fyftem, fo far differs
from the opinion of liis ingenious friend, that he allows gra-
nite to form ftrata alfo where it has no charaftcr of gneifs;
and he thinks that this admiflion does not cmbarrafs the
theory with any new difficulty ; but, on the other hand, he fuf-
peCis that the ftratification afcribed by the Neptunifts to the
granite mountains is, in many inftanccs, cither an iilufion, or
at leaft fomething very difierent from what, in other ftoncs,
is accounted ftratification. Profeflbr Playfair found ftrati-
fied granite, in England, at Chorley Foreft, in Leicefter-
ftuie,^where, particularly near Mount Sorrel, beds of granite
are feen, holding the fame direcliou with thofe of the lub-
jacent " horn-ftone fcliiftus ;'" and likewife at Faffiiet-watcr
in Berwickfhire, where the beds of granite run from about
S S.W. to N.N.E. conformable to the fchiftus on either fide
of them. Rcfpefting the granite mountains of Arran, we have
it oblerwd by tl-e fame philofopher that this ftratifica-
tion appears doubtful. The mountain of Goatficld, in that
intcreftingilland, appeared, contrary to what Mr. Jaincfonhad..
advanced in his " Mineralogv- of the Scottifti I lies," without-
aiiy veftige of llratilkation in its granitic part, as didalfo the

whole

GRANITE.

v.-hole group of mountains to wliich it belongs ; for though
lie faw large tabular mafl'es, fometimes nearly vertical, fcpa-
rated by filTures, they appeared to him to be much too irre-
<Tular, too little extended in length and height, and vaftly
too much in thicknefs, to be reckoned the elFefts of flrati-
lication. As in the third volume of Jamefon's " Syftem of
Mineralogy," Arran is not mentioned among the localities
where ftratified granite occurs, it would appear as if that
"■jognofiau does not lay any ftrefs upon his lirlt remark on
the natui-e of the above-mentioned mountain.

The relative a«e of the different varieties of granite has
engaged the attention of feveral writers on geology ; but
it mull be faid, that mod; of the opinions that have been
broached on this fubjeft, and the various ideas entertained
by theorills refpedting .what they call regeneration of gra-
nite, are too vague, or at lead too little founded on adlual
obfervation, to be entitled to particular notice. Some geo-
loo-ifts on the other hand have abfolutely denied the exift-
ence of a fecond and third granite-formation. The Wer-
nerian fchool admits three diftiniJt formations of granite.
T\iefiijl or cUeJl is that which, of all rocks we are acquaint-
ed with, is funk the deeped into the interisr ot the earth,
and which therefore may with propriety be conlidered as
ibe fundamental rock. This oldeil granite alfo conditutes
thehighed parts of the furface of the earth, and, thus eleva-
ted, is generally furrounded, and, as it were, e^lvelopcd by
other primitive rocks. It is frequently coarfe -grained and
porphyritic. It occurs both dratified andimdratificd; and it is
the latterwhich is often feen in largcglobular didincl concre-
tions cf confiderable dimenlions, fuch as in feveral parts of
Bohemia, in the Fichtelgebirge, in the ifland of Arran, &c.
This formation is, of coarfe, far more widely extended
than thofe of amore recent origin, "^rhe fecond granite formalion
is conlidered as occurring only in veins wliich never reach
any of the newer rocks, but are confined to the olded for-
mation. Such granite is marked v\ith lefs regularity of
ftrufture, than what is obferved in the older formation ; at
the fame time that it furpafi'es the newed granite, both with
regard to the regularity of arrangement, and fuperior firm-
nefs of the condiment parts. The third, or r.e-wefi granite-
formation, is always found fuper-incumbcnt on older primi-
tive rocks, often in an unconformable and over-lying pofi.
tion : it alfo occurs in veins, which have been feen to inter-
fe£t or traverfe veins of the fecond granite formation ; as a
certain criterion of the greater relative age of the latter. Its
ftrufture, according to the charafterillic given of it by
profefibr Jamefon, is very irregular ; it has a deep red co-
lour, and contains fometimes grains of garnet, and often
fragments of various primitive rocks of various magnitude.
When it occurs in veins, thefe are, according to the fame
author, not conneCled with any rock beyond the drata which
they traverfe. Examples of this newed formation arc, that
at Greifendein, a large group of deep rocks between Elircn-
friederfdorf and Geier in the Saxon metalliferous mountains,
where the coarfe granular and irregularly aggregated granite,
compofed principally of feldfpar and quartz, with but a
fmall portion of mica, occurs reding on mica (late, in an un-
conformable and over-lying pofition : it contains neds of
<juartz and feldfpar, as alio fragnients of gneifs and mica
flate, from the fize of a cubic each, to that of loo cubic
feet and upwards Another indance of this formation we
Iiave in the tin dockwork at Geyer, where it is contained iu
a hollow of gneifs, and agrees in its charafters with that of
Greifendein. Ano'her portion of the fame formation, is
that at Johanngeorgendadt, Auerdjerg, and Eibcndock,
where, however, it occurs only in veins, which are from a foot
to feveral fathoms wide, and are ufually traverfed by metalli-
8

ferous and other veins. Mr. Mohs has given a very good
charafteridic of this newer granite. Veins of the fame kind
occur alfo in Bohemia, Upper Lufatia, at Minella in the
Alps, in the Shetland iflands, in Glen Morifon, and in the
Highlands.

The nature of the jud mentioned granitic veins iS- con-
fidered in a difierent light by Dr. Hutton, according to
whom all veins, whether they are obviouHy conneftcd, or
whether they have no appai'cnt connexion, with any large
mafs of granite, are coeval with, and conditute a part of the
main body of what is called the oldclt granite by the follow-
ers of the Neptunian fydem. Mr. Playfair has given leve-
ral e.'vamples of veins invilibly cc:me6ied with larger mafies ;
in thofe at the ille of Coll, in the Hebrides, at Portfuy, in
Cornu-all, in Glen Tilt ; and of fuch as are vifibly conncfled
with the m.ain granitic body, in thofe occurring iu the illand
of Arran, in Gallov/ay, in Invernefs-diire, St. Michael's
Mount, Cornwalh Mr. Jamefon, however, fays that he
has convinced himfelf, after a very careful examination of
the rocks of the illand of Arran and of Galloway, that
they do not afford a fuigle indance of granite veins,
Ihooting from the olded granite into the adjacent rocks,
nor of veins ti'averfmg newer primitive rocks, as it
has been infinuatcd to be the cafe with the granite veiris
in Glen Tilt. The fame author obferves oi this occafion,
that veins of feldfpar have been frequently confounded
with granite veins, and he fubjoins fome obfervatious on
this fubjeil communicated by the late Dr. Mitchell, accord-
ing to which there is a mod palpable difference between fup-
pofed and genuine granite veins ; the former being frequent-
ly narrower than one inch, and commonly much ramified, and
fometimes tortuous ; but they condantly adhere mod firmly
to the adjacent done, and when they contain apparent frag-
ments, the flaty drudlure of thefe is ever conformable to that
of the contiguous rock ; while genuine granite veins never
fill (hort of tome inches, are always pretty ftraight, feldom
giving off branches : they have a dillindt feparalion, and
contain fragments of the adjacent rock, which lie prcmifcu-
ouHy ; the granite is conllantly uniform, containing the
three ingredients equally mixed ; and Dr. Mitchell has
always found it fmall-grained. The fuppofed granite, ac-
cording to him, coufids of feldfpar, of a very unequal grain,
inclofino; fometimes fpotsof mica, and rarely fpecks of quartz.
From all which this mineralogid concludes, that the lad men-
tioned veins are nearly of contemporaneous origin v\ ith the
I'ocks in which they are contained, and ought, therefore, to be
confidared as, and called, feldfpar veins.

Although granite is the harded, and one of the mod du-
rable rocks we are acquainted with, it is, neverthelefs, fub-
jcCt to di/iiitegri'lion, which manifeds itlelf not only in the
crumbling of the furface of the expofed parts of granitic
beds, but likewife in the feparatian of vail maffes, which,
being di united by the enlargement of the rents and fiifures
that genei'ally traverfe the granitic mountains, or crofs the
drata in a nearly vertical direction, ai-e partly precipitated
from their high iltuation, partly difplaced in various manners,
fo as to produce the appearance of huge artificial ilrutUires,
and of other objefts to which the fancy of the beholder may
compare them.

M. De Luc has feen on the Riefenbirge, in Silefia, a mmi-
ber of pillars produced by fuch difintegration, both.folitary
and grouped together, in a draight hne, and, at a diilance,
prefenting the appearance of many higli piles of gourds.

The Adon-iliolo mountains in Dauria, which coniiil of
granite, are, according to Pallas, in many parts broken into
all manner of (hapes, rcprefenting vad ruins, grottos, and
jmmenfe flat maflcs piled on one another in all dire6tit>ns.

Several

GRANITE.

, Sereral of the mountains are, as it were, ftrewed with

blocks of n-ranite, which, at a diltance, appear as numerous
herds of cattle ; and it is this circumilance which is faid to
have procured this ridge the naire of _ A(k<n-(holo, a
Mon"-ole word, denoting herd-like mountains. All thefe
detached rocks are fragments of the vail itrata of granite
that compofe the greatell part of the Dauric mountains.
The fummits of the Goattield and other mountains of
Arran have the appearance of huge walls compofid of large
granitic maffes. At Huclgouet, in Lower Brittany, we arc
informed bv Monnet, as alfo in the Vofges, enormous maiTio
of o-ranite are fcen piled on one another, and forming moll
e>ct°aordinarv groups. The granite being here divided
into maffes by hlTures, which are filled up iMth granite pof-
fefling lefs folidity, this latter is fooner acted upon by at-
mofpheric agencv, whence, by its difmtegration, the maffes
become perfeftly detaclied, and adopt various pofitions.
But befides the accidental groups formed by the rolling
down of the rocks, there are other groups of granitic rocks
at Huelgouet, that appear to be in their natural poiition,
and many of them form an alTemblage of rock mafles, which
have a pcrfeClly rhomboidal form, and are regularly joined
to each other by means of their correfponding planes. One
of the infulated rocks in a group at Huelgouet, is called
Pierre branlanle, or the rocking ftone : it is 21 feet long,
feven feet high, and eight feet wide, and its cubical content
is 1 160 feet: it is fo accurately poifed on the edge of an-
other rock, which ferves for its bafe, that the ihvngth of a
few men fuffices to change its centre of gravity, and to
communicate an ofcillatory motion to it. The phenomenon
of the rod'ing Jloiies is not unknown m this country; the
largeft is that ieen at the Land's End in Cornwall, where
they are called Logan-ltones; it weighs upwards of fixty
tons reftiii'^ on another rock of granite of conliderable
heiffht dole on the fea-ftiore. " The two ftones," fays
Mr Play fair, who avails himfelf of this phenomenon among
others to explain the migration of llony maffes, " touch
but in a fmall fpot, their furfaccs being confiderably convex
towards one another. The uppermotl is fo nearly m an
equilibrium, that it can be made to vibrate by the ilrength
of a man, thou.^h to overfet it entirely would require a vali
force This ariies from the centre of gravity ot the ftone
beine fomewhat lower than the centre of curvature of tliat
part of it on which it has a tendency to roll ; the conle-
fluence of which is, that any motion impreffed on the ftone
forces its centre of gravity to rile, (though not very conli-
derably,) bv which means it returns whenever the torce 13
removed, and vibrates backward and forward, til it is re-
duced to reft. Were it required to remove the Konc trom
its place, it might be moft ealily done, by cutting off a
part or blowing it away by gun-powderj the ftone would
then lofe its balance, wonld tumble from its pedcltal, and
mi<Tht roll to a conliderable diftance. Now, what art is
her°e fuppofed to perform, nature herfelt in time will pro-
bablv effecl. If the wafte on one fide of this groat mals
(hall 'exceed that on the oppofite in more than a certain pro-
portion, and it is not likely that that proportion will be
alwavs maintained, the equilibrium of the Logan-ftone will
be fubverted, never to return. Thus w: perceive hmv
motion may be produced by the combined aAion of^the
decompolllion ur.d gravitation of lar-e maffes of rock

I-^ was probablv from feeing the tantaftical and imitatne
forms produced b^- granitic cliffs, and by the dif.ntegration
of eranite, that M. Vitte framed his unfortunate hypothelis
refpeaing the pyramids of Egypt, and the ruins "* P'--^^^'-
poUs, Palmvra, and Balbcc. all which together ylh the
temple of .Tupiter at Girg.ntum, the palaces of the Ii.cas m
Vol. XVL

Peru, &c. Sec. were confidered by that antiquary a* produc-
tions of nature.

Granite is much lefs mrtaUifcrous than gncifs and other
primitive mountain.' ; but tin and iron abound in it. Be-
lides thefe, feveral oth-r metals occur in it in fmall proper-
tion, liz. gold, tho-.igh very rarely, in Peru; native filvcr,
ahuoft equally feldom, at ^\'ittichen and Alt Wolfach, in
tlic Black Eoreft, near veins of filvcr and cobalt; copper;
galena, for inllance, at Schreiberlhaufcn, at the foot of the
Schncekuppe, in Silefia; bifmuth, zinc, cobalt, manganefe,
molybdena, arfeiiic, tungllcin, and wolfram, all ■vhich occur
generally in fm.all veins; but tin, galena, and blende, are
found ill beds at Zinnwald in Saxony, and in Bjheiaia.

As to the extent of granite over the world, it may be faid
that Icarccly any country we are acquainted with v entirclv
deftitute of that rock. In Afia we have the Uralian and
Altaic mountains, with the Caucafus; in Africa, the Atlas,
feveral mountains of Egypt, thofe of the Cape of Good
Hope; in North America, fomc mountains of New York,
Penrfylvania, and Virginia; in South America, great part
of the Andes, the mountains de los Mariches in the Carracai,
the Cordilleras of Pariina, Sierra Nevada de Merida, &c.;
in Europe, the Seewoga mountains of Scandinavia, thofe
of Finnland, the Carpathes, the Hart?, the Riefcn-gebirge,
the mountair.s of Upper Lufatia, a part of the Saxon
metalliferous mountari;., (efpecially Eibenllock, Johan-
gcorgcntladt, Schwartzenberg, Schneeberg, Ehrenfriederf-
dorf, Geier, Naiiendorf, Altenberg, and Zinnwald,) tlie
Fichtel-gebirge, the Odcnwald and Schwartzwald, the Alps
of Swillerland and S.ivoy, the Apennines, P\renees, tlie
mountains of Cornwall, &c. all wlach have granite for their
principal conftituent rock.

The ufe made of granite is n;anifold; it is employed for
building, paving, Heps, for troughs in ilaraping mills, for
millftones, &c.

The ufe of granite for architcAural and economical pur-
pofes is perhaps no where more amply difplayed than at
Petcrfburg, wliere not only the imperial and other palaccji,
but even ordinary dwelling houfcs, have their lower parti
hned with (labs of granite. The left bank of the great
Neva, from the foundery to the gulf of Crouftadt, and
both banks of the F<intanka and of the Catharine canal,
are lined by high walls conftrucled of fuch (lab.- of granite;
as are many bridges over the Neva, balullrades, &c. The
pillars, llairs, balconies, S:c. in the palace of Cronrtadt,
are almoft all of the fineft kindi of granite. Thofe cm.p!oy»
cd for ornamental architecture are cut and polilhed by lapi.
daries; but thofe intended for lefs delicate purpofes, fuch
as common flabs, fteps, cvhnders, troughs, &c. are worked
by peafants, particularly bj thofe of Olonelk. The govern.
ment tcwn.o, however, Mofcow not excepted, are too dif-
tant from the chief granite mountains, t.; be eni;bkd to
make frequent ufe of that rock for tiie above purjofes.

Granite has been mo:v particularly applied, together
with lienite, for the purpofes of arc'iitetture and llatuary.

by the ancients, e(pccially by t!ie Eg)-ptiaiis ; and many
very inteivlling monuments of their Iki'l and
Hill exifting in the collections of antiquities.

patunce arc

M. Brand has divided the different granites iifed in tLe
arts after their predominant colours; the f< I!owi:.g arc the
principal Narieties, in which, how.'vtr, the black and while
kind is not included, one of its ingredients being horn-
blende, which afligns it a place among the fieuitcs. Sec

SjENlfE.

6av Gnmu'f of Cl:r£;, in the department of the Rhine ;

it confilts of white quartz and bLick mica, with large cr\ u

tals of rofc-colomvd feldfpar. Tlie columns of the Egl;fe

4 K d Eiice

GRANITE.

d'Ente (ancient temple of Auguftus) at Lyons, are of this layers ; it confifts of a blackifli and a wliiti/h fiibflancc, tJic

' " former fiirrounded by, and paffing into the latter, the centre

of which is iifually a dark-grey fpot.

The quarry of this rock is unknown, a fingle block only
liaving been found in the gulf of Valinco, in Corfica : its
weight was al)Out 80 pounds ; but it was loon broke into

kind of granite, which lias alfo been worked by the Romans.
dry Granile nfThain. — It conhlls of grey quartz, bli<-ck
mica, and white fildfpar crydals, whicli are fonictimcs from
two to three inclies long. The quarries of this granite are
on the road from Lyons to Valence, 'on the right bank of _

the Rhone. It is very well adapted for the conlhuclion of fmall Iragmenls, which are now dillributed among collectors
large monuments. The granite of St. I'eray, not far from
Thain, is exactly like thts, except tliat its feldfpar cryftals
are of a rofe -colour.

Grey Gr.iniic of LrtTi.zi/.— Found in the fmall illand
Lave/.zi, near Bonifacio, S. of Corfica, in the llraits that
feparate this iiland from Sardinia. This granite is coni-
pofed chiefly of fmall irregular cry ftals of feldfpar, mixed
with a little black mica, befuics wliich it contain.-; alfo feld-
fpar cryftals, of a milk-whue colonr. In the quany of
that island a large unfiniftied column is to be feen, wlucli
has been relinquilked by tlie Roman workmen.

Grey Granite of Elba. — Its grain is pretty unifomi ; its
colour fometimes approaclies to light violet. I'liere are
four columns of this variety to be feen in the Mulce Napo-
leon : they were taken out of the church which contained
the tomb of Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle.

The grey granites are much more common tlian the
green or greenifh, of which the following deferve to be
mentioned.

Antique green Granite. — Its predominant ingredient is
Tvhite quart/., which contains here and there fonie light green
feldfpar. There is a column of it in the Villa Pamfih, near
Rome.

Fine gra'me'd antique Granite. — (Bafalte verd oriental.) The

There is a bcautifvd vafe of it, or.e foot fix inches high, in
the cabinet of M. Dedree. The granite of Corfica is figured
by M. Faujas de St. Fond, in his " EITai de Geologic,"
and in Mr. Sowerby's " Exotic Mineralogy."

Among the red granites, we have what is called ml
oriental granite, which, as ufually containing hornblende,
often in large feparate patches, will be defcribed under

SlICMTE.

The red Granite of Ingria. — This granite, fays M. Patrln,
•is dillinguilhcd from others in this, that the feldipar, inilead
of being in grains, or parallelopiped cryllals, as in moll
other granites, conliantly appears in the fliape of round ur
oval piecesof from half an incli to two inches in diameter. This
granite takes a very fine polilh, and in this ilate exhibits the
feldipar in the fliape of white, round, or o^A chatoyant fpots,,
in a reddilh ground. The rock, which ferves as a pedellal
of the equellrian ilatue of Peter the Great, at St. Peterf-
burg, is of this granite : the block was originally 32 feet
long, 21 feet thick, and 17 feet long ; but, in order to give
It its prefent fhape, imitative of a pic^urefque natural rock,
it has been much diminitlied in fi/.e. This block was di!-
cngaged from a fwamp, about forty verfts from Peterl-
burgh : its weight was calcidated to be above three millions,
of pounds. We have feen feveral fragments that were

ecnnponent parts of this work are fo minute and intimately detached from the very black forming the pedellal of tlie

blended, that they can fcarcely be diftinguiflicd by the naked
eye. Its colour approaches to deep olive. It is very hard,
and takes a fine polifli. The Egyptians have much employed
it for the conllruclion of monuments ; and feveral ilatues
of it may be feen in the Capitol and the Villa Albani.
There is another variety with white fpots, which is known
at Rome under the name of Bafalto Orientale pidochiofo ;
tliis is very rare, for there arc but two columns oi it in
fxiftence, namely, in the church of St. Pudentiana at
Rome. Some varieties bearing that name are filenite.

Granite of St. Chriflvph : — compofed of violet quartz,
ivliite feldfpar, and green mica. This magnificent rock is
found at Oifans, in the department of the Here.

Corfican orbicular Granite. — This beautiful rock (which
probably belongs to the fienite formation) was difcovered
by M. Barral, in the ifland from which it derives its name.
Its compofition is very extraordinary ; it has a bafis of or-
dinary grey granite, which, however, in mod parts, exhibits
a confiderable portion of hornblende. But what more par-
ticularly characterizes it, is a number of balls, of from, one
to two inches in diameter, each compofed of feveral con-
centric and perfectly parallel layers, the outermofl of which,
generally white, opaque, and two or three lines thick, is
compofed of quartz and feldfpar, blended in various propor-
tions, and exhibiting a radiated appearance, rather conve
ing towards the centre of the ball.

which is of a greenifh-black colour, and about

The fecond layer,
le line thick,
is compi'fed of fine laminar hornblende ; and tins is fucceeded
by a white, generally tranllucid quartz layer, of about four or
live lines in thicknefs, inclufive of two or three very thin lavers
of hornblende, that are generally feen within the fubllance
of this third principal layer. Each of thefe layers is gene-
rally cf equal thicknefs in the .whole of its circumference.
Thefe three parts may be confidered as the coating : the
interior of each ball is kfs defined than the furrounding

ftatue ; but in none of them did we obferve the ton»
alcribed by Patrin to the feldfpar.

The public fummer promenade-garden at Peterlburg fs
decorated with a fuperb colonade of this granite : the
columns, which are fixty in number, are of the Tufcan
order ; their (hafts, made of one piece, are about twenty feet
high, and three feet in diameter. The ifland, called Kotlin-
Ollrow, on which is the fortrefs of Croniladt, is covered with
blocks of this granite, the feldfpar of which is fometimes of
the kind called Labrador-ltone.

Red Granite of the I^ojges .Mountains. — Tin's granite is com-
pofed of large laminx ot rofc-coloured feldfpar, grey grains
of quartz, and fmall fcales of mica. It has fo Itrong a re-
femblance to the Egyptian red granite, that it is difficult,
to dillinguilh them. Its (piarrics are on the heights of
Montanjeu, near the Pupean mountains, in the Vofges.

Fio/et Granite of' Elba. — The feldfpar of this variety is in
large violent cryllals. The pedcftul of the equeftrian ilatue,
in the Piazza della Santiffima Aniionzia'.a at Florence, is
made of it, as are alfo the fodes in the chapel of St. Lau-
rence in the fame town.

Rofe-coloured Granite of Baveno. — This beautiful granite
confiits of flefti-coloured feldfpar, white quartz, and fbme
grains of black mica. Confiderable quarries of it are found
on the borders of the Lago Maggicre, which are worked,
without intermilTion, for iupplying Milan, and the whole of
the neighbouring country, with thi& granite. It takes a.
very fine pohih : here and there it exhibits ribbands, or
zones, of a grey colour, which are compofed of the faire
ingredients as the reft of the mafs, but reduced into vry
muiule particles. Many columns, porticos, &.c. are feen of
it at Milan.

The name of graphic granite is given to tliofe kinds in.
which the feldfpar forms large concretions, intermixed with
grey quartz-cryftalsj exhibiting, when cut tranfverftly, an-
gular

G R A

gular figures, rnoflly fliapcd like a 7 ; wliile otlier's are lefs
regular, and bear a diftant refemblaiice to rude alphabetical
writing. They are not confidered to be genuine granite by
fome mincralogiils.

Graphic Gramie of Portfoy. — The feldfpar is of various
tints ot pale flelli-red ; the quartz dark, but tranfparent,
with now and then fome fmall particles of m'ca. This rock,
is minutely defcribed by Dr. Hutton.

Graphic Granite of Siberia. — Its feldfpar is of a yellowifh-
white, or reddifn colour ; the quart/, exhibiting figures limi-
lar to thofe of the quartz in the preceding fort, is of the
variety called fmoaky topaze. Mica occurs in it in fmall
nerts, and black Ihorl in acicular cryftals.

Graphic Gramie oj Auhin. — Of a pale rofe-colour ; qiiartz-
cryftals grey, very numerous. It is found in the neiglibour-
hood of -Autun, department of Saone-et-Loire, particniarlv
at Marmngne. This, in M. Brand's opinion, is the molt
beautiful of all graphic granites. Another variety of this
ftone is found at the fame place : its feldfpar is white ; the
quartz grey, in fmall cryftals ; it is fufceptible of very fine
polifli.

Graphic Granite of Corfica. — Likewile of a rofc-coloiu- ;
but generally paler than that of Autun, from which it is alfo
diilinguifiuihle, by its quartz-crytlals being larger, and at
greater dillsnee trom each other. It contains fome thinly
diffeminated bronze-coloured mica. It takes a fine polifli.

GRANIVOIiOUS, an epithet or denomination given to
fuch animals as feed upon corn, or any other grain or feeds.

Granivorous animals are chiefly of the bird kind. Thefe
have a peculiar provifion for the digefting of fo dry and hard
a food.

OR ANN A, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Snialand ; 18 miles N.N.E. of Jonkioping.

GRANO, in Biography, a performer on the trumpet and
German flute, and a compofer of tunes for thole inftruments,
which had their day of favour in the early part ot the lall
century. He was a kind of mungrel dilettante, who during
many years condefeended to make concerts and give lefions,
en profeflfeur, always infinuatiiig that it was merely for the
plcaiure of amufing the public and inltrufting individuals.
Grano's tnunpet march was long ufed by the Guards.

GRANON, in Geography, a fmall il'land on tlie W. fide
of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61 ' 5'. E. long. 17 5'.

GRANSEE, a town of the Middle Mark of Branden-
burg ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 52 59'. E. long.

'3' 13'-

GRANSO, an ifland in the Baltic, near the E. coaft of

Sweden. N lit. 57 ' 46'. E long. 16 5'.

GRANSON, a town of Switzerland, in a bailliage of
the fame name, belonging to Bern and Eriburg, iituated
between the lake of Neufehatel and mount ,Iura, and re-
markable for the battle in which Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, was defeated by the Svvifs in 1476; 16 miles
.S.W. of Neufehatel. N. lat. 46" 50'. E. long. 6 26'.

GRANT, CoNCE.v.sio, in La-eu, the regular method by
■Jie common law of transferring the property of incorporeal
.Siereditaments, or fuch things of which uo livery can be had.
fCo. Litt. 9.) For which reafon all corporeal heredita-
ments, as lands and houfes, are faid to lie in livery ; and
the others, as advowfons, commons, rents, reverfioiis, d:c.
♦o lie /Hjn/«/. (Ibid. 172.) The reafon is thus given by
Bracton (1. ii. c. 18.): " tradilio, or hvery, nihil aliud ejl
quam rei corpora/is de perfona in perfonam, cU manu in manum,
tranflalio out in pojfejionem incliiflio ; fed res incorporates, qux
juni ipfum fds rei "vel carport inhttrens, traditionem non paliuntur.'
Thefe, therefore, pafs merely by the delivery ot the deed.
And in figniorics, or revcrfions of lands, fuch grant, to-

G R A

getlier with the attornment of the tenant, (while attorn-
ments were rcquifite,) were held to be of equal notoriety
with, and therefore equivalent to, a feoffment and livery of
lands in immediate poffeffion. It therefore differs but little
from a feoffment, except in its fubjcft-mattcr ; for the ope-
rative words therein commonly ufed are " dedi ct concejft,"
"have given and granted." Fwr the diff.-rence bctH-ecn
gifts and grants, fee the article Gut. The king's grar.is
arc matter of public record. (See Rwoiid.) No freehold
can be given to the king, norderiied from him, but by matter
of record. To this end a variety of ofTices are erefted, com-
municating i;i a regular fiibor'dination om- with another,
through wliic'h all the king's grants mufl Jjafs, and be tranf-
cnbed, and enrolled ; that the fame may be narrowly in- .
fpec'ted by his oflicers, who will inform' him if any thing
contained therein is improper, or unlawful to be granted.
Thefe grants, whether of lands, honours, liberties, fraa-
chiles, or aught belides, are contained in charters, or letters
patent. (See Patk.nt.s.) The mannrr of granting by the
king does no more differ from that by a fuhjcdt, than the
conltrudtioii of his grants when made. i. A graiit madi-
by the king, "at the fuit of the grantee," (liall be taken
molt beneficially/;/- the king, and ogainjl the party ; wlicreas
the grant of a i'ubjea is conllriied molt ftrongly ngninj! the
grantor. It is iherefore ufual to infert in the king's grants,'
that they are made, not at the fuit of the grantee, but " ex
fpeciali gratia, certa fcicntia, et mero motu regis ;" and
then they liave a more liberal conftruclion. 2. A fiibjed's
grant (hall be coiutrued to include many things, befides what
are expreffed, if iiecelfary for the operation of the grant.
Tluis, in a private grant of the profits of land for one year,
free ingrefs, egrefs, and regrcfs, to cut and carry away thofe-
profits, are alfo inclufively granted. (Co. Litt.' 56.) And
it a teoflment of land was made by a lord to his villein, this
operated as a manumifiion (Litt. 5 206.) ; for he was other-
wife unable to hold it. But the king's grant lliall not crure
to any other intent, than that which is precifely expreffed iit
the grant. As, if he grants land to an alien, it operates
nothing, for fuch grant (hall not alfo enure to make him a
denizen, that he may be capable of taking bv grant. (Dro.
Abr. tit. patent. 62. Finch. L. 1 10.) 3. \Vhen it appears,
from the face of the grant, that the king is miflaken, or de-
ceived, either in matter of fact or matter of law-, as in cafe
of falle fuggeition, niifinformation, or mifrecital of former
grants f or if his own title to the thing granted be different
fnim what he fiijipofes ; or if the grant be informal ; or if
he grants an eftate contrary to the rules of law ; in any of.
thele cafes the grant is abfolutely void. (Freein 172.
Finch. loi, 102.) To prevent deceits of the kiitg, with
regard to the value of the ellate granted, it is parlicularlr
provided by the ilatute I Hen. IV. c. 6. that no grant of
his ihall be good, uukfs, in the grantee's petition fur them,
exprefs mention be made of the real value of the lands..
Biacklt. Com. vol. ii.

GRANTHAM, in Geography, a towiilliip of ITpper
Canada, in the county of Lincoln, fronting lake Ontario.

Cilt.VNTll.\M, a market and borough town in the fokt;,
or wapentake, of tlie lame name, in Kelteven divifion of
the county ot Lincoln, England, is iituated on tiie tide of
the river AVitham, on the ancient Roman road called Lrmine
ilrect. The town comprifes four principal llreets. The
church is an elegant Hone ilructure, eoufilling of a nave
and two fpacious ailies, witii large handloiiie pointed windows,
and is celebrated tor its loftv fpire, which is 273 feet in
height. The llyle of urchitecturc appears to be that of the
thirteenth century ; though Mr. Cloiigh obfervcs that tli^
church was endowed by . Hugh, bilhap of Lincoln, A.D.
4 K 2 1100.

G R A

I loo. Beneath the church is a chancel-houfe, filled with
human fculls and other bones. Among feveral handfome
monuments in this edifice, are, one to fir Thomas Bury,
chief baron of tlie exchequer in the time of George I,
and one to fir Dudley Ryder, chief juftice of the King's
Bench, in the fucceeding reign. The font exhibits a fine
fpecimen of ancient fculpture.

Grantham was incorporated under a charter granted by
Edward IV. in 1463 ; when it firll returned members to par-
liament ; the reprcfentatives are chofen by the freemen of the
boroun-h. The civil government is veiled in an alderman, a
recorder, 12 common burgefTes, a coroner, an efcheator,
and twelve fecond men, who are the common council. The
jurifdiclion of this corporation extends over the whole foke,
comprehending twelve villages, and the aldei-man a6ts as
flieriff of tlie° town and foke, the iheriff of the county
^having no authority within the foke and dillrirt thereot.
The guildhall was rebuilt under au aft of parliament in
1787. A fi-ee-fchool was founded here by Richard Fox,
biihop of Wincheiler, and further endowed by king
Edward VI. ; this fchool attrafts attention, from the cir-
cumllance of its having been a place of education to that
luminary of fcience, fir Ifaac Newton. Near the fouth en-
trance into the town, on St. Peter's hill, formerly Hood an
elegant crofs, ereded by king Edward I., in -memory of
Eleanor his queen, who died in 1 290 ; this being one of the
places where the corpfe was laid in Hate in its way for inter-
ment in Wellminller Abbey. Grantham is diftant from
London 1 1 1 miles N., has a well fupplied market on Sa-
turdays, and five annual fairs. In the return under the
late population aft, the number of houfes 13631, occupied
by 3303 inhabitants.

A canal has been lately cut from Grantham to the river
Trent, an extent of 25 miles. It is fupphed with water by
means of large refervoirs made for that purpofe. The chief
articles conveyed by this navigation are corn and coals.
Turner's Hiltory of the Soke of Grantham, &c. Beau-
ties of England and Wales, vol.ix.

. Gr.vntham Canal, is the parliamentary name of an inland
navigation about 33 miles long, in the counties of Notting-
ham, Leicefter, and Lincoln, of which we gave an account
in our article Canal, and nothing material has occurred to
be added thereto.

GRANTOWN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Invernefs ; 17 miles S. of Fores.

GRANVILLE, George, baron Landfdown, in Bio-
arnphy, a nobleman chiefly remembered as a poet, born in
1667, was fon of Barnard Greenvill, one of the diltinguifti-
ed family of Greenville or Granville, the latter mode of
fpelling the name being introduced by the inbjeft of this ar-
ticle, who is thereby feparated from the reft, of his houfe.
He fUewed very early talents, and was entered, in his 12th
year, at Trinity college, Cambridge. In the fame year, he
wrote a copy of verfes on the duchefscf York's vint to the
univerlitv, and on the accrfficn of James II. he offered in -
cenfe to the new prince in three (hort pieces, of wh.ich Dr.
Johufon fays, " the firfl is profane, and the two others
fuch as a boy might he expetied to produce." In 1688,
when an invafion was threatened, lie was defirous of devot-
ing his.life to the fervice of James, and requelted his father
tc prefent him to the tint; for that purpofe. The revolution
fucceeded, and being poueilcd of neither intereft nor confi-
rferahle fortune, he lived in literary retirement. Duringthis
period his dramatie works were chiefiy compofed and afted.
The firft of thefe was " The Gallants," faid by himfelf, by
way of apology, to have been written at an age when fome
pcrfoijs .are but beginning to fpell. This was iifterwards

G R A

brought forward in a more corrcft form, under the title of
•• Once a Lover and always a Lover." His tragedy of
»' Heroic Love,'' founded on the fable ef Homer's Iliad,
was aftcd the fame year with great applaufe from tlie w its
and critics. On this occafion he was complimented in a
copy of verfes from the pen of Drv-den. When queen
Anne came to the crown, Mr. Granville emerged from the
politi«al obfcurity in which he had lived : his fortune was in-
creafed by the death of his father, and that of his uncle,
who left him an annuity. He was now elefled a member of
parliament for the borough of Fowcy, and feeling the com-
mon ardour of his countrvmen of all parties againft the an-»
bition of Lewis XIV., he joined other literary perfons in a
tranflation of the Philippics of Dcmollhenes, to roufe
the nation to oppofe the Philip of modern times. By the
death of his elder brother fir Bevil Granville, in 1706, he
Succeeded to a good eftate, and he continued to ferve in
parliament, fitting as knight of the fliire for the county of
Cornwall. On the change of adminiilration in 1710, he was
appointed fecretary of war in the room of fir Robert Wal-
pole. He married in the fame year Mary, the daughter of
the earl of .Terfey, then widow of Thomas Thynne, efq.
Shortly after this he was introduced into the houfe of peers
by the flyle and title of lord Landfdown, baron of Bidde»
ford, at the memorable creation of twelve peers, in one day,
vi%. December 31, 1711. '7'he elevation, however, of
lord Landfdown was not one of tliofe which appeared very
extraordinary, as two peerages had become extinft in the
Granville family. On account of his principles and con-
duft he flood high in favour of the queen, who made him a
privy counfellor, comptroller and treafurcr of the houfehold j
but the acceflion of George I. put an end to the power of
his party, and deprived him of his place. He remained
fteady to his former connections, proteiling againil meafures
which he deemed unconllitutional, and in conlequence of his
zeal he w-as regarded with a fufpicious eye, and was reckon-
ed by people in power as a difaffccled man. Upon the
breaking out of the rebellion in 1715, he was committed to
the Tower, and kept confined in that fortrefs till February
17 1 7, when he obtained his liberty and refumed his feat in
the houfe of lords. In 1719 he oppofed with violence the
propofed repeal of the bill to prevent occalional conformity ;
his fpeech on the lubjeft he afterwards printed. Subfequent-
ly to this a derangement in his private affairs, owing to the
want of economy, obliged him to fpend fome years on the
continent. During his abfcnce, the firll volume of bidiop
Burnet's " Hiftory of his own Times,'' making its appeai--
ance, lord Landfdown undertook the vindication of the duke
of Albemarle and the earl of Bath, from fome afperfions
thrown upon them in that work. He alfo took occafion to
vindicate his great uncle, fir Richard Greenville, from the
unfavourable reprefentations of his conduft by lord Cla-
rendon, and archdeacon Echard. On this occafion he pub-
lilhed two trafts in 1732. In the fame year he publilhed a
fplendid edition of his works, leaving out a comedy, which,
on account of its licentioufnef?, had been objeftcd to, and he
alfo omitted to infert his fpeech againil occafional conformity.
He now felt reconciled to the meafures of government, and
to the change in tlie fuccefiion, which formerly he had re-
garded with horror. He went to court, and was graciouf-
ly received by queen Carohne, to whom he prefented his
works, with fome elegant lines written in a blank leaf. He
died Jan. 30, 1735, in his 64th year. In private life, lord
Landfdown was amiable, polite, and canihd. He was libe-
ral in patronizing literary merit, and had the credit of being
one of the firll to recognize the rlfing powers of Pope, who
repaid him fior his kindnefs by his dedication of Windfor
1 Forea,

G R A

Foreft. His own talents, as a poet, were not of the firft
order, but Lis works are ftill read with pleafurc. He is
chiefly known as a writer of amatory pieces, moll of which
are addrefTcd to Myra, the countefa of Newburgh, the ob-
ject of his youthful pafTion. I'liefe are not cither highly
poetical nor ihongly exprcfiive of feeling. Johnfon
charafterizes his " Elfay on unnatural Flights in Poetry,'
as polTeirmg didactic merit, and his " Britifh Enchanters,''
as Kvely and pleafing. He feems to think favourably like-
wife of his epilogues and prologues. Biog. Brit. Johufon's
Lives of the Poets.

Grasvillp;, in Geography. See Gaasdville.

Granville, a county of North Carolina, in Hillfbo.
rough diftricl, S. of Virginia, containing 14,015 inhabitants,
of whom 6106 are flaves. Its chief town is Williamlburg.
— Alfo, a townfliip of the county of Annapolis, in Nova
Scotia, N. of Annapolis river, on the bay of Fundv, ■^o
miles long ; firft fettled from New England. — Alfo, a town-
(hip of Hamplliire county, Maffachufetts, about 14. miles
W. of Springfield; incorporated in I754, and containing
23C9inliabitants. — Alio, a poft-townin Wadiington county.
New York, containing 3 1 75 inhabitants.

Granville, or GreenvUle, a flourilliing town in Meck-
lenburg county, Kentucky.

Granville' .s River, a river of the ifland of Egraont,
or New Guemfey, which runs into the fea, S. lat. 10° 42'.
E. long. 163^ 5S'.

GRANULATED On.. See Oil.

GRANULATION, in C/ji'/;«//r), an operation perform-

G R A

proportion of arfenic, which being reduced to S metallic
Itate.by means of greafe llirred >n during thf fufion, renders
It Icfs fluid. An oblong fliallow vefTel of iron, perhaps 10
inclics wide, 14 lorig, and 2\ deep, called a " Card," whofc
bottom IS pierced with holes proportionate to the fize of the
ihot, IS placed at the height of from one to fliree inches
over the furface of a tub of water, covered with a thia film
of oil. The card is previouny heated to the temperature of
the metal, by immerging it in the cauldron ; and a ilratum of
lott drofs or fcorix, found on the furface of the fufod
alloy, IS then placed on its perforated bottom, and bcinn-
flightly prelTed down with the ladle, forms a kind of filte^
which partly chokes up the apertures, and prevents the me-
tal from flowing through them in continuous ftreams. The
fufed metal is then poured by lad!e-fuils into this vcfTel, and
appears, notwillillanding, to run through it withconfiderable
velocity ; fo that it feems ditficiilt to believe, that it falls in
feparate drops, till one is convinced by taking up a quantity
of fhot from the bottom of the water. The imperfeaions
to which this fliot IS fubjert, are n-medied in the patent (hot,
the manufacture of which differs from that of the preceding
kind, m tlie addition of a larger portion of arfenic, wliich
vanes according to the quantity of the lead, in dropping it
from fuch a height, that it becomes folid before it enters the
water, which is from 40 to 100 feet. Belides, it is firll dried
and fifted. It is then loiirded, which confills in fcatteriii-r it
on feveral pohfued (labs, or trays of hard wood, with rimtin
the form of a n, except that the fides converge towards the

. . I*^"-" part, to which a night inclination and alternate motion

ed on metals, whereby they are reduced into Imall grains or in their own planes are given by boys employed in the m?nu.

"'"''"'^ fadui-e. The fliot, whole form is imperfeft, are dctefted bv

thc lluggilbnefs of their motion, and remain behind, whilll the
others roll off from the board. The laft operation is the po.
hllimg ; which is performed by agitating the (hot with the
addition of a ver^- (mail quantity of black-k-ad, not exceed-
ing two fpoonfuls to a ton, in an iron vefTel, turning on an
horizontal axis, like a barrel churn. It does not appear that
any higher degree of perfection than that wliich is thus at-
tamed remains to be deferied. The argentine brilliancy of
the (hot when newly made, the beautiful accuracy 0/ its
form, and the curious inllance of inanimate tactics which
it prefents when fcattered on a plate, renders it even an

globules.

It is done by melting them, and when in fufion, calling
them from a certain height into cold water ; in which they
congeal into granules, as required, and are hereby rendered
more eafy to be diffolved. The bell way is to pour the
fluid metal through a cullender, or a new birchen broom, or
to agitate the water with a broom, thus giving it a circular
motion while the metal is poured in. Copper is granulated
for making brafs in a cylindrical wooden rufervoir, four or
iivre feet deep, in which a circular brafs or copper bottom
may be raifed or lowered by means of a chain. The refer-
voir is covered with a copper lid, in the middle of which is a
hole half a foot in diameter, intended to receive an iron ladle
pierced with holes and coated with clay. The relervoir
being filled with water, the melted copper is poured through
the holes in the ladle into the water ; where it is bi-oken by
its fall into fmaller drops or grains, rendered folid by the
cold water, and coUedled in the moveable bottom, which is
raifed by the annexed chain, that the granulated copper may
be taken out. Macquer, Diet. Chem. Eng. edit, art
Brafs. See Brass.

Lead, tin, and brafs, which are very brittle, when they
are 10 hot as to be almoll fufed, may be granulated by pour-
ing them, in a Hate of fufion, into a box, the inner lurface
of which is rubbed with powdered chalk, and by fliaking
the box : the metals in the box are no fooner become folid,
and confequently very brittle, than they are (hivered, by
being dafhed againll the fides of the veffel into a fine dull.
Silver and gold, and tiie more tenacious metals, mull he
granulated in either of the firtl methods above-mentioned,
with water. Cramer, Art of AiT. p. 70.

The term granulation is alfo applied \.q gun-po-wder : which
fee.

The granulation of common fowling (hot confills merely
in caufing the fufed metal to fall in equal fpherical drops into
Water. The lead is melted with the addition of a fmail

Nichoifon's Journal,

agreeable objeft of contemplation,
vol. I. 410.

Granulation-. In Surgery, granulations are the fniall
eminences of new animal matter, with which the cavities of
fores and wounds become filled up in the proeefs of healing.
Granulations, according to Mr. Hunter, are formed by an
exudation of the coagulating lymph from the velTels, into
which new fubllance the old veffels very probably extend at
the fame time that entirely new ones are generated in it.
Hence granulations are exceedingly valcular, perliaps more
fo than almoll any other animal lubllance. Mr. Hunter in-
forms us, that he noticed upon a fore a white fubllance, ex-
acUy fimilar in ewry vifible rvfpcd to coagulating lymph.
He did not attempt to wipe it off, and the next day of
drelling he found this ven,- fubll.?nce vafcular; for, on touch-
ing it with a probe, it bled freely. He obferved the fame
appearance on the furface of a bone that had been laid bare.
He once fcra-ed off fome of the outfiik of one of the boms
of the foot, in order to fee if the furface would granulate.
Tlie following day ho remarked, that the fcraped part was
covered with a whitilh fubllance, having a tinge of blue.
When he palTed his probe into it, he did not feel the bono
bare ; but only us refillance. He conceived this fubll.-uice
was coagulating lymph, tlirown out in confequerce of in-

flamraation,

GRANULATION.

flammation, and that it would be forced off when fuppura-
tion came on ; but on the fuccecding day he found it vaf-
cular, having all the appearance of healthy granulalions.

The vedels of grauuUitions lirll pafs to their bafis from
the original parts, whatever thefe may be, and then run m
nearly parallel lines to tlieir external furface, where they feem
as if they ended.

The furface of the new fubllance continues to have the
fame difpohtion for the fecretion of pus, as the parts from
which it itfelf was produced. Granulations are very con-
vex, which is au appearance the very reverie of what happens
in ulceration, or while a i'ore is increafing in fize. They ap-
pear rough, in confequence of having a great many points or
fmall eminences, and they are deemed the more healthy, the
fmaller fuch points are.

Healthy granulations arc of a deep florid red colour, a
circumftance which might lead one to fufpeCl, that the colour
was principally owing to the arterial blood ; but Mr. Hunter
was of opinion, that this appearance only denoted a briilc
circulation in the new-formed fubftance, the blood not having
time to become dai-k.

When granulations are naturally of a livid red, they are
commonly unhealthy, and (liew a languid circulation. Such
appearances may often be induced by pofitiou, and we fre-
quently fee it take place on fores of the leg, when the limb
is not kept in a horizontal pofture. In this circumftance,
the new-formcd veffels are incapable of fupporting the in-
■creafed column of blood, and of atting upon it. The ftag-
nation allows the change of colour to liappen, and the alte.

and the other from the fcalp, unite over the bare one, wliicli
was between them, fo ftrongly in twenty-four hours, that
fome force was requijed to feparate them, and when fepa-
ratcd, they bled.

The inner furface of the fl<in, in cafes of abfceffes, not
only does not readily granulate, but docs not readily unite
with the granulations underneath. Hence the frequent forma-
tion of liftulx and iinufes.

Unhealthy granulations have not an equal tendency to
unite with each other : a fmooth furface is formed, which
continues to fccrete matter. Thus, Mr. Hunter regarded
the internal furface of a iiilulous ulcer as, in fome degree,
limilar to the inner furface of the \ircthra, when it is forming
the difcharge commonly called a gleet. Such fores have no
difpolition in their granulations to unite, and nothing can
produce an imion between them, but altering the difpofition
of thefe granulations, by exciting a confiderable inflamma-
tion and probably ulceration ; fo as to form new granulations,
and by this means give them a chance of falling into a found
ftate.

It is alfo noticed by Mr. Hunter, that granulations arc
not furnifhed with fo much power as parts poflefs, which are
originally formed. Hence tliey more readily ulcerate and
flough. He ftatcs, that they not only fliew the condition
of the part in which they grow, or the condition in whicii
they are themfelves, but alio, how the conftitution is afFeft-
ed by many difeafes.

The fame author has made fome obfervations refpefting
the longevity of granulations. He fays, that they often

ration, in all probability, takes place both in the arteries and feem to be formed with only ftated periods of life, and thofe

vems. Here may be feen the reafon why fore legs are fre-
quently very backward in healing, when the patient is fuf-
fered to put his foot on the ground, or to walk about.

Healthy granulations, iituated on an expoied or flat fur-
face, rife nearly even with the furface of the furrounding
flcin, and often a little higher ; and in this ftate they are al-
ways of a florid red colour. When they exceed this height,
and affume a growing difpolition, they are then unhealthy,
and they become foft and fpongy, without any difpotltion to
form ikin.

Granulations always have the fame difpofition as the parts
upon which they are formed ; and take on the fame mode of
adion. If it is a difeafed part, they are difeafed ; and if
the difeafe be of any fpecific kind, they are alio of the fame
uature, and, of coui-fe, produce matter of the fame quahty.

When granulations are healthy, they are always prone to
vmite with each other, the great ufe of which is to bring
about the union of parts, fomewhat like what is the refult
of union by the firll intention. See Wound.s.

much Ihorter, than the life of the part, on which fuch gra-
nulations are iituated. Their life, indeed, does not appear
tobefofliort, when cicatrization can be accompliflied ; but
while a fore is in a granulating ftate, they frequently perifli
without any vilible caufc. Thus, fays Mr. Hunter, a pcr-
fon may have on his leg a fore, which granulates well, the
granulations have a healtliy appearance, the fl^in is forming
round the edges, and every thing promifes well, when, all
at once, the granulations become livid, lofe their life, and
immediately llough off". In fome inllances, they are deftroy-
ed, partly by ulceration, and partly by mortification. Then
new granulations are frequently produced, and go through
limilar changes. Sometimes tliis happens tiu-ee or four times
in tlie fame perlon. Mr. Hunter in vain tried various me-
thods for rendering the granulations in fuch cafes m.ore du-
rable.

Suppuration and granulation are eflential for the cicatriza-
tion and union of almoft every wound, which has not been
united by the firll intention : a few fmall wounds and .

The difpofition which granulations have to unite with each fcratches, which heal under a fcab, being the only excep- "

other upon coming into contact, without the appearance of tions.

any intermediate animal lubllance, is perhaps effected, as Our author, in the following fcftion of his treatife on the

Mr. Hunter conjectures, in the following manner. When blood, notices, that cicatrization feems to be in view immedi-

two found granulations approach together, the mouths of ately after the granulations are formed. The parts which had

the fecretin^: veflels of the one coming to oppofe the mouths receded, in confequence of a breach being made in them, by

of fiuiilar veflels of the other, they are llimulatcd into ac-
tion, which is mutual ; fo that a kind of fympathetic at-
traction takes place, and as they are folids, the attraction of
cohefion is eftablillied between them. Tliis has been termed
iiiofculation. The veflels thus joined are altered from le-
creting to circulating. There are fome other furmifes ha-
zarded by Mr. Hunter refpcfting the rationale of this mi-
nute procefs of nature ; but the curious reader mull refer for
them to the author's own relation of the fubjeft.

Mr. Huntt-r informs us, that he has feen two granulations
t>D the head, .viz. one from the dura mater after trepanning,

2

their natural elallicity, and, probably, by mufcular contrac-
tion, now begin to be brought together by this new fubftance,
which loon contrafts. The contraclion takes place in every
joint, but principally from edge to edge, which brings the cir-
cumference of the fore towards tlie centre, fo that the fore
becomes fmaller and Imaller, although little or no new Ikin
may be formed.'

Tlie tendency in the granulations to contrail: is, in fome
degree, proportioned to the general healing difpofition of the
fore, and the loofenefs of the parts, on which they are form-
ed. When new flcln cannot be produced, the granulations

do

G R A

G R A

do not [o readily contraft, and, therefore, Mr. Hunter infers,
that tlieir contraction and the prodticlion of (Icin are pro-
bably efiefts of one caufe. The induration, occafioned by
inflammation, retards the contraftion of granulations, thougli
Mr. Hunter was inclined to think, that the circumdanee
did not arife fo much from a mechanical principle, as from
the diminution of the difpofition to the procefs occafioned
by the inlammation itfelf. Granulations, however, as tlie
fame writer explains, are fometimes undoubtedly retarded in
tlieir contraction by mechanical caufes, when formed on
parts naturally fixed, fuch as a bone ; for inftiuice, on the
fliull, the rtiin, &c.

When, by reafon of a lofs of fubftance, there is a deep
Iiollow fore, and the contraction of the granulations is con-
fiderably advanced, before they have had time to rife as
liifli as the flcin, the edges of the latter part are generally
, drav\'n down, and tuclced in by it, in the direclion of the
excavated farface of the fore.

If it is a cajity or abfcefs, which is granulating, witli
only a fmall opening, as often happens when the liirgeon
has neglecled to make a free af>erturc, the whole circum-
ference contracls, like the bladder of urine, till little or no
cavity remains ; and if any cavity is left, when the granula-
tions can contract no further, they unite witli fueh as are
oppofite to them.

This contraction in the granulations, fays Mr. Hunter, is
continued till the whole of a fore is healed, or Ikinned o^er ;
but it happens in the greatell degree in the beginning, when
there is lefs refiilance in the furrounding parts.

The contraftion of granulations may often be aflilled by
art, namely, by uling bandages, which tend to pulh, draw,
or keep the flcin near to. the fore which is healing.

Befides the contraftile power of the granulations, there
is a fimikr power in the furrounding edge of the cicatrizing
fliin, which afliils the contraftion ot the gi-anulations, and is
even more coufiderable, drawing the mouth of the wound
tO"-ether like a purfe, and fometimes, when the furface of the
fore is high, grafping the granulations.

The contratlile power of the (kin is chiefly confined to
the very edge, where it is healing. The furrounding old
flcin either docs not contraft at all, or not much, as is evi-
dent from its being thrown into folds and plaits, while the
new flcin is fmooth and fliining. The original fl<!n, having
little or no power of contraction, is a reafon why round
rores cannot to readily heal as long ones.

Mr. Hunter has explained, that the ufes, arifing from the
contraftion of granulations, are various.. It facilitates the
healino- of a fore, as there are two operations going on at
the fame time, -viz. contraftion and flcini^ing. It avoids the
formafion of much new flcin, an effeft which is very evident
in all fores which are healed, efpecially in found parts. When
a thick thigh, feven or eight inches in diameter, has been
amputated, the furface of the fore is of the fame width ; yet,
in the end, the cicatrix will be no broader than a crown-
piece, in confequence of the old Ik in becoming drawn over
the ulcer, by the contractile power of the granulations.
The advantage of this is coufiderable, fince fuch parts as are
originally formed are always much fitter for the purpofes of
life than thofe which are newly formed.

After all, a fore is covered with flcin, the fubftance, which
is the remains of the granulations on which the new (kin is
formed, ftiU continues to contraft, till hardly any thing
more is left than what tlie new flcin (lands upon. This is a
verv fmall part, in comparifun with the firft formed granula-
tions, and, in time, it lofes moll of its apparent velfels, be-
coming white and ligamentous. All new-healed fores ai-e at

firft redder than the common (kin, but aftervrards become
niucli whiter.

As the granulations contraft, the furrounding old fkin is
flretched to cover the part which is deprived of nitcgumcnts.
At fird, the flcin is brought little further than into tlic pofi.
tion from which it had receded, on the occurrence of the
wound ; but afterwards it becomes drawn mucli more con-
fiderably, being llretched and elongated. See Hunter's
Treatile on the Blood, Inflammation, &c. chap. 7.

GRANULES, in Geology, is a term which Mr. Whitc-
hurll, (" Enquiry,' ift edit. p. 180 ) and others, employ 10
exprefs the grains or minute lumps of llony matter, cora-
poling the fand ufuully found or. the furface of vailcvs, and
which is formed by attrition and tlie grinding down of
ftones of different kinds.

GRANIJI.OSE Ktx)T.-i, are thofe compofed of fmaller
kiiob.s than tlw grumofe one.s, and rofenibling fo many gl•ain^
ot corn •. of this fort is the white faxifrage.

GRANUM ViRiWK, in Botany, a name given by fomp
authors to the turpeiitine-tree. The fruit of tliis tree ■i^
redililh while unripe ; but as it ripens, it becomes of a deej*
blueilh-green colour, and hence tiie name.

GliANZA, in Gio-mpl.'y, a town of Africa, in tlie
country of ivlagadoxa.

GR,\NZOW, a town of tlie Ucker-Mark of Braiiden-
bury ; b' miles S. E. of Prcnzlow.

GRAO, a port of Spain, in Valencia, which carries
on a coalling trade along the Mediterranean ; on one
fide, on the coafls of Catalonia, RoufTillon, Languedoc,
as far as Marfellles ; and on the otlier fide, to Alicant, Car-
thagena, and Malaga : foine veffels even pafs the ftraits of
Gibraltar, into the Atlantic, and go to Cadi/r ; and fome-
times they go round I'ortu^l as far as tlie ports of Galicia.
The largell; of thefe {hips are fh).Ti ^o to 60 tons, each liav-
ing a crew not exceeding 1 1 men. They carry out wines,
filk, wool, dry fruits, and kali-; and return with linens,
woollens, iionraongery, fpices, and corn. Grao is pleafant
in fummer, on account of the lea-baths, w Inch draw together
a great nuinbtr of people for health or amufenient.

GRAPE, the fruit of the viae. See Vixe and Wi.ne.
See alfo Cli;k.\nts and R.\i.sin-.s.

Gii.VFK Hyac'mlh. See HvAf ikth"..

G\\.i\.?]i, Mangrove or fe.i^iJe. See CoccOLOB.t-

Gi;.\.PES, IVolf See LYto.sr.\i"i[YL..K.

GiiAPE-_ffl//j, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by air-
thors to a Ipecies of protuberances, refembling cJuiters i-f
grapes, and when ripe of a ivddiflt colour, which are found
hanging from the oak at fome feafons of the rear. Thefe
are genuine galls, though of a peculi.v kind, and owe their
origin to a very fmall four-^vinged black Hy. See Galls. .

GKAPEr/i'o/, in Aitillery, is a combination of fmall Ihot^
put into a thick canvas bag, and corded, llronglv together,
fo as to form a kind of c) linder, whofe diameter is equal to
tliatofthe ball adapted to the camion. The number of
Ihot in grape varies according to the fervice or fize of the
guns :^ in lea-fervice nine is always the number ; but by-
land it is increaled to any numl'er or llze, from an ounce and
a quarter in weight to tluve or four pounds. In fca-fervice,
the bottoms and pins are made of iron, whereas thofe ufed
by land are of wood.

Gk.\pE;/.'5;.y, Botrites, is a fort of llalaginitcs, which
eflervelces with acids, accoi-ding to Dr. Grew, " Rarities of
Grefliam College," p. 3C4. It is .alfo the naine of certain
botroidal llalactites, which are fometimes met with, pendant,
from tlie roofs of caverns in lime-llcie difiricts.

GliAPES, in the Alanegc, a term ufed to fignify tlie arrets or
mangy tumours that happen in a hort's legs. See A-RHet.<.,

GRA—

G R A

GRAPHICAL Perspectivk, in Ophcs, is an inftrument
defcribi.-a by Mr. Martin, conlilliiig of a tube containing
two convex knfes, whicl; arc placed at twice their focal dif-
tance from each other ; and in their common focus is another
glafs, divided into equ:d parts witli the point of a diamond.
'J'hough this iii'irument does not magnify any object, yet
the angle \inder which an objeA is feen is eafily known by
it ; and lu.ce this angle varies with the diftance of objeAs, it
is eai'ily applied to the purpofe of meafiiring inacccflible
lielghts and dillances ; and ilnce the field of view is divided
into equal fquares, it is ufeful in drawing the perlpeftive
appearance or objecls. Moreover, as all foreign light is ex-
cluded by the tube in which thefe lenfes are incloied, pic-
tures feen through it have a fine relievo, on which account,
and alio bccaufe objects appear inverted through it, the
images of a camera obfcura are viewed with it to peculiar ad-
vanta-re. If a lens of a greater focal length be fixed at a
prop °r dlftanco from the centre of the tube, this inif rument
will be a telefcope, and will magnify the prints which are
looked at through it ; and if a fmall lens be ufed, it will be
a microfcope, and the fame micrometer will ferve for them
both. Martin's Optics, cliap. xvii. p. 280, &c.

GRx\PHIDA, in Natural H'ljlory, a name by which fome
authors have called the mcrochthus, or French chalk.

GRAPH IS, in Botany, from y^x^-x, to write, a name in-
vented by Adanfon, who is pleafed to fpell it gmjis, and
adopted by Ehrhart, for the various fpecies comprehended
under the Lichen fcriptus of Linnasus, and which conllitute
the very diftinft genus of Opegrapha in Acharius; fee Eng.
Bot. v. 25, 26. t. 1753, &c.

GRAPHISCUS, in the Writings of the Ancients, a name
given to an inftrument ufed for extracting darts from wounds.
It is faid to have been the invention of Diodes, and is de-
fcribed by Celfus.

GRAPHITE. See Plumb.\go.

GRAPHOIDES, -/p.?ioeJ.r, in Anatomy, an appendage
of the bones of the temples, long, fmall, (harp, and a little
crooked, like a cock's fpur ; called 3.UoJIy hides.

The fame name is fometimes alfo applied to the mufculus
d'gaftricus.

Likewife to an extcnfion of the brain, refembhng a writ-
ing pen.

GRAPHOMETER, a name which fome authors, par-
ticularly the French, give to a furveying inftrument, by us
commonly called a /fw;V;;r/f ; which fee. Mr. Nicholfon, in
the fifth volume of his '• Journal,'' 8vo. has defcribed, and
tUuftrated by appropriate figures, a fubterranean grapho-
met^r, invented by M. Komarzown<i, F. R. S. and pre-
fent.;d to the National Inftitute of France. It is a fimple
conftruction of the common theodolite (which fee), and is
calculated to a.ifwer the author's intentions in operations
like thofe of mining, where great accuracy is net required.
In vol. i. of the fame "Journal,'' we have the deicription
of an inftrument refembling a graphometer, invented by
Cit. Caranfeau, for determining the mutual inclination of
the faces of a cryltal, or its prominent angles ; it confifts
of two concentric, equal quadrantal arcs joined by a hinge ;
to which are applied compafs-legs or radii, capable of
being fliortened to apply to fmall cryftals, &;c. See Go-
KlOitETiin. See alfo /"tof VI. Cry/l/illography,fig.r)^.

GRAPNEL, or Gkai'LING, on Ship-boanI, a kind of
fmall anchor for boats or gallies to ride by. It differs from
other anchors, as having four or five flukes and no fnack,
though there are fome witli th.ree flukes, with which they
ufe to fweep for havvfcrs or fmall cables. In men of war
alfo, the grapnels, or at lead a lighter kind of them, whofc

G R A

flukes are furnif.ied with ftrong barbs on their points, arr
uled to be thrown into an enemy's fhip, in order to catch
hold of fome of her gratings, rails, gun-wales, &c. this is
done in order to boardirg of her. They are particularlv
ufeful in nre-fliips, and cnlled firc-grapplings.

GRAPPLE, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to grap-
ple with one or both legs, wh?n he catches or raifes them
more haftily and higlier than ordinary, as if he were cur.
vetting.

G RAPTOLITHT, in Natural Hi/lory, are the petrificata
fifta of LinnsEUS and others ; as dendrita-, landfcape -marble,
dcndropotamiles, Sec. al! wh;ch, acconling to Mr. William
Martin, " Outlines,'' p. 8. Ihould be excluded from the
lift of extraneous follils.

GRASS, GiiAMKN, in Botany, See Gramina.

To enumerate all the fpec''S of grafs which are found
growing naturally in England, would greatly e.vceed the
bounds which can be allowed for this article ; it will fuffice,
tlierefore, to mention a few fpecies, which are either ufed in
medicine, or cultivated as a pabulum for cattle ; for there
is fcavcely a pafiure in tliis country where great numbers
of diflerent fpecies are not to be found intermixed. Mr.
Rav has ranged them in the following order, 172. wheat-
erafs, rye-grafs, darnel-grafs, panick-grafs, canary-grafs,
fox-tail grafs, cat's-tail grafs, hedge -hog grafs, crefted.
grafs, oat-grals, cock's-foot-grafs, buck-grafs, and millet-
grafs. Thele and other graffes Linnxus has arranged into
diftinct genera. See the following articles :

Gra.s.s, Arroiv-headed. See Triglochix.

Gras.s, Bent. See Agho.stis.

Gr.\.s.s, Bird. See BlRD-^r^.

Gha.s.s, Canary. See Piial.vris.

Ghas.s, Capon's -I ail. See Fe.stl'CA,

GltA.s.s, Cat's-tail. See Phleu.m.

Gr.\.ss, Clover. See Trefoii..

Gr.\.s.s, Ccck's-tail. See Dactyli.s.

Gras.s, Cotton, See Eriophorum,

Gra.ss, Couch. See Triticum.

Gra.s.s, Crejled. See DoG's-/i;;/-^ri7/}.and Cvno.<>x'rt;.s.

Gr.vs.s, Dog's. See Triticum and Agrosti.^.

Gr.v.ss, Sea-dog's, a name fometimes given to the double
fpiked fccale, or rye. See Secale.

Gra.ss, Dog's-tail. See Doo' i-tail-gra/s and Cyxo.SURUS,

Grass, FeJ'cue. See Festuca.

Grass, Fo.v-tail. See Alopecurus.

Gra.ss, Goofe. See Asperuoo.

Grass, Hair. See AlRA.

Grass, Hare's-lail. See Lagurus.

Gr.Vss, Knot. Sec PoLYGONU.M.

Gr.ass, Knot, German. See SrLEU.WTllfS,

Grass, Knot, Mountaitt, and Verlicillate. See liLE*

CEIIRU.M.

Grass, Love, or Quahng. See Brij^.v.
Grass, Meadniv. See PoA.
Gra.ss, Hard meadoiv. See Cvnoslrus.
Grass, Millet. See MiLR-.M.

Grass, Oat, a name given to a fpecies of the feftuca.
See alfo A\"KN.\.

Gr.\.ss, Panic. See P.^nklm.

Gr.\s.s of Parnajfm. See Parn'A.^sia.

Gr.\ss, Pepper. See Pii.VLARl.v.

Gr.\ss, Pudding. See Mentha.

Gra.s.s, Quaking. Sec Briza.

Gra.ss, Rattle. Sec Pedicularis.

Gha.ss, Rujh. See S( iRPL.s.

Grass, Rye, or Ray. See Loliu.m and Hordkum.

Gr.\ss, Scorpion. See Scorpiukus.

Gras.";^

G R A S S.

Grass, Scorpion, Moiife-tar. See Mtosotis.
GuAScS, Scurvy. See Cochleauia.
Grass, Shave. See Equisetlm.
Gkass, SilL See Apocyxu.m.
Grass, Sword. See Gladiolus.
Grass, TrefSd. See Trefoil.
Grass, Vernal. See iiN-riioxANTiiUM.
Grass, Veich. See Latiiyrus.
Grass, Vip.r's. See Scoh2oxera.
Grass, IVbltlow. See Draba.
Grass, ll'hiilow, Rue-kavsd. See Saxifraga.
Grass, IVorm. See Spigelia.
Grass, Wrack. See Zostera.

Grass, in ylgricuhure, a generiJ name applied to thofe her-
baceous plants thai are employed in the feeding and fattening
of neat cattle, flieep, &c. It lias been long lince remarked in
an able tract on the grafies of this country, " that much
of our meadow and pallure-land may be rendered inlinitcly
more valuable than it is at prefent, by the introduction of
fome of the be'l grafTes which v.e poflefs ; and that this is
an opinion which has long prevailed among many of the
more enlightened agricultnrills of the prefent agt, foiae of
whom liave endeavoured to excite the hufoaadmaa to coUeft
and cultivate feeds of this fort, by writings fraught with
the foundell retifoning ; while others iiave attempted to at-
tract him by the oifei-s of well-directed premiun-js ; but that
hitlierto neither the writings of the one, however convincing,
nor the premiums of the other, however alluring, have, as the
author thinks, been productive of the defired effect." And
" Mr. Stillingfleet fays, it is wonderful to fee how long man-
kind has neglected to make a proper advantage of plants of
fuch importance, and which in alnioit every country are the
chief food of cattle. Tlie farmer, for want of diftinguifliing
and felecting graiTcs for feed, fills his pailures either with
weeds, or bad or improper graffes ; when by making a right
choice, after fome ti'iais, he might be fure of the bed grafs,
and in the greatell abundance that his. land admits of. At
prefent, if a farmer wants to lay down his land to grals,
what does he do ? He cither takes his feeds indifcriminately
from his own foul hay-rick, or fends to his next neighbour
for a fupply. By this means, befides a certain mixture of
all forts of rubbitli, which mull iieceJarily happen ; if he
chances to have a large proportion of good feeds, it is not
unlikely but that what he intends for dry land may come
from moitt, v.'here it grew naturally, and the contrary.
This is fuch a flovenly method of proceeding, as one would
think cotild not poifibly prevail univer(ally ; yet this is the
cafe as to all graffes, except the dirncl-grafs, and what is
known in fome few counties by the name of the Suffolk-
grafs {poa annua) ; and this latter inftance is owing, it is
believed, more to the foil than any care of the hufbandman.
Now, continues he, would the farmer be at the pains ot
feparating once in his life half a pint or a pint of the dif-
ferent kinds of grafs-fceds, and take care to fow tht m
feparately ; In a very little time he Vi-oi:ld have .wherewithal
to ilogk liis farm properly, according to the nature of each
foil, and might at the fame time Ipread thefe feeds feparately
over the nation by fupplying the feed-fliops. The number
of graffes fit for the farmer is, he believes, fmali ; perhaps
half a dozen, or half a fcore, are all he need to cultivate ;
and how fmall the trouble would be of fuch a talk, and
how great the benefit, mufl be obvious to every one at firil
fight. Would not any one be looked on as wild, who
fhould fow wheat, barley, oats, rye, peas, beans, vetches,
buck-wheat, turnips, and weeds of all forts together ? Yet
how is it much lefs abfurd to do what is equivalent in rela-
tion to graffes.''
Vol. XVI,

It is alfo affcrtcd by Mr. Kent, that meadow and psHurc-
' lian plouglicd ground, notwi;hlL-!iid-

land is oftener neglected tli:

ing It generally admits of a much'grciUT proporticii of in,
provement. The belt graffes cannot be coll.cicd at Um
great an expencc ; for he has feen a fmall fpot of land, in ijie
middle of a large piece, which was laid down twelve or
fourteen years fiiice, by the writer noticed above, upon aa
eihite in Herefordlhire, with fome choice feeds, at the fime
time wlien the remainder of the field was laid down with
common feeds ; and that this fpot isconfiderably Letter lliaa
the reil. From thefe experiments, and his own obfervationi,
he is clearly of opinion, that any perfon who has land ca'cu-
lated for grafs may improve it, by this method of la)irg it
down, to a much greater degree than he can in the comn.on
way. Dr. Anderlon has likewife obfcrved, in the fecoiid
volume of his tffay.s, that although it is probable, that nor.e
of the graffes that have been hitherto cultivated by the
farmer are of the moll proper kind for palturage ; vet there
is little rcaftjn to doubt but that many of the moff'valuabic
kinds for this purpofe woidd admit of. being cultivated wit!»
the fame eafe as fome of thofe are with which we are well
acquainted, if they were properly feparated from others, and
cultivated with equal care. But fo long as we fiiall remain
ignorant of the peculiar qualities of each kind of grafs, fo
as not to be able to dillinguifli the good from the bad, it \i
not furpriling, tliat we ihould remain firmly pcrfuaded that
nature alone can provide valuable paftures, and that age i.
fo effentially neceffary for bringing them to their ultimate
perfedtion. For, if we allow our fields to remain uncultivat-
ed, without having fowed them with any kind of grafs-feeds,
it muft ever happen, that the feeds of fuch graffes as are
brought by the wind, or otherwife, from the nt iglibouririg
fields, will there take root, and in time eftablifh thcmfelvcs.
And as it may fometimcs happen, that fome of the ir.oft v.dti-
able pafture -graffes may' there abound; the fieU, in tliefc
cafes, will become filled with their feeds, and in due time may
afford the moft valuable pafture. But if bad kirds of graffei
flioiild abound in the neighbourhood more than the good,
the field will as naturally become filled with the feeds of
thefe ufelefs plants. And as a. number of thefe are hardy
and abiding plants, if the field is once filled with them, the
pafture will be, of confequence, always of little value, if
it (liould be allowed to remain undiilurbed for any length of
time. Let the reader, therefore, coi.fider how numerous
the circumftanccs are that muft accidentally concur together
before it is pofTib'e to cxpe£t a very fine fiild of pallure-
grals, if left to nature, and then he will perceive 1io\t
improbable it is that all thefe (liould concur to produce
their full effect in any one field whatever. There muft
be no roots of bad gr;.ffes, nor feeds <>f robiift annuals, in
the foil when it is L'ft out from tillage ; and the feeds of the
moft valuable kinds of graffes muft be in the neighbourhood in
fuch abundance as to fill the whi le field fufiiciently at once.
Nor is this alb For as there is, no doubt, a confiderable
variety of valuable kinds of grafs, fome of which are naturally-
fitted to grow to pcrfeftioii on one kind of foil, or upot>
that foil when in certain circumftanccs, while others would
thrive bell upon another foil, or upon that toil only in cer-
tain peculiar circumftanccs ; it muft fo happen, that thefe
very plants which arc belt adapted to the foil in 'the ftatc it
may be in at the time, fhould be found in abundance in the
neighbourhood of the field. Neitlier mult there be found
near that, any fort of robuftquick-growirg plant, the feeds
of which, by being b!o»vn upon that field, might fuddcnly-
rnniup and fufi'ocate in their infancy thefe tender and valu-
able plants. Nor muil there, be found any bad kinds oF
grafs, that, by being eftablifhed along with the good in
4 L ■ any

G R /\ S S.

any tjroportion, niTglit tend to diminijh the value of the its merks compared with the otliers. However this may he,

there appears to be no reafon for exchiding the others ; for
it would appear exceedingly improbable, that of upwards of

a hundred graffes, taking the word grafs in its Itrift fenfc,
that are growing wild in this country, the Author of nature
fliould have creatc;d only one as fuitable to be cultivated for

palhire.

" Now, let any one refleft on the infinite diverfity thefe
few particulars may admit of, and think how utterly impol-
iible it is th;;t all the favoiu-able circunillances, without any
of thofe that are unfavourable, fhould concur in any one

cafe, and he will acknowledge, that thofe who found their pafturage or fodder. Since this period, however, moft of

hope of obtaining the moll valuable palhires only upon the the£fiatural graffLS have been cultivated for the purpofe of

fortuitous concurrence of all thefe circumltances, or who affording feed, which may be procured genuine from many

inian-ine that every pailure which is old nuill, on that ac- feedsmen in moft places. Taking it for granted then, that

count, of necefPity be good.aft in direc\ contradiftion to the there are other graffes fuperior in many rcfpefts to the ray-

plaineft dictates of reafon and conimon-fenfe. For, although it grafs, this quelHon naturally ariies — How comes it that they

thould be allowed that the graiTes hitherto cultivated are not have not found their way into general ufe ? To this it may be

of the moll proper fort for forming good paiUuvs, and that anfwered, improvements in any fcience, but more efpeciaily

therefore, on fome occalions, much better natural pad nres in agriculture, are flow in their advances; and perhaps

may be met with than could be forined by means of any of no clafs ot men adheres more pertinaciouily to old pre-

thefe ; yet it by no means follows from thence, that if the judices than that of farmers, and the difficulty ©f

farmer were perfecllv acquainted with the value and dillin- dillinguifliing tlie grades from each other has, too, no doubt,

guilTiiiio- qualities of i-ich kind of natural grafs, and knew the proved one grand obilacle : many of tiiefe plants are fo

foil and culture that bell agreed with it, the moil proper much alike, that the moil difeerning botaniil is often at a

manner of rearing it, and every other particular relating to Uiis to knuw iome of them apai't : if fo, how eafily may the

the economy thereof, he might not perhaps have it in his power luifbandman be deterred from the arduous talk ! There is

to form artificial paftures as much excelling the natural as anotl^er caufe alfo which may have operated againll their

thefe la'.l at prefent ufually exceeded the former. For were introduftion : graffes, as well as other plants, have been

he i>ofrefred of the knowledge above fnppofcd, he could at frequently recommended from a parti;>.l and limited obfer-

once fill the foil with the feeds of thofe Valuable graffes vation of them, by perfons who neitiier knew them well

which he knew were bed adapted to it, and thus effeftually as botanills or agricultura-Hils, or who have rccom-

excl'.ide the adniiihou of every uftlefs plant, or pernicious mended them, merely to gain by the credulity of the

kind of grafs, that might be brought from the neighbouring public. But, perhaps, the chief reafon has been, that

fields by the wind, or other accidental caufeS. perfons who might be expefted to make the improve.

" Let us, therefore, inflead of contenting onrfelves on all mcuts, have not had the means fairly put into their hands to

occafions with fuch paftures or grafs-Iand* as nature may af- make the experiment, there not having been any eafy iceans

ford, rather iludy to improve tliofe that are indifferent, by of obtaining fuck forts of grafs-feeds as may be mofl fnit-

cndeavouring to obtain a knowledge of fuch plants as might alile for the purpofe. It appears, however, that in the herbage

afford the moft valuable pafture, and cultivating thefe with of good meadows, or grafs-lands, there ihould be a combina-

affiduity and care. The inattention of the improving farmers tion of produce, balcablenel^, and early growth. The firll

in Great Britain to this fubjeft has been truly ama/.ing. is, in moll cafes, the agriculturaliirs grand objeft — and no

But it is hoped the attempts that have been made by fome wonder, fince it is the quantity chiefly which enables him to

late writers may have the effedl of turning their attention to pay his rent, and fupport his cattle: to obtain this, the ju-

a fubjeft of fuch great importance ; with regard to which, dicious luifbandman i'pares no expence in labour or manure;

they will then doubtlefs make many valuable improve- But it does not follow that produce is to be attended to

ments. It is, however, to be feared, that till fome attempt
fliall be made to nfcertain the particular qualities and pecu-
liarities of the different kinds of gi-afles, the public will be
often impofed upon by fpeeious accounts of new graffes,
which mav be really poffelfcd of few valuable qualities, and
mav very much tend to difeourage the inquirer. It is con-

folely, or that, for its fake, we are to cultivate rough, cock's-
foot grafs, meadow-fweet, and fuch coarfe plants. Graffes
which have been recormuended for being remarkably grate-
ful to cattle, as the flieep's-fel'cue grafs, or for the iweet-
nefs of their foliage merely, if they are found to be defici-
ent in the grand article of produce, will never anfwer the

feqneully neceflary, to ftrenuoufly endeavour to dilcover farmer's or gra/.ier's purpofe, fince to be a good meadow it

what are the particular purpofes for which any one plant mull be productive. Cattle, in regard to food, doubtlefs

could be deem.'d valuable, ajid in what refpefts it might be have their particular likings, though we cannot properly

looked upon as of no value at all : For, as there is no plant judge of It, iu which it may be neceifary fometimcs to indulge

that can be alike ufeful on all occafions, if we lofe fight of thci.- ; but this practice muft not be carried too far ; for as

this moft neceifary difluitlion, it may often happen, that we the farmer cannot afford to feed his ploughmen on pigs and

may attempt to rear a particular plant tor purpofe-. which it poultry, neither can he indulge his cattle in general with the

was never ijtted to anfiver ; and our want of fuccefs in thefe finer or more delicate liay or herbage. By the bye, we do

trials may fha^e it be entirely rejedted, even in cales for which not know but that the moll produiftive graffes may alfo be the

it was extremely proper and beneficial. moft nutritious, or that cattle will not as eagerly eat the

It is ftated that ray-grafs continues to be the only grafs herbage or hay made of the meadow fox-tail grafs, as of

whofe feeds c;uj be purchafed for the purj ofe of laying the fine bent [agrojlis cap'illaris), and procumbent trefoil

down meadow and pallure-land ; and how inadequate that {trifoliuin prociimbcns). Moreover, cattle are known fre-

grafs is for fuch a purpofe is known to every intelligent quently to thrive on food to which they are habituated by

farmer. Why indeed the loltitm perenne (ray or rye-grafs) neceflity, though at fii ft they could fcarcely be prevailtd en

Ihould originally have been made ufe of in preference to all to touch it. Perfons, in making experiments, are very apt,

the other graifcs, cannot, perhaps, be fatisfaftorily account- as has been already obferved, to conclude too haftily front

ed for : moft probably it owes its int roduclion to accident, or the appearance which a plant alfumes on its being firft planted

to its being a common grafs whofe feeds were eafily coUefted, or fown ; the moft infignlficant vegetable will often make a

rather than to it's being preferred from any invelligation of great fhovv, when its fibres have ire fh earth to fhoot into;

5 but

GRASS.

\i\it tlie tria! comes wTien t!ic objp(!^ of ourexperimpnt has
be;'n in a meadow or palUiro feveral years, v. licii its li'nrcs
from long growth arc mattod togetlicr, and it meets with
powerful neighbours to dilpute every inch of ground with
it : if it then continues to be produdtive, it muft. have merit.
We fee that lucern, when Ictt to itfelf, is foon overpow-
ered ; if we fow broad-'.eavcd clover, which is nioft undoubt-
edly a perennial, the firfl year We (liall have a great crop of
clover ; let this field be loft to itfelf, and the clover, like tiie
Incern, will yearly diminilh, not becaufeit is a biennial, as
fome have fuppofed, but becauie plants hardier or more con-
genial to the loilufurp its place : this (hews, then, tliat at the
fame time that we introduce a good plant, that plant uuiil
alfo be a powerful one, able to keep polfefTion, and conti.
nue to be produdlive.

With regard to the fecond quality, or that of the cattle's
thriving on the food they eat ; this is, undoubtedlv, of great
confequence, and it is to be regretted that our kno\vledge of
the moil nutrient herbage is fo limited: of thofe plants which
have been cultivated, we are able to fpeak with fome cer-
tainty ; it is well known that clover, lucern, faintfoin, tares,
and feveral other plants, have a tendency to fatten cattle ;
but what gratfes, or other plants, which have not been iub-
jefted to a feparate cultivation, have this particular tendency,
remains to be afcertained bv experiment. But as legumi-
nous plants, in general, are found to agree with cattle, we
may reafonably conclude that a certain quantity of them
muff be proper in pallures. Certain pailures are found to
be more bateable or feeding than otiiers ; but whether this
arifes from fituation, or their particular produce, remains
alfo to be difcovercd by further obfervation.

Refpefting the third quality, or the early growth of
plants, as the farmers and graziers unitedly complain of the
want of early herbage in the fpring ; thofe plants, therefore,
which are found to put forth early foliage, and to be grate-
ful to cattle, are delerving of great attention. As far as
graffes are concerned, the fweet-fcented vernal, the meadfnv
tox-tail, the fmooth and rough-ftalked meadow-grals, will
e^^ecl all that can be expefted from thofe of Britifli growth:
much, very much, howe»er, will depend on feafons : if the
winter be very fevere, or north-eafterly winds prevail in the
fpring, graffy herbage will be backward : to counteract tb.e
bad effecls of fuch feafons, our pallures fliould be warmly
fituated, not drenched with moillure, fheltered by thick
hedges, and divided into fniall enclofures: in lliurt, a fet of
enclofures fliould be formed for this very purpofe, where
there is a profpeCl of its anfwering the deligns of the culti-
vator. But where early paihirage is the dellderatum, otiier
plants, as well as graffes, may deferve a place amongfl them,
as rib-wort, or rib-grafs (plantago lancfulala), dandelion
{leontodon taraxacum), broad-leaved clover [trifolitim pratinje),
with many others of the fame kind. And as an earlv her-
bage, though it is valuable for pallurage, is no lefs fo for
hay ; by the middle of May at furthell, a meadow of this
fort wovild be fit for mowing, and the fecond hay-making
might commence by the time that hay-making ufually takes
place in the country. The writer has fometimes thought,
but perhaps the idea is too fpcculative, that we ought to
have two forts of meadows, one for liay, the other for
paflure ; that our hay-meadows (Iwuld confill entirely of
graffes, and chiefly for this rcafon, that the hay would on
that account be much foouer made ; an objeft of confe-
quence at all times, but more fo when the procefs com-
mences in May. In June and .Inly the more powerful heat
of the fun is able to exficcate the thick leaves and llalks of
the more fucculent plants ; but, in the neceflary prolonga-
tion of this bufinefs, the graffes mull materially fuiior. But

for the purpofe of pafturagf , thf attentron of the apricultor
(ho\ild be chiefly directed to fuch forts of graffes as have the
propenfity of running to leaves, in preference to fuch a«
abovuid more in flowcr-ftalks or ftems.

The fame writer flates, that if we examine our meadows,
pallures, and downs, we fliall find them pretty much in a
Hate of nature, and, excepting thofe paflure.i which of later
years have been fown with ray-grafi and clover, full of an
indifcriminate mixture of plants, fome of which afford good,
others bad food, fonic good crops, others fcarcely any crops
at nil : but that he may not be thought to fpeak at random
on this fubject, he will ilate a few facts to corroborate what
he has aflertcd. His worthy and much-cflcemrd friend,
Tliomas White, cfq. with a view to afccrtain the produce
of fell ral downs and commons fed on by fheep, procured,
from each of thofe under-mentioned in Hampfhire ai.dSaffcx,
a turf, which, tliough not more than fix inches in diameter,
and chofin i\idlferiminately, produced, on being planted ia
his garden, as follows :

Different Turfs.

Turf from Scllorn-Conimon. — Plantago lanceolata, agroflis
capillaris, avena tfuvcfcens, dactvlis glomerata, feiluca du-
riufcula, poa annua, cynofurus criftatus, trifolinm repcns,
crepis teclorum, acliillea millefolium, galium verum, hypo-
ch-.eris r:idicata, hieracium pilofclla, thymus ferpyllum.

Turf from OaL'.'angcr. — 'IVifolium repens, holcus lanatus,
poa annua, agrollis capillaris, agrodis paluflris.

Turf from Dtfurlun. — Ranunculus repens, lolium perenne,
holcus lunatus, prunella vulgaris, feiluca duriufcula, agroflis
paluflris, triiolium repens, crepis tettorum, achillea mille-
folium.

'Turf from Clynd-hill. — Medicago lupulina, achillea miile-
folium, poa pralenfis.

'Turf from the farr.e Avena flavefcens, feftuca duriufcula,

fefluca ovina, hieracium pilofella, agroflis capillaris, trifo.
hum repens, thymus ferpyllum.

Turf from Short-Heath. — Feiluca bromoidcs, aira prxcox,
juncus campeilris, poa annua, agrollis capillaris.

Turf from Mount Cahroti. — Rumcx acetofa, daucus carota,
medicago lupulina, poterium fanguiforba, feiluca duriufcula,
avena flavefcens.

Turf from Ringmcr-Do-j.m — Linum catharticnm, fcabiofa
columbaria, ornithopus perpiriillus, avena flavefcens, fefluca
duriufcula, tvifolium repens, hypochxris radicata, crepis
teftorum, lotus corniculatus, iuncus campeilris, hieracium
pilofclla, feftuca ovina, thymus ferpyllum, poa pratenfis.

It is, perhaps, no fmall recommendation to the poa Iri-
i-'uilis, that it ia a principal grafs in that uncommonly pro<luc-
tive meadow near Salifbury, nifntioncd by Stillingflect, and
more particularly defcribed in the firil volume of tiie Memoirs
of the Bath Agiicultund Society. And tliat the account
given of the extraordinary fertility of this meadow excited
his curiofity, and induced him to requetl a gentleman rcfid-
ing near the fpot to favour him with fix fmall turfs, cut up
in different part'', of the faid meadow, and which beiii^j
planted in his garden, .it Lambeth-Marfli, produced 'as
follows :

DilftifHt Turfs.

Turf I . — Poa trivialis, ranunculus acrls, triticum «-e{>cns,
agroflis paluflris.

Turf 2. — Poa trivialis, alopeciu-us pratenfis, triticiiiH
rcjiens.

'Turf 3. — Poa trivialis, agroflis paluflris.

Turf 4. — Poa trivialis, triticum repens, peucedanurj
iilaus.

4 L C Tur/^.~~

GRASS.

Turf ^. — Poa trivialij, alopfcurus pratenfis, agroftis pa-
luftris, avena elatior, triticum repens.

This experiment proves, in a great degree at leafl, what
be long before fuipected, that the extraordinary fertility of
this meadow arofc not from any new grafs peculiar to it,
but from fevcral unufual circumftances concurring and
favouring in an uncommon degree the growth of certain
well-known grafTes, efpecially the poa trivialis and agroilis
paluftris ; confequently, in the forming and improving of
grafs-lands, the moll certain plan will be to cultivate the
feeds of fuch gralTcs as may be mod adapted to them, and
afterwards fow them at proper feafons upon the lauds, when
they have been put into a fuitable condition for their recep-
tion.

The direftions given are, that if a piece of ground can
be had that is neither very moiii nor very dry, it will anfwer

for all the feeds ; they may then be fown on one fpot : but praUnfis, or mcadow-fefcue grafs ; and the cytwfunis criflalus,
if fuch a piece cannot be obtained, they mail be fown on or crefted dog's-tail grafs ; of which reprefcntations may
feparate fpots, according to their relpeftive qualities, no be feen at j^j, I, 2, 3, m Plate, Crops, Agriculliire, and
matter whether in a garden, a nurfery, or a field, provided Jigs. I, 2, 3, in Plate Grajfis ; but more full accounts of them
it be well fecured and clean. Dig up the ground, level, may be found by referring to their different botanical titles.

which be was far from being the only one that entertaincii
the fanguine hopes of its proving a great national advantage.
The gniffeshe has recornmended will, he is confident, do all
that our natural graffes can do : they are iix of thofe which
conftitute the bulk of our bell paftures ; molt of them ar»
early, all of them are produftive, and they are adapted to
fuch foils and fituations as are proper for meadows and
paftures. But, let no one expeft them to perform wonders j
for after all they are but graffes, and as fuch are liable to
produce great or fmall crops, according to particular feaions,
or to the fertility or barrenneis of the loil on which they are
fown and cultivated.

This lift comprehends the anihoxaiithum oiloratum, or fweet-
fcented vernal-grafs ; the ahpccurus pratetifis, or meadow fox-
tail grafs; ihi poa prateiifs, or fmooth-ilalked meadow grafs;
the/ioa trivialis, or rough-ftalkcd meadow grafs ; ihefejlma

and rake it ; then fow each kind of feeds thinly in a feparate
row, each row nine or twelve inches apart, and cover them
over lightly with the earth ; the latter end of Auguft or
beginning of September will be the molt proper time for
this buhnefs. If the weather be not uncommonly dry, the
feeds will quickly vegetate ; and the only attention they will
require will be to be carefully weeded : in about a fortnight
from their coming up, fuch of the plants as grow thickly
together may be thinned, and thofe which are taken up
tranfplanted, fo as to make more rows of the fame grafs.
If the winter fhould be very fevere, though natives, as leed-
lings, they may receive injury ; therefore it will not be amifs
to protect them with mats, fern, or by fome other contriv-
ance. Advantage fhould alfo be taken of the firft dry
weather in the fpring, to roll or tread them down, in order
to faften their roots in the earlh, v.'hich the froit generally
loofens ; care muft ilill be taken to keep them perfeftly clear
from weeds. As the fpring advances, many of them will
tjirow up their flowering items, and fome of them will con-
tinue to do fo all the fumm.er. As the feed in each fpike or
panicle ripens, it muft be very carefully gathered, and fown
in tiie autumn, at which time the roots of the original plants,
which will now bear feparating, fliould be divided and trani-
plawted, fo as to form more rows : the roots of the fmoolh-
Jlalked meadow-grafs in particular, creeping like couch-
grafs, may readily be increafed in this way ; and thus, by
degrees, a large plantation of thefe graffes may be formed,
and much feed colleiSled for theaife of the agricultor. But
a more ready way, according to a late writer, is, for the
farmer to notice that fpecies of grafs moft affefted by his
foil, and carefully to gather the feed from a piece of old
meadovv', purpofely left three or four weeks longer than
common, or at leaft long enough to become fufHcicntly ripe.
He fhould not fcruple the trouble of felefting the heads as
they lie in the fwath ; but they who deiire not to be fo par-
ticular, will threfli out the feed together, cither in the licld
cr before it fhall have heated in the mow. And good feeds
of different forts of gi-affes may now alfo be procured from
different feedsmen in large towns and other places ; but the
collection fold under the title of hny-feeds ihould never be
trulted to in any refpeft. Mr. Curtis, from the numerous
applications that were made to him by gentlemen for grafs-
feeds, was induced to felect fuch as appeared to him the
moft ufeful, and thereby rendered the public an elfential
fervice. He wiflied at lealt to put it in their power to
decide on a matter which kad been long agitated, and ijrom

in different parts of the work.

But of the above grafles, the meadow fox-tail and rouo-h»
ftalked meadow grafs are iitteft for moift land; the meadow-
fefcue, or fiveet-fcented vernal, are the moft proper for
land either moift or moderately dry ; and the fmooth-ftalked
meadow-grafs and crefted dog's-tail are thofe that £.re bell
fuited for dry paftures and other Cmilar lands.

It is, however, fuppofed, that in the more fouthern parts
of the kingdom we may in vain expetl to clothe dry foils
with the conftant verdure of graffes; they will not itand the
drouglit of hot parching fummers: in fuch feafons, they are
only plants which fend down roots to a great depth that
can be expefled to look green or be productive, as the lotus
cvmiculatiis, medicago falcata, and fome others.

The order of flovsering in the above graffes is: 1. Swcet-
fcented vernal. 2. Meadow fox-tail. 3. Smooth-ftalked
meadow. 4. Rough-llalked meadow. 5, Meadow-fefcue.
6. Crefted dog's-tail.

It is obferved that many more graffes m.ight be added to
this lift, and thofe too which perhaps might be highly de-
ferving of it; but he has his doubts, whether by recom-
mending more he might not increafe the difficulty of intro-
ducing grafs-feeds without any adequate advantage in re-
turn.

But befides thefe, the fcjluca ovina, or flieep's-fefcue
grafs; \\xe fefluca duriiijcula , or hard-feicue grafs; i\\t poa
ceinprijfa, or flat-meadow grafs ; the poa palujlris, or marfii-
meadow grafs; the phleum iwdifum, or knot-grafs; and the
lolium pereime, or rye-grafs, which is an ufeful grafs in many
cafes; may all be employed with advantage. They may
be feen ?itjigs. 1, 2, 3, in PLitc Grrjfvs, and mJ^s. 1, 2, 3,
in Plait- Grajfds.

And in the fecond volume of his Eifays on Rural Affairs,
Dr. Anderfon has likewife given defcriptions of many others,
which, he conceives, may be beneficially employed in form-
ing grafs-lands, fuch as the alopccunis lulhofus, or bulbous
fox-tail grafs; the fejluca rulra, or purple fefcue-grafs ;
the holcus mollis, or creeping foft grafs ; the pltmtago anguf-
tifolia and tcnuifoUa, or narrow-leaved and fmall grafs-leaved
plantain or rib-grafs; and the poa procumlsus, or creeping-
meadow grafs.

In a valuable " Effay on the Converflon of Grafs-Land

into Tillage,'' inferted in the Communications to the Board

of Agriculture, vol. iii. part i. the following detail of

feveral plants of the grafs kind is.given, with the foils they

4 art

GRASS,

are moft proper for, or oa which they fucceed to the greatcft
advantage.

" Rav-grafs flolium perftme). This grafs, which for
many piirpofes is a very valuable one, is chiefly to be re-
commended for the two divifions of foil dillinguinied under
the titles of loam and fand. It will flourifli on any land,
except iliff clay, and will grow even on that; but, upon
rich fands and loams, it becomes not only a good fpring-
grafs, but, if properly managed by due mixtures, turns
ont well as a permanent pallurc-land; always, however,
moll valuable by being fheep-fed, for which it is Angularly
adapted. Mr. Peacey's tv.o varieties of it are faid, by
fome perfons who have tried them, to be fuperior to the
common fort. Mr. Profe.Tor Martyn, he fays, ftates the
cynofurus cisruleiis, poa nemoralis, bromus mollis, alopecuruj,
anthoxanlhum, and poa praleiifis, as all being earUer than the
lolium pcrenne, or ray.' Sec l^OLiv: t-l Pereime.

" Yorkfliiie white (holcus lanatus). This, he obferves,
flouriflies well o:) any moill foil, and grows very generally,
except on tlie moll dry and barren ones, where, however,
it is alfo found. It {hould be fown chiefly with a view to
(heep, for it is not equ;Jly good for other llock: many
acres of it have been cultivated on his farm for flicep, and it
has anfwered greatly when kept clofe fed. Mr. Marfliall,
in his Midland Counties, mentions it as a good grafs for
cows and other cattle, but bad for horfes. In his York
Economy he, hov.-ever, condemns it in toto ; probably from
not then having fo clofely remarked its qualities." See
HoLCDS honiXtiti.

" Meadow-fcfcue ( fejluca pratenjis ) . This is an excellent
grafs for good loams and clayey foils, and he has foup.d it
abound largely on dry loams. He has laid down fome parts
of fields with it for comparifon with other graifes on wet
fandy loams on a clay marie bottom, worth 14J. or 15^. an
acre ; but has found it giving way in four years to the plants
more indigenous to the foil. He does not think there is
any better grafs for either hay or palhirage, and it yields
feed in great abundance. He adds, that colonel St. Leger
Was, he believes, the firil who entered largely into the cul-
ture of this grafs: and Mr. Majendie, of Elfex, revived it,
and began with the ahpecurus ." See Festuca Prntenf.s.

" Meadow fox-tail (ahpecurus pratenjis). He thinks that
for moill loams and clays, there cannot be a better grafs
than this : it is very early, and it abides on his farm after
nine or ten vears on the foils upon which the meadow-fefcue
gives way to otiiers. It has alfo been found, by Mr. Ma-
jendie, hardier againft frofl;8 than the poa tiiv'ialis: the
grcatell objection to it is the difficidty of getting the feed
in any degree of plenty ; there is an infcft that feeds on it,
and occailons much dilappointment. Mr.Profeflbr Martyn,
in liis excellent " Flora Ruftica," fpeaks, he obferves,
highly of this grafs, and fays the feeds may be collefted
without much difficulty ; but he does not there advert to
the infect which is fo pernicious, as noticed by Mr. Majendie,
and by the ingenious Mr.Swayne, in his " Gramina Pafcua."
In a lield on his farm, wiiere it is very well eftablifhcd, and
herbage thick, it produces very few feed-llalks.'" See
.i..OPCCURUS Pralenfs.

" Crelled dog's-tail grafs (cynofurus crUltUui). It is rc-
warked, that to judge from the appearance of the bents of
this grafs in poor upland but moill pafturcs, ■& man would
think it a very unpromifmg plant ; but the rich marlhcs of
li.idgewater and Boilon, the famous pafturages of Painton
; Devonihire, and thofe clofe to Mr. Bullcr's caille near

•'.keard in Cornwall, Mr. Thome's bullock-grounds on a
.jinellone bottom near Tavillock, Mrs Williams's at Little
Malvern in AVorccftcrfliiie, (which are amo.ng the richeil

paftures in the kingdom), all abound, he alTert*, very
greatly in this grafs ; in fome of them it is the predominant
herbage. Mr. Mar/iiall, in his York Economy, places ic
as the moll prevailing plant in tlie befl grafs. meadows of the
Tale of Pickering, hmie of which will feed a large cow
from May-day to Michaelmas. Ver)- fortunately it abounds
much with feed, fo that he has had many bufhcis gathered
in a feafon by poor women and children, at one (hilhii" a
pound, and laid down many acres with it fucccfsfiillv. At-
tention fliould be paid to its being ripe ; for he cnce ordered
eight buflicls to be fov.n on eight acres, and it failed from
deficiency in ripenefs." See Cyxosubus Cr'i/lalus.

" Roughcd-ilalked meadow-irrafs (poa Irivlalis). It is
obferved that Mr. Boys, of Betlhanger, in Kent, has been
the largell cultivator of this grafs in "the kingdom, and fold
large quantities of the feed, but gave it up for want of a
demand. It is, he afierts, an excellent grafs on good,
found, and moill loams. It is accounted in Lombardv
• the queen of meadow plants (la reg:na Ml' trie),' wh,'.
ther for dry pallures or water meadows ; multiplying itfrlf
much by feed, and little by the root ; fo that, if a'tcnt.O'.*
be not paid to permit fome feed to fall, its quantity will
fcnfibly diminifli. Excellent for all forts of cattle."

" This hint concerning the feed is worth attention \a
England. Major Cartv.right has found the poa pratenfn to
be an excellent grafs on rich loams ; and both fucceedixl
well mth fir Wiiiiam Clayton, of Harleyford.'' See Poa
Tr'iv'tal'is.

" Cock's-foot (daaylis glomerala). This grafs has beeti-
largely cultivated over the farm he now manages, and to his
fitisfadion on wet loams on a clay marie bottom, upon which
the finer grafies are apt to give way in a few years to the
indigenous produce. If fuffered to rife high, it is very
coarfe ; but, fed clofe, is a very valuable Iflieep-pafture.
Women and children make good earnings in gathering it at
4f. a bulhel. He has fown two bufhels an acre, and lelhs.
common red clover ; and when the clover wears out, the
grafs fills the land, and abides well in it. It ^rows well in
winter. It has been found highly ufeful as an early (heep
feed.''

It is ftated in the Norfolk Report on Agriculture, that
" fir Mordaunt Martin, in i7Si>, ohferving, by an experi-
ment, th.at this grafs grew four inches in lefs than three
days, determined to atler.d more particularly to it : he re-
marked, that when fliecp were let out of a fold, they ran
over every thing, to get at a baulk that was full of it, and
there ate it in preference to other grades. In fome parts
of Norfolk it is called cows' grafs, from their being very
fond of it. He began to cultivate it in 1794. It grow*
at Midfummer, in a drought, when evcrv thing clfe is burnt
up. He fows it with nonfuch, inllcad of my-£rrafs, and
finds it much more profitable." And " Mr. Overman
alfo, obferving the eagernefs with which l>,eep, \\ hen let
into a field at Bvirnham-market that had fome cock's-foot
grafs in it, ran over ray-grafs, and every thing clfe, to get
a bite of this plant, thought it worth cultivatir.g, and foxvcd
about an acre, on the dry gravelly part of his farm, juft
above the marili. This fpot w-as the only one, in a larye
ileld, that did not burn in the fevere drought of i8co, -and
convinced him of the excellence of the grifs.'' He alfo
iliewed the writer " a beautifij crop of. drilled wheat, which
could fcarcely be ellimated at lets than four quarters and a
half per acre, pointed out a part of the field, fuperior, if
auy thing, to the rell ; and faid it was an experiment on the
cock's-foot grafs ; he had found it an excellent plant for
(heep, but having examined the roots, perceived them to be
fo fuong, that lie had forae fufpicion ihcy might exhauil.

the

GRASS.

the lanJ, and Uiprefore fowcd t'ais pieee for a trial: the
veHilt has fatisficd him that all apprehenfion of the hind
was ill-foimded, and he intends lubilituting it for ray-grafs."
The author luis alio " cultivated this grafs on a large fc?Je
for many years, and has found it of great ufe. It is a moll
valuable plant when kept clofe fed.'' S;e Dactvlis Glo-
mcrata.

" Tall oat-grafs ( avena ehl'ior ) . This is another coarfe
grafs, profitable when kept clofe fed : the feed might be
had in any quantity from France, or gathered by hand in
England. ' In the Rev. Mr. Swayne's experiment, it
yielded a greater weight than any other grafs." See AvENA
Elatior.

" Timothy grafs (phlcumpraknfe). Tiiis grafs is reprc-
fented by all travcll.-rs in America, he obferves, as the
great fupport of cattle, &c. wherever meadows are foimd ;
and it is a(ferted to have confiderable merit. He has feveral
times made the trial of keeping it clofe fed by ihecp on a
moiil loam, upon a clay marie bottom. The fucccfs was
very encouraging ; enough, he thinks, to prove that it is
an objciil, in this line of luifhandry, which merits confi-
derable attention ; and the more, as the feeds are to be had,
very clean dreffed, in any quantity from America, at about
a guinea a budiel ; which is fufficient, with other plants,
for four or five acres of land. He believes it is bell adapted
to clav, moill loams, and efpecially peat." See PilLEUif
Pratciife.

" Yarrow (achULtn mill, folium }. This, he affcrts, is one
of the moll common and moil valuable plants that is to be
met with in England. On lii* farm the cultivation of it
has been carried on with fuccefs as a Iheep-patlure for fome
years. It is found on moill loams almoll equally with dry
burning fands, gravels, and chalks. It has a fingular qua-
lity of refifling drought on the moll arid foiis ; fo that, if
you fee at a dillance a green fpot on a burMt-up, clofe-fed
pafture, twenty to one Init it is clothed with this plant.
It is fouHd in the richell meadows and bullock-palhires.
Jive fliillings per bufliel are given for gathering the feed
in Oclober : it is a plant deferving great attention. Sheep
are very fond of it. It is faid to form a fourth-part of the
herbage of fome of the fine meadows of Lombardy.''

" Burnet (poterium fangniforha). It is remarked that
there are large tracls of the fined parts of the South Downs
upon which tliis plant forms half the indigenous pafturage.
It abounds much alio on all other chalk downs ; but it will
flourilh on anv foil, on fand, clay, peat, &c. Some writers
fpeak of it for cows : it has been cultivated on his farm
thcfe five and twenty years for Iheep, for which animal it is
very ufeful. The feed is to be bought almoll every where.''
See BuKNET.

And it is obferved in the Agricultural Survey of Nor-
folk, that this plant was " introduced at Stoke jj years
ago, as the writer then regillered, with great fuccels ;
but it never made any progrefs, though it j-ielded luxu.
riant food for many horfes in February." However, " the
reputation of this plant attradled the notice of iVfr. Coke,
who formed an experiment at Holkham, to examine care-
fully its merits, and, with the fplrit that characterizes his
hulhandry, fowed 40 acres, mixing a fmall quantity of v/hilc
clover and rib-grafs with it. The refuit v.as as decifive as
can be imagined ; the field has been fully and inceffantly
flocked with-lheep, and was conftantly pared as clofe to the
ground, as a favourite fpot in a pa. lure is by horles.'' And
in other refpecls it is alfo valuable, as " Mr. Bevau has
found it to be the moll wlvolefome food for (lieep in a wet
fprin*, and a tertai:i remedy f c r the flux." Atid he "is

5>

pever without twenty acres of it,"

" White clover flrifolium reper.s). It is alTerted that this
plant lias hitherto been the main dependence of thofe wlio
have laid down land to grafs ; and though, for flieep, it has
not the iweetnefs of fome other plants, or of red clover, yet
upon the whole, it is one of the bell that can be relied on
for all rich or dry loams, fands, 5cc. and alfo for rich and
drained clays and peats ; but on poor wet loams and clayi it
will not abide, but gives way to the water-grafs (agrojt'is Jlo-
hnijera) and noxious plants, or other indigenous grall'es.
There is no better tell of good land, than its running fpon- •
taneuudy to this plant ; from the fine loams on rock, upon
the Tamar, to the deep friable ones of Leicellerdiire, red-
clover, left unploughed, gives way to a thick covering of
this plant. Whatever feeds be fown, this clover fliould \
form a part of the dependence for fuccefs. Mr. Bakewell,
Mr. Wright of Norfolk, and feveral other practical far-
mers, made this obfervation, that Hock has been known to
do badly, though there was much food on the ground ; per-
haps that is precifely the reafon ; and that this plant, hke fo
many others, demands very clofe feeding to difcover its 1
merit." See Clover. I

" Trefod (medicago lupulina). It is obferved that, though
only a biennial, it is fure to Ihed fo nuich feed that it rarely '
wears out of land. It is a good plant, not at all nice in foil,
and the feed cheap." See Trefoil.

" Cow-grafs flrifolium medium). An excellent plant for
clays and ilrong loams. It is faid, in the Lincoln Report,
that Mr. Ancel got good crops on a rabbit fand ; the hint ■
is worth purfuing, but he has not feen it cultivated on fuch
foils. It is much more abiding tlian common clover. The .
feed is always to be had: it is known alfo under the name of ,
marie grafs. Mr. Bakewell's method of laying down was, ■
by common red clover and ray grafs, being fure of plenty of i
white clover and good grades coming : but he prepared by
two crops of turnips in fucceffion, and fowed with the barley
following. On fuch land as his, the praftice is not to be
condemned, but on other foils it would fail entirely.''

" Rib-grafs (plautngo lanceolata). It is afferted that upon
rich fands and luams this plant gives a confiderable herbage,
and on poorer and drier foils it does well for iheep ; but that '.
it is inferior to fome others. Mr. Marlhall obferves,
that it has ilood the ted; of years' ei'ablidied praClice in :
Yorkfliire, and is in good eilimation ; though not wellaffeCl- ■
ed by horfes, and bad for hay, from retaining its fap. The i
eminent Haller informs us, that the allonilhing riciniefs of
the famous dairies of the Alps, defcribed by Scheuchzer, is I
attributed entirely to the plenty of this plant, and the alche- \
milla vulgaris. The feed is always plentiful." See Plan-

TAGO.

" Luccrn ( medicago faliva ) . This is more confined than
any of the other plants. A landlord diould, he thinks, only"
ilipulate for it on very rich, deep, friable, dry, found, mellow
loams, and fertile fands, worth 30/. an acre. Upon fuch '
lands, he cannot do better than to encourage it among the
tenantry, to be fown broad-call, zolbs, an acre, and to re-
main wliile produftive, wliich will be from twelve to fifteen
vears. On fuch foils it will, he lays, fupport more cattle
than any other plant.'' See LucEiiX.

But more full accounts of tliele gralFes will be found under
the diff'erent heads which are referred to.

With refpeCl to hay-feeds, it is flated that tlie only cafe in
which thefe are admiillble is, when a perfon has a very clean
and valuable meadow or pailure which he faves with a view
for feed ; drawing out the bad plants whiifl the crop is on
the fwath, and tiu-elhing the produce on a clotli, after ftand-
iiig till the feeds be ripe. Thus managed, excellent feed

may

GRASS.

may be prncr.red with cafo, and b'j bjiiL-ficially employed in
the forming of grafa-laiids.

In regard to the arrangement of thcfo different grafTes, as
they relate to, or are prop.'r for different forts of foil, it
is fully (licwn in fpcaking of the methods of bringing land
into the ftate of grafs or Iward. See Laying I^and doivn to
Grafs.

But befides the plants that have been noticed above, it " is
remarked that there are many others, fome of which have
been tried under his direction, wliich dcferve much attention ;
but he has not named tliem in the above-mentioned lill, be-
caufe the feed cannot be procured but witli difficulty : fome
perennial vetches, clovers, melilots, lotufes, &.c. &c. And
feveral others are highly Ipoken of by fome writers ; yet as
his own trials have not been equally fuccefsful, he is not au-
tnorifed to recommend them. He never tried the v'lc'ui fcphim
fufficiently, to give an opinion of it ; but, by Mr. Swayne's
account, it defervesmuch attention."

However, in confidering the modes of laying lands to die
flateof fward, lifts containing the proportions or quantities
of different forts of grafs-feeds fultable for different forts of
land, are offered to the attention of the cultivator. See
Laying Land Jcton to Grafs.

It is remarked in a general way by the fame writer " that
if the land laid to grais be intended for flieep, it is not an
objeft of very great confequence to fow only the finer graffes ;
as clofe feeding after the lirfl year will make any grafs named
in the fills fine, fwect, and produclive ; but this effect de-
pends altogether on its being conllantly fed clofe, that is,
all feed-flems being prevented from riling. Every good
farmer is fenfible of the necefTity of this with ray -grafs, but
mofl unaccountably does not extend a hmilar concern to
other graffes. Above 200 acres under tlie autlior's manage-
ment liave been laid down to grafs, chiefly tor Ihecp ; and he
has ftocked the fields fo ciu'ly in fpring, and fo thickly, as
juft to keep down the ieed-ftems : the cock's-foot, oat grafs,
and Yorkflxire white, with this management, have proved
fweet feeding graiies, not at all reiecled, even in fields
where the flock had a choice. Several writers feem to have
been very fenfible of the confequence of clofe feeding. Mr.
Davis, in the V/ilifhire PveiJort, fays, "the fweetnefs of the
feeds on the downs of Wilts depends much more on its being
kept clofe, and eate,n as fail as it (hoots, than on any particu-
lar good quality of the grafs ittelf ; for there are many
downs tliat, when clofe fed, appear to be a very fweet paf-
ture, but which, if fuffered to run a year or two wittu,ut a
full flock on them, will become fo coarfe, that Ihcep will id-
moft as foon ilarve as eat the grafs."

And in the Survey of the County of Stirling in Scotland,
•it is ftated, that, upon Benlomond, &c. tlie palturing of
flieep has evidently, in the courfe uf twenty years pafl, im-
. proved the quality of the herbage fo as to raife grals of a
good fpecies, and in very confideraiile abundance, where no-
thing formerly prevailed but bad kinds of grafs, and tliefe
in no great plenty : and the practice bids fair to bunifn heatfi
from all the places that are pallui'ed by fheep."

Further, Lille, who was the beft writer on hnlTjandry we
,liad for m.any ages, alfo remarks, " tliat thcr.- .-'.re poor foils
which require a much longer time to grow a fecond inch
than the firll, and that confeqiiently on fuch it is nuicli more
prdfi:.;ib!e to keep fliecp than cattle." The writer, on tirfl
readii.g this paffage, nude the experiment on land of lis.
and ijj-.'an acre, clipping the plants with fcilTars, and care-
fully meafuring and weighing the produce, and comparing it
with neighbouring plants left to perfe£l the fe^d-ilem ; tl>c
fuperiori:y was proportioned to the times of cutting. Shecp-
feeding not only, he faySj ameliorates, by enriching the foil

and finmgtheherbagcbiitalfobydeflroyingwcfds. Ragwi
with whicli the bullock-grounds of Limerick, in Ireland,
overrun for want of Iheep is, it is obferved,
them : and
inllance of

ort,
are
, , ,, .. • • -, mucliafFccledby

them : and Mr. Marfliall, in his York Lconomv, gives an
a mcadov.-, foul in the extreme with knobwecd,
cured by palhiring it repeatedly in the fpring with (hccp.
But here, a counter remark mull he made, which is, that
after a held has been pafhired long with (hcep, and clofe fed,
It !)ecomes unable to yield a growth of hay : the plants, by
being conflantly cropped down, acquire a dwarfilh habit,
however jpiick tlie growih in that early ftage. There is a
fmall field on the ellate which he manages, which has been
undtr grafs, time immemorial, and kept fed for the lafl forty
years at leafl, except one year in which it was mown, ex-
peeling a vail crop : the feafoii was verj- favourable, but he
was utterly difappointcd, for the produce was fmall. He
has known the fame thing hajjpen on inclofing an old con;-
mon. In Scotland a fimilar remark has been made by Mr.
Wight. " Two inclofurcs of the fame foil were laid down
together with grafs-feeds of tlie fame kind : after two years'
hay, the one was furrendered t.) paflure ; from the other a
crop of liay was taken every other year. After feven yc-ars'
abfence, the proprietor returned home, and wanting more hay.

mowed both, and that which had been palhired gave the
worft crop." Something like the fame thing has been ob-
fervcd in Switzerland, as ftated in the Tranfaftions of the

Berne Society. It has occurred alfo in other inftances.

With regard to the forming of grafs or fward, the pro-
curing of good feed has been found, from long experience in
every part of the kingdom, to be of all other works the worft.
executed by tenants : ihey fow tlie cheapeft feeds which can
be procured, that is, common clover or ray, or the rubbilh
of their hay-lofts : the clover gives a crop the lirft year ;
but, as it wears out, all forts uf trumpery fucceed, if the
foil be not good enough to run fpontaneoufly to white clo-
ver. Great care lliould therefore be taken by Uie owners of
lands, wliich are to he brought into a ftate of gi-afs, to have
proper forts of grafs-feeds jirovided. About 25X. will pur-
chafe the feeds 111 mofl inftances : the expence may be rec-
koned from 2ct. to 30.-. per acre ; but depending on various
circumltances, as tlie llate of markets, and the price of la-
bour. Of the feeds recommended, the following are to be
bought in any quantity : cow-grafs, Yorkfliire white, Timo-
thy from Air,<.iiea, white closer, trefoil, niy, burnet, rib.
And dog's-tail and coek"s-fjot are cafily gathered by hand.
Moll of the grafs-feeds that have been reeommcn''ed as ufc-
ful in forming good grafs-lands may indeed, now, we bi-Iievc,
be had of the different fcedsmen in London, and other phiccs,
as already noticed.

And the befl methods of preparing the land, fowing
the fced^, and managing tlie new grafs-lamls, are conlidercu
in treating of the practice of refloriiig aiable lauds to grafs.
See Laying Land //ju'/i to Grafs.

Git ASS, Artilicial, a term lignifving that kind of grafs that
is produced by the lowing of the feeds of difterenl forts of
plants that have a quick and luxuriant growth on arable Und ;
as thofe of the r.-./ or broad clover, fnintfcin, lacecn. tnfoiU
tan; rye,graj}, and other fimilar kinds. I'hey are fliewii at
Jigs. I, 2, 3, in P/ate Grajfes 2x\6.3X.Jigs. 1, 2, 3, in Piatt
Graffes, in Agruuhurc.

Tliere are hkewife feveral other pl.ints of this h 'ture, that
may in all probability be employed with great advantage in
the fame intention. And it has been llatcd by a Lte praAi-
cal u ritee, th..t " though the chief hinge on which raodem
luifbandr^f has been m. de to turn is that of thi iutrcdudticn
of thefe torts of graffes, it is extraordinary tliat th<y liavc
yet, in bifel few dillri£ts, been nude to coullitute a part of

the

GRASS.

the com-fe of ciopning on arable land. In ail well culti-
vated dillrids, they, hov.evt r, form a ccnfiderable propor-
tion of the crops. The firft of the above is a moft invaluable
plant, whether it be mown and \ifed green, pallured, or
made into hay. By its long tap-roots it refifts the efieft
of excefiive drought on the dryell foils, and increafes
the quantity of vegetable mould in all. It will grow on
moft foils, but is not equally produftive ; and whether it be
mown and ufed in the green ftate, paftiired, or made, into
liay, it generally produces four or five times the quantity of
fodder that the fame land would have done with com-
mon grafles. Further, in good rotations, it -frequently
makes the fecond crop, in lieu of white corn mown once, and
the after -grafs eaten off with horfes, bealts, or llieep, and
the land fown with wheat. In that cafe, two pecks of the
bcft ray-grafs, mixed with fourteen pounds of the clover-
feed, fliould be fown upon an acre, which not only increafes
the quantity, but alfo greatly improves the quahty of the
hay. If the clover is for flail-feeding, the ray-grafs fliould
be omitted. But in poor light foils, the better way is
to take two or three crops of corn, and then to lay the land
down to reft, three, four, five, or fix years. In this cafe,
it is advifed that the farmer fliould fow the following feeds,
in thcfe proportions per acre :

Names of Seeds. Quantities.

Of Burnet - - 4 pounds

— Cow red-clover - 4 ditto

— Wliite clover - - 8 ditto

— Trefoil - - - 4 ditto

— Ray-grafs ... z pecks

— Vernal grafs - - i ditto

— Sheep's-fefcue grafs - 4 ditto

— Crefted dog's-tail grafs - J ditto.

" It is fuppoled, that by this management, the foil would
acquire a vaft increafe of vegetable mould, and, by the pafture
maintaining one-fourth more ftock than it did before, it
would be greatly charged with manure ; by which means
the"land would be kept in perpetual good condition : and,
when brought under tillage, produce one-fourth more corn
than it did under other circumftances." And it is remarked,
in the Norfolk Survey, that " Mr. P;irdis, of Eggmore, vv-as
recommended by a friend, whofe management he had feen
and. approved, to fow his feeds at twice : half of each fort
(white and red clover, and r;y) at the time of fo-.ving bar-
ley ; and the other half before the rollers in going over the
yoimg crop : and this pracuce he intends to purfue in fi-
ture. He thinks it will give them a better chance of fuc-
ceeding. He has 600 acres of feeds : he lows the great
quantity of 141b. an acre of white clover, 81b. of red, and
one bufliel of ray-grafs. The laft he efteems much in fpring ;
and, when an obfervation was made againft it, faid, that in
April and May he had three thoufand flieep that found the
excellence of it.'' This fhould be attended toby the farmer.
It is alfo further ftated, that, " in 1784, in regiftering tlie
hufbandry of that fpirited cultivator of Kolkham, it was
remarked, that ' thofe who have been converfant in the
huflsandry of old improved countries, know that a common
complaint is the failure of red-clover. It has been fown fo
repeat(;dly, that the land is faid to be furfcited with it. In
the fame diftri6t it comes to nothing on the old improved
lands, yet yields immenfe crops on any accidental fpot,
where never, or rarely, fown before.' The obfervation is fo
common, that no doubt can remain of the facl ; however, it
may be attributed to certain methods in management purfued
in this county. Peas, and taref had been tried as fubftitutcs,
but they are tdlage-cropsj and what theie thin foils, haraffcd
with the plough, want, is reft, Mr. Coke, it is added,

Q

I'.antities.

H

to

iclb.

5

to

81b.

5

to

8Ib.

5

to

izlb.

5

to

Sib.

turned his views to a different and better quarter, to other
artificial graffes, v.hich would anfwer the fame purpofe as
clover and ray-grafs. He had recommended to him, on a
former occafion, trefoil, ^\hite clover, cow-grafs, rib-grafs,
and burnet. Mr. Coke applied them with no inconfiderable
fagacity to the prefent purpofe, and, that the experiment '
might not be delufive, tried them fpiriledly upon 30 acres in
the middle of a large piece, laid with clover and ray-grafs.
The quantities of feed he has found will vary according to
circumftances; but, in general, '

Names of Seeds.

Of Cow-crafs

— White clover

— Rib -

— Burnet

— Trefoil - -
according to the price, and alio the intended duration of the
lay. The fuccefs of the firft trial induced him to lay down
a yet larger fpace the fecond year. And the tliird (with the
barley of the laft fpring), no fewer than 221 acres ; this is,
in truth, fays the writer, doing juftice to a new hufljandr^-,
Mr. Coke has found that thofe fe; ds fill the land completely
with plants, v\hich are abiding two and even three years :
and how much longer they may Inft, is more than he can pro-
nounce, as their appearance is yet as good as ever. The
author rode over all the pieces, and never faw a finer or more
regular plant than they exhibited. And he has, on feveral
occafions, remarked, that flieep give a preference to thefe
grafles, whenever fown in the fame field with clover and ray-
grafs." And it is added, that " in regard to the continuance
of thefe trials, fome of the paftures now remain, and are as
fine as the foil will yield: thick, clean, and fweet.' And
it is here remarked in regard to land being tired of this plant,
that the obfervation he made, " during nine years that he
was in the conftant habit of viewing the farm of Mr. Ar-
buthnot, in Surrey, merits foir.o attention. When he began
to farm, the land was fick of clover, infomuch, that it was
almoft fure to fail, from having been, perhaps for a century,
fown every four or five years. His friend adopted the courfc
of — I. Beans; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover, in which it occurred
fence in three years, and the farmers predicted an abfolute
failure : he viewed tiiree courfes, and better crops, of pure
red clover, were never gained. He began with ploughing
treble the depth of that to which the land had been ufually
ftirred, and he manured very amply for every crop of beans,
partly with night-foil, from London. In what degree tlie
fuccefs arofe from depth of tillage, and what degree from a
variation in manuring, cannot be afcertained ; but the ex-
periment proved that thefe agents were equal to the cure of
the malady.'' It is alfo further noticed, that " fome farmer*
in Norfolk have moved out of the common fphere, asd
ventured to plough deeper than their predeceflbrs ; nor have
they found any inconvenience in fo doing. It merits confi-
deration, whether this practice will not prove in fome mea-
fure a remedy to the failure of clover. As to manuring, and
efpecially in great variations, the means are generally limited,
and a change ia this refpeft, however defirable, is rarely iri
their power " But, " the only effective remedy hitherto
prafti ed, is that of omitting clover altogether, for one or
two rounds, which points out the great importance of intro-
ducing as many new artificial graflfes as poflible." See ReJ
Clover.

The red-cow clover is another plant of the cloyer kind,
which has been found very ufeful as an artificial grafs. Ac-
cording to Mr. Amos it is perennial, and grows naturally
in high chalky fields, and in gravelly fields with clay beneath.
In the moft improved part of the country, when the land is

t« '

GRASS.

ts reft for fome ycafS, tliis feed is fown along witS tlic white
clover, as it continues in the ground much longer tiian the
meadow-trefoil, and is nearly as produAive, efpccially on
chalky and poor forts of land. And that where a crop of
any of thofe clovers is taken in lieu of a crop of corn, the
!:^rain ftiould be fown firll, but Icfs in quantity than if no
feeds were fown with it ; and, after the land has been made
f ne by harrowing and rolhng them, fourteen pounds of clo-
Tcr-feed, and two pecks of bell ray-grafs, fhould be fown
tipon an acre bu(h-hanowed the length-way, and rolled the
crofs way of the ridges : afterwards the whole mud be well
gripped or drained. Nothing more is necctfary to be done,
on account of the feeds, till the next fpring, when the land
(hould be well drelfed with the fward-drelfer or harrows,
drawn with long bufhy thorns, the latter end of March, or
t!:e beginning of April ; then cleaned and rolled the crofs
Tray again. In all thefe operations, the land ftould be neither
;jo wet nor too dry, but in a due medium with refpeift to
both thefo extremes, as, under other circumftances, they do
not fucceed fo well.

The time for cutting thofe two grafies is, when thev are
in full flower, and rather Ihewing evidences of declining or
pafling their maturity. See Clover.

Andthe white clover is,inMr. Amos's opinion, the fweeteft;
^nifs for all forts of ftock yet known, and makes the clofell
Iward, and is very productive of foliage. Hence it is, he
conceives it mod peculiarly adapted to la) ing down land to
pallure. It flouriihes mod upon rich, dry, warm foil.s ;
yet it will accommodate itfelf to moil kinds. It is feldora
iown alone, unlels it be to raife the feed ; nor fhould it ever
be mown lor hay. In laying down rich foils, whicli are in-
t--aded to remain in pailure for many years, this feed fliould
predominate in the compofition that is made ufe of. But in
the Agricultural Report of Norfolk it is dated, that
" Mr. Wright, of Stanhow, does not like white clover ; he
thinks it a bitter food, and that flieep do not cat it kindlv ;
fo that while much food feems to be on the ground, dock do
badly. This is an uncommon opinion, but the writer re-
members Mr. Bake well darting the fame idea.'' See //■'/•//*

Ci-OVER.

The procumbent or hop-trefoil, is another plant of this
fort, which is not very produftive, and thrives bed upon
dryidi gravelly fields, and padures which have the fame na-
ture. They are both perennial. See Trefoil.

Saintfoin is a plant of the artificial grafs kind, which pro-
duces, Mr. Amos favs, the bell crops upon light rich land ;
but it will thrive upon the thinned lime-ilone, gravelly, and
chalky foils, with great luxuriance, even where thefe are
fo poor as to afford a very fcanty crop of any of the other
forts of graffcs. It thrives bed when fown alone, though
it is frequently fown with barley and oats, by cultivators
that have not much experience of it. And it is advifed,
that upon wliatever foil it is fown, the land ihotdd be brought
into a ver)- fine and clean tilth by culture. And, that
..bout the latter end of March, or beginning of April, it
ihould be ploughed, and if it is roiighilh, be harrowed once
in a place ; then upon every acre, iixteen pecks of laintfoin
feed fhould be fown ; then harrowing the land well, and
fouing eight pounds of common red-clover or trefoil, upon
every acre afterwards, the land fliould be bulh-harrowed and
rolled. And, where fweeds appear, they mud be deilroyed
a^ thev come up, by hand, or other means. It is recom-
n ended, that no dock be fuffered to gra/.e upon the feeds
the fird year ; and, that if it be top-dreffed with one quar-
ter of rape or bone-dud to an acre, about old Michaeimas,
the plants are greatly invigorated ai;d benefited by the appli-
cation.

Vol. XVI.

It is further Aated, that, upon fuch lands ai the above,
it furnilhcs a crop of hay in fuinmer of greater confideraljon
than any other of the artificial graffes. The hay is excel-
lent for all kinds of dock, and the after-math very good for
cattle in autumn, and for flieep in winter, till Candlemas.
Hence, faintfoin is a mod invaluable grafs on lime-!lonc,
gravelly, and chalky foils ; but it requires three years in
coming to perfedtion ; hence the propriety cf fowing com-
mon red-clover or trefoil along with it. And it (hould be
mown before it is in full bloflom, otherwife there way be
lofs in that way. Sec .S.mnti-ois-.

Lucern is afferled, by the above writer, to be the moft
produftive, and that which comes into ufe foorer than anr
other of the artificial gradci. Horfes, bcal!»j flu-?p and
pigs, are verv- fond of it, when it in mown and given them
green, which is the mud ufefiil application of it. It h
found to thrive bed on rich, dry, loamy foib, wIhcH diould
be made deep, fine, and clean of weeds i>y culture. And,
he adviles, that about the middle of Apni, ten pounds of
feed fliould be drilled on an acre, in rows of eighteen iiicEe*
afunder, and one inch deep, with a row of common red-
clover between each ; then buih-harrowed and rolled. N.">-
tliing more is neceffary to be done till weeds appear, whea
it fliould be hand-hoed well, and the weeds in th.: rows puUcd
out by the hand. .\s foon as more weeds appear, it muft
be hand-liocd and hand-weeded a fecond time, and even a
third time, if necclfary ; when this is done, great care fhould
be taken not to tread upo:i the young lucern. And as foon
at it begins to bloflom it Ihould be mown, carried off, and
given to the tlock green. By this mode of application, it
will, he fays, keep more flock than any of the other
grafl'es.

But this plant alfo requires three years in coming to per-
feftion ; hence the propriety of fowing common rcd-clorcr
along with it. After that time, it may be mown three, friur,
or five times in a feafon. But, between every mowing, it
fliould be well hand-weeded, and made quite clean of weed*.
And every third year it fliould have a covering of rotten
dung, after the rate of eight or ten tons to the acre, applied
over it about Martinmas. See LutlTRN.

Burnet is a grafs of the artificial kind, of which there are
fevcral varieties ; but the only one worth cultivation in thi»
country is the common fort. This plant, though little cul-
tivated, is highly valuable, either green or in hay for horfe»
and cattle, and is an excellent winter food for fheep. It de-
lights mod in a dry, clean, light and deep foil ; but it will
grow very well on poor, gravell)-, and chalky foils, which
muft be made clean and fine by culture. And it is advifed
bv Mr. Amos, that, " about the middle or latter end of
July the land fliould be ploughed for the laft time, and har-
rowed well : after thefe operations, four pecks of feed
fliould be fown broad-cad upon every acre, and then bufli>
harrowed and rolled. And it is fuggeded, that as the pro-
per feafon for fowing it is the latter end of July, it become*
an excellent fuccedaneum to turnips, when they have been
deftroyed by the fly, which is often the cafe." And it i*
dated, that " the moll profitable way of cultivating bumct
is by fowing it with other feeds, when the laad is to be
laid down in thefe proportions :

Names of Seeds. QuantitJcf.

Burnet-feed - - i peck

White clover . - lo pound*

Trefoil - - - 4 ditto

Vernal-grafs - - t pock

Ray -grafs . - - i ditto

Creded dog's-tail
Sheep's-fclcue

4M

■J U1LI«

i ditto

The

GRASS.

The land flioulJ be bufli-hart'ovved and rolled, and after-
wards kept clean of luxuriant weeds. It is, however, re-
marked, that " much as this has been extolled, yet it is
feldom fown either alone, or with other grals-feeds, fmce
the introdudion of red and white clover ; though itsgreatell
excellence is for winter-pallure in the ftcds of flicep, &c."
See DunxET.

Chicory is likewife a plant of this defcription, which may
be found highly beneficial on many poor fandy or gravelly
foils, where other forts of gralTes cannot eftablilli themfelves.
It is afl'erted, in the Norfolk Report, that " Mr. Bevan
fowed an acre of poor land, worth not more than zs. 6d.
rent, with chicory in 1793. and tiiat the next year it pro-
duced 7/ los. in feed.'' And the writer fays, that he has
taken feveral' opportunities of recommending this grafs
in that dillrift. On large tratls of poor land, he is
contiuent it would increafe the produce tenfold ; and it well
merits trial, lie tliinks, on every foil in it. The objeftion
W'hich has been founded on its not being eafdv extirpated, is,
he contends, of no importance, for tares ihould be fown
after it on foine foils, and turnips on otiiers, in which fyftem,
its, diiUniftion is unqueltioned. This hint (hould not flip the
notice of cultivators in other districts.

Summer Tare. — This is a plant of the kind, which is
much employed as fummer herbage, eillier paftured or
mown green, as foiling for horfes, &c.; for hay, as a fublli-
tute for red clover (on land that has been tired of growing
it) ; tor manure to be buried in by the plougli : and for feed :
hence the fealon for fowing the feed of this tare will depend
upon the ufe it is intended for. When for fummer herbage,
&c. it matters not how early the feed is fown, provided no
hard froll enfue. Tlit firfl fowing may be as early in Fe-
bruary as the feafon and condition of the foil will allow, and
to continue the lowing at due interyals through the months
of March and April, whieh v/ill give a good opportunity
for fucceffions of them, to the great convenience of fummcr-
leeding, but when for depalturing, it will be prudent to
wait till the tares have gained a fufficient increafe of haulm,
before the flock are turned in upon them. And wlieu for
foiling horfes, &:c. they fliould be mown before they flower ;
and in no initance (liould the haulm be fuffered to become
rotten near the furface of the ground, w hich frequently hap-
pens on rich foils and moiil leafons. If for hay, as a fub-
lUtute for red-clover, the feed {liould be fown as early in
March as circumilances will allow ; but the time of mowing
is more optional. Some mow them when the blolTonis ai-e
fuller ; others, juft before they are quite ripe. But, in ei-
ther cafe, th.e fame caution is neceffary, as m making faint-
foiii and clover into hay ; and that is, to avoid breaking off
the leaves, in which a great part of their virtue rciidef.
Whe:i they are intended for manure, the feed (hould be fown
as early in February as the feafon and condition of the foil
will permit, and at the rate of four bufhels to the acre. For
tliis ufe they ihould be ploughed in before they get too loner
in their growth. But whatever is the intended ufe m culti-
vating this tare, the preparation of tlie land is the fame ; and
this plant delights moll in light fandy foils : and, in every
cafe the land fliould be ploughed and harrowed once in a
place, before th • f.-td is fown ; then fow the feed broad-
call atthe rate of three builiels an acre for the firll and fecond
ufes , harrow the laud well afterwards, and then lay it
dry.

" The great objects m cultivating this tare are, ift, fprin<T-
food and fummer-herbage for cattle and ilieep, efpecialfy
ewes and lambs. 2d. Hay, as a fubllitute for red-clover.
3d. Manure, to be buried in by the plough. And 4th.
Seed. But wlutever is the iiitcuJed ufe of this tare, Au-

guft and September is the prime feafon for fowing the feed.
of it. As foon, therefore, as the ground can be cleared cf
its crop, the land fhould be ploughed and harrowed onc& in
a place before the feed is fown upon it." And it anfwers ex-
tremely well Cmply as a fpring-food, when fown with rye,
in the proportion of fix pecks of each to the acre. See
Tare.

Where they can be cultivated, crops of this fort fhould
never be negleclcd. See Artificial Grqffes.

GRAsfi-G round, in Gardening, the parts of ornamented
grounds which are kept in the ilateof lawn (liortgrafsor fward.
Thofe fpaces which are extended in the fronts oi the houfes or
habitations, and are termed lawns, are moilly kept in fhort
grafs, which, by their conflant verdure, fummer and winter,
and open rural appearance, exhibit a fine imitation of na-
ture at all feafons, elpecially when the fide boundaries ter-
minate in rural plantations in various natural curves and
bendings. This mode of laying out pleafure grounds pre-
vails much at prefent. But befidcs tliefe it is the praftice
to have rural (liort grafs openings continued between the
plantations throughout the different didrifts of ground of
this fort, feparating and bounding the (hrubbery clumps,
borders, and other parts, in fonie places widely fprcadiiig,
in others more contratled ; but, in either cafe, extending
to the boundaries of the feveral plantation compartments,
in various bendings, fvvecps, and curves; by which the
whole is rendered rurally ornamental, and at the fame thne
more agreeable and eafy to walk on than gravel between the
plantations, when the weather is dry and hot durin"- the
lunimcr feafon. In the ancient llyle of gardening, it was
much the cullom to have ftraight (hort grafs-walks, both
for ornament and common walking upon: but for ornament,
iinlcfs elegantly wide and fpacious, they have a li;tlenefs in
their general appearance, as may be feen where long narrow
flips of fliort grafs-ground are extended to fome diitance, in
the way of walks ; md for the latter purpofe they are very
improper in winter and all moid weather; and even in fumiricr
in the mornings and evenings, as being always damp and
dewy. Walks of this kind fliould therefore be but fpa-
ringly introduced ; and where any are made for variety, or-
nament, or fummer's walking, they fliould be as fpacious as
the fituation admits, not lefs than from ten to fifteen feet
wide, and even twenty feet wide or more, when the walk is
confidcrably extended in length.

The method of forming fliort grafs-ground work is either
by fowing the parts with grafs feeds, or by laying them
with turf cut from a fine field, common, or down ; the lat-
ter of which, where it can be obtained at a moderate ex-
pencc, is greatly preferable, as it not only at once forms a
complete fward, but is generally more clofe, even, and
fmooth, as well as lefs apt to run up to bentv grafs, grow
rank, or rife in tufts, than by the fowing method. The fow-
ing method is, however, m.uch lefs expenfive,

Preparalhns. — In preparing the ground either for fow-
ing grafs feeds upon or laying with turf, the whole muft lj»
broken up equally to a mo "rate fpadc's depth, clearing out
all the rcots of perennial weeds and other coarfe materials.
When thi,; has been done. Hakes or wooden pegs with
notches, for making the level, according to the pofition of
the ground, mull be driven in ; then proceed with line and
fpade to rougli-level th.e ground according to the marks or
levels on the pegs, aftcrwai'ds treading, rolling, or ramming
the whole down equally, that it may nowhere fink in hollows
afterwards. When this has been liniihed, the levels fliould
be wrought up more accurately, and the who!^ finilhed with
it neat raking, clearing off all lai-ge Hones, and making an

G R A S S.

leven and fmooth furface ; in this ftate it may either be fown
with grafs feed, or laid down with turf.

For the firft method tlie proper feafons for fowing arc
either February, March, and April, or in Augull or Sep-
tember in moid weather. In moill wet foils the former is
probably the beft, but in thofe of a dry gravelly nature, the
latter. In this bufmefs it is of the utmoft confequence to
procure good feeds ; thofe from hay-ftacks or out of hay-
lofts are often ufed, which may anfwer well, where the hav
was the growth of fome fine palUire free from weeds, and
naturally afforded fine turf when grazed and mowed ; but
in other cafes there is often a mixture of Tarious forts with
weeds, by v.hich the fward is rendered irregular and foul,
and never makes handfome fhort grafs-grounds. If you are
not furniihed with feeds of your own, they mufl be obtained
from the feedlraan, and fliould be of thofe kinds which
ftrike deep root, fpread out laterally in their tops, are per-
manent, and capable of reiiiling the effefts of heat; there are
many of this kind. {Scq Laying I^ahv doivn to Grafs.) The
feed muil be fown broad-cait, very thick and regular over
the furface, and direftly raked or lian'owed in % and when
the furface is dry it fhould be rolled with a wooden roller,
to bury the feeds more effeclually, and make a fmooth fur-
face: when the grafs comes up, all weeds fliould be re-
moved ; and the fame feafon, when the fward is become
thick and green, and advanced fome inches in growth^ it
fliould be mowed, rolling it well afterwards, and continue
mowing it and rolling two or three times the firft fummer,
efpecially if it Avere fown iu fpring, as, the oftener it is
mowed and felled, the thicker and finer it will grow ; and if
it be intended to keep the grafs tolerably fine, mowing will
be requiUte once a week or fortnight, according to the
growth from April to October, and rolling once a week or
fortnight in moderately dry weather, and occafioually in the
winter feafon. In this way a good turf may be formed in a
few years.

In the fecond method, which fliould always be employed
tthere it can with convenience, the beft turf is that of a fine
pallured common or down, where the fward is fine and fliort,
with confiderable clofcnefs.

The beft feafon for laying the turf is from September till
March or April, though it will grow at almoft any time
of the year, even, if there be occafion, in the fummer
months.

The turf for this ufe is moftly cut or flayed with an iron
inftrument called a turfing iron ; all the turfs being cut of
an equal width, length, and thickncfs ; the proper fi/.e is a
foot wide, a yard long, and about an inch in thicknefs.
They Ihould be firft mai'ked by a line the proper width,
length, and depth, and then cut with a racer or cutter, firft
longways a foot wide, then acrofs in yard lengths, proceeding
afterwards to cut them up ; having particular regard to cut
them level, and all of an equal thicknefs, othervvife it will
be impoffible to lay them level. As they are cut they
fliould be rolled each up clofe and tight, the grafs fide in-
wards, and piled up by tens, efpecially if they are cut by
the hundred, wlfich is moilly the cafe. This is ufually done
at from about a (billing to fifteen pence the hundred, ac-
cording to the nature of the foil, as, whether ioft and eafy
to cut, or hard and ftony. A man will cut from three to
five, fix, or feven hundred a day, with a perfon to trace
them out and roll them up as they are cut from the iur-
face.

The method of laying them is very eafy : they are placed
regularly turf and turf, unrolling them as they are laid,
joining them up quite clofe edge to edge, and making good
all dcliciencics of broken parts as the work proceed*. ; and

as foon as laid, they (liould be well b^^atcn with broad L^vy
wooden beaters, as flat pieces of elm or oak pl.uik t*«H
inches thick, fiitcen or eiglitecn inches long, and a foot
broad, having long handles fixed flanting in liic middles «i ■
the u])per iide.s. With thele beat the grafs regularly all
over, and then roll it well with a heavv iron or ftone roller,
repeating thefe operations in moilt weather as there may be
occafion.

When very dry hot weather fuccceds, fo as to occafioi
the turf toflirink and open at the joints, a good watering iv
of much advantage to it.

The management of fliort grafs-ground, after ?t has been
thus laid down, is that of mowing it in fummer frequently,
to keep it fliort and line, like a palhired down ; pohng oc-
cafioually with a long pole, to fcatter the worui-tall.s, which
greatly deface all fliort gr.ifs, and rolling it frequenllv both
to take lip the featlered worni-calls to make the furface
clean, and to render it fmooth, firm, and even in its ap-
pearance.

Mowing once a week, ten days, or a fortnight, or, accord-
ing to its general growtli, during ih.e f.umner, is neceiTar^-,
efpecially for the })rinci])al home lawns, and other ihort grafs-
grounds, ill tlie moil confpicuous pavts ; wiiieh parts ihould
always be kept very clofe and fine, like the luard of a fir.c
paftured down or common : it i-. j>erfornied u ith a Ihort grafi-
fcythe ; and dewy mornings, ur inoiil weatlier, mull ahvavi
be choi'en for the work, as it will be impollible to mow fliort
grafs properly in dry weatiier. Previous to mowing, it u
of advantage fometinies to poie and roll the grafs the dav
before it is intended to mow. In performing the work of
mowing, proper attention is neceflary not to fcore or leave
the marks of the ilrokes of the fcytlie, which ha? a very
unfightly appearance ; to prevent whicli, as muih a.i poflible,
the point of the fcytlie Ihould be laid out rather wide, an
inch or two beyond the meafure of heel and point, efpecially
for very fliort grafs, keeping the point rather out, and not
drawing that part too fail inwards, gathering tlie grafs
neatly to the left iu a range ; and after having mowed thus
to the end of the fwarth, to mow it lightly back again, in
order to trim ofl^all fcores, and other irregularities, unavoid>
ably left the firft time in executing the work.

After it has been all thus mown over, proceed to fwccp
up the mowings of each fwarth regularly, bv ftanding ih
the middle, fweeping it along alternately to the right and
left, to the end of the fwarth, forming all the grafs in a
range on each iide ; then fweep up the ranges in large heaps,
and carry the whole off direi!:lly in a wheel-barrow, large
baflcet, or other contrivance for the purpofe.

The bufinefs of pohng is performed by a long, taper,
pliable, aflien pole, fifteen or eighteen feet long, by pafling
it backwards and forward.^, in rather dry weather, fo as to
break and fcatter the worm-calls about. The grafs (houW
be afterwards rolled with a wooden roller, when the fur-
face is a little moiil, hut not too wet, by which the oartli
will all adhere to tlie roller, and render the furface perfectly
clean, the wark being repeated, as there may be occafion,
the year round; and in n>owing-time, it the furface is foul,
it is particularly neeeil'ary to pole and roll on the day prcvioui
to mowing, by which a clean fmooth iurface will be pro-
vided, fo as to be able to mow clofe, even, and moit cxpedir
tioufly. See Poling.

In the rolling of fliort grafs-ground, it Ihould be per.
formed oceallonaily with a wooden roller, and a heavy iron
or Hone roller : the wooden roller is proper after polinp,
to clean up the worm-ca!*s and Iniooth the furface, being
perfonned when the furface is not wry wet, clpecially if
full of worm-carts, as it would otherwife plaller and daub
4 M '. ths

GRASS.

the grafs, and render it unficrluly ; ths heavy iron, or ftone
roUiT, Ihouldbe ufL-d occaiioiiully, when tiic Turfacc is dry, to
prefs down all iiieqiuilllics fo clofc as to prcfervc a firm, even,
fniooth furfacc. And in line-kept ihoit grafs-grounds, thi-
roUinn- fhould be perfumied occalionally a day or two before
mowing, to fettle the furface firm and finooth, which greatly
eontribulcs to the eafy and exact performance of the work :
the bufincfs of rolling in fmall, or but moderately large fliort
grafs-grounds, is niolUy performed by men ; bnt in very
• extcnlive gronnds, it is fometimcs done by a horfe ; having
a large roller for the purpofe, with fliafts like a cart, and
the horfe at tlie time wearing a fort of leathern flioes, very
broad at bottom, made fo as to lace on occafionally, like
mens' half-boots, to prevent his feet cutting the fnrtace in
holes, and rendering it uneven, and of a bad appearance.

Where thort grafs-grounds are defaced by wild daifies,
dandelion, or other weeds, the firft may be removed by
■ having the blade of an old broad-fword fixed in the end of a
long pliable pole, which, as it cuts both ways, by fweeping
it backwards and forwards, it will head down the daifies at
a o-reat pace ; which may be repeated two or three times
a- week, or as often as there may be occafion for it.

The others Ihould be extirpated by means of an iron for
the purpofe, made in the form of a fmall docking-iron.

In the autumnal finifliing mowings, the grafs {liould be
generally cut down as clofe and even as polhble, that the
i'ward may remain in a neat even furface over the winter
Jeafon, and appear well in the early fpring.

Thefe directions for the management of fliort ornamental
grafs-grounds, regard only fuch as are required to be kept
conftantly fliort, clofe, and even in the furfacc, as is necel-
fary in the principal lawns, plats, walks, and other divifions,
fitiiated within the limits of the main pleafure-ground. In
the outward confiderably extended dillricf s, continued into
fields, parks, &c, it is not neceffary to have them cut fo
frequently ; two or three common mowings in a fummer,
with occafional rollings afterwards, may be lufficient.

GuA.ss-/>iv;;7A, in our Ciifoms, grnzirig, or turning up the
earth with a plough. Hence the cu'lomary fervice for the
inferior tenants of the manor of Amerfden in Oxfordlhire, to
bring their ploughs to do one day's work for their lord, was
called grafs-hearlh, or gnift-hiirt.

GliAss N://tdmli-v, that fort of huftiandry which has a re-
lation to the management of grafs-land, or fuch as are under
the condition of fward. This, in a great meafurc, confifts
in the proper clearing, manuring, palluring, or feeding down,
ftutting up, cutting or mowing, and the prefervation of the
crops. This fort of management is far from being perfeftly
tmderllood in manv parts of the kingdom, and confequently
the grafs-land is frequently in the moll coarfe and wretched
ftate, being over-run with various kinds of coarfe and
aquatic plants, as well as thofe of the mofs, and other
defcriptions. See Hl'sbandkv, Grass, Meadow, and
Pasturu.

GRASH-land, that fort, or defcription of land, which is
moftly preferved in a ilate of lierbage or Iward. The forts
of land that are the mod adapted for this purpofe are, accord-
ing to fome late writers,

I ft. Such as are fituated near large populous towns, where
manure is cheap and plentifid, and where the produce of grafs-
land is conftantly on demand, and, of courfe, dear.

zdlv- Such lands as are placed on the banks of rivers
and brooks, that may be improved by irrigation to a much
higher value than can poffibly be done under any other me-
thod of cultivation.

jdly. Such lands as lie in vallies of mountainous
tountries, efpecially chalky foils, where old meadow-land is

fcarce and valuable, and the greater part of the arable lani
IS ot that nature and quality, that it is impolfible to convert
it to good fward-laiid. And

4thly, All inch cold ftroug groimd of the grafs kind,
which, if ploughed up, would not be applicable to the pur-
pofes of the turnip-hufbandry, or thofe of modern farming,
and which, under the bcft pi-acticc of wheat-huftiandry,
would not be fo valuable as they are at prefent in the con-
dition nf hvard.

The forming of grafs-ground is cfFefted with different
degrees of difficulty in different inllances ; in fome parts of
the illand it is acconiplilhcd, in general, with great care and
facility, the foil having a natural tendency to the produttioti
of grais herbage, when left in an nnploughed ftate, reverting
to jiallure without labour, expence, or even the fowing of
feed : wlii'.e, in other cafes, all the art of man has been
found incfteCtnal, to make good gi-afs-land. Even after 20
years fruitlefs expectation and expence, the land-holders have
often been obliged to reftore the ground again to a ftate of
tillage -huftiandry.

It is remarked, that confequently the great difficulty iit
this bufinefs is to difcriminate what fort of land is fuitable
and proper for grafs, and that which is improper for the
purpofe. The beft meadow-land does not always make
the beft tillage -land, nor does the beft arable-land always
make the beft pafture, but frequently the reverfe. To make
this difcrimination, it is neceffary to confider well the pro-
cefs of nature in propagating and perpetuating grafles. Th'?
great object of nature is to perpetuate all her fpccies ; but
I'pon the plants created for the fupport of animals intended
for the food and ufe of man, file feems to have bellowed more
than ordinary care. Different kinds of animals propagate
in different modes, fome oviparoufly and fome viviparouily.
Plants having no locomotive motion are endowed with a
power of propagating in both modes. In trees and flirubs,
and many kinds of plants, the alTiftance of man is required to
obtain viviparous production, by grafting, budding, &e.
But, in graffes, nature does her own work, and that in both
modes. We have only to attend to her examples, and we fha'I
feldom err. In trees and Ihrubs, the bud is the viviparous
produdlion ; in graftes, the root performs the fame office.
Graffes are as much the offspring of roots as of feeds. Every
new root contains the germ of a future plant ; and, as the
feed-ftalks of graffes niuft ncceffarily be frequently cropped
by animals, nature makes up the deficiency by an inereafe
from the roots. Molt of the beft graffes arc, in their nature,
biennial ; but nature, by giving them the power of propa-
gating by the root, has in effeft made them perennial : a
much more certain mode of propagation than by feed, as
being increafed inftead of being injured by the biting and
ti'eading of animals, and by the produce being perfeft in one
year inftead of waiting two, as in the production by feed.
But this procefs does not go on fuccefsfuUy, unlefs the land
is peculiarly apt for the produtlion of graffes. If it is too
wet, the graffes will be injured in the winter by rain and
froft, and will foon be fuperfeded by ruffles and other aquatic
plants : if too dry, they will be killed by the fnmmer's heat»
and give place to molfes, fern, heath, &c. No laud will, it
is conceived, make a good meadow, unlefs it is deep enough
to admit the roots of graffes to run down out of the reach
of the fummer's heat, and that it be retentive enough to hold
water juft fo long as to produce fermentation, with fncli an
ahforbent under-ftratum as will drain it before putrefaition
takes place.

Some proportion of grafs-land ffiould always be attached
to every farm, in order that a proper and fuitable fupply oi
winter and fummer food may be provided for fuch aiiijiials as

luay

G R A S S.

may be requilite in mannging tlioin, and alfo iliat adequate
proportions of good manures may be raifed ; as, where this
is not the cafe, it is impoilible that farms can be well ma-
naged. And on all forts of grais-lands, it is of much con-
fequence to keep them as clear and free as pofliblc from the
growth of all forts of coarfe plants, thofe of tli" aquatic kind
beingremoved by luitabledrainnge, and the application of dif-
ferent fiibllanccs of the abforbent defcription to the iur-
face of the land. They fliould likcwife be earefullv era-
dicated from the hedge-rows of grafs-fields annually, and
by that means be prevented from fpreading themfelves
over the ground by their feeds. Bv this practice, the
hedge-plants would alfo be greatly benefited. Thefc forts
of lands (liould alfo be kept as clear as the nature of their
apphcation will admit, of all kinds of obllacles that impede
the production of perfeft fward. fuch as the growth of mofs
on their lurfaces, and the continuance of cattle dung-hills,
ant and mole hills, as well as thofe of flicks. Hones, and
other fimilar fubtlances. The proper metliods of removing
thefe are noticed under their jiarticular heads, and in
fpe rking of meadow-lands, and pallures.

According to the Agricultural Survey of the County of
Hertford, in harrowing, with a view to deilroy mofs, no
benefit has been found to be produced, though the moffy
miterial has been well torn up. It is advifed that manure
fhjuld be laid on at the fame time : but that where aflies are
fpread out over the furface without harrowing, the mofs
plant is dcllroyed, and the grafs greatly imjiroved. And in
other cafes, much advantage has likevvile been experienced
from the application of fine iand over the fward, in an even
but not too thick a manner. But the dung of animals fiiould
never be fuffered to remain any lengtli of time in heaps upon
the furface of grafs-hinds, without being beat out fniall, and
difperfed over the furface ; as, wherever that is the cafe, tiic
fward in the places becomes tender, and the grafs comes up
coarfe and in tufts, which arc not eaten by cattle Hock, and
©f courfe much injury fuifained.

In refpeft to the prevention of the rifing of ant-hills on
grafs-lands, they may be in a great meafure, if not wholly,
guarded again 11, by having recourfe to frequent heavy
roUing ; as in the rolling down of ant-iiills, inllead of cutting
them up, in an experiment made by the duke of Grafton,
it was found to be attended with complete fuccefs, on a large
pafture which had been very much infeiled with ants, and
which they had almoll covered with hills. But in fuch cafes
the rollings Ihould be performed both in the autumn and
fpring fcafons, when the lands are in fuch ftates of moillure
as jull to admit the impreffiou of the roller without receiving
injury from the feet of the horfes ; as, where Inch opera-
tions are executed when the grounds are in a Hate of confi-
derable drynefs, the benefits are comparatively fmall. The
beneficial elfeds that are produced in this way depend much
upon the degree of confolida'ion that is effeded ; as it is
only by this means that the infects can be pi-evented from
carrying on their operations ; a certain itate of lightnels as
well as finen fs in the mould being cdential to the execution
of their labours in a perfect; manner. But befides thefe,
attempts have been made in other ways to prevent the forma-
tion of thefe hills. For as it has been feeu that " the eco-
nomy of th,_- ant requires the iituation and foil to be dry,
light, and friable, in order to carry on their works, it is
probable that, in lands that will admit of the practice, it
may be an eafy and convenient method of deifroyino; them,
and preventing the bad confequences which their laboiu-s
produce on the furface fward, to condurt water over them ;
and thus, at the funic time, exterminate the colonics of ants,

and irrigate tlie ground ; by which two improTetnents may
be cfledted at once, — the land being cleared from ant-hills,
while its fertility is confiderably increafcd." And the ufe
of night-foil, in combination with various forts of earthy
matters, has been advifed with the intention of deftroying
fuch infetfs ; but this is probably a practice that can only be
dejiended upon in flight cafes. See Ant-Zj/'//.

Ifpon lliif yellow clays, a Hertfordfliirc farmer has found
the practice of draining, according to the Eflex mode of
carrying off the furfacc-water, ufeful, though this praclicc
is totally unufed by his neighbours in the fame parifli. Ex-
perience has convinced him, that drcfling a cokl tenacious
clay not previouOy drained is an abfurd walle of tiir.c,
money, labour, and every thing mod valuable. Having ob-
tained a tolerably dry furface, his next object (with meadow-
land) is to deepen the itaple of the foil, and this he docs by
every kind of compoll carried on it for two or three year*
together, which he finds eilabhflies a better fort of graf»
than drelTnig once in three years on the furface.

It is fuggelled that the cudom of feeding the firll year,
inilead of mowing, is a jiractice that mull be preferable or
not according to the nature of the foil, and the object of
converting it into grafs-land. With relpeCt to the fornifr,
he has found, that if he was to allow even the treading of
flicep the llrll year after the grafs-fccd is fown, he Ihould
fill the furfiice with receptacles for water, and (hould have
very little, if any, grafs of a coaife quality, notwithllandiiig
his drains ; bccaufe the flieep or cattle would prcfs the clay
foil fo clofe, that the water could not penetrate into them ;
whereas, if he flints up-his field, fuffering the grafs to (land
till it (lieds the feeds, he finds the following ieafon that l»e
is enabled, by giving oidy a flight drefllng, to cut a good
crop of hay from it. And in cafes of old worn out ihiji
patclies or niody grafs-lands, the practice of fcarifying or
cutting tlie furface luard, in diilerent directions, by imple-
ments tor the purpofe, has been lately advifed as very bene-
ficial in pnmiotiiig their improwment, cfpecially where tliey
arc afterwards manured, and have fuitable grals-feeds fowii
over the thin or patchy parts, as in this way the giafs-plants
become more ilrong and vigorous. In performing this
bufinefs, Mr. Amos has advifed the life of a machine for
fcarifying and drelTing grafs-land, whether it is to be mown
or depallured with animuls. And he conceives that the bell
time of performing this operation, is from the middle of
February to the middle of ^\pril. And that, in general,
drcfTing the land one v ay is fuilicient ; but, if the (ward be
very moffy or adhefive, it fliould, he thinks, be drclTed
length and crofs ways, cleaned, and then rolled, the coulters
of the implement being occaiionally cleaned from the rubbifh.
It is alio fuggelled, that if the fward be thin, it may be
thickened very much by laying eight or ten tons of rotten
dung upon it, and lowing leven pounds of while clover,
four pounds of wild or cow-clover, four pounds of tre-
foil, four pounds of rib-grafs, and one peck of bell rye-
grafs feeds, per acre, previous to its being dreffcd or buih-
harrowed, and then cleaned and rolled. It is fuppofcd that
by drefllng land in this way, mofs is torn up, ant and mole-
hills levelled and dedroyed, the roots of the grafs cut and
horfe-hoed, which caules them to throw out trelh lateral
flu)ots or items, the fward thickened, and the furface made
fo clean as to put on the appearance of a perpetual fpring.
when clofe fed down. And that, by fuch managx-ment, and
grazing ns much Hock as will keep the grals in a young fuc-
culent llate, and bobbing or mowing all the tufts and weeds
three times in the courfe of the fumnicr, the grazier will be
enabled to receive every benefit from his land, and likcwife

6 prevent

GRASS,

prevent tlie ilems oF fi-veral graffea from running into feed,
ud being injured in confequence of it.

But another method of improvincr grafs-lands, praftifed
by Mr. Salter of Norfolk, is faid to be original, and of great
iniportarce. It is ftated in the Norfolk Survey lately pub-
liflied, that " upon his large farm of above 8co acres, he
found 3 or 4,00 acres of old meadows entirely poifoned by
fpring;;, \vhich, from every fort of impediment that negleft
could caufe, had formed bogs and moory bottoms, famous
for rotting Ihecp and miring cows ; with blackthorns and
other rubbifli fprcad over large trafts. His firft operations
w re, to grub and clear the land, and open all ditches to the
depth of four or five feet, and to cut open drains in almoil
every direftiun for laying them dry; burning the earth, and
fpreading the afhes on the groinid : fo far, the reporter fays,
all was no more thaw common good hufbandry ; but he ap-
pli.'d a thought entirely his own : as he f jund Uiat the flinty
gravel, marie, and other earths, but efptciaily the gravel,
was very beneficial to tl'.e herbage, he thought of lowing
winter tares and white clover upon the places wherever any
earth was fpread, or any otlier operation had laid bare the
furface, harrowing in thofe feeds. The writer had the
pleafure of ieeing (cveral ot thefe crops growing : the fucce fs
has been uncommonly great ; for the land thus fown not only
has given large and very profitable crops of hay, but has
alio received a rapid improvement in the herbage ; the cover
and (luide of the tares, fo benelieial to allland, mellowed the
furface, and feemed to draw up as well as protedt fuch of
the old plants as received improvement from the manure, and
exhibited a much fuperior fleece of grafs to any fpots where
this fingular managenicnt had not taken place. So that
nothing can be clearer, on viewing this large traft of meadov.',
than the fuperiority of the improvement refulting from the
growth of the tares : the effect of the manure is much acce-
lerated and rendered greater."

The reporter further hints, that " the idea is certainly
applicable to many of the grafs-lands of the kingdom, efpe-
cially fuch as are improving by the addition of chalk, marie,
clay, loam, fand or gravel : 40 loads an acre of any of thefe
bodies will much improve coarfe or wet, or moory grafs-
land5 ; and then to add tares fecures an immediate profit,
and makes the manure work much focner and more power-
fully. He fows fome fo late as the middle of May." An
4dea here ftrikes the writer, which h.e (hall venture to add ;
that " if he was to fcar;fy any moll'v, hide-bound, or poor
paftures, &c. it iliould be with a drill-fearificr, drilling in
winter tares by every tooth of the fcarifier ; and he has no
doubt but the tares would take well, and effeft a confiderable
improvement, even without manuring." It is ifated in
addition, that " Mr. Salter has practifed the tare hufbandry
on meadow? for ten years, but his firll beginning was feven-
teen years ago, at Ellingham. : the cockchafer-grubs had
(leftroyed a part of a meadow ; he harrowed in tares and
feeds, and the fuccefs was great." It is alio ftated, that
" tare-feed running fhort, he this year fowed peas and oats
mixed on fome fpots, and they are found to do well ; aud
this hufoandry he purfues, whether he intends mowing or
pailuring. The v.riter conlidera thir, a difcovery of vaft ad-
vantage to grafs hufoandry in general.

And it is likewife obferved, that "TMr. Sevan's arable
fand, at Riddlefworth, joining tp his low boggy meadows,
gave him the power of carting fand down hill at an eafy ex-
pence ; and thus lie improved fome parts of tliolc meadows
to great effett : from 100 to j 50 loads an acre were fpread at
the cxpence of 4/. er 5/,

0

12

6

0

I

6

0

5

a

0

19

0

Slatement of E.xfenci.

A team of five horfes, 30 loads a day, and wear

and tear ....

Driver . . . -

I'iUing, at 2d. ...

In 1802 this method anfwered very greatly: thefe meads
were then not capable of irrigation, but one meadow has
fince been watered, and the water has taken much greater
effeft on account of the fanding, than if that operation had
not been performed. The fand has all been laid on the moft
boggy meadows " This hint fhould not efcape the notice of
the praftical fanner in other dillrifts, as there are many
where it may be had recourfe to, with the greateft advantage
and fuccefs. There is likewife a limilar method of improvino-
old rough and boggy meadow-land deicribed, with a plate,
by a writer, under the title of /'igricol.i Norfolcieulis, in
the firft volume of the fecond feries of the Agricubural
J»Iagazine, as praclifed by Mr. Rix, of the fame county.
" This meadow was fituated at Clipftone, near Fakenham,
in the occupation of the above, and the property of T. W.
Coke, efq." of Holkham. It is noticed that '• this mea-
dow, from the ncgleft of former tenants, and want of
judgment in cutting what few open drains or ditches were
attempted, had become very rotten in many places, and at
le;ift three parts of the four fo over-run with fedge and
ruil.cs, that its utmoft annual value could fcarcely be elti-
mated at more than eight (hillings per acre. The lands con-
tiguous to it are of a light friable nature, inclining to fand,
by fpots, and fall with a gentle declivity ttnvards it from
each fide, the meadow being the bafon and receiver of tlie
numerous fpnngs whicli rife in the upper fields, and whiclu in
couife of time, had rendered fome parts of it utterly ini-
paffable for an horfe, and Icurcely fafe for a man at certain
feafons. It is obfifrvcd t'tiat the firft ftep the prefent oc-
cupier took was, as fuon after Michaehn;is ps he could, to
cut the drains, as lie has (hewn in the plan ; all of which are
covered, except the main drain, and the two ditches. Thefe
latter arc cut both wide and deep, and are the chief operating'
checks to the fprings above. And as fooii as the weather
permitted, he next fet the teams to work (wliik;h were
enabled to enter, even upon the moft unfound parts, very
fiiorlly after ths firft procefs was concluded), to level the
hills, fill up the hollows, and to cart all the fuperfluous
mould lie could colleil within the boundary of the meadow,
(fuch as came out of the new-cut ditches and main drain
principally), to the amount of j 000 loads, over the furface
of the whole. About the laft week of March he drill,
rolled ; and where the roller could not work, from little
inequalities of ground, he dibbled tlie feeds mentioned in the
annexed flatement, harrowing the fmall feeds in afterwards ;
and, in July latl, he cut and ftacked the produce, which the
writer has feen, and can witnefs to be excellent hay.

It is added that the preilnt appeai'ance of the meadow,
atter being fed down very eluie by more th;ui fifteen fcore of
ilieep, ejvliibits, notwithftai.ding the very wet feafon we ex-
perienced, one uniformly dry, firm, and Iniooth furface,
completely covered with a fhort turf, con filling of ray-
grafs, Dutch-clover, and good natural grafTes. There ace
certainly fome ruihes yet, but far lets numerous and ftrong
than heretofore, and which it may juftly be cxpcfted a few
fweepings with the fcvthe, and hard flocking with (heep,
v*iU iij time wholly deftroy. But though there may not be
7 much

GRASS.

much novelty in the fchome of draining, tlie writer i.^ of o))i-
nion, tliat very great merit is due to Kir. .Siilter, for the in-
troduftioii of vetclies, which he apprehends was never before
tried on palhire-grounds, or indeed on any ground whatever
unbroken by the pk)UJ,h. It certainly anfwers feveral ad-
mirable purpofes, one is, that it gives a profpeft every year
of a bulky crop of hay, wliicli otherwife niufl liave been
very fcanty. And being fown with oats, the vetches afford
that hovering kind of Ihade and proteftion to the youn^
graffes in which they moll delight,
alfo worth more.

Proiitu

iS loads of hay, at 4/.
P'eed

'3

o
o

£9,S

It is alfo necedary that care be taken to kfcp grafs-lands

' f

'g

i\g in a proper (late of production, by the judicio'is ufc t

Theeddilh is of courfe top-drelfing, and by obfcrving fuitablc mctuodu of niowin'
and feeding them down by llock, and it becomes of conrje

But he is not quite fure, whether Mr. Salter's experiment requilite in the view of keeping fuch lands in tlie moll pro-

gave rife to the following practice, which he is informed per condition for the production of plentiful crops, as well

daily gains ground. Where? the clover plants fall partially, as that of altering and improving tlie nature of the iicrbage,

or by fpots, on a new layer, fpring vetches are often drill- to huve recourfe to the occalional aj)p!ication of manure ;

rolled upon the furfico, not ploughed. Tlie few clover- as by this means the ftaple and depth of the vegetable

plants are thus left to grow with tlie vetches, and both mould are not only much increafed, but l!ie land brought

together, in due feafon, form nearly as good a fwath, as if into fuch a Hate of fertility, as tlitit it may aftcr\v;irds be

the clover had nut died away. Mr. Rix is fo thoroughly kept up with much lefs e:;pence and trouble than before,
convinced of the uti'ity and advantage of the method he lias A late writer has ilated, that " it is a circumilanee

■purfued, that he is now preparing a ftcoud meadow, Iving well known to grafs-famiers in the bed cultivated dillricts,

at the foot of the one juil improved, for a hmilar procels that when lands of this fort are fulfered to get much out of

of improvement. condition, it is a much more difBcult bufinefs to reftore

In cafes where pa(lure-bnd can be fpared for mowing, them to the proper (late of produCtivenefs, than to prefervc

Mr. Salter feems to be of opinion, that vetches may be them in it. Trom the conllant decompofition and decay of

profitably employed, even a fecond year, U[)on new im- various vegetable materials on the furface of graf-land»,

proved meadows. He has liad fomc experience of fuch a "i^w portions of vegetable mould are conllantly added, that

repeated trial, and the writer bcheves he thinks favourable improve the quahty of ti.e lands, and at the fa. '.e time afford

of it. He dibbles the il-ed upon the unbroken furface,
after feeding it down as clofe as he can with flieep or other
ftock.

It is ftated that the above meadow of Mr. Rix's can-
not be over-rated, if it be faid that it is, at this moment,
more worth thirty iliillings per acre to a tenant, than, in
its former Hate, it was eight {hillings the acre,

" Debtor and CriiTitor Accounts of JlTr. Riv's JlfeaJotv, end-
ing at Michciclmas.

1S06.

363 of ooen drains, at g'l/.
173 under grains, at 6d.
100 alder faggots, laid in drains
Filling and Spreading loco loads of mould, at
2JJ-. per hundred . - -

Seed.

C CO. fp. tares ...

6 bufhels of grey peas

6 do. of oats ...

2 do. of ray-grafs ...

too pounds of Dutch clover

Dibbling ....

£.

'4
9
5

Hi

ur es s I line.

5 horfes 14 days, fetting about mould
4 do. dnli-roUing, 3 days

2 do. bulhiiig and rolling in feeds, 3 days

Men's Tiine.

1 man driving team, 14 days

3 m.tn drill-rolling, 3 days
I man bulliing, 2 days

do. gathering llones, 2 days

Total expence

6

6

0

I

2

6

0

16

9

I

10

0

i

ly

0

1

8

0

1

0

0

I

4

0

0

12

0

I

S

0

0

12

0

0

4

0

0

4

0

65

7

0

a more fuitable and fertile bed for the eltablilhment of the
different kinds of grafs-plnn:;. It is chiefly, perhaps, on
thele accounts that old grr.fs-lands are fuperior to new ones,
and it explains the reafon of the greater utility of earthy
compolls with dung in the latter than the former cafes.
H'/Wever, with refpeft to the moll proper periods of rrak-
ing fuch applications, there is much difference of opinion ;
but it fhould, probably, be regulated by circumllances ;
fuch as the Hate of the land in regard to drynefs, its fitua-
tion, the heat of the feafon, and its nature and condition
in refpeft to foil and fertility. Where the land is fuch as
not to admit the dung-cart in the early fpring-months, with-
out the danger of injuring the furface by poaching or
breaking the texture of the fward, the moll proper period
would feeRi to be in the beginning of the autumn, before
the heavy rains fall, as at this period the drefling mav be
L\id on with tlie greatell convenience and fafciv ; and from
the after-grafs being chiefly confumcd with the leall lofs
in that particular. It is, however, rjcommended to be
performed by fomc immediately after the land has be<'n
mown and cleared from the hay, in which method there may
be an advantage in fome cafes, as the growth of the after-
grafs may thereby be rendered more abundsnt." ]Vit, in
other refpecls, it has been obferved by the author of Prac-
tical .iVgriculture, that, ♦' it muil often be not only incon-
venient, but uneconomical, as» from its happening at a
feafon when much other bufinefs is to be performed, it can
fcldom be attended to in fuch a manner as is necedary ; and
when the feafon at this period is hot, and there is much fun.
as in general is the cafe, there mi. I be c>)nfiderable lof»
iullained in the extrication and diliipation of the fm.T and
more enriching particles, fuch as become more immediately
the food of plants, from their being in a condition nearly
fultablo for being abforbed and taken up by the roots of
the graffes. The extent of the lofs incurred in this way
is much more coniiderable than is commonly fuppofed, as
luull appear evident from the great exhalation and conllant
evaporation that is often kept up for many day?, or even

weeks.

CRASS.

weeks as tlie very offonfive fmcll that iffues fully proves.
In this diftridl, where we have occafionally witneffed the
praftice, with fome of the lefs intelhgeiil farmers, the
jiioiilure of the manure has been fo much forced oft and
diffipated, efpecially when there is much wind, as to leave
the materials in nearly a perfectly dry ilate. The fudden
drying up of large ponds, at fuch feafons, (liews in a more
ftrikiu"- manner the extent of the injury that the farmer
-fullains in choofing this feafon for the application of his ma-
nure" upon his grafs-lands. And, it dill further ftates, that
" there is another way in which a vail lofs of manure may
take place when applied at either of the periods that have
been juft noticed, efpecially where the lands lie in Hoping
direCl'ions, as is frequently the cafe, which is by the heavy
rains in the autumnal feafon carrying down tlie more fine
and rich parts of the manure, in a Hate of folution, into
the ditches and runlets on the fides or other parts of the
fields. Of the great wade of manure occafioned in this
way any one may convince himfelf, by attending to the
Hate of the water as it drains off from the liigher grounds
into thefe places, after the land has been previoufly drelh-d,
as it will be found liighly coloured, and loaded with the
cnrichinci- carbonaceous particles of the manure." And
" after frolls, when fudden thaws occur, tlie fame thing
happens" in a flill more extenfive degree than in the other
cafes.

In cafes where the natural drynefs and open texture of
the foil admit of the manure being applied in the early
fpring months, there will be lefs danger of walle in the
iiboTC manner, and at t!ie fame time greater advantage ob-
tained in the growth of the produce ; as, from the mode-
rate heat and quicknefs of the vegetation at this period, the
grafs will foon over-lhade and conceal the dung, where laid
on in a fuitable ilate of reduction or finenels, without fuffer-
in^i- much exhalation to take place ; and the enriching ma-
terial be conveyed to the roots of the grafs-plants at the
time in which it may be the moll ufeful in promoting their
growth. Where the principal objeft of the farmer is a
large produce, and the nature of the foil will admit of the
rnanure's being applied without injury, this is unqueitionably
the moft fuitable as well as moll beneficial time of putting
tlie duno- upon grafs-lands. The earlier, however, it can
be performed the bettei". See Manure.

But it has been Hated by fome, that manure produces
the ilrono-ell effefts upon the land when applied early in the
autumn, or in meadows as foon as poflible after they have
had the hay taken off from them. And others fuppofe
this lafl as the moll proper feafon for having the bufinefs
performed in of any.

In regard to the kinds of manure that are mod proper,
there is Icarely any fort that will not be beneficial when laid
upon o-rafs-lands ; in general, however, the more rich ani-
mal kinds \\ill be the moil fuitable for the older forts of
l\vard-land ; and dung, in combination with frefh earthy
materials, the more proper on the new lays or grafs-lands,
as by this means a fine earthy bed will be prepared for the
roots of die grafs-plants to (hoot and fpread themfelves into,
and a better fward formed in confequence of fuch appli-
cations. See haying Land tlo'wn to Groj's.

It is the practice of the bell fanners in the hay-dlllridl
of Middlefex to ufe the richeft dung they can procure,
without mixing it with any fort of earthy material, aa they
find it anfwer bell in the quantity of produce, whicli is the
principal objeft. The lands on which this fyllem is pur-
i'ued, are mollly fuch as have been long under fward, and
where the foils are chiefly of the more tenacious, loamy, or
tilayey kinds. It cannot, however, be doubted, but that

earthy compofts in the proportion of a third or fourth of^
fuch materials may, in many cafes, according to the nature
and circumllances of the land, be had recourfe to with
great and beneficial effefts, both in rendering the land more
produftive, and in bringing the herbage into a finer ftate,
as well as in bettering the lurface for the purpofe of mow-
ing. See M.\NUKE.

It may be obferved, that whatever the nature of the ma-
terial may be that is employed in combination with dung,
or the fort of manure that is ufed, it (liould invariably be
brought into a rather fine Itate. It is the praftice, in the
dillricts mentioned above, to turn over the dung that it
brought from London in a ilate of tolerable rottennefs once,
chopping it well down in the operation, fo as to be in a
middling ilate of finenefs when put upon the land. It is
'neceffary, however, that it ihould be in a more rotten and
reduced ilate when applied in the fpring, than when the
autumn is the time of putting it upon the land.

In refpeft to the proportion of manure made ufe of at
once, it (hould be, in fome meafure, fuited to the ftate of
the land, but, in general, fuch as to afford a good even
covering to the furface of the ground. Where the manure
is of a very good and enriching quality, the quantity may
be from four or five to fix or feveii loads on the acre, of
fuch as are drawn by three or four horfes. But where the
manure is of an inferior quality, a much larger proportion
may be requifite and proper.

The frequency of drefling grafs-lands, in fo far as it re-
fpeC^s the foil, Ihould conftantly be performed at fuch dif-
tances of time, as that the fertility of the lands may not be
fuflercd to decline, but be preferved in an equal or incrcafeJ
ilate of heart ; in which the manner and frequency of cut-
ting, or otherwife coniuming the produce, mull be conlider-
ed ; as, where crops are more frequently taken off, the land
mull be prevented from being injured, by the great lofs ol:
fertility that muft arife in this way, by the dreflings being
applied at Ihorter intervals, or in larger quantities at a time ;
but the firll is by much the bell method, as injury may often-
be done by too great a dreffing being given at once. But,
in general, where luch lands are in a tolerable ftate of culti-
vation, every third year may be fufficient ; while on fuch a»-
are of inferior value, it may be a better practice to do it every
fecond year, as by this frequent application of manure, the
lands may attain a gradual improvement ; whereas, in th»
contrary cafe, they would be on the decline, and in time be-
come poor and worn out to the great injury of the farmer.
It is a too common prailice, in dillriils where grafs-huibandry
is imperfedlly underllood, to almoft wholly neglecl the manur-
ing of fward-lands, in order to employ it on thofe wliich are
under the plough : but this is obviouily bad management ; as
it is only by the niifing of full crops of grafs for being con-
verted into hay, and of proper kinds of green food, that a full
flock of cattle can be kept, and the largcll poiTible proportions
of manure provided for the land. It may be noted there are
a few articles made ufe of as top-dreiTings to grafs-lands, which
cannot, it is faid, be frequently repeated with either fafety
or advantage, fuch as chalk, marie, chopped woollen rags,
and fome others. It is itated, that " the firll of thefe kinds,
efpecially when of a foft, unctuous nature, fo as to readily
fall down in the ilate of folution to the roots of the grais-
plants, is found to produce the moll beneficial effetls, in ren-
dering the lands more fertile and productive, and improving
the quality of the h.erbage. It cannot, however, be often
repeated in its fimple Ilate with advantage, as it is fome time
in producing its full effefts ; but in that of compoil, it may

be applied with fuccefs at ihorter intervals. Ma

like-

wife a fubftancc, el'peciully when it i« of the rich, foapy

kill (if

GRASS.

kind, that may he made life of witli much advantagf
as a top-di-eding on grafs-lanJs ; but as its operation is
Klow, it cannot be repeated at (hort intervals, except when
■employed in tlie (late of a compoil with dung-woollen rags,
■n-hich, rendered fmall by being chopped into pieces, may be
laid on land in the ilate of fward ; but as they require <t
confiderable length of time to fink down and become mixed
'with the foil, fo as to be well covered by the gi'afs, they can-
Hot be repeated at flmrt intervals. After tliey have bren fully
incorporated with the land, their beneficial effects are conli-
derable,'' as have been fully fhewn in the trials of different
^rafs-farmers : and there are various other matters that are oc-
cafionally applied as top-dreflings on grats-lands ; fuch as liine
in combination witli rich vegetable earth or peat, the allies
derived from the combuftion of peaty fublbmces, coal-alhes,
malt, dull, and foot. Moll of thefe have been made ufe of
with good effeils when thinly Ipread out over the furface
fwards of lands in the ftate of grafs. The three lall have
been found to produce the bed effecls in being difperfed
over the new lays of the artificial grafs kinds. All appli-
cations of this fort (liould be applied in February, being
fpread over the furface as evenly as polhble. " If it can be
done before a Ihower of rain, it will be the better, as it is of
advantage to have them carried down to the roots of the
grafles as foon as porfiblc after they are laid upon the land."
But fome advife, in the " management of purchafed manures,
that experiments fliould be formed for a year or two, before
the praAice is cxtendi'd, to fee which, at a given price, will
fuit the land bed. Without this precaution, a farmer may
probably expend large fums of money to little purpofe.
Nor Ihould he trull to the mere appearance of the effecl foon
after the man iring'; for fome ot them, particularly foot and
nialt-dud, will fliew themfelves after the firft heavy diowers,
in a filler green than the red of the field ; but the proof of
the effecl does not anfe from fine gi-eens, but from weiglit of
hay : for it has been found from experience, that the latter
is not always an attendant on the former. Contiguous half-
acres, or roods, diould be marked out, the prices of the ma-
mires calculated, and on each piece a feparate one fpread, all
to the. amount of 20^. an acre, for indance. At hay-time,
the crops (liould. be weighed. It will then be known which
tnanure, at the given prices, fuits the foil bed. This know-
led^e will prove true e.Kperienee, and a vjry difierei.t guide
fruin general ideas."

And here is fiill another circumdance neceffary to be at-
tended to in putting manure upon lands of this kind, which
is not to fuffer too much to be placed out in any. of tlie
hea^is, bift to have them fet out as much as pofiible in mode-
rate fized portions, and " at regular didances from heap to
heap ; as, where the contrary is the cafe, it not only takes
up more time, and caufes much more trouble' to the labourer
in fpreading them, but does not admit of the work being
performed in fo regular or fo exacl a manner. Befides, when
the heaps are let out too large, much injury is done to the
<i-rafs-p)ants on the furface where, they (lood, if not foon
fpread out, which diould always be the cafe, in the quickell
manner.''

It is alfo of much confequence, in the execution ot this
br.iiiicfs, to have convenient carts for tlie purpole, which, in
ifeneral, are thofe of the fingle-horle khid

Some care is likewife neeelfary in the fcaling or " fprcad-
inT-out all forts of top-drelliiii.''S on gra(s-lands, to (ee that the
vvorkbe performed in anexaCl and even manner, and that all the
clods and lumps be well broken down and perfecily reduced
h\ beating with the fork or di'ovel. If poifible, a dry fealon
ihould be cliofen for this fort of bufmefs, as, under fuch cir-
iriim'.lances, it can be executed in the mod regular iiiid exad
Vox. XVI.

manner ; as when the weather is net, it is an operation that
can never be well performed, as the materials clog round th-
feet and implements of the workman, and can never be effrc-
tually feparated or divided fo us to be fpread out with thr
necetfary degree of evenncfs." It has been already noticed,
tiiat " after the heaps Iiave been fet out, they ftiould not b**
fuffered to remain fo long, as is often the cafe, before thry
are fpread out, as the plants undcrneatli them bccom<» blancli-
ed and tender, and great injury is done to the fward ir. fuch
cafes, all of which may be ealily avoided by fpreading a«
foon as podible after the manure is taken out. Incoiivenier;.
ces of this kind may likewife be avoided by fpreading thr
manure from the carts, as is the praftic? in the mid'and ar.d
fome other didricts : but in this method it is fufpefted th'r
work can neither be executed in fo exaft a manner, or with fo
much economy of time or labour. In this wav hill-fteadi
will not be formed, and, of courfe, the dif.idvai.tjge of their
getting too large a proportion of the manure prevented," at
Mr. Marfiiall lias well obferved in his Economy of the Mid-
land Counties of the Kingdom.

The ufual prailice, as foon as " the whole has been fpread
out, and remained in that date for a fortnight i.r three wetks,
or longer, according to circtimdances, and is become in feme
degree dry and powdery, to apply a bufli-harrow over the
furface once or twice in a plaie, in order to reduce the ma-
nure into a finer date, and bring it more fully to the roots of
the gradl's. But this fort of work, as that of fpreading,
diould never be attempted y.hen the feafon is wet, and the
manure in a chggy, adliefive date. As foon as this work
has been executed, all the rubbidi of every kii:d fnould be
carefully picked off, in order that the' ground may receive
the adlion of the roller," which fliould be palTed over it a»
frequently as may be thought iiecefTary, when the land is in
a fuitable condition for receiving it. ( See RoLLINO.) Thii
is the principal bufinefs which is requifite in the mauagemeut
of grafs-lands in general.

In Hertfordfl^ire, "amodc of managing found meadows and
padures has lately been tried, and attended with great increafe
of produce. The grafs is mown as foon as it is in blofTotn,
and confequently preWous to tire formation of feed. The
after-grafs is not grazed until it begins to cuntraCl a yellorf
appcai-ance, in t!ie latter end of Dclober or the beginning of
November. In this ca'e the ground remains covered during
the winter with a portion- of dead herbage, through which
t!ie young gral's t'prings with the greatell vigour. Mr.
Kright contends, that the (;ip in all jilants ai'cends through
the alburnous vedels- of the root, and is difperfed 0T?er the
leaf, whence it is returned to fonn new ro»)ts and buds, and
to prepare them for vegetation. According to this theory,
if the leaves be eaten off on mowing ground, as foon as they
are reproduced," the roots are deprived of their nutriment,
and the plants in confequence vegetate weakly in the fuccred-
ing fpring. "Whether this hypoth/lis be well or ill founded,
it is certain that the ground which is left with tiiis portion of
the leaves of grafs in the one feafon, is much more produtJuve,
and more early in the next ; and clofe grazing will ever "be
found to deereafe the quantity, allhougli it fliould improve
the quality, of the following crops." It is evident that ther^
is fome truth in this, fron'i its having been found that the
crops are more early and abundant in diTl"erer.t cafc^, where
the afler-gral's is not fed down much in the autumn.il feafoH
with live Itock. ' See MowINi; and GltAziXC.

Criniparuli-ve Qiujnlily of FaaJ fi'Qin Gtj/s ami T/.'/.jjf Land.

With rcfpeiS to the difference in the proportion of human

food raifed from grafs and tillage land, the firit circumilanct

neceilarv to be attetided to, accordiiisr to a lat*- writer, i.-; that

4 N coiuuK'nJy

G R A S S.

««mnionIy deuoinii.aU-J Pihe. But thelc Inqiiincs fuggcR a
further idea conct-niiiig the part of the produce, of either

frafs or arable land, to which that circumftanco is attached,
t is evident, on the flightcll view of the fubjeft, tliat the
portion of the produce confumed in the farmer's family can
have little to do with the price of the market : it never finds
its way thither : it never comes to be meafured with the dc-
jmand of the confumer, who docs not produce. For tliis
reafop, in all inquiries tliat have for their objeft what is
called plenty or fcarcity, we never hear of any thing but
price ; and price is never formed but by the fupply of towns
from the produce of the country. The larger part of a
modern fociety confifts of the inhabitants of thofe towns, wlio
are fiipported'eithcr by manufaaures, or on incomes not de-
rived immediately from the cultivation of the earth. So
much for juft opening our way in a field rather intcreding :
but mav we not, witli equal propriety, extend tlie circum-
ftance juft alluded to, to the labouring families fupported by
the fanner ? His little neighbours in the village who do the
work of his hufbandry, arreft, if we may fo exprefs it, the
amount of their fubfiftence from tire crop before it arrives at
the market. They mull be fed ; and though in many cafes,
by buying their flour of a miller, they feem to clafs with the
inhabitants of a town, yet, perhaps, in more numerous cafes
they are, in faft, fed inmiediately from the farmer's (lores ;
and in effeft always fo : for, if the farmer cannot produce his
crops but by their diredl afiiftance, and mull multiply them
exadly in proportion to the operofenefs of his culture, they
cannot be confidercd in any other light, than mouths attached
to the culture of the land, and demanding a dcdudlion from
the produce of wheat, before the furplus or market be
reckoned, in as direft a deduction as that from his crtip of
oats for the food of his horfea, or other animal.^. It is added
that there are in the Suffolk Report foine eilimates of what
the writer calls produce free in the market, and he makes
the grafs-lands yield a greater free produce (horles, labour,
&c &c. dcduilod) than arable ; and he knows not but it
may be the fame in other coimiies. Other writers feem alfo
10 have had the notion that grafs-land is more beneficial than
arable. Bertrand, a Swifs writer, fays, that grafs-cmmtries
yield more food than arable, and therefore manufactures
iiiould be fixed in them. Hartlib feems to be of the fame
opinion, and quotes thole of Europe as the moll populous.
Fortrey, who wrote in 1663, alfo fays, that our chief care
fhould be to increafc our flock of cattle. There is fome de-
gi-ee of truth in thefe fentiments ; and they might be coiifi-
de.-ed in relation to the proportionate nourifliment, in a pound
of animal food compared with thit of a pound of vegetable,
which fome authors have made vaflly greater in meat than in
bread. Thefe are topics, it is ilated, which ought to be
thoroughly exainiued, that the public mind may be free from
cvecy erroneous bias upon fuch points. Cut further in the
dairy countries, where butter is the chief produce, four fir-
kins, or 224 lbs. may be reckoned the average produce per
cow ; the calf fold at: about a week old, may contain about
}0 lbs. of flefh ; and as the pigs lupported by a dairy, ufed
to be reckoned at the rate of 20s. per cow, when pork was 6J.
per poimd, it implies, that ^o lbs. of pork is the proportion
to each cow : but the cow confuraing the produce of llireo
seres, the acreable account would of courfe tlaud as below :
Acreahle ylccannl. lis.

In Butter .... - 74

Veal .... • 10
Perk ... - - 13

However, in the checfe counties, the produAs vary a good
deal : in Chefhire 4 cwt. per cow; in Shropihire 2^ cwt. ;
in Glouceflerfliire about 2| cwt. ; in Wikdiire 4 cwt. ; in
Somerfetfhire 3 J, cwt.; in AVarwickfliire 3 cwt.: the ave-
rage of all thefe is 37 cwt. and at three acres per cow, i cwt.
and a fmall fradlion per acre ; and as thefe counties are richer
than thofe applied to the produce of buttei, veal may be
called I jibs, and pork 2albs. ; in all I47lbs. per acre, or
therea.bouts. But as to mear, authorities are not very am-
ple : in the midland counties there is a very general notion,
that an acre of grafs, at 40^-. rent, will give 20clbs. of mut-
ton. By an experiment made on land of an inferior qualitv,
which is mentioned in the Annals of Agriculture, land of
l6j-. rent, gave 8oIbs. ; and he has heard, on good authority,
that in Cambrldgcfliire fome obfervations, carefully made,
confirmed this proportion of produce in land fed botli with
bullocks and iheep ; and the produce of beef, &c. in the
Lincolnlhire marflies, goes even further than this ratio or pro-
portion to the acre.

With refpe£l to the butter dairies, they are on land of
about i6j. an acre rent ; and if tlie produce be 97'bs. the
proportion will be 61bs. to every fhilliiig rent. The chcefe
dailies, at 2^s. rent, yielding I47lbs. are alfo at about 61bs.
per IhlUing rent. The meat is jibs, per (hilling. It is eafy
then to decide, that dairy counties are more advantageous
than grazing ones in weiglit of produce ; but their fupcrio-
rity is far greater in another point of view ; their produce
comes much more into the coiifumption of the poor ; for,
where one poor perfon eats meat, there are probably forty
that confume butter and eheefe. How to compare thefe
produfts with thofe of arable land is very difficult ; and vet
the inquirj^ is too interelling entirely to be omitted : a lon>T
train of invefligation might enable one to difentangle difficul-
ties, but it would require much time to go deeply into fuch
a variety of iubjedls. The produce of a good loamy foil,
under the courfe, i . Turnips, 2. Barley, 3. Clover, 4. Wheat,
may, it is fuppofed, be calculated in this manner.

" No. I. . Arabic dry Land at iGs. an Acre Ren.', five Acres
each Crop ; tiventy Acres in all, in a Courfe cj jour Tears'

Hujbaiulry.

. Turnips ; eight flieep an acre, at tlie
iucreafe of jj-. each (heep, or 4CJ,

mutton 8oibs

cacli
: and for

5 acres 40o;L!S.

,!',,. F

Time.

ciiuns. Y»;ir3. Viceks*

Total

97

will be I'ufficient (at -Mb. per perfon
per diem) for two perfons, one year
and five weeks . , . .

. Barley and oats ; fuppofc an allow-
ance of 1 7 acre of oats (at five quar-
ters per acre') for one horfe as tlie pro-
portionate team to twenty acres, and
including feeds for i~ acre: in all
fixty bulhels ; remain 3^ acres for
barley, at four quarters an acre ; four-
teen quarters or 112 buihels ; dcduft
fourteen for feed, rcmiain niaety-eight
buHiels for malt, &c. ; but, if apphed
in bread, fufficient at riiue bufhels j)er
head per annum, for eleven perfons a
year, minus one bufhel.

. Clover ; deduct two acres for the
fummcr and winter food of the horfes,
remain three acres for flieep, at eight
per acre, improved 8j. each* or 3/. 4/.;
or (at Gd per pound) i . 81bs. of n>ut-
ton, and for three acres 38410*. fuiii-

*Kr.t

GRASS.

cient at J a lb. a day fnv two pnfons rtifors. Vcais. Wi tks.
a year : and leaving 2oIbs. over ; - 2 i 20

4. Wlieat ; twenty-two hudick per acre,
which, after deducting feed, leave
twenty, or 25 quarters, and for five
aci-es 12 J quarters, fufficient for
twelve perfons a year and two weeks 12 I 2

IVhole produce in human food

The fame land, if in grafs, would give
Solbs. of mutton per acre, 40olbs.
per ann. and for four years i6oolbs.
fufficient at J.lb. a day to fupport
eight perfons one year and thirty-fix
days'" -»---.

16

8

36

Hence, " to make the dcdudlion, before alluded to, of
the farmer's family, and his labourers-; fuppofe he farms an
hundred acres, which is, probably, above the average fize
of farms of the kingdom, here are five perfons to that ex-
tent, or one to twenty acres. If we reckon all forts of la-
bour at 2U. an acre, we tball, he fuppofes, not be far from
the fail : the pay of a labourer may be reckoned on an ave-
rage at 25/. which we fnall call the food of five perfons ; fet-
ting the earnings cf the v.-ife and children againll rent,
clothes, and other articles ; this makes food 5/. a head : for
every 5/. therefore that the farmer pays in labour, we may
faf-.'ly, he fuppofes, reckon that one pcrfon is fed f -om the
produce of his farm before it reaches the market : the la-
bour in the twenty acres in the above infertcd eftimate being
2i/. he calls four perfons', and the farmer's family one, mak-
ing five, to be dedudled from the acreablc amount of tlic
farm."

Ptrfons. Vpars. Days.
Brought forwaid - - - • 16 I 17

Deducl .....50 o

Remains for market . - .

And the zzs, exccfs in the i\L

ftrikes off . . - .

»7

'7

Yet, '•' in regard to grafs land, as it is managed with fo
much more cafe, and farms are generally to much, larger, it
■will be fair to deduft only one perfou for farmer and
labour."

Perfons. Years. Davs,
Brought forward ... 8 i 56

Dedud I I 36

Remain for market

."fi

" It then appear?, that under tlie circumftance.? of fuch
land thus applied, arable land, on comp.irifon with grats,
fends to market in the proportion of 1 1 to "] r^- But it the
barley, inllead of being drunk, be eaten in bread, it add,-; to
the arable account eleven perfons, and the account would
then Hand nearly twenty-two to 7^'^, or about three to
one.

" But, as the largeft part of the kingdom is employed in
fyftems of hufbandry very inferior to this excellent one, let
US calculate liow the comparifon will fland with open fields.

and thofe inclofurcs wliicli are managed by means of fallonc
in the ordinary rotation of cropping that is purfued upon
them.

" No. II. Open-field arable — Sod day or <wet — Rent \Ot. am.
Acre, Jive Acres each Crop \ thirty in all, in a Courfe of
Six Tears' Hujhandry,

1 . Fallow : Timr.

2. Wheat ; produce twenty-two bufli- f '***"' "^
els; feed two ; for confumption twen- ''"*^'** ^'f*™- Wtdo.
ty, or 2^ quarters; 12^ quarters for

five acres, being food for twelve per-
fons during one year and two weeks - 1 1 ( t

3. Oats : produce four quarters an acre ;
feed half a quarter ; remain 3^ quar-
ters per acre, or 17.^ quarters, or 143
bufliels : fufficient, at twenty-five

. bufhels a head, to feed five perfons
a year and five weeks, if ufed in
bread.

4. Fallow :

5. Barley ; fuppofed to be confumed
in beer, &c. : but, if eaten by man,
at four quarters an acre, dedufting
half a quarter for feed, remain 3^
quarters or twenty-eight bullitls ; and
at nine bufliels a head, fufficient for
three perfons one year, and one bulhcl
over, and five acres, enough for fif-
teen perfons one year and two weeks.

6. Beans ; for horles equal to the food
of li horfe (at one horlc to twenty
acres) for tlie year.

But the fame land laid down to grafs, and let at las. will,
he fays, feed (on the fuppofition of an increafc 5lbs. per
fiiilling rent) oxen and (heep to the addition in weight of
loolbs. of beef and n;utton, or 50olbs. for fire acres, and
30Oo!bs. in fix years ; which, at halt a pound a ptrfon per
Uiem, or iSslbs. per head per annum, will feed iG: perlons
one year. The courfe her.- detailed docs not fti d the horfes
infummer; but as it aiPords, perhaps, more horlc -food in
the beans than to t'.iat amount, no other dtduiftion fliould be
made. It appear,;, that thirtv acres of lucli land, wlien the
oats and barley are eaten by horfes, or drunk by men, lup-
port twelve perfons a year and two weeks ; now from this
wc are to deduct, as in the former cafe, tlie population of
the farmer and his labourers ; the former in the fame ratio
as before ; but 15^ uill be enough to deduct per acre in
labour, inftead of 2u. in the other courfe. This will, on
thirty acres, be 22/. 10/. or 4; perfons a year: add one and
a half for the farmer, it is fix in all.

Piffmis. Yean W'e»l»,
Brought forward - • - -12 1 2

Dedud labour and farmer . - 6 1 o

Remain for market

The grafs 16^00

Deduct I A for farmer and labour,

tliat is, one pef 20 acres - 1^ o O

Remain for market

'5

4N«

But

GRASS.

-

12 I

5 ■
•5 '

2

5

2

ay

32 for 1
6 I

2

0

-

26 I

2

But if the barley anj oats be brought into the account
as human food, the account will then Hand in this way.

PtTl'ons. Viiifi. Weeks.
Wlieat - - - ■ -

Oats

Barley . . - - -

Deduft for farmer and labour -
Remain ....

ft is cbnfequently flated, thni: in one caff, the grafs has
the advantage as fifteen to (ix ; in tlic other, the arable as
tucnty-fix tu fifteen.

" No. III. Poor Sand or Heath — Rent ^s ; five Jens caeh
Crop ; thirty Acres in all.

I. Turnips: four fliecp an acre,

to the increafe of 6s. each, or

240-.; in mutton 481bc. ; and

for rive acres 24olbs. ; fnffi-

cient, at ilb. per diem, for

0X12 perfon one year fixteen

weeks and four days
2 Barley and oats; one horfe to

thirty acres, which demands

27; acres of oats, at three

quarters (feed dedudled) ; the

remaiiidei- therefore 2\ acres

for barley, at 2\ quarters per

acre, being fixteen buftiels

(feed dedutted), and for 2^

ncres forty bufliels remain for

malt ; but enough in bread,

at nine bufliels a liead for 45

rcrroii'^. Year?. Wicks. Davs.

16

perfons a year, minus one
bulhel.

3. Graffes.

4. Ditto.

5. Ditto.

The whole, without any horfe
account, would feed,
tft year, three (heep per acre,
36 weeks

2d two ditto ditto

3d one ditto ditto to

the improvement (or the value
in keeping) of 40.'-., and for
five acres in each to 10/.; hence
it appears that to keep o:ie
■horfe would almoil; equal the
whole amount.
6. Rye : I '-, quarter ; twelve
. bul'hels ; feed dedufted, ten;
fiifficient to fupport one periuu
fifteen months ; and for five
acres fix perfons one year and
eight weeks . . -

Wi'-hin a fmall fraftion equal to
The fame land in heath would
feed, but not fasten, to the
value of los. per acre ; call
this 2olbs. of mutton; loolbs.
for five aere?, and 6oolbs. in

fix years ; iufhcient, at Ub,
per diem, for three perfons a
year and thirty-fix days

I'criuus. Years. Wctt\S. P^i^s.

3

Brought forward, arable account
Dediift, as farms on this foil are large,
only half a perfon for thirty acres for
th_- fanner ; and leckoning labour at
8j-. an acre, it is 12/. for tliirty acres,
or z\ perfons ; in all three

Remain for market ...

Grafs for ditto ....

IN

W-. k,

o

3

But " a fraftion is to be dedutled for farmer and fhep-
herd. The difference, therefore, is as five- to three.. But
if the barley be confumed in bread, the account will be,

I'vfims. Years. WViks.
Brouglit down . . . . j i o

Barley - - - -- 4-^1 o

Together 9I i

Grafs

Coufequently the arable is therefore fuperior as nearly
three to one. Upon the whole ot thefe comparifons it is
fuilicienlly clear, tliat the arable land is, and in every cafe
may be, (by eating barley and oats,) far fuperior to grafs-
land in the article of feeding not only the people at large,
bat alfo in fending a furpliis to market. He cannot, how-
ever, let his papers go from his liands without requeilir.g
them to be read with candour. He prefumes to offer them
but as rough flvetches, that may approximate to truth, but
cannot reach exatlnefs : thev may afford hints ufeiul to
future inquirers, and the fubjeft is interelling enough to
anfwer well a very careful examination. One obfervation
that goes generally to all is too material to be omitted ; the
produftiou of meat in England is, it is fuppofed, of fjr.all
importance compared with that of corn, becaufe the poor
do not live on the former ; meat is the confumption, gene-
rally fpeaking, of thofe who are in very eafy circumllances,
compared with the great confumers of corn ; nor would the-
times be much complained of, whatever the price of meat
might be, provided corn were at a reafonable price. This
is a circumflance which fliould be confidered as dccifive of
the inquir)' ; and fuflieient to prove, that the great iiitercils-
of the public demand every pofiible eiicouragenient to til-
lage fo- given, as fliall preferve corn at a fair price, neither
too higii for tlie poor, nor fo low as to difcourage the cul-
tivation of it by the farmer.

Y/ith regard to what ought to be the proportion between
the grafs and arable land of a farm, errors are, it is "ob-
fjrved, extremely common among landlurds, and not lefs fo
with farmers -. in general, however, they both look to their
own interefl ; tlie firll to keep m.uch in Lirafs, and llie hitter
to plough all th.ey can : witli fliort leafes, and bad cove-
nants, we are not to be furprized at citlier. One aere of
moderate corn, fays Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Nations,
yields a greater neat profit tlian an acre of the bell pafture.
And experience, Mr. Davis of Longleat obferves, fiiffi-
ciently evinces the extreme diflicultv of perfuading tenants
to believe that they get more, generally fpeaking, by feed-
ing their lands than by ploughing them ; yet it requires

very

GRASS.

very few arguments to com-ince a landlord, that in cold wet
lands cfpctially, llie Icfs ploughed land you liave, the lefs
you put it in a tenant';; power to ruin your cllate. That a
tenant of 6ol. per anr.um in a dairy-farm will get money,
while a corn-farm will ilarve its occupier (though, perhaps,
the former gives i jj. an acre for his land, and the other but
lOS.), is felf-evident. Periiaps, fays Mr. Billingdey, in
the third volume of the Bath Memoirs, there cannot be a
flrongcr proof of the infenonty of tlie plough, with re-
fpecl: to profit, than tlie luperior punctuality of the dairy-
farmer in the payment of his rent. He never met with the
lleward of a manor devoted partly to corn and partly to
dairv-farms, who controverted this (tatement.

Clay. — Upon " this foil, when tenacious and not cafily
drained, a larger portion fliould, it is obferved, be kept in
grals than perhaps on any other; and for this realon, — green
winter food is not to be gained at all, or, if gained, not
without great difficulty and expenee ; conl'equently, the
team, and whatever cattle may be kept for confuir.ing itraw
and making dung, mull depend in a larger nieafure on n-.ca-
dow hay, liian upon ioils which admit turnip, cabbage, S;c.
Clover v/ill do on clav, but it is more hazardous and liable
to failure ; in which cale, without a certain reiourcc in tlie
hay of natural grals, the fiirmer would often find great in-
conveniences. He has examined many farms with this ob-
ject ill view, and found that, when half the land lias been
grafs, they have been more profitably couduited than with
a lefs proportion ; but on no account with lefs than one-
third."

Loam. — It is ftated that " one-third or one-fourth in grafs
is a proportion found fuitable to various loams ; the more
they tend to welnefs, the larger the portion. It is not,
however, etfential on thefe foils, not only becaufe clover and
other artificial gralTes are lefs apt to fail ; but likewife by
reafon of their admitting profitably the alternate huibandry
of grafs and arable."

Sand. — It is contended " that fome rich fands arc of fo
happy a texture, that they do very well in permanent grafs,
and without burning in (light droughts ; but, in general, it
may be obferved, that fand in its leveral varieties is, of all
other foils, that which pays bell in tillage : it is eafily
worked ; cxpences are light ; it manures itlelf by agreeing
well with (heep ; and, as the refult of the whole, farmers
are ufually rich upon it. In refpett of the proporlion, it
is bell managed, perhaps, when the whole is under the
plough ; for, by means of cultivated grades of proper forts,
all the llock of the farm may be profitably fupported, and
the land relied fufficiently, for enfuring a perpetual produc-
tion of corn. But, contrary to this maxim, and moft un-
profitably, large tracts are commonly tied up frtjm the
plough, by covenants of leafes, under the name of flieep-
walk, heath, &c. which would, by alternate tillage and
rell, produce more corn, and keep more iheep, than in the
prefent Hate : tliis is particularly the cafe in Norfolk, Suf-
folk, Nottinghamfli'rc, and fome other counties."

Chall: and Lihie-ftcn- Soils . — " Nearly the fame obfervation is
to be made on this cLifs ; they are more productive under
the plough than in grafs. But landlords tie up their tenants
from ploiiglii ig downs in Suffex, Hampdiire, Dorfetlhire,
and Wiklhire ; but in Gloucefterfhire, the Eall Riding of
Yorklhirc, and Lincolulliire, they have, on t!ie whole, been
lefs tenacious ; Itill, however, large tracts remain, which
would be phjughed were tillage permitted. Rules may be
carried too far, and this among the rell. Dorfetlhire has its
ewe leafes, which, in many c;des, ought not to be touched ;
and fine fweet doivns, which by very attentive management
have been brought to a confidcrable degree of fertility, are

fo ufeful to /hecp in winter, that f xceptions rmtfl occtir.
Another motive for ploughing is tlie peculiar advantage de-
rived on this foil from faintfoin, one of the moft ufeful grafTrs
that we owe to the bounty of Providence, but attainable
only by tillage."

Peul. — Iramenfe regions of moors fprcad widely through
all the northern counties, and even in the moft foi'uhem, as
IXvonfliire and Somerfet(hire, Cambridgeft.ire and Walet ;
aifo fedgy bottoms are found every where. TI ey admit and
call for a much greater improvement than any other foil,
comprehending tlie larger part of the waftc lands of ll.c
kingdom. 'J hefe foils arc very rarelv brought into
the Hate they are capable of, without tillage, and con-
fcquently, to prohibit it, is to paf-i a decree of per-
petual llerility. The obllacle, however, moll common on
moors i.«, the rights of commoniige, which do not come
within the fcope of the prefent inquiries. When improved,
they are commonly much m.ore adapted to grafs than to til-
lage, not however without numeroii> exceptions, as we fee bv
the general pradice in the fens of Canibridgeftiire and Lin-
colnlhire. The alternate hufbaiu'ry does well upon iJiem : it
is eafy, however, to be too buly with the plough ; for,
when good grafs is gained, it is the wifer way to continue it
in a productive flate.

But it is furliier (Ic.ted, th;\t the fubjeci of the pro-
portion between grafs and arable requires a word or two,
viewed in another light, btfides the relation to foil. This
is the prevalent application of the land. In the midland
counties, where grazing very widely extends, it is coir-
mon to fee entire farms of grafs-land, and the tenant prohi-
bited from breaking up an acre ; in fuch cafes there is a mo-
tive for ploughing not immediately connected with foil.
To till a part would be right, whatever the foil may be ;
ftraw, in fuch a country, is not to be bought, and the con-
venience and profit of having fome is no inconiiderablc ob-
ject ; it would be caretully ufed as litter, and the marure
arifing would improve a j>ortion of the land. Some cab-
ba'.jcs, or Su'cdidi turnij), or common turnip, might be raifed
(which to a certain extent, and for certain objects on fuch
farn.s, would be highly valuable to tlie grazier), fo as to
outweigh largo cxpences in procuring them on foils not quite
adapted to their culture. There is not a queilion but a
farmer in fuch cafes could afiord to pay more rent forhl-cr-
tv to plough a portion of his land than under the prtfciit
covenants. This would, it is fuppofed, e.Meiid to a fourth
of the farms in foil rather unfavourable to the plough ; and
to a large proportion in others. But even three or tour finall
fields, though no more th.ui one-fifth, onc-fixth, or onc-
tontli, would be highly advantageous to himielf and the
public, and not at all injurious to the landlord or owner.
And to dairy-farms, wl'.tn entirely in grals, as many are in
Wiklhire, Gloucellerlhire, and other counties, this remark
is yet more applicable, as the produce of tillage, ilraiv,
cabbage, &c. is yet more neceflai y than in a mere fattening
fi Hem. Ill this cafe, and indeed in moft others, the quan-
tity might bo partly regulated by the team : a dairy -farmer,
who keeps four horfes to dniw his butter or chetfe to fairs,
&c. ouglit, without queilion, to tiave tillage enough to
employ tliofe horfes ; and it is no difficult matter to alcer-
tain that quantity. If the \arious works be examined care-
fully, it will be found, that a horfo to twenty acres of til-
lage is a fair propoition, whicli will leave time for carting
hay in fummer, and the products of the farm in winter.
He is not fpeaking hei-c of tiUag-c farms on fauds, &c. or
with rotations of crops, in which the toil rtfts foe fcveral
years: on fuch the proportion vaiies : but merely on grafs-
fiurins, where fome horfes muft be kept, and are at prefent

uuec-.-

G R A

G R A

■unemployed a large part of the year. But meadow farms, espable of being managed by any perfon wl-.o is aUe to d?
proptnly fo called, are never, to his knowledge, met with but in rert a common plough

the vicinity of great cities, where the demand for hay is ''"'■'- -' '-

great and uniform ; horfes on fuch arc kept only for the pur-
pofe of carrying Iwy to market, bringir.g dung back, cart-
ing the hay to the iiack, and the manure to the lields. Straw
is wanting for litter and for thatch ; but it is queilionable
»vhether it is profitable to plough for this object only in
any cafe; a fcattering of tillage is in fome places tound, but
not by anv certam rule ; the necefTity is fmall, and llraw
ufuallv to be purchafed. Such dillritts, being highly im-
proved, demand very little attention, it is fuppofcd. See
Tillage, RoiaUon of Cuor.s, and Pasture.

GuAs.sZ.-Y7/f, i\\ jisnciilture, a term frequently applied
to fuch fward lands as are appropriated to the purpoies of
crazing, or the fattening of neat cattle and flieep.

G iXA^a-Steds, a term often ufed to fignify the feveral different
feeds of graffes thit are employed in laying land down to
tlie ftate of turf. It was, however, formerly, moftly
made ufe of to denote the mixture of all fons of rubbilh
that was fcraped up from the hay lofts, or coUefted in the
cribs or boxes below the racks in the llables. But, in
the improved method of forming new grafs lands, the
practice of ufing fuch mixtures of feeds is almoil wholly
laid afide, and only fuch as are really ufeful and proper, had
recourfe to, by which the lands are found to be much more
valuable and productive. See Laywgl^X'SYiS down to Grafs.
GiiASsfodi, in Rural Economy, a name applied to fnch
fods or turfs as are pared oil' from the furface of old fward-
lands, whether they be intended for the purpofe of burning
on the land, for fuel, or for being laid down in order to form
a lawn, or fmall plot of fine even turf. In the former in-

This plough may be fecn at Jig. 7. in the P/nle on
Grazing, in which the nine holes (hewn by A, A, is
the beam, ferve, as in the common plough, to regulate
the length of the beam merely by placing the pin C for-
wards or backwards, and thereby to make t!ie cutting-iron to
work to greater or lefs depth. The two coulters, E, E,
which are placed on each fide of it, in front of the cutting-
iron D, ferve to guide the lide cut, preparatory to the fe-
paration of the turf or fod. Tiie c.tting-iron D mavi
by means of the fcrews G, G, be raifed or lowered at dif-
cretion. And, in order to keep it in its place properly, the
two fupports at H, are made, and provided with feveral
holes for the purpofe at I, formed in the cutting-iron D.
The two handles are dlfplayed at K, K, and the frame at
L L L L ; the whole of the remainder, which in the frame
is marked black, is to be formed of iron.

A certain degree of practical experience is necefTary, in
order to ufe this plough, fo as to form the turfs with exaft-
nefs ; and in the commencement of the work care (hould be
particularly taken that the workman does not cut the turfs
too deep, and that the plough be not injured by his inatten-
tion. In a very fhort time, he will, however, be fo accuf-
tomed to the hnfinefs as to perform with great exaftnefs.
In fetting out the work, a breadth equal to the width of ths
two cutters Ihould be previoudy cut out, as by that means
the cutting-iron takes the fod at a proper depth, and exe-
cutes the work, as foon as the draught commences, in the
team. In the performance oi the work, oxen are recom-
mended as preferable to horfes, from their drawing more
fteadily, and beir.g more readily managed on ftiff lands ; but

tentions they are generally pared off by ploughs, or fpades, we apprehend that this will not, in general, be found to

contrived for the purpofe ; but in tlie latter almofl con-
ftantly with great regularity and exaclnefs, by a turf fpade
for the purpofe. A tool of the plough kind feems, how-
ever, capable of being employed in tliis way alio with ad-
vantage. See the next article.

GnA^iifod-ciMlng Plough, the name of a tool of the plough
kind, whicli was invented on the continent by count Van
Mattzen, and which has been highly ufeful in cutting grals-
fods in a cheap and expeditious manner. It can alio be had
I'ecourfe to with great advantage in paring the fwards off old
o-rafs lands, waftcs, and commons, previoufly to their being
burnt and brought into the Hate of tillage -hufbandry. It is
likewife capable of being converted to the purpofe of form-
ing walks in grounds where they may be wanted, as well as

hold good, and horfe -teams ai'e far more expeditious. See
Tkam.

Gr.\.ss, in Mining, fignifies the nat\iral furface of the earth
over a mine ; fometiines alio it is called " the day," or the
top ; and a mineral vein appearing on the furface, is faid to
come, or appear to grafs, or to the day. Coals and other
ibatified minerals, when they come to the furface, are faid
to baflet, crop, burft-out, go-out, to want-cover, to run-out,
toout-burft, to head-out, to run-out, &c.

Gu-V.s.s River, in Geography, a river of America, in the
N.W. part of the ilate of New York, which rifes near the
main branch of Black river, and runs N.N.W. about 50
miles, then N.E. 40 miles, and is loft in the river St. Lau-
rence. N. lat. 45' 12'. W. long. 74' 48'. It is a rapid

jn panng the bottoms and fides of them, and of fuch as have river, affords many mill-feats, and near the mouth, its banks
been already made, by which means the gardener will only produce great quantities of hay.

have the fimple bufinefs of raking and rolhng them to per
form.

By fome flight alterations in the manner of placing the
coulters, grafs fods are likewife capable of being cut in a
very ready manner, and in any form that may be required,
fo as to be employed in the conftruCtion of banks, fortifica-
tions, huts, and other works of a fimilar kind. It would
feem, confequently, to be a very ufeful tool in the expenfive
bufinefs of conftrucfing embankments agalnil the lea, or
other large waters.

The inventor was led to the conftruftion of this plough,
in confequence of the want of a more cheap and expeditious
method of performing the work than the ufnal one of the
fpade, in cutting turfs for forming grafs-plats, &c.

It may be obferved th;;t in forming the tool, the beam, or
fore part of any common plough will anfu-er tlie purpofe ;
this part is confequently not reprefented in the figure, the
kind or operative parts being fimply fhewn. The tool is better acquainted with thefe ftrata, fays,

GRASSE, a town of France, and principal place of a
ditlricl, in the department of the Var. The place contain.?
12,521, and the canton 13,554 inhabitants, on a territory
of 100 kiliometres, in four communes. The principal trade
of the town confills in dry fruit, olives, oil, perfumes, and
tanned leather : — 9 miles W.N. W. of Antibes. N. lat. 43*
39'. E. long. 6 59'.

Gn.AssE, La, a town of France, in tlie department of the
Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the dillriift of Car-
caffone ; 20 miles S.W. of Narbonne. The place contains
1 123, and the canton 4524 inhabitants, on a territory of
292.7 kiliometres, in 18 communes. N. lat. 43" 5'. E.
long. 2 42'.

GnA.>iSES, Petrified. Mr. Whitehurft, in his " Inquiry
concerning the Earth," ill edit. p. 169, mentions graflcs
among the vegetable remains in the coal-meafnres of Derby.
fliire : but the late Mr. "William Martin, wlio was perhaps

' Outlines," p. Sj,
that

G R A

that tlie gramina of thcfc argillaceous ftrata are of nnknown
f])cci(--s in the recent Hate, and appear rather allied to the
c.ir.cs and reeds of the Indies, than to graifes properly fo
called. Mr. Farey alfo, in his laborious refearches among
thefe carboniferous ilrata, has feen nothing refernbling gralfes
imbedded in them. See Reeds.

In peat dillrifts, which are of modern or recent accumu-
lation, and within the range of flooded rivers, it is not un-
common to meet with preferved grades, probably belonging
to many of the recent ipecies, at confiderable depths below
the fnrface of, or even at the bottom of the peat, or muddy
depolits ; but fuch peat fofuls iliould on all occafions be
dillinguillied carefully from flratilled, or real foflil remains,
as remarked in our article Coal.

GRAlSSHOPPER, in Entomology, a fpecies of Cryllut ;
which fee.

GuAs.silop.T.n, in Ornithology, a name given to the AlauJa
trivia/is ; which fee.

GRASSI, Cecilfa, in Biography, afterwards Mrs. Bach,
who performed the firll woman's part for feveral fuccefiive
years at the opera with Guarducci and Guadagni, was in-
animate on tlie ftage, and far from beautiful in her perfon ;
but there was a truth of intonation, with a plaintive fweet-
nefs of voice, and innocence of expreflion, that gave great
plealure to all hearers wlio did not expecl or want to be
furprifed. Her performance of the part of Euridice, in
Gluck's " Orfeo," with Guadagni, was perfect in all re-
fpefts, and gave univerfal fatisfaCtion.

GRASSVv'INKEL, TiiEODonE, a learned lawyer and
writer, who flourilTiea in the 17th century, was a native
of Delft. He wrote various works upon legal and
political fnbjecls, by which he acquired a confideiable repu-
tation, and was regarded by the government as a proper
perfon to fill fome office in the Hate ; he was accordingly
made filcal of the domains of the ftates of Holland, and
fecretary of the bipartite chamber on the part of the ftates-
gcncral. He died in 1666, at Mechlin, and was buried in
the great church at the Hague. His works were nume-
rous : of thefe the following may be noticed, " Libcrtas
Veneta, feu Venetorum in fe et fuos impcrandi Jus." This
waspubliHied in 1634, and in 1644 he defended the republic
of Venice, in a difputc with the duke of Savoy concerning
precedence. For thefe fervices, that republic created him
a knight of St. Mark. Previoully to the publication of the
laft of the two above-named works, lie attempted to confute
the popular maxims of Buchanan, in atrea.ife, entitled " De
Jure Ma'iellati.s." Tliis was dedicated to Chrilhna, queen
of Sweden, who was known to be a great afltrtor of regal
privileges. Grafswinkel defended the liberty of the feas
again 11 a native of Genoa, in his work " Maris Liberi Vin-
dicix." He was author, likewil'e, of a treatife in two
volumes 4to. " On the Sovereignty of the States of Hol-
land." He was at all times a defender of particular ftates ;
but a violent oppugner of the rights of the people. Morcri.
Bayle.

GRATAROLUS, Willia.m, was born at Bergamo,
i.1- Italy, in the year 15 10. He was educated at Padua,
where he took the degre? of doftor of phylic, aad after-
wards became profodbr of tlie fame fcience, and gained con-
fiderable diifinillon. But having embraced the Calvniillic
dockrincs, on the perfuafion of Peter Ver:niil;, he fled from
Italy, through fear of the inquifition, and retired to Mar-
ifiirg, where he taught medicine for a ^ear. But he was
tomjjelled to leave that place alfc, and repaired to Bale,
in the hope of a better fortune, and where, in fatl, he tax'.ght
and pratlifed hi« prof.llion witii fuccefs, until May 1562,
wLta be died, at the age of 52. He was author of a great

a

G R A

number of works, fomc of which arc honcurabk- toii<

talents, and evince a large (Hare of knowledge; but jr.
others he fliews an attachment to the abfurditi-? of the al-
chemift, much fupcrilition, and opinions which do not imply
a found judgment. Lloy. Dia Hifl.

GRATCHI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the coun-
try of the CofTacks ; ao miles N.W. of Tzaritzcn.

GI^ \'f IAN, in Biograpfty, a Roman emperor, fon of
V.ilentinian I. was born at Sirmium, in 359. He was ap-
pointed by his father to a (hare in the empire when lie was
but eight years old. He was in his f.ventetnth year wiien
Valentinian^ died. At this time Gratian was keeping hig
court at Treves, and was ignorant of what liad happened
till he was informed that the officers of the army had ap-
pointed as his partner in the throne Valentinian II. the
younger fon of the late emperor, by his fecond wife Juftina.
Gratian, though hurt at the adumption of authority on the
part of the army, readily ratified the eleftion, and ever
treated his brotlier with afTctticni and tenderncfs. The
Weftern empire was nominally divided between them, but
the fuperior age of Gratian gave him all the power. One of
his firft afts was to recal his mother to court, wiio had beerf
divorced and banilliod ; and this act of juftice was followed
by the punKhment of certain officers in the (late, who had
abufcd their power, by cruelty and injuftice. While the
emperor is praifed for thefe deeds, he has not efcaped blame,
and a high degree of ccnfurc, for putting to death the re-
nowned general Theodolius, who fell a viitim to the jealoufy
of fome rival courtiers. Hiilory has alfo cenfured "him for
the indulgence wliich he afforded to the clergy, and for \i\%
feverity againil thole who were denominated heretics, for tlic
gratification of the orthodox. At the head of the Eallerii
empire was his uncle Valcns, who was in 378 attacked by
the Goths. Gratian, aftive and courageous, put himfelf at
the head of an army, and marched to his alfiilancc. He-
obtained a decilive vidory in Alfaco, and, purfuing his fuc-
ceffes, croffed the Rhine, and penetrated into the heart of the
enemy's country, ia order to join the forces of Valcns.
Before, however, he could reach him, that emperor had
been defeated and (lain at the battle of Adrianople. Gratian
now felt that he mull take the moft vigorous meafures
againil their common enemy, and immediately called from
his retreat Theodoiius, fon of the general who had fuffered
under his haily difjilcalure, and placed him at the head of
a feparate army, with which he was enabled to deftroy a
large body of Sarmatiaus, V.I10 were on their march to join
the Golhs. Gratian himfelf proceeded to Conllantinoplc,
where he recalled thofe orthodox bilhops who had been ba-
nifhed by Valcns, and he alfo idued fomc edicts relative to
the cxercile of religion. ..As Valcns had left no male heirs,
his nephew, diliegarding the fuggellions of pcrfonal ambi-
tion, filled the vacant throne to the fatistaftion of all, by
raifing Theodolius to a llation, for which his talents were
peculiarly adapted. This was in the y-"ar379, after which
Gratian returned to Italy, and in his journey ho had an op-
portunity of being benefited by the intlructions of tl.e ce-
lebrated Ambrofe, at Milan, which proved bcnefici.il :o ilic
orthodox, but occa.loned new retlrictions upon thofe vsl.o were
regarded as fc<;tarieo. After this he continued fur fome
length of lime to attend to the defence and concerns of xivr
empire, and is highly applauded for alinoll all the amiaSIe
qualities which liavc decorated the bcil of lowrcigns. S:iU it
was feiu'ed that his good principles wire rather the efloft of
able ai:d virtuous advifers, than the fpcnlancoir* refult of
fixed habits. What the bell friends to their country feared,
proved to be the real fact : he fuddenly fell into iiiares of
unmanly pkriures, fpcct much of his linie iu inJol.nce or

uivolcu^

G R A

G R A

into
gio

frivolcms amurcment<!, \vluch proved not only injurious to
his fubjefts, but, in the end, ruinous to liimfclf. Hunting
became his favourite pai^imc : to enjoy the purfuits of the
ohace, he neglected the duties incumbent upon hini, as the
fovereign of a great people, and ihofc only became his favour-
ites who were (kilful in liunting. He ofiended the more
fober part of his fubjeCls, by appearing in the garb of a
Scythian warrior, armed with a bow and quivers, and
dilcontL-nts were on the very point of emliodying themfclvcs
5 a lerious fliape, when a revolt took place among the le-
ns of Britain, who, without hehtation, inve!led Slaximus
with the imperial diadem. Grati:ui attempted an oppofition ;
but iiis own efforts were feeble, and thele even were coun-
teratlcd by the treachery of fome of his officers. He had
no fooncr unfurled lus banners, and put bimfelf in a warlike
poihn-o, than he was deferted by his houlhold troops. He
had now no hope, and immediately fled with about 300
faithfid troops towards the Alps. All the cities' on his road
manifelled evident figns of difloyalty : they even refufed
him a fliclter or admilfion into their towns, till he arrived at
Lyons. Here, indeed, the gates were opened for his recep-
tion, but the hearts of the people were eftrangedto his caufe,
and upon the arrival of the cavalry of Maximus, the governor
of the city betrayed the depofed emperor into the hands of
llie commander, who caufed him to be put to deatli, as he
rofe from his lupper. This was in the year 383, after Gra-
tian had been on the throne nearly eight years. Gibbon.
Univer. Hill.

Gr.ATIAN, a Benediftine monk, who flourilhed in the
twelfth century, was a native of Chiufi, in Tufcany, and em-
braced the monallic life at Bologna. Before his time, there
iiad been many coUeftions of canons and laws ot the church,
but they were fo defeiilive in matter and form, that tluy
could not be conveniently explained, or even made ufe
of as fyltems of ecclefialtical polity. Gratian undertook
the talk of compiling fuch a fyilem, and after more than
twenty years' labour he produced, in 1 15 1, an abridgment of
canon law, drawn from the letters of the pontiffs, the
decrees of the councils, and the writings of the ancient
tiottors, which he entitled " Concordantia difcordantium
Canonum," or as it has been trandated, " The Coalition of
jarring Canons " In a new edition of tliis work, it was called
•' Decretum Gratiani," or " Gratian's Decretal.'' By this
■name it is generally known. Upon the firft appearance of
the work, 'it received the ilamp of approbation from pope
Eugenius IIL, who declared iiinifelf fo fatisfied with its ex-
ecution, that he commanded it to be publicly read in the
fchools. The profefTors of Bologna were the fird who
iinanimoufly adopted it as a text book in their public
leftures, and their example was foon followed by tlie pro-
feflors of Paris, and, in ihort, by thofe of almolt all tlie
European colleges. It is, liowever, faid to be lull of er-
rors, and in other refpetts extremely defeftive, but as it was
calculated to fup;)ort defpotifm, and to extend the authority
of the Roman pontiffs, it was for four centuries appealed to
as the Itandavd of eccleriallical law, and even in ages fuc-
ceeding that dark period, it has occafionally been quoted
with a degree of veneration and authority, to wliicii it has
no jull title. It was u fed in MS. till 1472, when it was
printed at Mentz, : this edition was followed by impreirions
at Venice in 1476, and Paris in 1508. Another edition was
printed at Rome under the aufpices of pope Gregory
XIII. in four vols. fol. on which a large portion of l.ibour
was bellowed in correftiiig its numerous imperfeftions.
Anthony AuguRin, archbifhop of Tarragona, in Spain,
publifhed a valuable treatife " JDe Emendatione Gratiani,''

2

v. 1

marck. Illullr. t
Dinmh-'ia Monogyn'ia

of which the bcH edition is that publiflicd at Paris in 1671
Moreri.

GIIATICULATION, a term fome writers ufe for the
dividing a draught or deilgn into fquares, in order to the re-
ducing it thereby.

GRATINGS, in a Sh':p, are fmall ledges of fa wed
plank, framed one into another like a lattice or prifou
grate, lying on the upper deck, between the maia-maft
and fore-mall, ferving for a defence in a clofe fight, and
alfo for the coolnefs, light, and conveniency of the fliip's
company.

GRATIOLA, in Botuny, the diminutive of gmt'ia, a
grace or favour, the h.erb to v>-lnch it is applied having been
called, by the earlier botanical or medical writers among the
moderns. Gratia Dei, t/je favour of God, becaule of its eini-
nent virtues, which liowever are of a violent and cathartic
nature. It is one of the plants which have been conjetlured
to yield the tinfture called eau medicitmle, fo famous at prc-
fent as a cure for His of the gout, but this opinion, it feems,
is coiitradifted by the proprietor of the fecret. — Linn. Gen.
13. Schreb. 17. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 102. VaU. Enuin.
v.' I. 88. Mart. Mill, I)ic5f. v. 2. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
42. Bi-own. Nov. Holl. V. I. 43J. .Tuff. i2i. La-
6. G.ertn. t. 53 ? — Clafs and order,
Nat. Ord. I'crfonats, Linn. Scro-
phuliiri.e, Jafl".

Gen. Ch. Cnl. Perianth inferior, in live deep, awl-fhaped
or ovate, upright, permanent fegments. Cw. of one petal,
tubular, unequal; tube longer tiian the calyx, angular;
limb fmall, in five deep fegments, of which the uppermoil
is broadeft, emarginate and rcflexed, the rell ilraiglit and
equal. Stain. Filaments four or five, awl-ihaped, ihortev
than the corol'a, the two or three lowermoll ihorteil and
barren, the two uppermoil attached to the tube of tie
corolla; anthei-s roundifli. /"//?. Gcrm> n fnperior, conical;
flyle llraight, aul-ihaped; iligma with two lips, clofed
after impregnation. Peric. Capfule ovate, pointed, of two
cells and four valves, the partition from the inflexed mar-
gins at two oppolita lides. Seeds numerous, fmall.

Elf. Ch Corolla irregular, reverfed. Two ftamens bar-
ren. Capfule fuperior, of two cells and four valves, Calvx
in five deep fegments. Stigma with two lips.

I.iiuna?us's gratiola, in the firll edition of Sp. PI. 17,
chiefly depended on the original and primary fpecies, the
ojjldnaiis, for of the three others there defined, diilia is
Capraiia gratioloidfs of the fccond edition, and Lindermin
pyx-id^;ria of his Mantiffa 252 ; firginicirui, though in liis
jioffcfiion, v.'as made a Gr«//j/rt chiefly on Gronovius's au-
tliority; and peritriiiiiii, thougli a genuine Gralio/a, had then
probably never beoii feen by Linnxus at all, but was adopt-
ed from Feaillce. In the fecond edition G. Jtloiinieria
takes place of the diihia, and a wrong Eaft Indian iynonym
is annexed to -virgiriiana, but no fnrtlier fpccics are added.
In tlie fecond Maiiliira two new ones are defcribed, ro/iin-
difc'ia and Ijvpopoidcs, both from the Eall Indies, fo that fix
fpecies in all arc enumerated in Sylh Veg. ed. 14. ■ To
thtfe Willdenow lias added eight more, cliiefly Eait Indian,
prudently declining to adopt three unfccn ones from Wal-
ter's Flora Carolini-ina. 'Vahl has far outllepp;d his prc-
deceliors, giving 3 ! fpecies in all. Unfortuiratily a great
fliare of lliefe were defcribed from dried fpecimens, their
genus determined cliiefly by habit, axd tlieir flowers or
fruit not fufficiently invelligaled. Indeed fcveral ojf them
evidently differ from the original genus in various refpefts.
Mr. R. BrowH, a more critical inveftigator, has greatly
reduced the genus in queftion, though he has defcribed three

entirely

G R A

entirely new fpecles from New Holland. We (lull confin?
curfclvca to an account of fncli as are certain, witli com-
pendious remarks on a few of the rell.

1. G. offtcinalis. Linn. Sp. PI. 24. Fl. Dan. t. 36;?.
Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 47. BuUiard t. 130. Ehrli. PI. Off.
II. (Gratiola; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 58. Rivin. Monop. Irr.
t. 106.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated, five-ribbed,
fmootli, fomcwhat longer than the flower-llalks. — Native
of moill places in Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, France,
and Greece, flowering in June. Tiie roots are perennial,
rather creeping. Whole herb fmooth. Stems anmial, af-
cending or ercft, twelve or eighteen inches high, leafy,
round, pale and very fleek, generally fimple. Leaves nu-
merous, oppofite, feflile, dotted, above an inch long, ovato-
lanceolate, bluntilli, with many fliallow tooth-like ferratures
in tlie upper part, and five, rarely feven, parallel ribs, of
Avhich the middle one is the moil confiderable. Stipul/u
none. Flcwers pale lilac, with an orange tube, inodorous,
fcarcely an inch long, on fimple, folitary, axillary ftalks,
vvliich are generally about half the length of the leaves,
often more, and bear a pair of bratleas clofe to the flower,
Ly fome taken for additional parts of the calyx ; thefe are
fpreading and a little toothed — This fpecies, a ilrangcr to
Britain, is the original one, celebrated for its purgative
virtues, whence the Frencli call it Poor-man's herb, on
account of its cheapnefs and efficacy. Indeed its ufe re-
quires great caution, and a plentiful adminillration of warm
water, butter, or oil, at the fame time. A fcruple of the
dried herb is mentioned as a fuflicient dofe, but its uncer-
tainty, and its emetic properties, have juiUy brought this
medicine into difufe, tiiere being fo many more unexcep-
tionable drugs for the fame purpofe. Its flavour is nau-
feous and intenfely bitter.

2. G. pUofa. Midi. Boreali-Amer. v. i. 7. Vahl. n. 16.
{G. peruviana; Walt. Carol. 62 ) — Leaves ovate, crenate,

h.airy as well as the item. Flowers axillary, nearly felfile

Native of moill places in South Carolina, flowering in May.
Stem fimple or branched, near a foot high, fquare, leafy,
▼ery hairy. Leaves ovate, not an inch long, iomewhat
heart-fhaped and clafping the Hem with their bafe, bluntilh,
*rith two or three dillant teeth on each fide, fringed, dotted,
and hairy. Fh-jjers nearly fefPile, white, with a pair of
fpreading braCleas, which are fringed like the calyx.

3. Qj . peruviana. Linn. Sp PI. 25. (G. latiore folio, flore
albo; Feuill. Peruv. v. 3. 23. t. 16.) — Leaves ovate oblong,
toothed, downv, obfcurely five-ribbed. Flowers axillary,
feflile. — Native of Peru, Mexico, and the Brazils. The
■whole herb is more or lefs downy. Stem a fpan high, an-
gular, moftly fimple. Leaves oblong, fomewhat ovate,
various in breadth, bluntilh, obfcurely five-ribbed, the
margin fnrni/hed witli dillant teeth. Flowers white, nearly
or quite feflile, fliorter tlian the leaves, with a pair of brac-
teas very like, and abov.t equal to the calyx, ftrongly coun-
tenancing the idea of their being properly calyx-leaves.

4. G.hitifolia. Brown n. I — " Smooth. Leaves ovate,
obtufe, oblcurely crer.ate or entire. Flowerj fefTJe.'' —
Native of the neiglibourhood of Port Jackfon, New South
Wales, and of Van Diemen's land.

^. G. pubej'eeiu. Brown n. 2. — "Clothed with glandular
hairs. Leaves lanceolate, toothed. Flowers nearly lelfile.'" —
Native of Port Jackfon, the fouth coall of New Holland,
and Van Diemen's land.

6. G. p.ihiMulata. Brown n. 3, — " Clothed with pow-
dery down. Leaves lanceolate, toothed in their forepart,
fcarcely longer than the flowcr-llalk." — Native of Port
Jackfon.

Mr. Brown announcet the exillencc of a few unpublilheJ
Vol.. XVI.

C R A

fjiecics, natircs of North Am-rica, of wliich we know
nothing further. He menliona the Linnxan G. hjp'jpoidet
and roliinil'tfoH/i as fpecies of Lindrmia with two barren
ftamen-, undoubtedl)'a variabl.r circumftance in tjiis tribe,
and conllituting no generic dillinftion. G. ATonnieria ii la*
Herpjlis, and has the appearance of a good genus.

With refpeft to fome other fpecies.

G. limfijl'ta. Vaid. n. 4 (Digitalis linifolia lufitanica pa-
luftris; Tourn. Inft. 165.) — " Leaves linear, entire. Flower.
ilalks axillary, the length of the leaves." — Native of Por-
tugal. This fcems an unqi;e(lionab!e Gratiola, near the
ojjie'mnlis, with which it agrees in qualities, but differs in
leaves, and in the flowers not being more than one-tlurd the
fize of that fpecies.

G lobeiio'ules of Retzius, Vahl. n. 10, has neither the
habit, calyx, nor bradeas of this genus.

G. trijida. Willd. n. 9, feems to agree in all thofe pointi
with Mr.Brown's Limnophita, the Hotlonia injiea of Lin-
nius.

G-lucida. Vahl. n. 17. {Capraria crufacea oi Linnxus),
is referred by Mr. Brown to Torenia, a genus Iiithcrto not
much underltood.

GuATioL.v 0/f,:inalis, HeJge-HyJfops, in the Materia Mt-
d'tca, is a i)laHt to which various medical virtues have been
afcribed. The firll acco-int of its cultivation in Britain, it
that given by Turner in 1568, though it is faid that the firft
botanill who mentioned it was Matt!:iolus. It has a ftrong
bitter naufeous talle, with but little or no odour; and it»
virtues are extraeled more pcrfeelly by aqueous than by
fpirituous menllrua. It refembles digitalis both in the
fliape of its flowers, and in its medicinal effedls, and hence
has been called Digitalis minima. It is certainly a powerful
and aftive cathartic, and operates fo violently as generally
to induce vomiting ; and on this account, Chomcl thought
it to be a medicine adapted only to the more vigorous and
robull conftitntions. Many others, hosvever, recommend
it as a fafe and ufetiil purgative. But as its efi^ecls are un-
certain, it fliould be adminillered with the precaution of a
gradual increafe of its dofe. This plant has been commonly
ufed in hydropical cafes ; and in moderate dofes it is faid not
only to ad as a hydragogiie, but alio to mariifell a diuretic
character ; and inllances of its good effecls in afcites and
anafarca are related by many refpeclable practical writers.
Gelner and B-rgius fjiind a fcruple of the powder to be a
fulficient dole, as in this cafe it frequently excited naufea
or vomiting ; others have gi\cn it to lialf a dram, two fcrn-
ples, a drain, and even o-.ore. The extrart is (aid to be
more cfiicacious than the plant itfelf, and exhibited in the
dofe-of half a dram or a dram in dyfcnteries, produces the
bell eftetls. Kollrzewlki informs us, that in the holpitali
at Vienna, three maniacal patients were pcrfeftly re-
covered by its ufe ; and in the molt confirmed cafes of luct
venerea, it effected a compleat cure. It ufually aCtcd by
increafing the urinary, cutaneous, or faiivary difcharges.
Woodv. Mat. Med.

G RATIOS A, in Geogre^phy^ one of the fmalleft Canary
idands. N. lat. 29 l^' . W. long. 13 17'. — Alfo, one of
tile Azores illands, about 10 miles long and eight broad-
It takes its name from its beautiful appearance, and fertility
in corn, fruit, pallure, and cattle, v. itli which it fuppliei
Tercera, and feverul of the other iflands. It is well peopled,
and has a number of villages ; and tin; coall is defended by
forts. The chief place is La Plata. N. hi. 39 2 . W.
long. 27 56'.

GRATITUDE, in Ethics, a virtue difpofiiig the mind

to an inward fcnfe and outward acknowled^mcul of bone.

4 0 lit«

G R A

e-- till

G R A

time is ufually- counted by quaTers, in grave', bv-

tits received. This is a virtue in which the Egyptians pr t , j - - t^ , - , •

tended to excel all the reft of mankind. See Egypt. crotchets. Orave, Ital. and^rawmt;;/, I'rench, not only ln>.

GRATIUS, in Bw^raphv, a Roman poet, furnamed ply a flow time, but a certam ^/awO' m the execution.

'--- '• cus, was a contemporary of GuAVE, in Geography, a ilrong town of Brabant, be

Biography,
from the place of his birth Fahfc , ■ j- v i,

Virgil. They are both mentioned by Ovid in a fingle dillurh.
The work by which this author is known, and for which he
tlaims a {hort notice, is entitled " Cynegeticon," or the Art
of hunting with Dogs. It was entirely unknown to the
moderns till it was 1
1534. This learned editor p

brought to light by Paul Manutius in from Wheeling
d editor printed it from a MS. copy this creek is a

longing to Holland, lituated in a marfliy country, on the
S. iide of the Meufe ; 34 miles S.E. of Utrecht! N. lat.
51 46'. E. long. 5 41'.

Grave Creek, a creek on the Ohio in Virginia, 12 miles
" N. lat. 39 46'. W. long. 80 ^^'. Near

mound of earth, evidently the work of art,
broiTaht bv'Sannazaro fromFrance." It is faid to be written called an Indian grave. Although no tradition remains,

with a purity not unworthy of the Auguftan age. The
beft edition is that of Lcip'fic 1659, 4to. with notes. It
has been printed in the colkaion of " Rei Venatica; Scrip-
tores,"' 1728, and in Mattaire'o " Corpus Poetarum." Gen.

^'"K- ,. 1 ■ • 11

GRATTAN, in Agriculture, a term applied provmcially

in fome iituations to fiich arable lands as are managed under

a commonable Hate. But in other places, as in Cornwall,

it is'employed to lignlfy the mowing of grafs the hrlt year,

after the jTronnd has been manured with fea fand ; which is

an operation that they denominate movying in grattan.

ilubbles of common fields are '' ^ ^ *"

The

GRATZ, or GuAZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Stiria, on the river Muehr ; containing feveral churches
and convents, an arfenal, a caltle on a rock, and an univerfity
founded in 1585. In this town is held the alfcmbly of the
Aates ; and in 1784, it was erected into an archbiftiopnc on
the fuppreffion of that of Goritz. It is furrounded by walls.
The French took it in 1797 ; 70 miles S.S.W. of Vienna.
N. lat. 47" 10'. E. long. 15 16'. — Alio, a town ofSileiia,
tailed alio NraJetz, in the principality of Troppau, iltuatcd
en the Mora ; four miles S. of Troppau. N. lat. 49 47'.

E. long. 17 50'. m 1 ■

GR ATZEN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Beclun;
37 miles S.S.E. of Bechin. N. lat. 48 47'. E. long. 14

GRAVA Sele, a town of Naples, in the Bafilicata ; i j
miles E. of Venofa. ^ .r 1

GRAVATTEN, a town of Pruffia, on the Cunich
iNerung ; 20 miles S. of Memel,

that the Indians buried their dead in this manner, thefe
mounds, on examination, have been found to contain a
chalky fubftance, fuppofed to be bones of the human
kind.

Grave Harmonic, in Mufic, is a phenomenon thus de-
fcribed by the late Dr Robifon : " The reinforcements of
found, which are called beatings, are noifes. If any noife
whatever be repeated with fullicient frequencv, at equal
intervals, it becomes a muiical note of a certain determinate
pitch. If it recurs 60 times in a fecond, it becomes the note
C-fa-ut, or the double odtave below the middle c of our harp-
ali'o frequently called fichords, or the note of an open pipe eight feet long. Now
there is a iimilar (we may call it the very iame) reinforce,
ment of lound in every concord. Where the pulle of one
found of the concord bifeclsihe pulfe of the otlier, the two
founds are more uniformly fpread ; but where they coincide,
or almoft coincide, the condenfation of one undulation com-
bines with that of the otlier, and there comes on the ear a
ftronger condenfation, and a louder found. This may be
called a iioife; and the equal and frequent recurrence of this
noife fhould produce a miilical note. If, for inftance, c and
a are lounded together ; there is this noife at every third
pulfe of c, and every iifth pulfe of a ; that is, 80 times in
a fecond. This fhould produce a note which is a 12th
below c and a I7tli below a; tliat is, the double oftave
below f, which makes 320 vibrations in a fecond. That is
to fay, along with the two notes c and a of the concord,
and the compound found which we call the concord of the
Vlth, we fliould hear a third note FF in the bafs. Now
this is known to be a fact, and it is the grave harmonic ob-
ferved by Rameau and Tartini about the year 1754, and

GRAUDENTZ, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of verified by all muficians fince that time."

Culm, on an ifland near the Viitula; anciently called Grodek; Mr. .John Gough gives the following account of grave

14 miles N E. of Culm. N. lat. 53'' 28 . E. long. 18 28. harmonics. "When two founds are heard in concert, the

GRAVE, in Grammar, a fpecies of accent oppofite to vibrations producing them are arranged in cycles, no one of
acute. The grave accent is exprefild thus ('); and fliews

which continues for a longer or fliorter time than the relt ;

and their effedt is perceived by the ear, which becomes

For when each cycle of a fcries.

feniible of their prefence.

feparateiy coufidered, exceeds the twelfth part of a fecond,
the fenfe ot hearing recognizes each point of diviiion made
by the coincidence of the vibrations which feparate the con-
this circumltance enables the fenfe to con-

tiguous cycles

that the voice Ts to be depreffed, and tlie fyllable over which
it is placed pronounced in a low, deep tone.

Grave, in Mufic, is applied to a found which is in a low
or deep tone.

The thicker the chord or ftring, the more grave the tone

ornote, and the fmallerthe acuter. _ .

Notes are fuppofed to be the more grave, in proportion template thefe periods apart, and comprehend their origin.

as the vibrations of the chord are lefs quick. See Gu.V- On the contrary, when the duration of a cycle belonging to

•VITY in Mii/ic. ^ compound feries does not exceed the twelfth part of a

Grave is alfo an ingredient in the compofition of divers fecond, the interval proves too fmall to be meal'ured by the

terms in hiilory and policy. Thus we fay land-grave, burg- car : it therefore efcapes notice in a feparate Hate ; for the

grave, marg-grave, pah-grave, &c. points of divifum recur too frequently to be obfervcd.

The word, in this fenie, is formed of the German ^/-./, When the auditory organ finds itfelf in circumltances

fisnifying comes, count ; called in the barbarous Latin gruvlo anfwcring to the preceding defcription, it lias bi.t one

xmi vraphlo. method to purfue ; which is, to treat thefe derivative in-

GiiAVE is alfo ufed for a tomb, wherein a pcrfon defundt tervals in the iam.e manner it treats all periods, which are

is interred. ''"Sb' '°° im3^\ for its comprchenfion ; it therefore reduces

Grave, Ital. (pronounced graavay) an adverb applied them to a fimple niufical found, correfponding in pitch to

to flow movements in the feci nd de^-ee, more quick than a ftring which vibrates once in the time of each fucceffive

ttdaglo, and more flow than large. In adagio nieT;nicntf, cycle. A grave harmonic is on this account always a lower

note

G R A

»ote than any of its contlituents, feeing the time of a c\'c]e
exceeds the greateft vibration tliat enters into tlie compofi-
tion of it. The ftrength of a grave harmonic is alfo weak,
tvhen compared with tlie notes compoling it, becaiife thefe
fecondary founds, being nothing more than certain unavoid-
able efforts of the imagination, they aflume the charaiSler of
a feeble found, which is jull ilrong enough to be heard in
the company of one or more louder tones ; for the power
of the imagination is always inferior to external imprefiions,
eKcept in Iks of iiifanity, when the organs of fenfe appear
po be blunted by phyfjcal caufes. The grave harmonics
flways Lcp the dired'ion of the cars, let the pofition of the
head be changed a; often as you pleafe, refembling m this
circumiiance a (hrill piping note, called the rir.ging of the
eai-s ; which every one afcribcs to a (light affection of the
auditory duct, becaufe it differs from external founds, in
having no fixed direction. The grave harmonics agree with
the ringing of the ears in this remarkable particular ; which
is a ftrong proof that their immediate caufe is feated in the
perfon of the hearer ; and it is evident from the nature of
things, that this caufe originates in the mind." Nicholfon's
Journa', 8vo. vol. iv. p. 2.

We have been thus particular in quoting from two very
able writers on the fubjeft of the grave harmonics, or Tar-
tinian founds, in order to fliew the foundation of the rules
which we fnall here give, for deternoining the grave harmo-,
nic of any given perfect confonance, •viz..

G R A

I ft. Find the number of Tibrations made in one fecond of
time by each of the given founds : wliich, fuppofing C^/-
fa-ut, or c of the German tablature, or that on which the
tenor chff is placed, to make two hundred and forty com.
plete vibrations, is obtained, by multiplying thii number br
the larger tenn of the ratio of the given foundt to C, anil
dividing the produft by the fmallertcrm of that ratio, if the
given founds lie above C, or the revcrfe if below it.

2d. Having thus obtained the vibration^ of the gtTen
confonance, divide the larger number of them, by the larger
term of the given confonance, and the fmaller number i>y
the fmaller term, cacli of which, if the op'-ration be rigfrtly
perfonr.cd, will give the fame refult, and fhew the number of
coincidences of the pulfes of tlic two given founds in one f*".
cond, and alfo the vibrations in that fame period, of the grave
harmonic fought.

3d. Compare th.-- number of vibrations lafl found with each
of the vibrations of the given confonance, and reduce their
ratios to the lowell terms, which will then exprefs the inter-
vals or dillances of the grave harmonic, below each of the
given founds.

Bv way of examples of thefe rules, we fubjoin the follow-
ing table, fhewing the grave harmonic, and feveral other ufe-
ful particulars, of the principal confonanccs in the o£tav^
above C-fol-fa-ut.

I

2

3 4

5

6

7

S

9

10 1 II

12

' .3

VII

B

Tf 450

30

X

c

XXII

3 VIII

1

Ts

e

XXVIII

! 3VIII4- VII

7th

bBJ

4 432

48

«r

XVII

2 VIII + III

1

5r

*.?

XXIII

3 VIII + II

A ' 426I

26j

«

b*

XXIII

3 VIII + II

I

b*

XXIX

4VIH

VI

A

f j 400

80

4-

f

XII

VIII 4- V

f

XVII

2 VIII + III

6th

«G

i 1 384

48

i_

*."

XVII

2 VIII + III

n

XXII

3 VIII

V

G

360

120

i

c

VIII

VIII

k

e

XII

VIII 4 V

Ath

F

320

80

\

f

XII

VIII -t- V

X

f

XV

2 VIII

TTT

E

■t

?oo

60

I

c

XV

2 VIII

e

XVII

2 VIII 4- III

3d

hE

^ ' 288

48

-»7

XVII

2 VIII 4- HI

"y

»X

XIX

, 2 VIII + V

3^

fi 284I

8|

IT

b'

XXXIV

3 VIII 4- 3 V

TS

h'

XXXVI

5 VI 1 1

ir

D

f 270

30

t

c

XXII

3 VIII 1

1
9

c

XXIII

3 VIII + II

rr

t'<t 266J

26 1-

i

b^

XXIII

3 VIII + II

Ta

hb

XXIV

3 VIII 4 III

7.d

«c

U 25<5

16

\r'r

■»c

XXVIII

3 VIII + VII

tV

m

XXIX

t 4VIII

■f '-50

i 10

1 \'

■24

f

XXXIII

4 VIII 4- V

tS

XXXIII

'4 VIII 4- 2 III

^

-r 240

1

u

0

CO

Z

» J 5

^ ''rn

S-5.a

i

V
*-*

1-1

>
i>
c

i

1

3.

c
»— I

I

d
Q

a «

0

-5 •i't; =

.2 u. =

1-1

-ji

2 ■ £■

-a S

Inter

iralsb

elaw the Ke

{ or lower Note.

1,

Inter%

als below the

upper Note.

G

iven Co

nfonanccs. j

Gra%e

Harmonics, or I

niplied Soi

mds.

The experiments of M. Tartini, the difcoverer of thefe
founds, extended to ten of the confonances m our table above,
„«. the V, 4th, III, 6th, 3d, VI, II, ir, (fecond mmor,)
2d, ("-rearer femitone,) and mmor femitone (5?), but m
all of which he feems to have miftaken an oaavc, w aflign-

\n" the place of the harmonic in the fcale, and has mention*
cd'each of them as being higher by an ofta\e than in our
table. Mr. John Holden, the author of " An EHVy towards
a rational Syftem of Mufic,"' printed at Edinburgh in 1807,
p 5f2j fcems to have been aware of tliis latter circumllance,
^'^ xQz but

G R A

but in page 350, lays ("own an inapplicable and falfc rule for
calculating the place of the harmonic, or impHed fimul, as
he calls it ; -viz.. " when two different founds arc heard to-
gether, their combination always either really produces, or
effentially implies, a third found, -whtfe ■vibraiions are equal
to the d'tlference of the inbration, of the tiuo founds m the
fame tinTe." Tims C 240, heard together with G 360,
produces 120; which is can oftave below C, &c. Now
ft is obfervabk, that this empirical rule will give the iume
refults as ours above, only in fuch cafes where the lealt
terms of the ratio (in colnmn 3) differs by un'/;' ; which is
the cafe in tight of Tartinis examples out of tiic ten, but
not with the VI or the 6th : which, according to Holden's
rule, iland thus, 400 - 240 = 160, and i J§ = J. or the fifth
telowthe key, inflead of the Xlltn (as Dr. Robuon and
•tve have caku'ated it above); alio, 384- 240 = 144, ami
T44 _ i., or the otlave and fourth, or eleventh, beluw tlie
vpper note, infteadof the XXII. It is not a little furprif-
ing that Mr. H. (hould have overlooked tliefe glaring incon-
lillencies of his rule, with Tartini's experiments, on which
he profeffes to have founded it ; acknowledging, however,
<p. 351.) that he is imable to difcover any philulophical
principles on which thefe phenomena can be explained, and
tf courfe uracquainted with the writings of the two
authors, from wlience we have extracted as above.

We

G R A

The grave harmonics found by the rules and table abo-rr*
are occaiioned by the coincidences of the vibrations of per-
feft confonances, or the teals of Mr. Sauveur, but fince ;he
beats of Dr. Robert Smith alfo, or thofe made by imperfect
concords, when they occur oftencr than 1 2 or 1 3 in a fecond,
occafion a grave harmonic note to be perceived, and no the-
orems for calculating fuch beats, except that of Dr. Smith
from the fractions of a comma of temperament, and Mr.
Eraerfon's from the lengths of llrings, having to our know-
ledge been publiflicd, we lliall here Inpply that dcfeft in our
article Beats, and give theorems for calcuhiting the beats
made by imperfect or tempered concords whofe vibrations
per fecond are given, -viz..

Let N and M be the number of complete vibrations made-
in one fecond, by the grave and acute notes refpeftively, of

the tempered concord whofe pcrfedl' ratio is — (n being the-

leaft term, in its lowed number), and let b be the number of
beats in one iecond of time.

Then, if the temperament hejliarp, i ;= n M — m N, the
beats required.

Or, if the temperament he fat, i = m N — n M,the beats
required.

Take for example, the 3d in our table above, and we have
N = 240, M = 284-', n := 5, and m =: 6 : and by the fe-

Ihould not perhaps liave thus adverted to Mr. Holden's effay, , cond theorem above 6 x 240 — 5 x 2844 — 17 J the beats iih
had it not been in other refpeds a mod refpeftable work, " ' '' ' . •" . . r ,.„,,,.,

and one tlirough which the'.e errors are likely to be widely
diffeminated among mnficians, and were not the fanciful
fyllem of harmony, which he builds folely upon them, cal-
culated to bewilder ftill further the mufical Undent, who may
happen to have but a flight knowledge of mathematics.
Among the novelties of Mr. Plolden's fyfteni, he pretends
to prove, by means of the implied founds, (calculated by his
rule,) that the minor third, ^, is a " fuperffrufted third,"
and not the fundamental lefs third of the fcale, which he
fays is expreffed by the ratio \l, (though coiicei-ved probably,
as he fays, p. 371, ly the ratio j-^,) on which account we

have introduced this comma-deficient minor third into our

table, and when its harmonic is fliewn to be (3 e, five oilaves

below the ipper note of the confonance, infteadof 284^ —

■Zip = 44^, and 44I -^ 284-'; = -tV. \\'l"ch expreffes

2 VIII 4- 6th, or a n inor twentieth below the upper note,

as Mr. H.'s rule would have given it : whereas, had he ufed

the true method of affigning the place of this harmonic or

implied found, his boafted fundamental lefs third, (befides

proving lefs agreeable to the ear on trial, p. 384, than-,)

muft have bet n degraded from the rank of concords, as

having an implied found more than thrte odfaves below the

lowell of its notes, which is one of the effential properties of Mr. Farey'sneiv notation ; its common logarithm is .8819006,

one fecond : which are, it will be obferved, juft double the
vibrations in column five of the table, and therefore the grave
harmonic thus occafioned, is four octaves below the upper
note of this comma deficient minor third. Tiie above theo-
rems for beats will be found of like eafy application, m al-
moil every inftance of mufical calculations.

Grave Intervals is a term apphed by Mr. Max-
well and feveral other correft writers, to fuch confo-
nances as are flattened or lowered by a major Comma (ice-
that article) and it is ufual with them to dilling^iifh fuch in-
tervals by the grave accent thus, IP, IIP, IV, V, VI\-
5;c. V and on tlie contrary, to apply the acute accent to fuch
as are (harpened or raifed a major comma, as II', III', 4',
Stc. and to call fuch acute intervals or comma redundant inter-
vals, while thofe as much flattened are called Comma dtfi-
cient intervals, which fee. Mr. Holden, a modern writer^
has, however, applied this term to intervals lowered by what
he calls a bearing, whofe ratio is |1 = 1 1.94709 S 4- m.
See Grave fourth. Sic.

Grave fourth, according to Mr. Holden's fyflem
lately publifhed, is an interval lefs tlian a perfeft fourth,
by what he calls a bearing (which is f-J = 13.94709 S
4- m) having the ratio of J? = 240.05291 2 4 5*4 21m in

concords, according to their new conceits.

AnotKej refult of thefe falfe principles in the Effay is,
the admiflion of the integer 7 among harmonic ratios
(though to theexclufion of 5x7; f; 7 , Stc. 2 x 7, 2'x 7,
&c. page 341, and alfo of page 305, although 7, 11, 13,
19, &c. have real places in the fdfe notes of the trumpet,
horn, &c.), and the confequent introdnftion of what the
author calls a Ghave /c«/r//j (fi-e that article), in his de-
fcendiQc fcale, page 316. According to which alfo, the
acute or comma-redundant major fixtli (54)' helongs eflen-
tially to the fcale, in:le:id of the true concord 4 ! We truft
that we (hall have performed an acceptable piece of fervieci

8792, its Euler's logarithm or decimal value of the odtave
is .3923 1 75, and it contains 21.89039 major commas.

GuAVE/ro/icrytv/i/Vonf, is an interval in Mr. Holden's Syf-
tem of Mufic, whole ratio is 1° = 43.05291 i; 4-f4-4m;
its common logarithm is .9788107,1, and Euler's logarithm
.070389, and the number of major commas 3.92754 which
it contains.

GRAVEDO, in Medieine, a Latin term, derived from
gravis, heavy, (ignifies that fpecies of catarrh, which is
ufually called a cold in the head ; and in which, together w-ifh
a Huffing of the noftrils, and blunting of the voice, there is 3
fenfe of fullnefs and weijjbt in the forehead. It is, accord-

to the well-wiihers to the harmonic fcience, in pointing ouf^ ing lo Celfus, nearly fynonymous with the coryza of tlie
the fource of fuch incongruous abfurdities as the above ; and Greeks. See Catakkii. Celfus, de Med. lib iv. cap. 2.
hope, that in a fecond edition of this ufeful work nearly all GRAVEDONA, or Ghavidon.v, in Geography, a
which follows page 349 will be expunged, and configned to town of Italy, in the department of the Lario, on the lake
its merited oblivion. Como; 42 miles N. of Milan.

I GRAVEL,

GRAVEL.

GRAVEL, in Agrkuhnri, a trrm frequently npplicd to
a well known ir.att'i'ial of the fmall ftony kind, tlie fizcs of
the particles of which vary from thofe of very fmall peas to
cockles, and fometimes larger. They are often intermixed
with other matters, fuch as fand, clay, loam, flints, pebbles,
ironocres, &c. YienciXhoK ire fandy, clayey, loamy, Jl'mty,
pebbly, ocrey or Jerruginous gravels, &c.

Gravel, in Garder.ir^, is a fmsli ftony fubftance made
ufe of for the purpofe of conflrufting roade, walks and
paths.. Walks formed of this material are great ornaments
to gardens and pleafure-grounds, as well as ufeful for com-
mon walking upon.

The bell gravel for thofe purpofes is that which is natu-
rally compofed of irregular pebbles and flints, having a mo-
derate proportion of a yellowifh or brownifli fandy loam, to
make it bind, and give colour. It is obtained in fields and
commons, in many parts, at from one, to three or four feet
under the furface, though not equally good in all parts, in
refpeft to quality and colour, fome having a greater or lefs
proportion of pebbles, a larger or fmaller proportion of loam,
which is more or lofs iandy or clayey : it is the colour of the
loam, or oxyd of iron, principally, which conditutes the
beauty of gravel walks ; that of a deepifli yellow or reddifh
colour being the moll eligible, as when formed into well-laid
walks and rolled, it has an exceedingly beautiful and orna-
mental effedl. Wliere fuch gravel can be procured within a
moderate dillance, and eaiy expence, it is preferable to all
others in fome parts. Gravel is of an iron-mould colour, or
of a dufl<y brown hue, which may neverthclefs be of a pro-
per quality for walks where the colour is difregarded.

Whatever colour the grav^:! may have, its proper quality
for walks is, a due proportion of moderate, light, fandy
loam, to make it bind cloie and firm at all feafons ; but not
fo redundant, or fo clayey, as to be clammy and ftick to the
feet in wet weather, or fo fliarp and fandy as to become open
and looie in dry weather.

In fome places, no other gravel is met with but fuch as is
very loofe, fandy, or pebbly, and which has fcarcely any
binding materials amongft it ; which kind never of itfelf
binds, but always remains open and loofe, being at all
times difagreeable to walk upon ; this may, however, be
mended by a mixture of light fandy loam, where pratlicable,
adding about one load to every two or three of gravel, cart-
ing them together, and turning them over two or three times,
that they may be well blended and incorporated ; and this,
when formed into a walk, will often b^^id clofe, firm, and
fmooth at all feafons of the year.

In preparing the gravel for way^s, it fliould not by any
means be finely fcreencd, as is often the praftice : as it is
dug out of the pit, it is only neceffary to call it up in a
heap, or long ridge, all fuch large rough pebbles only as
roll down being cleared away ; as if Icreened from the
ftones, it partakes too much of the loam, fo as always to rtick
to the feet at every flalh of rain.

In purchafing gravel for walks, it i,s mollly from about
two to five or (w IhiUings or more per cart-load for tliree
horfes ; though the price diifers greatly in different parts,
and according to the nature of the gravel, as well as the
goodnels of its colour.

In refpeft to the diilribution of gravel-walks in pleafure-
grounds, and gardens, for ornament or ufe, large ones are
neceflary to proceed parallel to the houfe, extending e^ch
way towards the fide dillriclsof the garden and ornamented
grounds : according to the former llyle of gardennig, a large
walk of this kind « as uiually extended in a llraight fine from
the front of the habitation along the middle of the pleafure
ground, fometimes having grals plats continued on each

fide, and fometime* fpacious borders furnifhed with curioui
Ihrubs and flowers. But in modern defigns thefc middle
walks are rarely admitted, efpccially in fpaiious prounds,
having nothing in front beyond the parallel habitatio*
walk, but an open rural grafs lawn, free from all intetfec-
tionj of walks, &c. However, a good walk clofely parallel
to the houfe is indifpenfably neceffary, both fi.r ornament
and convenience, and from tliis fide-walks (hould branch off,
communicating with tiie other parts of the pleafure or gar-
den-grounds ; one in particular to be extended in a ferpenc
tine manner quite round the ground, others leading in ti.e
fame manner through the interior parts, fo as to have dry
firm walking at all times to every part of the ground or
garden, without coming upon the grafs.

The dimenfions for gravel-walks mud be regulated ac-
cording to tlie extent of the grounds or gardens, as from
five to twenty feet or more in width ; but all principal walkd
Ihould be at lead eight or ten feet wide ; and in large
grounds or gardens leading dirciflly from the houfe, they
Ihould be ten, fifteen, or twenty feet wide at leall. When
the houfes and gardens are very large, the main walks conti-
guous to the manfion are fometimes made thirty or forty
feet wide ; the boundaries on each fide being fometimes in
grafs widely extended, and fometimes in borders for flowers
and other curious plants, having either narrow verges of
grafs, or edgings of dwarf box, or thrift, on the fides of
the walks.

In forming walks of this fort, they fliould be firft ftaked
out to the proper width, and then the boundaries formed,
each fide of equal level, correfponding to the adjacent ground;
the cavity of the walk for the reception of the gravel being
afterwards made, the whole (pace being dug out at lealt
twelve inches deep, to allow for a proper depth of gravel,
both to prevent weeds coming from the ground below, and
worms from calling up the earth ; as alfo to allow of a pro-
per depth for turning the gravel octafionally when the furtacc
becomes foul ; tlie earth dug out to form the cavity of the
walk may be ufed to railo and form the ground on each fide,
if ncceflarv, which, and the edgings, fliould always be
completed before the gravel is begun to be laid down into
the cavity formed for it.

When the cavity has been thus prepared, any hard rub-
blihlng materials mav be laid in the liotlom, icveral inclies
thick ; fuch as coarfe gravel or balhifl, roiigii ilony hme,
brick, or other rubbilli, which will greatly prevent worm-
calls, and help to drain the moillure from the top of the"
walk in wet weather, and in winter prolerw a dry lurface :
the proper gravel is then to be laid fix or eight inches thick;
in laying, raifingthe middle higher than the fides, in a gra-
dual rounding form ; which is not only neceffary to throw
oft the wet, but alfo to give tiie walk a more oriiamimal
appearance ; tlie proportion to be obferved in this is, lor a
walk of five or fix feet width, an inch and a half of rife ia
the middle ; for one of ten or twelve feet, two and a halt
inches ; and for one of twenty feet, from three to four or
five inches ; the fame proportion being regarded in other
widths. At every ten or fifteen feet, as the work advances
in laying, it i<; proper to tread, rake, and roll th<; gravel
down, as it always roils more firm and fir.ool!-. whilil fielh
ftirred ; it is alfo necefrary, for fear of rain, efpccially in
loamy gravel ; for which reafons, more ihould never Le hid
in one dav than can be finiflied oft', except the rough laying.
The treading lliould be performed regul.'uly with the feet
pretty clofe, taking fliort fteps ; fo as lo render every part
equallv'firm, and nut to fink in holes under the feet, in the
work of raking and rolling. The raking fhould be perform-
ed regularly lengthways of the walk ; and in the fiaiihinff

ott

G R A V E L.

off or fmooth raking, a vrooden-headed rake without teeth
is moft eligibk', or the back of any common rake ; as by any
of thcfe, the furf:ice may be rendered more regular and even
without drawing off the requilite proportion of top pebbles,
or raking them into holes or heaps ; as the art of imoolh-
raking is" to leave all the proper-fi-zed top ftones equally dif-
perfed over the furface. As. foon as any part is thus laid
and raked, it fhould be well rolled both acrofs and length-
ways ; and when the whole is laid, a good rolling fliould be
given^the whole length, repeating it till the furface is ren-
dered perfectly compact, firm, and fn-iooth ; and after the
firft (hower of rain, another good rolling fliould be given,
fo as to make it bind hke a rock. This method fliould be
praftifed ^^■ith all walks made with thefe materials inva-
riably.

The management afterwards is, occafional weeding,
fweeping, and good rolling, once or twice a \\-eek, efpe-
cially in the advanced part of fpring, and all fummcr ; and
alio occafionally in winter, in dry open weather ; and when
the fnrfaccs become very foul, or over-run with fmall weeds
or mofs, as is often the cafe, they mull be broken up in
fpring, and turned the furface to the bottom, qnd the bot-
tom to the top, by which the weeds and mofs will not only
be buried, but the walks appear as frefli as when new laid.
The cuftom of breaking up gravel-walks in the beginning of
winter, and laying them up in rough ridges, to deftroy
weeds and mofs, is not eligible for general praclice, or only
occafionally, where any walk is exceedingly overrun ; it is
moflly more advifable to permit all the principal gravel-
walks to remain undillurbed, at leall tiil the fpring, when, if
it appear necefTary, tlie whole may be broken up, regularly
turned, and re-laid in a neat manner.

, The turning of gravel is a fort of flight digging, the
foul furface being turned down, and the frefli up; fome have
it performed regularly once a year in the fpring, in order to
preferve the colour. In thefe cafes, the laying, raking, and
rolling, are performed the fame as in the firll conftrufting
the walks.

The rolKng fliould be performed once a week at leaft in
fummer, and if two or three times the more beautiful the
walks will appear, and it will tend greatly to deftroy weeds
and mofs ; it is nioftly a rule among gardeners to fweep
and roll every Saturday. During the Imnmer, it is of much
advantage to give a good rolling a^ter rain, which affords
a compact fmooth furface, and preferves the walks in good
order.

Gravel, in Geology, is a term properly applied to thofe
fabulous foils, or aiTeniblages of worn and rounded Itones,
which are found fcattered on the furface of the earth, in al-
moft all fituationa. It is an efiential charafter of gravel,
that it fliall contain rounded ftones extraneous to the place
where they are found, oth.crwife the brecci;i, nibble, and
loofened I'oeks and ftrata near the furface, owing to the atlion
of air, wet, and frofts, &c. will be confounded with it, as
too often has happened, in the defcriptions of countries.
The earthv and fmaller matters found among gravels, vary
in different fituationsj in all degrees from clay to fand : and
yet, if fucli alluvial mixtures contain rounded ftones, and
fragments with evident marks of attrition on them, they
fhould, in defcribing fuch foils, all be den-.miinated gravel,
adding other words to diilinguifh the nature and ijuantity of
their earthy mixtures: where rounded ftones only are found,
with little elfe among them, as on the fca beach often, and
jn forne gravel-pits, fach may be denominated very clean
gravel ; if a fmall admixture of fand, loam, (a mi--ture of
fand and clay,) or clay, be found among the ftones, fuch
Biay be denominated clean fandy, ckan ioailiy, or cleuo

clayey gravel : where a confiderablc portion of the mafs is
fand, loam, or clay, Inch flionld be called fandy, loamy, or
clayey gravel : and laftly, where the earths greatly predomi-
nate, the terms very fandy, very loamy, or very clayey gra-
vel fliould be ufed ; or in place of thefe laft, in extreme
cafes, alluvial fand, alluvial loam, or alluvial clay may be
fubftituted : the laft of which terms would apply to the
horizontal earthy depofits or meadow foils, by the fides of
rivers, the mud of lakes, &c. We have here made ufe of
the term alluvial, in its ftrift and proper fenfe, as denoting
matters worn, moved, difpcrfed, mixed, and depofiled in
water, in diftinftion from the regular or undifturbed matters
of the terreftrial ftrata : which, though they ftiew evident
marks of having been depofited in a fiuid, the perfeft hoiiio-
genity of each lamina of the ftrata, and their vaft extenfiop,
without rude or accidental mixtures, fliew that the laws
which governed the two kinds of terreftrial depofit, were not
lefs diftinCland marked, than are the procefles of the precipi-
tation of matters before mechanically mixed and fufpended
in a fluid, and the ci-yftallization of fubftances from menftrua
fupcr-faturated therewith. During the depofition of the
ftrata, all was tranquil and quiet, except the movements of
animated beings, which occupied fuccefilvely the vaft fub-
aqueous plains of ftrata : diu nig the iormation and depofition
of the gravels, of all defcriptions, all was violence and con-
fufion, and apparently fo continued for a long period of
time.

No problem is of more pi-aftical and theoretical import-
ance in geology, than whether gravel is any where found
uniler regular and undilhirbed ftrata? Were the decifion
of this queftion to be referred to the opinions of writers on
geology, mineralogy, &c. there would be little room to
doubt, from their defcription, that fuch is fometimes, nay
frequently, the cafe ; but Mr. William Smith, from having
devoted great part of twenty years to the accarate difcrimi-
nation of ftratified and alluvial matters, on -the principles
above ftated, after examining vaft numbers of the deepeil
and moft extenfive wells, fliafts, mines, quiirries, &c. and
converfing with quarrymen, miners, &c. who coUeftively
have made an almoft infinite number of obfervations, is
decidedly of opinion, that no fuch cafe can be pointed out
in England. It is true, that far.dy, loamy, and clayey mafles
occur, with a very few rounded or broken ^nd mixed flony
fragments among them, fo that the niceft difcriminations
are uecelTary to diftinguifli fuch, in fome places, from ftrati-
fied fand, loam, (or natural brick-earth) or clay ; and under
great thicknefs o^ fuch doubtful niaffes, beds of rounded
and mixed ftones are found, fometimes at very confiderable
depths, but in all fuch inftances, the doubtful character
has continued from the very furface downward, to fuch
gravel-beds, and no where are regular ftrata of ftone,
clay, or fand found upon even thefe doubtful maffes,
when due caution is ufed in making and extending the
obfervations. It is true alfo, that there are, in various
parts of the Britiih feries of ftrata, filiceous, or grit-ftone
beds, and rocks, compofed of diftintf grains of filex, or
cryftallized quartz, of all fizes, from fuch as require a
glals for viewing them, to others the fizc of a man's fift ;
and in feveral inftances, contrary to the more common cafe,
of fmall and fizeable, or uniform grains, which diftin-
guilh moll of our grit-ftones, there are beds in which grains,
as fine as poffible, are mixed with the largell mentioned
above, and have, in the cliflFs and places where thefe coarfe
ilone-beds, or loofe blocks of them, are feen expofed, fo
exaiSlly the appearance, at firft fight, of gravel-rock, or in-
durated fandy gravel, that it is no wonder they fliould have
beeii fo generally claii'cd with the gravels. Thofe, however,

3 ' wild,

GRAVEL.

yho, like Mr. Smith, and tlie writer of this article, will be
4t the pains to trace the blocks of coarfc (bine alluded to,
to their natural bed, and to examine the newly cut, or broken
faces of them, and their beds and accompanyinfj ilrata, and
of comparing them with the heterogeneous mixtures and un-
certain and irregular ftratification of the real gravel-rocks,
gf wliich there are great tradls in Nottiugharafiiirc, Derby-
(hire, Leicefterfliire, Staffordfliirc, Cliefliire, and others of
the midland counties, in fome places of immcrife tliicknefs,
will fee abundant caufe tor dilUnguilhing even the coarfjft
and moll irregular of our grit-ftone ilrata, from the fupcr-
ficial gravel-rocks above-mentioned, and, indeed, from allu-
vial, or water-worn mixtures of any kind. And fuch ob-
fervers will be llruck witl\ furprize, that fuch a regular and
conllant law, as feems to have regulated the formation of
grains of fdex, of all the fizes mentioned, fhould not have
^een obferved and reforted to, for explainiiig the formation
of coarfe as well as line grit-lloncs, and have guarded again!!,
our confounding .them v.ith the water-worn gravels. Ac-
cumulations of gravel are to be dillinguillied into native and
foreign, according as the pebbles and earth afid extraneous
bodies among them, can be referred to known and adja-
cent flrata, or conllfts of (lones and earths not elfewhere
fomid, or but in very diftant countries. Fur it will be found,
that except on the fea fliore, where the waves continually
carry away, and again throw up the ftones, wliich fall from,
or are waihed out of the marine cliffs, that the gravel of no
fpot correfponds with the (Irata on which it is lodged, and
if in any fituations in land tliis (liould feem to be the cafe, it
will probably be found, that thole Ilrata extend far to the
eaft or fouth-eall of the place where their alluvial remains
are lodged, and the circumllances appear to be explainable,
on the principle of a general moving of native alluvia from
the fouth-ealt quarter towards the north-well quarter, as
obferved in the Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxxv. p. i^j.
It is a remarkable faft, that all the very coarfe, and irregular
grit-ftone Ilrata, whicli have been noticed by the writer of
this article in England, precede or occur beneath a feries of
carboniferous Ilrata, or coal-meafures ; the lovvell being
found in the firil and third grit rocks of the great Derby-
shire denudation, and the others occur, both above and below
the grey lime rock, which forms xbe floor and border of
the great South-Wales coal-field (Phil. Tranf i8c6), alio
the floor and edges of the foreil of Dcrn coal-bafon,
-and the weftern edge of the Somcrfet and Glouceller, or
Bath coal-field, the northern edge of the Newcal'.le-uuder-
line, or pottery coal-field, &c. And which Liti it leems to
be that Mr. Kirwan alludes to, under the name of iemipro-
tolite in fome of the cafes mentioned pages 257, 293> 300,
307, 312, and 336, of his " Geological Eflays :" it is plain,
however, that tliefe coarfe grit-ftones, under our coals, do
not indicate the near approach of the fundamental rock of
granite, as Mr. Kirwan would have us believe. We cannot
clofe this article, without again adverting to the importance
of accurately dilcriminating the alluvia found on different
parts of every country, and of tracing their connection with
the regular a' d continuous mafles of Ilrata on which they rcll,
and from v/hence they have been torn. Mucli information
on the alluvia and ftrata of the midland couiuies of England
will be found in Mr. Farcy's Report on Derbyihirc.

Gl!AV£L Rod, fignifics a concreted or indurated raafs of
fandy Gravm;l, (lee that article,) and is carefully to be dillin-
guiflied from the coarfe grit-llone Ilrata, whieli it often
»;lofely refemblcG.

Gravel Fofflls, is a term applied to fuch reliquia, or
extraneous foliils, as are found in a rounded or worn Hate, or
.lodged asiong gravel, or aliavial mixtures, the ruins of

abraded and worn Ilrata. See our article Coal, where the-
dillinctions between this and other claffcs of extraneous
foffils arc explaiued.

GuAVEL, in Mcilidnt, the popular term for the difordcr
occafioned by t(ie formation of fmall calculous, or fand-iike
concretions in the kidnies and bl.iddcr. It is the Ncphralria
anno/a of Sauvagc ; (fee liis Nofol. Method. Clafs VII.
Genus XXV fpcc. 2.) and to be diilingniflied from t'le
nephralgia calculi.fa of the fame nofologlll, in which larger
calculi, or Jlones, are formed and impatted in tiiu kidnies,
ureters, or bladder.

Tlie fymptoms wliich indicate the prefence of gravel in
the kidnies, or in the paflages from tlie kidnies to the
bladder, called the ureters, are chiefly a fevere pain in the
loins, which is often accompanied by a fcnfe of numbncff,
extending down the thigiis of the fide affedlcd, with a re-
traftion of the tefticle in tlic male, and with a fickncfs of th-.'
ftomach, often amounting to vomiting. During the paffagc
of the fmall calc lus through tlie canal of the ureter, the
diftenfion and irritation occafioned bv the calculus, efpe-
cially if its furface (hould be rugged and uneven, excites
thofe fymptoms in a more or lefs fevere degree, or for a
longer or (horter duration, according to its {\ut and form ;
and they fuddenly ceafe when it has entered the bladder.
Pain is again excited in the urinary organs, when the cal-
culus either lies over the aperture, or enters the canal of the
urethra, and a pain and difiiculty of palling the urine ii
excited. Tliefe fymptoms, attending the tranfit of a fmall
ilone from the kidney, or its expulfion from the bladder,
conllituie wliat is nfually called a fit of the gravel. The
more common furiiis of the dileafe, however, confill in the
formation of a fori of fandy matter, of a red colour, which im-
pedes the free paflageof the urine, and occaltons confiderable
pain in the attempt, as well as an aching paiii in the loins,
through the fympathy of the kidnies with the bladder. A
w, itilh mucoiis matter is fometimes difcharged with the
urine, under both ihefe forms of the dili rjcr, pr^ babljr
from the irritation excited in the fecreting velftls, that open
on the internal furf ice of the bladder : the palfage of the
fmall calculi occafionally caufes a laceration of the fmall
blood-veilels, and bloody urine is therefore difcharged.

The little calculi, excited in thofe cafes, are lomctimcs of
a bright red colour, and confill, as well as tlie red land which
palfe.s with the urine, or is depolited from it, of the uric or
lithic acid in a concrete llalc.

The gravel is a difeafe chiefly of advanced life. It is
common in gouty habits, in which it otteii alteniutos with
the paroxyfms of gout. It has been obferved, too, that it
defcends by hereditary tranfmidion, like that difeafe; and
that of the children of gouty parents fome have been attack-
ed with the gravel, while oihers have had the gout. It i*
a curious fail, alfo, that the concretions, called chalk-
llones, which are. depolited in the joints in the gout, con-
fill of the fame fub'lancc as thefe gravelly concretions, to's
the uric acid. It is to be dilUnguiihcd from the ri'.euir.atic
affedlion of the loins, called lumbago, by the fickmis wliich
attends the more fevere cafes, the numbnefs of the thigh
and retradion of the tellitle, as well as by the mucous or
bloody urine, the pain and ditBculty of pafling it, and the
appearance of the fandy fediment in it.

Chcmiih-y has enabled th<» phyfician to adminiller great
relief to the fufferings occafioned by gravel. The difcovery,
by chemical experiments, tliat the fubftance of thele calcu-
lous and f ibulous concretions is an acid, and ikerefore capa-
ble of folution in or combinauon with alkaline fubllances,
led to the adminillration of the alkalies internally, as reme-
dies for the difeafe : and, although it has not been fou;id,

that.

G R A

tliat tlie larger ftonea of the bladder are diffolved or dim1-
nifhed hy the aftion of alkaline medicines, yet the fmaller
concretions appear to be prevented from forming, and great
relief from the pain and irritation, imder all the varieties of
concretion, is produced by the ufe of them. PeiTy's fol-
vent, Mrs. Stephens' medicines, and Chittick's Receipt for
the Hone, are all of the alkaline clafs. It is probable that
thefe alkaline medicines operate principally on the flnids in
the hrft palfages, by nentrallzing the acids occafioned by
indigeflion, rather than by paffuig in the circulation, and
combining with the uric acid in the kidnies or bladder.
Tliis would appear, partly from the faft, that the carbo-
nated alkalies are equally or even more beneficial than the
pure or cauftic alkalies, in relieving the fymptoms of Hone
or gravel ; but it is principally proved by a circumllance,
recently afccrtained by the experiments of Mr. Home and
Mr. Brande, tliat the abforbent e \rths, efpecially magnefia,
are conliderably more eflicacious in relieving thole fymp-
toms, and in diminidiing the quantity of uric acid in the
urine, than the alkalies thcmfelves. The magnefia is to be
given in moderately large dofes, two or three times a day ;
and if it proves purgative to tl'.e bowels, a few drops of the
tincture of opium may be added to it. (See Philofoph.
Tranfaft. part i. for 1810.)

Of the alkalies, it would appear that the potafs is, on the
whole, more beneficial in thefe complaints than the foda:
the pure or caullic potafs may be given freely, beginning
with dofes of fifteen or twenty drops, and gradually increaf-
ing it, well diluted with any thin drink; and it may be con-
tinued for a confiderable time with perfeft fafety. But the
carbonate of potafs is not lefs nfeful, and, efpecially when
dilTolved in water faturated with carbonic acid gas, it is
more agreeable, and probably more efficacious. The effi-
cacy of thefe acidulous alkaline waters was at firft indeed
attributed to the carbonic acid which they contain, and not
to the alkali. (See a Medical Commentary on Fixed Air,
by Dr Dobfon ) The foda water acidulated by the fame
gas operates in a iimilar way, and is another agreeable mode
of taking the medicine. Lime-water is likewife pofiefied of
fome remedial powers, but is lets efficacious than the alka-
line water.

All thefe aqvieous liquors operate in fome meafure, per-
haps, upon another principle ; that of increafing the quan-
tity of fluids which pafs through the urinary organs, and
thus of diluting the irritating uric falts, and conlequently
dimiiiifhing the diftrefs which they occafion: and they may
likewife operate negatively, by rendering the patient un-
able to drink the ufual quantity of wine or other ftrong
liquors. Other matters, which tend to increafe the flow of
urine, feem to relieve the fymptoms of gravel, upon the
principle of dilution; efpecially fmall dofes ot the nitrous
Ktlier, or fpirltns xthcris nitrofi, of the pharmacopoeias.

When extreme pain is excited, either by the palling of a
fmall concretion along the canal of the ureter or of the ure-
thra, opiates will afford a temporary relief to the iutFerings
of the patient, and will perhaps aid in relaxing any fpaf-
modic contraction that may take place in thefe pafTages,
and thus expedite the palfage of tlie calculus. The fame
object may be promoted by the ufe of the warm bath, by
fomentations to the loins and pubes, and by warm glyfters.

For the modes of relieving the fymptom:, conneftcd
with the prefcnce of the larger calculi of the bladder, and
of extracting thefe concretions by furgical means, fee
SroNF.: — fee alio Nei-iiral<iia and Nephritis.

GRAVELAINAS, in Geography, a town on the S.W.
-coaft of the ifiand of Negroponte, on the fcite of the an-
cient Eretria; 10 miles S. E. of Negroponte.

-G R A

GRAVELINES, a fea-port town of France, in tli?
department of the North, and cliief place of a canton in
the diftrict of Bergues, fituated in the Englifla channel, at
the mouth of the river Aa. Although it is not large, it
is well fortified with baftions, half-moons, and horn-work,
and the adjacent country is interfedled by canals, one pafs-
ing to Dunkirk by Bourbourg, and another direftly to
Bergues. It was built in 11 60, and ceded to France by
the peace of the Pyrenees; 9 miles W.S.W. of Dunkirk.
N. lat. 50" 59', E.long. 2°.

GRAVELLANO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Gogna ; 30 miles N. of Novara.

GRAVELLING, among Farriers, a diforder incident
to travelling horfes, occafioned by little gravel-ftones get-
ting in between the hoof and the (hoe, which, fettling to
the quick, fret and fefter the part.

It is cured by pulling off the fhoe, drawing the place to
the quick, picking out all the gravel, and poulticing the
foot, rather than itojiping it, according to the old pra&ice,
with horfe-grcafe and turpentine poured in hot.

GRAVELLY IjANd, a term applied to fuch land as
refts upon a fub-fl:ratum of the gravel kind, or which is
much intermixed with that fort of material. This fort of
land is generally light and dry when under the plough, but
apt to burn in the furamer feafon, when in the condition
of grafs.

The manures fliould be adapted to the particular natures
of thefe lands; but where they are of the more light de-
fcriptions, they may be greatly improved by the ufe of
marie, loamy clay, chalk, mud, and other fimilar matters,
as well as diflcrent forts of earthy comports. See Soil.

Gravelly Soil, a term fignifying that fort of foil,
which is chiefly conftituted of gravelly matters. See Soil,

GRAVEN, in GiOgrnphy, a town of Norway, in the
diocefe of Bergen; 42 miles S.S.W. of Bergen.

GRAVENAU, a town of Bavaria; 20 miles N. of
PafTaii. N. lat. 48-^ jl8 . E. long. 13 ■ 22'.

GRAVENWERT, a town of Bavaria; 15 miles N.
of Amberg.

GRAVER, a ftecl inftrument, ferving to engrave on
metals. 1'lie graver confills of four fides or faces, and
the point ufiially terminates in a lozenge: in fome it i»
round, and in others fquare. The round point is befl for
fcoring lines, the fquare for cutting broad and deep, and
the lozenge for more delicate and fine flrukcB and fcratches.
I^e Bofle recommends thofe of a form betwixt the fquare
and lozenge. See ENGRAViKt;.

The gravers (hould be made of the befl: fteel, which
mufl: be drawn out into fmall rods with a charco;J fire.
Thefe rods, after having been cut into the proper lengthg
for gravers, fliould be foftened, by heating them in a char-
coal fire, and fiifTering them to cool very flowly: let them
next be filed into the defired form, and brought back to a
hard temper by heating tliein red-hot, and in this ftate
dipping their ends into foft foap. This fliould be done
in a perpendicular direction; for, if they be turned in the
leafl: degree obliquely, the graver will warp and be crooked.
If the temper of tlie graver be too hard after this treat-
ment, ami prevent the whetting it properly to an edge, it
may be foftened, by laying its end on a large burning
piece of charcoal till it begins to grow yellow, and then
thrufting it into a lump of tallow, or dipping it in water;
but if water be ufed, the graver mull not be too hot. It
may be known whether ths graver be tempered to a pro-
per hardnefs by touching the edge of it with a file, which,
if any efleft attends it, proves the temper to be too foft.
The bell proof of too great hardnefs is the breaking of the

poiut

G R A

point in engraving; after which, if a new fdije be made
by whetting the graver, it will be frequently found very
good without any other alteration. Handmaid to the
Arts, vol. ii. p. 56.

The other end is fitted into a wooden handle.

Befides engravers, the feal-cutters, lock-fmilhs, gun-
smiths, .gold-lmiths, armourers, fpurricrs, &c. likewife
make ufe of gravers.

GRAV'EROL, Francis, in Biography, was born at
Nifmes in 1635. He was educated for the profeffion of the
law, and practiled, as an advocate, in the parliament of
Touloufe, aud in the prefidial chamber of Nifmes, and as
direftor and lecretary of the academy in the latter place. He
was not only well veried in the ttudies connected with his
profeflion, but deeply read in fubjefts of general literature,
and particularly diltinguiflied for his knowledge of medals
and infcriptions. In religion he adhered ilriclly to Calvinillic
principles, which impeded his advancement in life, and at
length involved him in perfecution. To avoid the la(h of
cruel laws he retired to Orange, but, not thinking liimfelf
fafe there, he attempted t« pafs into Switzerland. In his
journey he was apprehended by the officers of the civil power,
and thrown into prifon in the citadel of Montpellier. He was,
after a loiig confinement, liberated, and died in the year 1694.
His works confill of feveral differtations on particular me-
dals, and othermonuments of antiquity. His " Obfervations
o;i the Arrets of the Parliament of Touloufe," in ^to. were
much elleemed He was well known to all the learned in Eu-
rope, and was admitted a member of the Ricovrati at Padua.
At ins death he had in hand fome other literary works.
Moreri.

S'GRAVESAND, William James lf, in Bio^^ra-
pJ.'V, was born at Bois-le-Duc in the year 1688. Having
received the elements of learning at a common fchool, he
was fent to Leyden to Ihidy the civil law, but he foon ex-
hibited a decided tafte for philofophical and mathematical
ftudies, which he determined to purfue in preference to the
learning of the courts. He produced, when he was only
eighteen years old, an eKcellent '•' Effay on Perfpeftive,"
which gave hun a confiderable reputation among the mathe-
maticians of the age in which he flourifiied. In 1707 he
took his dodlor's degreCj quitted the univerfity, and fet-
tled at the Hague, where he pra6tifed at the bar, and
cultivated an acquaintance with learned men. He joined
fome other perfons in conducting a periodical work, en-
titled " Le Journal Litteraire,'' which was continued
without interruption from the year 1713 to 1722.
S'Gravefand contributed to it the original differtations relat-
ing chiefly to geometry and phyfics. Among the diicourles
moll worthy of notice, and which were original pieces ot
his own compofition, were the following, " Remarks on
the Coriftruftion of Pneumatical Engines :'' and " An
Eflay on the Collifion of Bodies," which was attacked
by Dr. Clarke and other learned men, on account of its op-
pofing the principles of the Newtonian philofophy. In 1715
the States General fent an embaify to England, to congratu-
late king George I. on his accefiion to the throne of Great
Britain. S'Gravefand was on this occafion appointed le-
cretary to the perfons compofing this body, and during his
ftay in London, he became intimately acquainted with fir Ilaac
Newton, and was, upon the recommendation of tiiat great man,
admitted 3 member of the Royal Society. Upon his return
to Holland, he was appointed profefTor of mathematics and al-
tronomy at the univerfity at Leyden. He immediately
undertook to teach and illuftrate the Newtonian philofophy
to the ftudeuts of the univerfity, and in 1734 he had the
additional profefibrlhip of philofophy conferred upon liim.
-Vol.. XVI.

G R A

So great were his exertions in the feveral duties of liis office,
and in preparing for publication his feveral workf on the
fcicnces, that he injured his conllitution, and finally funk
luider his labours in 1742, when he was only fifly-foiir years
of age. His principal publications were : (l')"Phyfitcs
Elementa Mathematica, Expcrimentis confirmata, fiv«
Introduclio ad Philofophiam Ncwtoniauam,'' which confilU
of the author's ledures : (2) " Matlitfeos Uiiivcrfalis Ele-
menta," containing a fylkm of algebra for the ufe of flur
dents, with a conuncntary on Newton's Univerfal Aritli-
metic : (3) " Philofophi* Newtonianx Inllitutionrs," which
is an abridgment of his Elements of Phyfics: (4) » Intro-
dudtio ad Philofophiam, Metaphyficam, et Logicam con-
tinens." His mathematical and pliilofopliical works, ex-
cepting the firft article, were collected and puhhflied at
AmIIerdam, in 2 vols. 410., with an account of the life and
writings of the author. The private tharaftcr of S'Gravc-
fand was highly refpeftable and amiable : his morals wcrtf
exemplary, and he was beloved for his gencrofity, benevo-
lence, and obliging manners. He was confulted by the mi-
nifters of the republic on all maltcri of finance, aiid he was
of great fervicc to them in deciphering and detecfting the
fecret correfpondence of their enemies.

GRAVESANDE, in Geography, a town of Holland,
dlllant about four miles from the lea, fix miles W.S.W. of
Delft.

GRAVESEND, a town in the hundred of Toltirg-
trough, in the county of Kent, England, confills of feveral
llreets, built on a declivity leading to tlie Thames ; and is
partly fituatcd in the parilh of Milton, which adjoins to that
of Gravefend on the call fide. The early profperity of tin's
town received a confiderable check iji the reign of Richard
II., when the French and Spaniards failed up the Thames
in gallles, plundered and burned many of the houfcs, and
took a great number of the inhabitants prifoners. To
alleviate the lofs, the king was induced to give the towns-peo-
ple a legal claim to the water-paffage to London, by a grant
to the abbey of St. Mary le Grace. In the tenth of queen
Elizabeth the parifhes of Gravefend and Milton were incor-
porated by her letters patent : but the principal charter was
granted by Charles I. in the year 1632. The chief officer,
who had before this time been called the portreve, was by
this charter conilituted mayor ; and in him, twelve jurats,
twenty-four common councihncn, a fenefchall or high rtcw-
ard, and other inferior officers, the go\xrnment of the town
is now vefted. The liberty of holding two additional week-
ly markets on Wedneldays and Saturdays, and an annual
fair of four days, was alio granted at the fame time, toge-
ther with a full confirmation of the exclufivc privilege,
conferred by king Richard, of conveying palfengers and
goods by water to the metropolis. In Augull 1727 the
greater part of the town was deltroyed by a fire, which
commenced in a barn-yard adjoining to the church, and
conlumed that fabric, with about 1 20 houfes, befides out-
buildings, llables, &c. The prclent church, which is dedi-
cated to St. George, was erected on the old feite in the \-c3r
1732, under an act of the fourth of George II. which
appropriated 5CO0/ for that purpofe, from tlic duties on
coals and culm, levied under the acts of the ninth and
tenth of queen Anne, for building fifty new churches in or
near London.

Gravefend has been greatly improved fince the year 1764,
when a new town-hall, having an area beneath where' the
jioultry market is kept, was erected by tlie corporation.
In 1767 a new wharf, crane, and caufeway, were made, x\\e
expvnce of keeping which in repair is defrayed by fmall
tolls for cranage and wharfage. The increafe of the trad^
4 P popublioii.

G R A

population, and buildings has been particularly rapid fince inftruftion exci
the middle of the laR century. Under the late ^A, the nefs of his t<
number of inhabitants was returned at 2483, and that ot By the public
houfes at 41 2 ; yet thefe numbers are very incorretl, and the
population can fcarcely amount to lefs than 4000, nor th(
number of houfes be fewer than 700 Moft of the inhabit

ants are engaged in maritime purfuits or employnients.

A fmall manufaftory for cables and ropes is earned on here ;

vard for fhip-building, which
' - ed Cle.

y-

and about the year 1780, a ,
■ had long been difufcd, was hired by a quaker, named Cle-
verly, and fcvc-ral men of war and frigates, befidcs fmaller
vefTels, have been built here. About eighteen or twenty
fmacks find employment in the cod and haddock filhery ;
and moft of the D.itchturbot veifels lie off this town, and
fend their cargoes to the London markets in fmall boats.
Moft of the Ead and Weft Ind^a trade, and, indeed, of
the outward-bound ftiips in general, are fupplied with hve
and dead ftock at Gravefend ; and alfo with vegetables ;
about eighty acres of ground in the two panlhes being cul-
tivated for that purpofe, and for fupplying the London
markets with afparagus, which is remarkable for its fize and
fine flavour. Gravefend is fituated 22 miles E. from Lon-
don. Hafted's Hiftory of Kent, vol. i. 8vo. Beauties
of Engla-id and Wales, vol. vii.

G R A

excited much public attention, but the hanghti-
temper prevented him from being popular,
at large, his manners could be no obftacle
to the celebrity of his writings, and his reputation daily
increafed. Ilis works were numerous, and the fubjofts on
which he treated very various. His " Origines Juris
Civilis,'' has been ever cfteemed a claflScal performance,
lucid in its arrangements, and replete with folid and very
important learning. This was firft publiflied at Leipfic in
1708, and afterwards there was a more corretk edition of
it in 1713 ; to the latter impreffion was fubjoined a treatile
" De imperio Romano,'' elteemed a mafter-picce, though
not free from error. Graviiia undertook to eftablilh a poe-
tical code, for which purpole he wrote two books, entitled
" De la Region Poctica :" one entitled " Delia Tragedia,"
and a treatife " De Inftitutione Poetarum." Another
work was printed coutriiry to his inclination ; this was his
" Inllitutes of Civil and Canon Law," which he intended
to have revifed and given in a corrected and augmented
form. In 1714, Gravina re-vifited his native country,
where he ftaid about two years and then returned to Rome.
He was preparing to depart for Turin, whither he had been
invited by the duke of Savoy, in order tliat he might take
the general direftion of the learned inftitutions, when he

Gravesend, a townihip and village of America, in Long was leized with an illnefs which carried him off in 1718, in

inand. New York, feven miles from the city, containing
489 inhabitants.

GRAVIMETER. See Hydrometek. .

GRAVINA, Do.MENico da, in Biography, who flou-
riftied in the fourteenth century, was a native of Gravina,
in the kingdom of Naples. He was by profeflion a notary,
but in hterature an hiftorian. He feems to have taken an
aftive p.irt in the civil wars which agitated his country at
tliat period, and on account of the fide which he efpoufed,
he was ftripped of all his property, and driven into exile

the arms of his beloved pupil Metailafio, whofe poetical
talents he firft difcovcred and cheriflied, and whom he left
heir of all his property out of Calabria. Gravina was of
a contentious difpofiticn, exceiTive in his praife of perfons
whom he efteemed, and alio in his cenfure of thofe who
offended him ; he was arrogant, from a high opinion of
his own fuperiority. This created him many enemies, with
whom he was perpetually at war. Of his great learning
there can be no doubt ; but with refpett to his poetical ta-
lents, it has been remarked, that he was more fuccefsful as

with his wife and children. He wrote a hiftory of Naples a legiflator than as a pra£tifer in the art ; for his five tra-
in the Latin language, and likcvvife a hiftory of the tranf- gedies written on the model of the ancients were not favour-
aftions in that part of Italy during his own times, from 1330 ably received by the public, and the author's angry expof-
to l''i;o. A fragment of this work only is in exiftence, tulatlfcn, proving that they ought to have been applauded
the beffinninf and end being loft ; it is, however, reckoned as ufual, was totally inefficacious. Moreri.

a valuable 'document for the fidelity of the narration,
and is to be found in Muratori's colleftion of Italian hif-

torians. _

GuA viN A, John 'Vincent, was born in 1 664 at Rogiana,
a caft'ie in Calabria. He enjoyed all the advantages of a
very liberal education, and became well verfed in the learned
languages ; geometry, phyfics, hiftory, and antiquities.
He alfo made himfelf acquainted with the principles of
theology. Having thus attained to a general knowledge
of the learning of the times, he went to Naples to iludy
the civil and canon law. After this he pafted to Rome,
and lived with Paul Coardo of Turin. He was one of
the original founders of the academy of Arcadi, and had graving
the charge of drawing up their laws in the ftyle of the '^ ■ -
Roman tables. He arrogated to himfelf the merit of hav-
ing devifed thefe laws, a circumftance which involved him
in a quarrel with the other members, particularly with
Crefcembini, the founder of the fociety, fo that thefe two
learned men were for fevcral years at the head of two
faftions which divided the body. In 1698, he was nomi-
nated profeffor of civil law at the coUege of Sapienza, and,
in five years after, he fuccccded to the chair of the canon-
law. His method of inftruclion was excellent; he avoided

Gravina, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bari, the fee of a biftiop, fufTragan of Acerenza,
24 miles S. of Trani.

Gravina's IJland!, a range of iflands in the N. Pacific
ocean, each from 20 to 50 miles in circumference, inter-
fperfed with fome iflets, llrctching N. W. to S. E. about
40 m:les, between the Juke of Clarence's ftrait and the
canal of Revilla Gigedo. N. hit. 54 52' to 55'' 27'. E.
long. 228" 24' to 229 5'.

GRAVING, the aft or art of cutting lines, figures*
and other dt-figns, on metals ; more properly called cn-
' ■ h fee.

Graving, in the Sea Language, is the bringing a fhip
a-ground, and then burning uif withfuize, reed, or broom,
all the filth and foulnefs tliat ftick to her bottom without
board, in order to pay her anew. See Brooming and
Careening.

GK.\vi>CG-</or/, or Dry Docli, is a place from which the
water can be let out or pumped, after Ihips and boats are
floated into it to be cleaned or repaired ; fometimcs, graving-
docks are above the level of the water, and boats are dragged
upon inclined planes into the fame. By the fides of tidal

trifling verbal difputes, and mere fcholailic fpeculations, and rivers or harbours thefe are con ftnidled' with ftrong clofe

entered into the fpirit of the laws, illuftrating their theory gates meeting in an angle to fhut out the tide ; which gates

by obfervations drawn from ancient writers, and by a criti- are furnifhed with a fmall fluice or valve for emptying or

clfm founded on his exteafive erudition. This mode of filhng the dock^ when a veffel has entered at high water,

6 or

G R A

or is about to leave the dock at fuch lime. Sc? Docks,
and Canai,.

GRAVISKOI, in Geography, a fortiefs of Ruffia, ia
the, government of Kolivan, on the Irtifch ; 240 miles
S. S. W. of Kolivan. N. lat. 50' 15'. E long. 75' 14'.

GRAVITAS, BafUTn;, in the Anc'unt Mufic, was ufed
to fignify a found produced by the remiflion or falling of
the voice. Gravitas differs from remiflion, as the efltft from
the caufe.

Gravitas is alfo ufed to denote the ftate of a woman
going with child. See Puegnancy.

GRAVITATION, the exercife of gravity, or the
aftion which a body exerts on another body by the power of
gravity. It is fometimes diftinguiflied from gravity. Thus,
Maupertuis takes gravity for that force by which a body
would fall to the eartli fuppofed at reil ; and gravitation
for the fame but diminilhed by the centrifugal force. See
figure of the earth deterra. p. 206 of Mr. Murdoch's
tranflation.

It is only gravitation, or gravity thus blended with the
centrifugal force, that we can meafnre by our experiments.
However, methods liave been found to dillinguilh what
remains of primitive gravity, and what has been dellroyed
by the centrifugal force.

It is one of the laws of nature, difcovered by fir Ifaac
Newton, and now received by mod philofophers, that every
particle of matter in nature gravitates towards every other
particle ; wliich law is the hinge on which the whole New-
tonian philofophy turns. See Newtonian Philofophy.

What we call gravilalton, with refpcft to the gravitating
body, is properly called atiradlon with refpedl to the body
towards which the other gravitates.

The planets, both primary and fecondary, and alfo the
comets, do all gravitate towards the fun, and towards each
other ; and the fuu towards the.m : and that in proportion
to the quantity of matter in each.

The Peripatetics, &c. hold, that bodies only gravitate
when out of their natural places, and that gravitation ccafcs
when they are reftorcd to the fame, the intention of nature
being then fultiUed. The final caufe of this faculty, as
they maintain, is only to bring elementary bodies to their
proper place, where they may reft. But the moderns
Ihew, that bodies exercife gravity even when at rell and in
their proper places.

This is particularly fhewn of fluids ; and it is one of the
laws of hydrollatics demonftrated by Mr. Boyle and others,
that fluids gravitate m/iro/i;v5 /(7fO, the upper parts prcfling
on the lower, &c.

For the laws of gravitation of bodies in fluids fpecifically
bghter, or heavier than themfelves, fee Specific Ghavity,
Fluid, &c.

Gravitation, Theory of Univerfal. Newton is very
juftly confidered as the author of this great hypothefis,
though feveral preceding and coteraporary writers fecm to
have formed conjectures on this fubjeft that did not differ
very widely from the truth. From the time of Kepler it
had every day become more and more evident, that fome
mechanical caufe had a very material influence on the laws
of the phnetary motions. The problems which the difco-
veries of that great aftronomer had left fur future ages to
folve were ihefe : Why do the planets and fatclHtes delcribe
eUiptic orbits, the former round the fun, the latter roond
their primary planet ? Why is the centre of motion in the
focus rather than in the centre of the ellipfe ? Why are
equal areas defcribed in equal times about the centre ; and
what can be the caufe of that remarkable law that is fowid

G R A

cnnftantly to fubfill between the diflancei of the planeta
from the fun and the times of their revolution ?

Des Cartes firft attempted a folution of thefe difficulties,
by fuggeftiiig a fimple mechanical caufe. He fuppofed the
cxiflence of a fubtile fluid, which, though imperceptible to
the fcnfes, was in conflant motion round the fun, and that
it involved the planets in its powerful agency. This theory,
on its firll enunciation, docs not feem deticient in plauli-
bility, but upon more careful examination, it is found inca-
pable of explaining any one aflronomical phenomt-non cor-
rectly, and indeed the aftion of fuch a fluid wou'd produce
effefts in many cafes exaftly the revcrfe of what it was
intended to explain The fpirit of rational enquiry that
row began to be exerted on all philofophical fubjc£ls, ren-
dered this theory of fliort duration.

Kepler at a much earlier period had formed more cor-
reft opinions on this lubjccl than Des Cartes : indetd he
feems to have had a very diflincl idea of the exiftence of
gravitation, though he never could have been aware of its
:>gency being fo extenfive, or that it would ever ex lain in
fo fatisfaftory a mann.-r as it has done hio own great difco-
veries. Gravity, he fays, iu his " Commentary on Mars,"
is only a mutual and corporeal affe£lion between fimilar
bodies. Heavy bodies do not tend to the centre of the
world, but to that of the round body of which they form
a p.ut ; and if the earth were not fpherical, lieavy bodies
would not fall towards its centre, but towards different
points. This conjecture has been fully verified by theory
and obfervation ; the _ earth appears not to be a perfeft
fplure, and accordingly a plumb-line docs i:ot tend to the
cxaft centre of gravity of the whole earth, but to a point
confiderably remote from it, as has been explained under
Deokek, Y-Aiivu, Jigurt of, &c. S:c.

Kepler likewife llrongly fufpecled that the attraction of
the moon was the caufe of the tides, and that the lunar
irregularities arofe from the action of the earth and fun.
Perhaps, from tiie earliell times, fome indiftinct conciptions
are to be occafionally tr.aced in diffen-nt autliors concerning
the exiilence of this univerfal principle.

Fermat, who preceded Kepler, aflinred, that the weight
of a body was the fum of the tendencies of all its particles
to all the particles of die earth ; and Kepler was of opinion
that two bodies left alone in free fpace would approach
each other with velocities inverfely proportional to their
malTes or quantities of matter.

A fliort time previous to the great difcovery of Newton,
Dr. Hooke made a iliU nearer approach to the truth. At a
meeting of the Royal Society, May 3, 1668, he cxprcfltd
himfelf in the following manner : " I will explain a fytlem
of tlie world very different from any yet received, and it i(
founded on the three follo«-ing pofitions :

1. Tiiat all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitatioB
of their parts to their own proper centres, but that they
alfo mutually attract each other within their fphercs of
aClion.

2. That all bodies having a fimple motion will continue to
move in a ftraight line, unlets continually deflected from it by
fome extraneous force, caufing them to delcribe a circle, an
ellipfe, or fome other- curve.

3. Tiiat this attraiSlion is fo mucli the greater as the
bodies are nearer. As to the proportion in which ihofc
forces diminifli by an increafe of dillance, I own I have not
yet difcovered it, although I have made fome experiments to
this purpofe. I leave this to others who ha^-c time and
knowledge fufficient for the taflc."

This is a very precife enunciation of a proi»cr philofophical

theory. The phenomenon, the change of motion, is con.

4 P 2 fidcred

G R xVV I T A T I O N.

fulcrcd as the mark and meaiure of a change of force, and
his audience is referred to experience for tlie nature of this
force. He had before exhibited to the fociety a very pretty
experiment contrived to (liew the nature of this force. A
ball, fufpcnded by a long thread from the ceiling, was made
to fwing round another ball, laid on a table immediately
below the point of fufpcnfion. When th» impulfe given to
the pemlulum was nicely adjufted to its deviation from the
perpendicular, it defcribed a perfect circle round the ball on
the table ; but when the impulfe was very great, or very
fmall, it defcribed an ellipfe, having the other ball in its
centre.

Hooke fhewed that this was the operation of a dcflcfting
force proportioned to the dillance from the other ball.
He added, that although this illuftrated the planetary motions
in fome degree, yet it was not fuitable to their cafe : for
the planets defcribe ellipfes, iiaving the fun not in their centre
but in tiieir focus. Therefore they are not retained by a
force proportional to the dillance from the Inn.
• The exalted genius of Newton can fufTer no diminution
by the enumeration of the above opinions, for though the
idea of fuch a principle as gravitation was not fuggelled firil
by Nev>ton, yet fo verv obfcure were the notions of even
the molt enlightened pliilofophcrs on th.is fubjcct, that it
had never been fuccelsfu'ly applied to the explanation of a
lingle aflronomical phenomenon.

So intimately connected is this great difcovery with the
hiftory of the human mind, that every known circumftance
relating to it has been recorded with the greateft care. Dr.
Pemberton relates that Newton, in the year 1666, having
retired from Cambridge to the country on account of the
plague, was there led to meditate on the probable caufc of
the planetary motions, and upon the nature of that central
force that retained them in their orbits. It then occurred
to him that pofllbly the fame force, or fome modilication of
the fame force which caufed with us a heavy body to defcend
with a certain velocity to the earth, might like wife retain
the moon in her orbit by caufing a conftant defledtioii from a
reftihnear path. Before, however, this conjecture could be
put to the tell of calculation, it was neceffary that Newton
ihould have formed fome conditional hypotheiis relative to
the modiHcalion of the force with refpcft to the diftance.
That any agency emanating from a central point (hould de-
creafe as the fquare of the diftance from that point increafes,
is an hypotheiis fo natural, that we cannot be fnrprized that
Newton fliould have feledled it ; but whether or not he had
previoufiy tried any other, or whether he had even at this
time deduced it from the nature of the planetary orbits, does
not now appear. The calculation which it was neceffary to
inllitutc, we (hall give with great minutenefs in its proper
place; it is therefore only neceffary to remark at prefent,
that it requires that the proportion between the radius of
the earth and the lunar orbit fhould be exaftly known. Wl-.en
Newton firff attempted to verify this hypothefis, thefe re-
quifite data had not been exaftly determined, and a flight
difcordance between the refult of the calculation and the
fappofed fact, induced him for a time to abandon his hy-
potheiis. This circumftance has, with great propriety,
been recorded as a ftriking inftance of the cool and difpaf-
fionate frame of mind wiiich this great philofopher prefcrv-
ed, at a moment when he had flattered himfelf with the
hope of having difcovered one of the moft important fecrcts
of nature.

Some few years afterwards he was again tempted to re-
new thefe calculations, as in this interval a degree of tlie
meridian had been meafured in France by Picard. This
fccond atte.npt fuceeeded. It is related, that towards the

end of the calculation he became fo much agitated, as to
be obliged to requeil a friend to afTifl him in finifhing it ;
and certainly a moment of greater importance in philolophy
will never be recorded in the annals of fcience.

The computation which was made by Newton to deter-
mine the identity of the force of terreilrial gravity, wiih
that which retains the moon in her orbit, is iHll a fubjfiJt
of great intereft to aftronomers, as they now reverfe (he
procefs; and taking the theory of gravitation as 'admitted,
thev deduce from the fame computation the diftance of the
moon from the earth. We fliall give it in the words of
La Place.

The force which at every inftant dcflecls the moon from the
tangent of h r orbit, caufes it to defcribe, in one focond, a
fpace equal to the vcrfed fine of the arc which it defcribes in
that time; iince this fine is the quantity that the moon at the
end of a fecond deviates from the dire&ion it had at the be-
ginning. Thi.i quantity may be determined by the diftance
of t\\^ earth, inferred from the lunar parallax in parts of tlie
terreilrial radius; but to obtain a refult independent of the
inequalities ol the moon, we muft take for the mean paral-
lax that part of it which is independent of thefe inequalities.
This part is, according to obfcrvation, 50' S-\ -9' relatively
to the radius drawn from the centre of gravity of the
earth, to the parallel, of which the iquire of the fine of
the latitude is equal to -J. We felecl this parallel becaufe
the attraftion of the earth, on the points Ci.rrefponding to
its furface, is at the diftance of the moon, very nearly equal
to the mafs of the earth divided by the fquare of the dif-
tance from its centre of gravity. The radius drawn from
a point of this parallel to the centre of gravity of the earth
is 6369374 metres, from whence it may be computed the
force which folicits the moon towards the earth caufes it
to fall o'ooioi727 in one fecond of time. Tt will be fhewn
hereafter, that the action of the fun dlminiflies the lunar
gravity -j-f-s'l^ part. The precedmg height mull therefore
be augmented j-!^th part, to render it independent of the
aftion of the fun; it then becomes o"".coi020i I. But in
its relative motion round the earth, the moon is fcjicited
by a force equal to the maffes of the earth and moon
divided, by the fquare of their mutual diftance; therefore
to obtain the height which the moon would fall through
in one fecond, by the action of the earth alone, the prece-
ding fpace muft be diminithed in the ratio of the mafs of
the earth to the fun, and of the maffes of tlie earth and
moon: but by the phenomena of the tides, it appears that
the mafs of the moon is equal to , J-y of that of the earth,
multiplying therefore this fpace by; ^;^, we have 6 ' .00100300
for the height which the moon falls through in one fecond
by the aftion of the earth.

Let us now compare this height with that which refults
from obfervations made on the pendulum. Under the
parallel above-mentioned the length of the pendulum vi-
brating feconds is equal to 3 '.65706: but on this parallel
the attradlion of the earth is lefs than the force of gravity
by J of the centrifugal force due to the motion or rotation
of the earth at the equator; and tins force is .45lhpartof
that of gravity; the preceding fpace mufl therefore be
augmented 3 1 ,d part, to get the fpace due to the adion of
terreflrial gravity alone, which on this parallel is equal to
the mafs divided by the fquare of the terreftrial radius: we
fhall therefore have 3 '.66553 for this fpace. At the dif-
tance of the moon it fliould be diminlfhed in the ratio of
tlie fquare of the radius of the terreftrial fphercid to the
fquare of the diflance of the moon : for this purpofe it is
fuflicient to multijily it by tlie fquare of the tangent of the
lunar parallax, or 56' 55". 2, tliis will give o"'.coioo483
7 for

G R A V I T A r I O N.

for the_ heiglit whitli the rrtoon fliould M through in one with the direaion of its motion. Ttir force of gnthr to-

_ 1 J ? r- . ^ . . .. ng the Irconc! part

differing only ^'iedth part from that derived from aftu::! of its cllipfe. In this part, the gravity towards the fun in-
obfcrvation, to wliich La Phice thinks it pn*ferablc, con- creafes it? velocity in the hme manner' as it hi-forc d-crc afcd

fidcring the exacliiL-fs of tlie ek-nunts from which it is it ; and the planet will arrive at its perihelion with its

computed. It would be fufficient to dii-iinifli a little the primitive velocity, and recommences a new revolution fimi-

jiiafs of the moon to obtjin, by this theory of gravity, lar to the firlt. ' Now th- cnrvatnre of tlie ellipfe at the

the lame parallax that is given by obiVrvation : but all the aphelion and perihelion being the fame, the radii of cnrva-

phenomena of the tides concur in giving this fatcllite a tiire are the fame, and, confequentlv, the centrifugal forces

mafs more confiderablc, and very nearly fuch as has been of thcfe two points are as the Iqiiares of the velocities. The

ufed in the above computation. But however that may feftors defcribt-d in the fam" time being equal, the aphelion

be, the fmall difference between the two parallaxes is and perihelion velocities are reciprocally as the corrcfpond-

within tli; limits of the errors of obfervation, and of the ing diilances of the planet from the fun ; the fquares of

elements employed in the calculation. It is then certain thefe vehjcities are therefore reciprocally as the fquares of

that the force v.hich retains the moon in its orbit, is the thefe diilances ; but at the perihelion and aphelion ditlances,

terreftrial gravity dimiiiifhed in proportion to the fquare the centrifugal forces in tlie ofculalory circumferences are

of the diftance. evidently e<|ual to the gravity of the planet towards the fun.

Having thus fiiewnhowthe nature of the forceuliich retains which is therefore in tlie inverfe proportion to the fquares ot

the moon in its orbit is i.ivelligated, it next remains to inquire thefe dillances. Thus the theoiems of Huygens on the cer-

if the. fame force of gravity pervades the rell of the iblar trifugal force were fufficient to den;onllrate the tendrtlcv cf

fyilem. The fame great mathematician, above quoted, ob- the planets towards the fun : for it is highly probable that

ferves, that " o: all the phenomena of the fohir iyllem, the this law, v\-hich extends from one planet to another, and

elliptic motion of the planets, and of ti:e comets, feemsthe which is verified in the fame planet, at its aphelion and peri-

nioll proper to conduct us to the general law of the helion, extends alfo to every part of the planetary crbit, and

forces by which they are animated. at the fame time to every dillance from the fun But tu

Obfervation has Ihevvn, that the areas defcribed by the ra- eftablilh it in an inconteltible maimer, it was requifite to de-

dii vedores of the planets and comets about the fcMi are pro- termine the general expredion of tlie force which, directed

portional to the times. Now we fee, in the article Centk.m, towards the focus of an ellipfe, would oblige the projeftile to

Forces, thai, for this to take place, the force which deflefts dcfcribe that curve. And it was Newton who den-.onftrated

the path of thefe bodes from a right line mull conllantly that this force was reciprocally as the fquare of the radius

be direfted towards the origin of their radii veftores. The veftor. It was eifential alfo to demondrate rigoroully that

tendency of the planets and comets to the fun is theretore a the force of gravity towards the fun only varies in one planet

neceffary confequence of the proportionality of thefe areas from the fame force in another, according to their different

to the times in which they are defcribed. To determine dillances from it.

the law of this tendency, let us fuppofe that the planets This great geometri( ian fliewed, that this followed necef.
tnove in circular orbits, which fuppolition does not greatly farily from the law of the fquares of the periodic limes being
differ from the truth. The fquares ot their real velocities reciprocally as the cubes of the dillances ; fuppofmg therefore
will then be proportional to the fquares of the radii of thefe all the planets at rell at the fame dillance from the fun, and
orbits, divided by the fquares of the times of their revolu- abandoned to their gravity towards its centre, they woijld
tions. But, by the law of Kepler, the fquares of thefe detcend from tlie fame height in equal times : this refult
times are to each other as the cubes of their radii; th.e fhould alfo extend to the comets, notwithftanding the greater
fquares of the velocities are therefore as thefe radii. It has axes of their orbits are unknown ; for we have leen in the fe-
been ihewn, that the central forces of bodies, moving in cir- coiid book, that the magnitude of the areas defcribed by '
cular orbits, are as the fquares of the velocities, divided by their radii veClores, fuppoles the law of the fquares of the
the radii of the circumferences defcribed; the tendency, periodic times proportional to the cubes of thuraxes.
therefore, of the planets to the fun, is reciprocally as the A general analylis, which embraces every polTble rcfiilt •
fquares of the radii of their orbits, fuppofed circular. This from a given law, ihews us that not only an elhpfe, but any
hypothefis, it is true, is not rigoroufly Cvacl ; but the con- other conic feClion, may be defcribed by virtue of the force
ftant relation of the fquares of the times to the cubes of which retains the planets in their orbits ; a comet may there- •
the ereat.u- axes of tlieir orbits being independent of their fin-e move in an hyperbola, but then it would be only once-
excentricilies, it is natural to think it would lubfill alfo in vilible, and after its apparition would rvceJe' from the limits- -
the cafe of the orbits being circular. Thus, the law of of the folar fyllem, to approach other fnirs, which it would
gravity towards the fun, varying reciprocally as the fquare again abandon, thusvlliting the diffpsent fyllems that arc
of the dillance, is clearly indicated by this relation : analogy fcattered in the immenlity of the heavens. It is probable,
would lead us to fuppofe that this law, whic'i extends from conlidering the infinite variety of nature, that fuch bodies
one planet to another, fhould lublill cq\rally for the fame exill. Their apparition lliould be a very rare occurrence ;
planet at its different dillances from the fun ; and its elliptic the comets, we ufuallv obfervp, arc thofe which, hanng
motion confirms this beyond a doubt. To comprehend this, clofed orbits, return, at the end of intervals more or lefs con-
let us attend to this motion, beginning at the departure from liderable, into the regions of fpace that are in the vicinity of
its perihelion. Its velocity is then at its maximum, and its the fun The fatellites tend alfo perpetually to the fun. If
tendency to recede from the fun furpaffing its gravity to- the moon was not fubjert toitsaftion, intlead of defcribing'
wards it, its radius veftor augments, and forms an obtufe angle ;ui orbit &Lnoft circular round the earth, it would foon abau-

deo..

GRAVITATION.

don it ; and if this fatellite, and tViofe of Jupiter, were not tellite, but it may be fupplied from the following confider-
folicited towards the fun, according to the fame law as the ations :

planets, perceptible inequalities would refult in their motions The force of gravity extends to the fummits of the high-
which have not Ix-en recognized by obfcrvation. eft mountains, and the fmall diminution whicli it there expe- '

The planets, comets, and fatellites are therefore fubjeft riences, leaves no doubt but that this force would be per- !
to the fame law of gravity towards the fun. At the fame time ceplible at much greater altitudes. Is it not natural to ex-
that the fatellites move round their planet, the whole fytlem tend this to the moon, and to fuppofe that the force which
of the planet and its fatellites is carried by a common motion, retains it in its orbit, is its gravity tovvards the earth, in the
and retained by the fame force, round tlie fun. Thus the fame manner as the folar gravity retains the planets in their
relative motion of the planet and its fatellites is nearly tlie orbits round the fun ? for, in faft, thefe two forces feem to
fame as if the planet was at rell, and not adted upon by be of the fame nature ; they both of tliem penetrate the moft
any external force. intimate parts of matter, animating them with the fame ve-

We are thus condufted, without the aid of hypothefis, loclties ; for we have feen that the folar gravity folicits
by aneceffary confequence of the laws of the celeliial nio- equally all bodies placed at equal diftances from the fun,
tions, toconhderthe fun as the centre of a force, which, ex- and that the terreftrial gravity alfo caufes all bodies to fall
tending infinitely into fpace, diminiflios as the fquare of the through the fame height in equal times,
diftance increales, and which attraits all bodies that are A heavy body, projeded with force horizontally from <(
witliin the fphere of its attivity^ Every one of the laws of great heiglit, falls on tlie earth at a confiderable diftance, de-
Kepler difcovers a property of this attraftive force. The icribing a curve, whicli is apparently parabolic ; it will fall
law of the proportionality of the areas to the times (hews ftill further, if the force is greater, and fuppofmg it about
us, that it is conftantly direfted towards the centre of the fun. fevea thouland metres in a fecond, it would not fall to
The eUiptic orbits of the planets fhew that this force dimi- the earth, but would circulate round it like a fatelhte, fct-
nidics as the diftance increafes ; finally, the law of the pro- ting ahde the refiftance of the air : for it has been fuily
portionality of the fquarcs of the periodic times to the fliewn above, that, to form a moon of this projedlile, it mult
cubes of the diftances demonftrates, that tlie gravity of all be taken to the height of that body, and theie receive tha
the planets towards the fun is the fame at equal diftances. fame motion of projedlion ; and the identity of the moon's
This gravity may be called the folar attratlion when it is tendency to the earth, has been already demonftratcd, by
confidered as relative to the centre of the fun, towards (hewing that to obtain this tendency, it is lufficient to dimi-
vvhich it is direfted ; for without knowing the caufe, we niih the terreftrial gravity according to the general law of
may by one of thofe fuppofitions, common among geome- the variation ot the attradtivv force of the celeftial bodies :
tricians, imagine an attradlive power refidinginthe centre of and we have feen, that the law of the diminution of gravity,
,the fun. which in planets, accompanied by feveral fatellites, is proved

The errors to which obfervations are liable, and the finall by a comparifon of their periodic limes, with their diltances,
alterations in the elliptic motions of the planets, leave a little is demonftrated for tlie moon, by comparing its motion with
imcertainty in the relults deduced from the laws of motion ; that of projeftiies, at the furface of the earth,
^.d it may be doubted if the folar attradlion diminifhes cxaft- The obfervations of the pendulum made at the fummits of
ly in the mVevre ratio of the fquare of the diftance. But a mountains, had already indicated this diminution of the tcr-
very fmall variation in thi.? law would produce a very per- reftrial gravity ; but they were infufficient to difcover the
ceptible difference in the motions of tlie planetary orbits, law, becaufe of the fmall height of the moft elevated moun-
The perihelion of the terreftrial orbit would have an annual tains, compared with the radius of the earth : it was requi-
motion of i ^ 5' if we only increafed by one ten thoufandth fite to find a body very remote from us, as the moon, to ren-
part the power of the diftance to which the folar orbit is re- der the law perceptible, and to convince us, that the force
ciprocally proportional; this motion is only 11 '.6 accord- of gravity on the earth is only a particular cafe of a lavr
jngto obfervation, and of this we (hall hereafter fee the that pervades the whole univerfe.

caufe. The law of the fquaije of the diftance "is then, at Every phenomenon throws new light on, and confirms the
lea(t, extremely near, and its extreme fimplicity fhould in- laws of nature. Thus the comparifon of experiments on
duce us to adopt it, as long as obfervations do not compel gravity with the lunar motion fhews us, that the origin of
us to abandon it. At the lame time we muft not mcafure the diftances of the fun and planets, in the calculation of
the iimplicity of the laws of nature by our facility of con- their attraftive forces, (hould be placed in their centres of
ception, but when thofe which appear to us the moft fim- gravity ; for it is evident, that this takes place on the earth,
pie accord perfectly with obfervations of the phenomena, whoie attraftive force is of the fame nature as that of the
we are juftified in fuppofing tlicm rigoroufly exaft. fun and planets.

The gravity of the fatellites towards the centre of their The fun, and thofe planets which are accompanied by fa-
planet, is the neceflary confequence of the proportionality tellites, being thus proved to be endowed with an attradHve
of the areas defcribed by their radu veftores to the times, force, varying inverlely as the fquare of the diftance, a ftrong
and the law of the diminution of this force, according to analogy leads us to attribute the lame property to the other
the fquare of the diftance, is indicated by the ellipticity of planets. The Iphencal figure common to all thefe bodies,
their orbits. But this ellipticity is hardly to be perceived in indicates that their particles are united roimd tlieir centres of
the orbits of the fatellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, gravity by a force which, at equal dillances, equally folicits
which renders the law of the diminution of the force difficult them towards theie points ; but the followmg confiderations
to afcertain by the motion of any one fingle fatellite ; but leave no doulil upon this fubjeft.

the conftant ratio of the fquares of the times of the ir revo- We have feen, that if the planets and comets were placed
lutions to the cubes of their diftances, indicates it beyond a at the fame diftance from the fun, their gravity towards it
doubt, by demonftrating, that from one fatelhte to another, would be in proportion to their malfes : now, it is a general
the gravity towards the planet is reciprocally as the fquare law in nature, that aftion and re-aftion are equal and con-
oi the diftance from its centre. trary ; all thefe bodies, therefore, re-aft on the fun, and at-

This proof is wanting for the earth, it having but one fa- tract in proportion to their mafl'es : they are tlierefore en-'

dowcii

GRAVITATION.

(lowed with an attraftive force proportional to their mafTea,
and varying inverlely as the fquare of the dillance. By
the fame principle, the fatellites attraft the planets and the
fii:i according to the fame law. This attraftive property,
tticn, is common to all the celeftial bodies : it docs not dif-
tinb the elliptic motion round the fun, when we canfider only
their mutual attion ; for the relative motion of the bodies of
a lyftem are not changed by giving them a common ve-
locity : by impreffing, therefore, in a contrary direftlon to
the ftm and to the planet, the motion of the firil of thefe
two bodies, and the aiftion wliich it experiences on the part
of the fecond, the fun may be confiJered as immoveable,
but the planet wdl be folicited towards it with a force vary-
ing reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance, and propor-
tional to the fum of the mafles ; its motion round the fun
vvill therefore be elliptic. And we fee by the fame reafon-
i:ig, that it would be fo if the planet and fun were carried
through fpace with a motion common to each of them. It
is equally evident that the elliptic motion of a fatellite is not
dillurbed by the motion of tranflation of its planet, nor
would it be by the attion of the fun, if it was always ex-
actly the fame on the iatellite and the planet.

Neverthelefs, the aclion of the planet on tlie fun influ-
ences the length of its revolution, which is diminiflied as the
niafs of the planet is more confideratle ; fo that the relation
of the fquare of its periodic time, to the cube of the major
axis of its orbit, depends on its mafs. But fince this relation
is nearly the fame for a'l the planets, their mafles muft evi-
dently be very fmall compared with that of the fun, wliich is
equally free for the fatellites with refpecl to their principal
planets.

This we may readily fuppofe from their fmallnefs.
The attraftlve property of the heavenly bodies not only
belongs to tlicm in a mafs, but to each of their particles.
If the fun only afted on the centre of the earth without at-
tradling particularly every one of its particles, ofciliations
would arife in the ocean, infinitely more confiderable and
very different from thofe which we obferve. The gravity
of the earth to the fun, therefore, is the refult of the gra-
vity of all its particles, which confequently attraft the fun
in proportion to their refpeftive mafles ; befides, each body
on the earth tends towards its centre proportionally to its
mafs, it re afts therefore on it, and attrafts it in the fame
ratio. If that was not the cafe, and if any part of the
earth, however fmall, attrafted another part without being
attracted by it, the centre of gravity would move in fpace,
in virtue of the force of gravity, which is impoflible.

The celeftial phenomena, compared with the laws of mo-
tion, condiift us therefore to this great principle of nature,
namely, that all the particles of matter attratt each other in
proportion to their mafles, and iuverfely as the fquares of
their diftance.

Already we may perceive in this univerfal gravitation, the
caufe of the perturbations to which the heaveiily bodies are
fubjed ; for the planets and comets being uibjedt to the ac-
tion of euch other, they muft deviate a little from the laws
of the elliptic motion, which they woidd otherwifc exadly
follow, if they or.ly obey.-d the adion of the fun. The fa-
tellites alfo, deranged in their motions round ,heir i)I:ii.ets by
their mutual aftion, and that of the fun, deviate a little from
thefe laws.

We perceive then that the particles of the heavenly bodies,
united by their attraction, fliould form a iijals nc'ai !y fp.he-
rical ; and that the relult of their aftion ,at the furface of the
body fhould produce all the phenomena of gravitation.

We fee moreover that the motion of rotation of tlie
Cekaial bodies fltould flightly alt(;r their fpheric;d figiu-e,

and flatten them at the poles ; and then the rtfulling force
of all their mutual adtions not pafl'mg through their centres
of gravity, fhould produce in their axcj of rotation fimilar
motions to thofe difcovcred by obfcrvation. Finally, we
may perceive why the particles of the ocean, une<;naUy
afted on by the fun and moon, fliould have ofciliations
llmilar to tiie ebbing and flowing of the tides. But thefe
dift'erent effedts of the principle of gravitation muft be par-
ticularly developed, to give it all the certainty of which
phylical truth is fufceptible.

It is in the univerfal application of this theory to all the-
known celeftial phenomena, that the modern fcirnce of
phyfical aftronomy confifts, a fcience which owes its origin
to Newton, and which has been cultivated bv everv eminent
mathematician, from tlie time of that great pTiiloibpher to
the prefent day. It is to La Place that the merit muft be
given of having completed this theory, by (hewing that there
remains not a fingle phenomenon that it is not capable of
explaining: he jullly obferves, tliat there is no queftion here
ot vague cnufes, which cannot be fubmitted to analyfis, and
which the imagination modifies at pleafurc, to accommodate
them to the phenomena. The law of univerfal gravitation
has this ineftinrable advantage, that it may be reduced to
calculation, and by a comparifon of its refults with obferva-
ticn, it prefents the moft certain method of verifvirg its
exiftence; and fo far are we from having to far that new
obiervations w dl difprove this thv ory, we may be afTured
before hand that they will oidy confirm it more and n.ore,
and that its confequenccs are equally certain as if ihov had
aCtuaUy been obferved.

The aftronomical phenomena produced bv the mutual
gravitation of the heavenly bodies, will be fonnd in the
difl^ rent parts of tiiis work. As each fubjec\ will be par-
ticidarly treated under its appropriate ar.icle, fee Figure
of the Eauth ; Pricejfton nf the EtiUINO.XES ; NtTATtOM
of the Earth's a.vis ; Pehtuhbatio.n of the Plantls, Mmh,
and Satellites iTlDZS, LlBRATlox of the Moon, SiC.

But as the inveftigation of laws by which particles of
matter gravitate to fpheres and other fohds cannot witlj
propriety be referred to any other article, and as it forms
fo very eflcntial a part of phyfical aftronomy, we fliall enter
on the lubjeft very fully. The more fimple and cafy invcfti-
gations of aftronomy fuppofe the aftion to be confined to
fimple gravitating points ; now as no fuch points exift in
nature, it becomes requifite to confidcr the effeA which an
aflemblage of thefe points will produce when ammged in
d-ilferent forms. Newton, who firft entered upon thefe fpe-
culations, inveftigatcd almoft all the cafes which feem appli-
cable to phyfical aftronomy, but profeflor PI ivf.iir has Litely
extended thefe refearches, and lias prefented a paper on the
fubi'.'A to the Philoiophical Society of Ldinburgh, wttich
would reflcrt honour on the firll mathematicians of Europe.
A few of the leading propofitions of tins excellent monioir,
will follow the inveftigation of the law of gravitation to a
fphere.

Of the gravitation of particles of matter to fplurcs, and
other matiiematical figures.

I . ^ piirticle of nuiller placed ivhhia a fphere of unform Jrif
Jiiy, remains in equtlibrio.

Let A LBM,n//)m, (P/.i/eXV. yf^rcno«if,/f. IJ4.'> bfe
two fpherical iiufaces, of which C is the common centre, and
let the fpace between tliem be filled wiih gravitating rrwttcr,
uniformly denfe. Let p be a particle j liced any where witliin
this fpherical fhell, to every particle of whicli it gravitates w ith
a force iuverfely as the fquare of its diftance from it. T!>ij
particle will have no tendency to move in any direction, becaufe

its

GRAVITATION.

its g-ravitntlon in any one dii-ci.'\Ion is exaflly balanced by an
equal gravitation in the oppolite dircftion.

Di-au- tlu-ough p the two ftraight lines dp <, e p !>, making
a very fmall angle at p. This may reprefcnt the feftion of a
very flender double cone tJpe h p ', having/- for the common
vertex, -AwAde'Si for the diameter of the circular bafcs.
Tlie o-ravitation of p to the matter in the bafe deh equal to
its gravitation to the matter in the bafe o i. For the number
of particles in de'vi to the number in i '., as the furface of the
bafe </£■ to that of the bafe S s, that is, as d e' to ^ y, that is,
iispd' to/>i , that is, as the gravitation to a particle m is
to the gravitation to a particle in d e. Therefore the whole
gravitation to the matter inde, is the fame with the whole
gravitation to the matter in o s : fince it is alio in the oppoiite
diredion, the particle p is in equilibrio. The fame thing
may be demonilrated of the gravitation to the matter in y r
andi s t, and in a fimilar manner, of the gravitation to tlie
matter in the fedions of the cones dpe, &p-, by any other
concentric furface. Confequently, the gravitation to the
whole matter contained in tlie folid d q r e, is equal to the
gravitation to the whole matter in the iolid ots ;, and the
particle /I is ilill in equilibrio.

Now iince the lines dp ■, ep c, may be drawn in any
direftion, and thus be made to occupy the whole fphere, it
is evident that the gravitation of/) is balanced in every
direftion, and therefore it has no tendency to move in any
direftion, in confequence of this gravitation to the fpherical
riiell of matter comprehended between the furfaces A L 1j M
and al l> m.

It is alfo evident, that this holds true with refpeft to all
the matter comprehended between ALB M, and the con-
centric furface /I n ■!) paffing through/); in fliort/)is in equi-
librio in its gravitation, to all the matter more remote than
itfelf from the centre of the fphere, and appears as if it did
not gravitate at all to any matter more remote from the

centre.

We have fuppofed the fpherical fhell to be uniformly
denfe. But/ will ftill be in equilibrio, although the fliell be
made up of concentric ih-ata of different denlities, provided
that each ftratum be uniformly denfe.

For fliould we fuppofe, that in the fpace comprehended
between A L B M and p n v, there occurs a furface al b m
of a different denfity from all the reft, the gravitation to
the intercepted portions q r and s t are equal, becaufe thofe
portions are of equal denfity, and are proportioned to/) q^ and
p s' inverfely. The propofuion may therefore be expreffed
in the following very general terms, " a particle placed any
where within a fpherical (liell of gravitating matter, of equal
■ denfity, at all equal diftanccs from the centre, will be in
. equilibrio, and will have no tendency to move in any direc-
tion."

The equality of the gravitation to the furface e d, and to
the furface ; i' is affirmed, becaufe the numbers of particles
in the two furfaces are inverfely as the gravitations towards
one in each.

For ihe very fame reafon, the gravitations towards the
■furfaces ed and q r and ts are all equal. Hence may be
derived an elementary propofition ; which is of great ufe in
all enquiries of this kind, namely,

If a cone, or p'-ra;r.id dpe, of uniform gravitating matter,
be divided by parallel ledtions d e, q r. Sec. the gravitation
of a particle p in the vertex, to each of thofe fetlions, is the
fame, and the gravitations to the folids/i q t; pde, qder,
&c. are proportional to their lengths /)y, p d, qd, &c. the
firll part of this propofition is already demonilrated. Now,
conceive the cone to be thus divided into innumerable flices
ei equal thicknefs : it is plain that the gravitation to each

of thefe is the fame ; and, therefore, the gravitation to the
folid qpr, is to the gravitation to the foiid qder, as the
number of llices in the firft, to the number of flices in the
fecond, that is, as p q, the length of the firft, to q d, the
length of the fecond. The cone dpe was fuppofed ex-
tremely flender. This was not ncceffary for the demonftra-
tion of the particularcafe where all the feCfions were parallel ;
but in this elementary propofition, the angle at * is fuppofed
fmallcr than any affigned angle, that the cone or pyramid may
be confidered as one of the elements into which we may re-
folve a bodv of any form. In this refolution, the bafes are
fuppofed, if not otherwife exprefsly ftated, to be parallel,
and perpendicular to the axes ; indeed, they are fuppofed to
be portions .r r, ye, s r, of fpherical furfaces, having their
centres in p : the fmall portions .v rq, yed, c e i, &c. are
held as infignificant, vanifhing in the ultimate ratios of the
whole folids.

It is eafy, alfo, to fee that the equilibrium of /> is not
limited to the cafe of a fpherical (licll, but will hold true of
any body compofed of parallel ftrata, or ftrata fo formed,
that the lines pd, p^\ are cut in the fame proportion by the
feiStions de, qr, ice. In a fphcroidiil fliell, for inftance,
whofe inner and outer 'furfaces are fimilar, and fimilarly
pofited fpheroids, the particle p will be in equilibrio any
where within it ; becaufe, in this cafe, the lines p} and « e
are equal ; fo are the lines p i and o d, ' the lines / 5 and r e,
the lines j; and q d. Sec. : in mod cafes, however, there is
but one fituation of the particle /> thatinfnres this equilibrium.
But we may at the fame time infer this very ufeful propofi-
tion,

2. If /here he tivo J'ol'ids, perf<.8l\ fmVar, and of the fame um-
forin denfity, the grnintntion to eaeh of thefe fol'uh, by a particle
fimilarly placed on or in eaeh, is proportiona! to any homologous

lines of the folids.

For, the folids being fimilar, tliey may be refolved into
the fame number of fimilar pyramids fimilarly placed in the
folids. The gravitations to each of any corrcf'ponding pair
of pyramids are proportional to the lengths of thofe pyra-
mids. Thefe lengths have the fame proportion in every
correfponding pair. Therefore, the abfoliite gravitations to
the whole pyramids of one folid have the fame ratio to the
abfolute gravitation to the whole pyramids of the other folid.
And fince the folids are fimilar, and the particles are at the
fimilarly placed vertices of all the fimilar and fimilarly
placed pyramids, the gravitation compounded of the ablVilnte
gravitations to the pyramids of one Iolid, has the fame ratio
to the gravitation fimilarly compounded of the abfolute
gravitations to the pyramids of the other.

3. The gravitation of an external particle to a fpherical fur-
face, fhell, or entire fphere, iL-hich is equally denfe at all equal

diflances from the centre, is the fame as if the •whole matter 'were
colic tied in its centre.

Let A L B M [fg. I24^) reprefent fiich a fphere, and let
P be the external particle. Draw PACE througli C, the
centre of the fphere, and Crofs it by L C M at right ano-lcs.
Draw two right lines P D, P E, containing a very fmall
angle at P, and cutting the great circle ALB M, in D, E,
D', E'. About P, as a centre with the diftaiice PC, de-
fcribe the arc C dm, cutting D P in d, and E P in e. About
the fame centre dcfcribe the arc D O. Draw (/F, e G, pa-
rallel to A B, and cutting L C inyand^;-. Draw C K per-
pendicular to P D, and rfH, D ^', and I F >?, perpendicular
to A B. Join C D and C F.

Now, let the figure be fuppofed to turn round the axis
P B. The fcmi-circumference ALB will generate a com-
plete fpherical furface ; the arc C d m will generate an-
other fpherical furface, having P for the centre ; the fmall

arcs

GRAVITATION.

arcs D E, rJe, !? G, t^'Ht gvnecafe rings, oi' zones, of thofe
ftj'icrical fm-faces ; D O will alfo generate a zone of a fur-
lace having P for its centre ; fg and F I will generate zones
of flat circular furfaces.

It is evident that the zones generated by D E and D O,
fwhich we may call the zones D E, DO,) having the
feme radius D i, are to e»ch other as their refpedive breadths
D E, DO. In like manner, the zones g'^ncrated by dc,
fg, F I, F G, being all at the fame diilance from the axis
A B, are alfo as th.eir refpedive breadths d c, fg, F I, F G.
But the zone D O is to the zone Je, at P I) to P ,/' : for
DO is to de, as PD to P d, and the radius of rotation
Do is to the radius JH, alfo a"; P D to P^. The cir-
eiimferences, dcfcriljcd by DO and </<•, are, therefore, in the
iznri proportion as P D to P ^/ ; thorefore the zones being as
thiir breadths, and as their circumferences jointly, are as
PDandPJS

C K and d H, lieing the fines of the fame arc C d, are
equal ; therefore KD and/F, the halves of chordu equally
dillant from the centre, are alfo equal : thi.refore the trian-
gles C D K and C F/"are equal and fimilar. But C D K is
hmilar to EDO, for the right angles P D O and C D E
are equal. Taking away the common angle C D O, the
remainders C D K and EDO are equal. In like manner,
C Fy" and G F I are fimilar ; and, therefore, ( fince C D K
and C Fy are fimilar,) the elementary triangles EDO and
G F I are fimilar, and D O : D E =i F I : G F. The ab-
folute gravitation, or tendency of P, to the zone D O, is
equal to its abfohite gravitation to the zone de, becaufe the
number of particles in the firft, is to the particles in the lalt,
as P D' to P <-/', that is, inverfely as the gravitation to a
particle in the firlt, to the gi-avitation to a particle in the lall ;
therefore let c reprt-fent the circumference of a circle, whofe
radius is i. The fnrface of the zone generated by D O,
will be D O x <r x D ^, and the gravitation to it will

. DO X f X DJ ,. , de X c X dB.

be rr^r^ , to which =j— r > or

, is equal. This expreffes the abfolute gi-avi-

F? X c X

PD'

dn

tation to the zone generated by D O, this gravitation being
exerted in the diredion P D.

But it is evident that the tendency of P, arifing from its
gravitation to every particle in the zone, muft be in the
dircdion P C. The oblique gravitation muft, therefore, be
eftiniated in the diredion P C, and muft be reduced in the
proportion of P(/ to P H. It is plain that P </ : P H =
de ■ fg, becaufe de and fg are perpendicular to P (/ and
P H ; therefore the reduced, or central gravitation of P,
to the zone generated by D O, will be cxpreffcd by
fg X c X dH

PC' ■

But the gravitation to the zone generated by D O, is to
the gravitation to the zone generated bv D E, as D O to
D E, that is, as FT {or fg) to F G. Tlierefore the cen-
tral gravitation to the zone generated by D E, will be ex-

_,, FGxcxJH ... _^ ITT-

prefted by — — Now, FG X f X r/H is

the value of the furface of the zone generated by F G ;

and if all this matter were colleded in C, the gravitation of

„, FGxfXr/H ,. ,,,

P to It would be exaftly —^ , and it would be

in the diredion PC. Hence it follows, that the central
gravitation of P to tiic zone generated by D E, is the lame
as its gravitation to all the matter in the- zone geHci-ateJ by
F G, if that matter were j)laced in C.
Vol.. XVI.

Wliat has been Jemonltrated refpefting the «re D E, t'l
true of ev-er)- portion of the circiiinfcrcnce. Each has a
fubftitute F G, which being placed in the centre r, the grs.
vitation of P is the fame. If P T touch th- fpliert in T,
every portion of the arc T L B will have its fnbftitute in the
quadrant L B, and every part of the arc A T has hi fub-
ftitute in the quadrant A T L, as is cafily feen. And
hence it follows, that the gi-avitation of a particle, P, to a
fphcrical furface, A L B M, is the fame as if all tire matter
of that furface were colleded in its centre.

We fee alfo that the gravitation to the furface generated
by the rotation of A T round A B is equal to the gravita-
tion to the furface generated by T L B, wliich is much
larger but more remote.

What we have now demonftrated with refped to the fur-
face generated by the femicircle A L B, is equally true with
regard to the furface generated by any concentric femicircle,
fuch 7\s a 1 1/. It is true, therefore, with regard to the fliell
comprehended between thofe two furfaces ; for this (hell
may be refolved into innumerable concentric ftrata, and the
propofition may be affirmed with refpcct to each of thorn,
and therefore witli refped to the whole. And tliis w ill be
ftill true if the whole fphere be thus occupied.

Lattly, it follows that the propofition is ftill true, al-
though thefe llrata fliould differ in deiifity, pronded that
each llratuni is uniformly d nfe in every part.

It may, therefore, be affirmed in the molt genera] terms,
that a particle, P, placed without a fpherical furface, (hell,
or entire fphere, equally denfe at equal diftances from the
centre, tends to the centre with the fame force, as if the
whole matter of the furface, fliell, or fphere were colleded
there. -

This will be found to be a vqtj important propofition.

4. The gravitation of an extrrra! particle to a fpherical furfarff
Jlelly or entire fphere, of anif.rm denjity at equcd dijiancet frcm

the centre, is as the quantity nf matter in that lods dirrSlj ; anet
as the fqiiare of the dijlancc from its centre inverjely.

For, if all the matter were colleded in its centre, th*
gravitation would be the fame, and it would then \-ary in the
inverfe duplicate ratio of the diftance.

Cor. I. — Particles placed on the furfaces of fphercs of
equal denfity, gravitate to the centres of thofe fpheres with
forces proportional to the- radii of the fphercs.

For the quantities of matter are as die cubes of the radii.

(/'
Tlierefore the graWtation g is as — , that is, as it.

Cor. 2. — The fame thing holds true if the diftance of the
external particles from the centres of the fpheres are as the
diameters or radii of the fpheres.

Cor. 3. — If a particle be placed within the furface of a
fjjhere of uniform denfity, its gravitation at different dif-
tances from the centre will be as thofe diftances. For, it
will not be affcdcd by any matter of the fpiiere that is more
remote from the centre, and its gravitation to what is lels
remote, is as its diftanc-.^ from ih- centre bv the lalt Cor.

5. The mtitual gravilaiiyii of t-.:ti fphr.:s rf unifc/rm ilaifly ijt
thtir concentric //rata, is in ll.-e iit^'trjc dufJiciiU ratio of toe dif-
laiire belti'een lh:ir centres.

For the gravitation of each particle ia the fphere A, it
to the fphiTe B. the fame ;ib if all tiic matter in B were coU
leded at its cvntre. Suppofe it fo placed :

T!ie gravitation of B to A will be the fame as if all the
matter in A were colleded at iti centre. Therefore it will
be as (/- inverfely. But the grantation of A to B is equal
to that of B'to .•\. Tlierefoi-c,-&c..

The abiokite jji-a. italion of two fj-.ljcrci wliofe quantit'et
4^ '-•♦■

GRAVITATION.

cf matter are A and B, and (/ the diflancc ot iheir centres,

is — . For the tendency of one particle of A to B,

d'
being the aggregate of its tendencies to every particle of B,

rj

is -. Therefore, the tendency of the whole of A to B
d'

muft be . And the tendency of B to A is equal to

</"

that of A to B.

6. But if the centripetnl forces ■which tend to the different
points ef fpheres are proportional to the ftmple diflnnces from
the atlracled bodies, then the compounded force •with -which
two fpheres attraH each other mutually, is as the dijlance be-
tween the centres of the fpheres.

- Cafe I. — Let A EB F {fg. 11$.) be a fphere ; S its
centre; Pa particle attracted; PASB the axis of the
fphere paffing through the centre of the particle ; E F, ef,
two planes cutting the fphere and perpendicular to the axis,
and equidillant one on one lide, the other on the other,
from the centre of the fphere ; G and g the interfettions of
the planes and the axis ; and H any point in the plane
E F. The centripetal force of the point H on the particle
P, exerted in the direftion of the line P H, is as the dif-
tance P H ; and the fame exerted in the direftion of the
line P G, or towards the centre S, is as the length P G.
Therefore, the force of all the points in the plane E F,
{that is, of the whole plane) by which the particle P is at-
tracted towards the centre S, is as the diftance P G multi-
plied by the number of thofe points, that is, as the folid con-
tained under that plane E F, and the diftance P G. And,
in like manner, the force of the plane ef, by which the par-
ticle P is attracted towards the centre S, is as that plane
multiplied into its diftance P ^ ; or as the equal plane E F
multiplied into that diftance P^; and the fum of the forces
of both planes is as the plane E F, multiplied into the fum
of the diftances P G + P^, that is, as that plane multiplied
into twice the diilance P 6 of the centre and the particle ;
that is, as twice the plane E F, multiplied into the diftance
P S, or as the fum of the equal planes E F -)- ef multiplied
into the fame diftance. And by a fimilar train of reafon-
ing, the forces of all the planes in the whole fphere,
eqnidiftant on each fide from the centre of the fphere, are as
the fum of thofe planes, multiplied into the diftance P S,
that is, as the whole fphere, and the diftance P S jointly.

Cafe 2. — Let the particle P now attraft the fphere
A E B F, and, by the fame reafoning, it will appear that
the force with which the fphere is attracted is as the dif-
tance P S.

Cafe 3. — If another fphere be now compofed of innume-
rable particles P, and becaufe the force with which every
particle is attrafted is as the diftance of the particle from
the centre of the firft fphere, and as the fame iphere con-
jointly, and is therefore the fame as if the whole proceeded
from a fingle particle fituated in the centre of the fphere ;
the entire force with which all the particles in the fecond
fphere are attrafted, that is, with which the whole fphere
is attrafted, will be the fame as if that fphere were at-
trafted by a force proceeding from a fingle particle in the
centre of the firft fphere, and is therefore proportional to
the diftance between the centres of the fpheres.

Cafe 4. — Let the fpheres attraft each other mutually,
and the force will be doubled, but the proportion will re-
main the fame.

Cafe 5. — Let the particle P be placed within the fphere
AEBF, [Jig. 126.) and becaufe the force of the plane ef,
upon the particle, is as the folid contained under that plane

and the diftance p g ; and the contrary force of the plan?
E F, is as the folid contained under that plane and the dif-
trince p G ; the force compounded of both will be as the
difference of the folids, that is, as the fum of the equal
planes multiplied into half the difference of the diftances ;
that is, as that fum multiplied into^ S, the diftance of the
particle from the centre of the fphere. And, by a fimilar
train of reafoning, the attradiion of all the planes E F, e f,
throughout the fphere, that is, the attraction of the whole
fphere is conjointly as the fum of all the planes or as the
whole fphere, and as j!> S the diftance of the particle from
the centre of the fphere.

Cafe 6. — And if a new fphere be now compofed of innu-
merable particles, fuch as p, fituated within the firft fphere
AEBF, it may be proved, as before, that the attraftion,
whether tingle of one fphere towards the other, or mutual
of both towards each other, will be as the diilance p S
of the centres.

7. If the flruSure of the fpheres he dijfimilar and unequal,
proceeding direSly from the centre loiuards the circumference, but
fimilar ami equal throughout every circumference, at equal dijlances
from the centre, and if the attracli-v: force be as the dylance of
the attracted body, then the entire force •with nuhich t<wo fpheres
of this hind attrall each other mutually is proportional to tlit
dijlance betiueen the centres of the fpheres. — T'his is denionftrated
from the preceding propofition.

The above inveftigations relate to the principal cafes of
attraftion, namely, when the centripetaf forces decreafe in
a duplicate ratio, or increaie in the fimple ratio of the dif-
tance. And it is remarkable that both thefe fuppolitions
caufe bodies to revolve in conic fections, and compufe iphe-
rical bodies, whole centripetal forces obferve the fame law
of increafe or decreafe, in the recefs from the centre, as
the forces of the particles therafelves do.

%. If a circle AEB [fig. 127.) be defcribed round
the centre S, and two circles E F, ef, be alfo defcribed
round the centre P, inlerfeSing the former in E and e, and the
line P S ;n F anil f ; and if E. D, e d, be drawn perpendicular
/o P S ; then if the dijlance of the arcs E F, ef, be fuppefd 1 9
be injnitcly dimini/lxd, the limiting ratio of the eiianefcenl line D d
to the evanefcetit line Y f is the fame as that of the line P E /o
the line P S.

For if the line P e interfeft the arc E F in q, and the
right line E e, which coincides with the evanefcent arc
E e, be produced and meet the right line PS in T ; and
the perpendicular S G be drawn from S to P E, becaufe
the triangles DTE, dT e, D E S, are fimilar, T) d will
be to E « as D T to T E, or D S to E S ; and becaufe
the triangles Y. e q, E S G, are fimilar, E e will be to <• ^
or Y f as E S to S G ; and ex aquo D d is to Y f as D E
to S G ; tliat is, (becaufe the triangles P D E, P G S,
are fimilar,) as PE to PS.

<). If a fupeijcies, as Y.Y fe (Jg. 1 28.) be fuppofed
to have its breadth injnitely diminijhed, and that by its
revolution round the axis P S /'/ djcribes a fpherical concavo-
con-vex folid to the fe-ueral equal particles of which equal centri-
petal forces tend : then the force -zvith -which that folid at-
tracts a particle placed at P is in a ratio compounded of the ratio
of the folid 1) Y.' X Y f, and the ratio of the force with which
the given particle in the place Y f -would attroQ the fame
pai'ticle.

For if the force be firft confidered of the fpherical fu-
perficies F E, which is generated by the revolution of the
arc F E, and is interfered any where, as in r, by the line
de, the annular part of the fiiperficies generated by the

revolutiofi

II

GRAVITATION.

revolution of tlic arc r E will be as the fmall line D f/,
the radius of the fphcic rpmaining the fame ; as Archi-
medes has demon [Iratcd in Iiis book on tlie fphcre and cy-
linder. And the torce of this fuperficies exerted in the
direction of the lines PE or Pr fituated all round in tlic
conical fiiperficies, will be as this annular fuperficies itfelf ;
that is, as the line D d, or, w-liich is the fame, as the
rectangle under the given radius P £ of the fphcre, and
the line D^/; but that force, exerted in the dircftion of
the line P S, tending to the centre S, will be lefs in the
ratio of P D to P E, and therefore will be as P D x D (/.
If the line D F be now confidercd as divided into in-
numerable equal particles, each of which may be called
D (/, then the fuperficies F E will be divided into fo
many equal annuli, whofe forces will be as the fum of
all the rectangles P D X D J; that is, as i P F' — 4 P D'
and tlurefore as D E'. Let now the fuperficies F E be
multiplied into the altitude F/", and the force of the folid
E Fy"-? exerted upon the particle P will be as D E' x Fy'.-
that is, it the force be given which any given particle, as
Vf, exerts upon the particle P at the diilance P F. But
if that force be not given, the force of the fohd E ¥ fe
will be as the folid D E' x Ff, and that force not given
conjointly.

I o. If to the feveral equal parts of a fphere ABE
Jig. 129.) defcribed about the centre S, there tend equal
centripetal forces ; and f from the fevcral points D, perpendi-
culars D, E, be drawn to the axis of the fphere A B, in ivhich
a particle P is placed, meeting the fphere in E ; and if in tkefe
perpendiiulars the lengths D, N, be taken as the quantity

— — , and as the force -which a particle of the fphere

fituated in the axis exerts at the diflance P E upon the particle
P conjoinllv ; then the •whole force -wilh luhich the particle P
is attraHed toivards the fphere is as the area A N B, conipre-
h:ndcd under the axis of the fphere A B, and the curve line
A N B, the locus of the point N.

For fuppofing the conftruttion in the lafl lemma and theo-
rem to remain, let the axis of the fphere A B be fuppofed to
be divided into innumerable equal particles D, d, and the whole
fphere to be divided into fo many fpherical concavo-convex
laminae E ¥ J e, and let the perpendicular </ n be drawn.
By the laft theorem the force with which the laminas E ¥ fe,
attracts the particle P, is as D E^ x ¥ f, and the force of
one particle exerted at the diitance P E or P F conjointly.
But (by the laft lemma) D 4/ is to ¥f as P E to P S, and

therefore ¥ f is equal to —- ; and D E^ x ¥ f is

D N be made as

D E' X P 5
PE' '

the force with which the

PE

equal to D</ x

DE'-

PS

PE

and therefore the force of the

laminae E ¥ fe, is as D </ X

DE^x_PS
PE

, and the force of

a particle exerted at the diflance P F conjointly ; that is,
by the fuppofition, as D N x Y) d, or as the evanefcent area
1) N H d. Therefore the forces of all the lamina exerted
upon the paiticle P are as the areas D N n ^, that is, the
fphere will be as the whole area A N B.

Cor. I . — Hence if the centripetal force tending to the feveral
particles remain always the fame at all diftances, and D N be

made as '^'^ ' '^^ whole force with which the ])ar-

ticle is attracted by the fphere is as the area A N B.

Cor. 2. — If the centripetal force of the particles vary reci-
procally as the diilance of the particle attrailcd by it, and

particle P is attradcd by the whole fphcre wll be as the
area A N B.

Cor. 3 — [fthe centripetal force of the particles var)- rrci-
procally as the cube of the diflance of the particle attraded

D E' X PS
by it, and D N be made a» -— , the force with

which the particle is attracted by the wliole fphere will be
as the area A N B.

Cor. 4.— And univerfally of the centripetal force tendin;cf

to the feveral particles of the fphere be fuppofed to be

reciprocally as the quantity V ; and D N be made as

DE-x PS ^ ^

P E V~' ''^ ^' which a particle is attraded by

the whole fphere will be as the area A N B.

II. Suppofmg every thing fo remain as above, it is required
to meafure the area A N B fig. I ^o

From the point P let the riglit line P H be drawn touch,
ing the fphere in H ; and having drawn H I perpendicular
to the axis P A B, bifcct P I in L, and P E^ will be equal
to PS- X SE' X 2 PSD. But bccaufe the triangles
S P H, SHI, are fimilar, S E" or S IP is equal to the
redtangle P S I. Therefore PE is equal to the rectangle
contained under P S and P S x S I x 2 S D ; that is,
under P S and 2 L S x 2 S D ; that is, under P S and
2 L D. Moreover D E' is equal to S E' — S D', or
S E- - L S + 2 S L D - L D% that is, 2 S L D - L D*
-ALB. For L S' - S E , or L S' - S A>, is equal
to the rectangle ALB. Therefore if inftcad of D E'
we write 2 S T. D — T. IT- _ A T 'R, tt„
DE' X PS

PE X V
will now refolve
L D- X PS

SLD — LD'- — ALB, tJie quantity
which is as the length of the ordinate D N,

2SLD_>^PS

7v~

itfclf into three

parts,

PE

PS

. — ; where, if inllcad of V

A^LB_
P E X y P E~x V

we write the inverfe ratio of the centripetal force, and in-
ftead of P E, the mean proportional between P S and 2 L D,
thofe parts w ill become the ordlnates of fo many curve hncs,
whofe areas may be found by the common methods.

Ex. I. — If the centripetal force tending to the feveral
particles of the fphcre be reciprocally as the ditlance, in-
ftead of V write P E the diftance, then 2 P S x L D for

P E'-; and D N will become as S L — i L D -

Suppofe D N equal to the double 2 S L — L D —
iven part of the ordinate drawn

ALD
2 L D.
ALB

LD

into the

and 2 S L the

length A B will dcfcribe the rectangular area 2 S L x A B j
and the indefinite part L D drawn pcrpendicul.'rlv into the
fame length with a continued motion, according to fuch a law
thatitsniotion in either dircftion may, byincreiiling or dicieaf.
ing, remain always equal to the length L D, will defcribe

L B' - L A' , . ,

the area , that is the area t> L x AB;

which taken from the former area 2 S L
area S L x A B. But the iliird Dart

drawn in

X A B, leaves tlie
ALB

Td

a fimilar manner with a continued motion perpendicularly
into the fame length, will uetcribe the area of an hyper-
bola, which fubtractcd from the area S L x A B wiU
leave A N B the area fought. Whence this conilruftion of
the problem arifcs. At the points L, A, B, (f^. 151.) erect
g 2 lie

GRAVITATION.

the perpencllculars L/, A a, B^; making An equal to
L B, and Bi equal LA. Making L/ and L B afl">Tnp-
totes, defcnbe tiirough t!ie points a, b, the hyperbolic
curve a b: and the cliord b a being drawn, will enclofe
the area aba equal to the area required A N B.

Example 2. — If the centripetal force tending to the feveral
particles of the fphere be repicrocally as the cube of the
diftance, or, (wliich is the fame thing,) as that cube

. PE'

applied to any given plane ; fubftitute , for V, and

2 P S X L D for P E- ; and D N will become as

A L B X A S^ . . ,, .
■ ; that IS, (bccaule

S L X A S' A S^

LSI

PSxLD 2PS 2PSxLD'
P S, A S, S I, are continually proportional,) as •
ALB X SI

SI -

2LD'

If thcfe three parts be then drawn

LSI
into the length A B, the firll, y-TT. will generate the area

of an hyperbola ; the fecond, ^ S I, the area i A B x S I ;

, ,.,ALBxSI '

the tliird,

2LD'

the area

ALB X
iLA'

SI

, that is, I A B x SI: from the firft fub-

ALB X SI
2LB

•traft the fum of the fecond and third, and there will remain
A N B, the area fought. Whence arifes this conllruftion of
the problem. At the points L, A, S, B, [fg. 132.) ereft the
perpendiculars L/, A a, S j, V> b, of which fuppofe Ss
equal S I ; and through the point j-, to the aifymptotes L /,
L B, defcribe the hyperbola asb, meeting the perpendiculars
A a, B 3, in a and b, and the reftangle 2 A S I, fubtratled
from the hypei'bolic area Aasb'Q, will leave A N B, the
area required.

Example 3 If the centripetal force, tending to the feveral

particles of the fphere, decreafe in a quadruplicate ratio of

P E*

the diftance from the particles, fubftitute for V,

then V 2 P S + L D for P E, and D N will become
S I' X S L I SP ^ _i

as

S 1' X A L B

I

2 v^ 2 S I

Thefe three parts, drawn into
2SI X SL

2 V'2 S 1 X

die length A B, produce as many ai-eas, namely,
S I

VzSI

into

_i L ■— into VLB- V -L A,

v'LA ,/LB' v^2SI

R P X A L B ^
and -rr^ — into

TTa^-— L-B'' '"'^'^''■''

2SP

SL

3 v/ 2 S I
after the proper redudlion, become -

S I' + —~T '• and thefe, by fubtrafting the latter terms

, S P, and

3SP

from the former, become

4SI'

therefore the entire force

3LI'

with which the particle P is attrafted towards the centre of

the fphere, is as r— , that is, reciprocally as P S'' x PL.
The attraction of a particle, fituated within the fpliercj

may be determined by the fame method ; but more expe-
ditioufly by the following theorem.

12. If SI, S A, S P, (fy. IT,?,-) I'C taken conthiiiany
proportional, in a fphere defcribcd round the centre S, with
the railius S A ; then the altraSian of a particle 'within
the fphere, in any place I, is to its cUlraSion, ivithout the
fphere, in a place P, in a ratio compounded of the fuh-duplicali
ralij 0/" I S, PS, the dijlances from the centre, and the fui-
duplicaie ratio of the centripetal forces tending to the centre in
thofe places, P and I.

As, if the centripetal forces of the particles of tlie fphei*
be reciprocally as tlie diftances ef tlie particle attrafted by
them, the force with which the particle fituated at I is
attrafted by the entire fphere, will be to the force with
which it is attradled at P, in a ratio compounded of the fub-
duplicate ratio of the diltance S I to the diftance S P, and
the fub-duplicate ratio of the centripetal force in the place
I, ariiing from any particle in the centre to the centripetal
force in die place P, arifuig from the fame particle in the
centre ; that is, in the fub-duplicate ratio of the diftances S I,
S P, to each other reciprocally. Thefe two iub-duplicate
ratios compofe the ratio of equality ; and, therefore, the
attradlions in I and P, produced by the whole fphere, are
equal. By a fimilar calculation, if the forces of the par-
ticles of the fphere are reciprocally in a duplicate ratio of
the diftance, it will be found that the attracSlion in I is to the
attraction in P, as the diftance SP to the femi-diameter S A
of the fphere. If thofe forces are reciprocally in a triplicate
ratio of the diftances, the attradlions in I and P will be to
each other as S P' to S A^ ; if in a quadruphcate ratio, as
S P^ to S A'. Therefore, fince the attraftion in P, in this
laft cafe, was found to be reciprocally as P S^ x PI, the
attraftion in I will be reciprocally as S A' into P I ; that is,
becaufe S A^ is given reciprocally as P I ; and the progref-
fion is the fame indefinitely. The demonftration of thi*
theorem is as follows :

Retaining the fame conftruftion as above, and a particle
being in any place P, the ordinate D N was found to be a«

D E* X P S , . T T T^ ,_ J

— =r-= -^— ; therefore, 11 1 E be drawn, that ordinate

PE X V

for any other place of the particle, as I, will become (fub-

ftituting PS and PE for I S and I E) as ^! ^' ^ \^ .

I E X V

Suppofe the centripetal forces proceeding from any
point of the fphere, as E, to be to each other at the
diftances I E and P E, as P E" to I E" (where the
number n denotes the index of the powers of P E
and I E,) and thofe ordinates will become as

P E^ X P S ^ P E' X I S , . . ^ ^ .

vtt; s-^^j ^id t^p: TT^j whole ratio to each other is

P E X P E " I E X I E"

as P S X I E X I E" to I S X P E X P E". Becaufe

SI, S E, S P, are continually proportional, the triangles

S P E, S E I, are alike ; and thence I E is to P E, as

IS to S E, or S A. Subftitute the ratio of I S to

S A for the ratio of I E to P E, and the ratio of the

ordinates becomes that of P S x I E" to S A x P E".

But the ratio of P S to S A is fub-dupiicate of that

of the diftances PS, SI; and the ratio of I E" to

PE", (becaufe I E is to P E as I S to SA) is fub-

duphcate of that of the forces at the diftances P Sj I S ;

therefore the ordinates, and confequently the areas which

the ordinates defcribe, and the attraftions proportional to

them, are in a ratio compounded of thofe fub-duphcate

ratios.

J 3- Tq Jind the force ivitb <wbkb a partkk, placed imhe

ttntr*

GRAVITATION.

ftnlre of a fphere, is atlraHid toiuanh any figment of that
J'pherc.

Let P {f.g. 134-) be a particle in the centre of a fphcre,
and R B S D a fegment thereof containv-d between
t!ie plane R D S, and fpherical fuperlicies R B S. Let
D B be interfered in F by a fpherical fuperficits E F G,
defcribed from the centre P, and let the fegment be divided
into the parts B R E F G S, F E D G : let that fnrface
be fuppoled not purely mathematical, but phyfical, having
foine but a very inconfiderable thicknefs : let that thicknefs
be called O, and (by what Archimedes has demonllrated)
that fuperficies will be as P F x D F x O : let us fup-
pofe befides, the attraclive forces of the particles of the
fphere, to be reciprocally as that power of the dill ances of
which n is the index ; and the force with which the furface

E F G attrads the body P will be as
2DExO DF'xO

BE' X O

that :

PF»

as — ppT-l iTp; — ■ ^'^'^ '''^ perpendicular F N,

drawn into O, be proportional to this quantity, and the
curvilinear area D B I, which the ordinate F N, drawn
through the length D B, with a continued motion defcribes,
will be as the whole force with which the whole fegment
R B S D attradls the body P.

14. To find the force zinih loh'ich a particle, placed without
the antre of it fphcre, in the axis of any fegment, is attrailed
ly that fegment.

Let the body P, placed in the axis A D B, of the feg-
ment E B K {Jig. 135.) be attraded by that fegment:
round the centre P, with the radius P E, let the
fpherical furface E F K be defcribed ; and let it divide the
fegment into two parts E B K F E and E F K D E. Let
the force of the former part be found by Prop. 11. and,
the force of the latter part by Prop. 13. and the lum of
the forces will be the force of the whole fegment E B K D E.

Thefe are the principal propofitions by which Newton has
inveftigated the nature of theattradion exerciled by Ipheri-
cal bodies. In the thirteenth fedion of the Principia, the
author lliews the manner in which the law of attradion is in-
veftigated for other bodies ; the moft interefting refults are
contained in the following propofitions.

Of the altradive forces of bodies 'which are not of a fpherical
fgure.

15. If a body he nttraBed by another, and its attradion be
tonjiderahly Jironger -when it is contiguous to the attratiing body,
than luhen they are fparatcd from one another by a very J mall
interval; the forces of the particles of th; attracting body de-
treafe, as the attraded body recedes, in more than a duplicate
ratio of the particles attraded.

16. If the forces of the particles, of -which an attraHive body
is compofed, decreafe as the attraded body recedes, in a triplicate,
or more than triplicate ratio of the di/lance from the particles,
the attradion will be confiderably Jironger in the place of con-
tad, than ivhcn the attrading and attraded bodies are Jeparated

from each, though by the mofl minute interval.

17. If fwo bodies, fimilar to each other, and conji fling of
matter equally attradive, attrad feparately two particles, pro-
portional to thofe bodies, and in a fimilar fituation to them;
the accelerative atlradions of the particles towards the entire
bodies will be as the accelerative attradions of the particles
towards particles of the bodies proportional to the whole, and

Jimilarly jduated in them.

18. If th^- attradive forces of the equal particles of any body
le as the d fiance of the places from the particles, the farce of
the whole body will tend to its centre of gravity j aiul will hi

the fame with the force of a gTobe, eonjifling of fmiTar and
equal matter, and having its centre in the centre of gravity.

19. If there be fcvcral bodies, confjling of equal particlett
whofe fores areas the diftanccs of 'the places Jrom each, the
force compounded of all the forces by which any panicle it
attraded, will tend to the common centre of gravity of tie
attracting bodies; and will be the fame as if thefe attrading
bodies, preferring their common centre of gravity, should uniu
lucre, and be formed into a globe.

20. If a folidbe plane on one fide, and infniuh extended on
all other fides, and confijl of equal particles equally altradi-oe,
whofe forces decreafe, as they recede from the fdid in the ratio
of any power greater than the fquare of the dijlances ; and a
particle placed towards cither part of the plane is attraded by
the force of the whole f lid; then the attradive force of the
whole folitt, as it recedes from its plane fuperfcies, will decreafe
in the ratio of a power whoj'e fide is the diflance of a particle
from the plane, and is indeed lefs by three than the index of
the power of the diflances.

Though the above propofitions are fufficicnt for all ailro.
nomical inveftigations, yet there are many queftions in natu-
ral philofophy, particularly thofe which relate to the attrac-
tion of mountains, which require that tliefc enquiries Ihould
be extended to a greater variety of cafes ; ajid the following
propofitions form a part of the interefting invcftigations of
profeffor Playfair, as he has communicated them to the pub-
lic, in the fixth volume of the Edinburgh Tranfadions, a»
above-mentioned : they were fuggerted to the learned author
by the experiments which have been made of late years»
concerning the gravitation of terreflrial bodies, particularly
by Dr. Malkelyne on the attradion of mountains, and by-
Mr. Cavendilh, on the attradion of leaden balls, as has
been defer bed at length under the article Density, to
which the reader is referred.

I. To fnd the folid into which a mafs of homogeneous matter
miifl be formed, to attrad a particle given in po/ition with the
greateft force poffible in a given diredion.

Let A Qig. 136.) be tlic particle given in pofition,
A B the diredion in which it is to be attraded ; and
A C B H a feetion of the folid required, by a plane paffine
through A B. r 1- 6

Since the attradion of the folid is a maximum by hypothe-
fis, any fmall variation in the ligure of the folid, provided
the quantity of matter remain the fame, will not change
the attradion in the diredion A B. If, therefore, a fmall
portion of matter be taken from any point C in the fuper-
licies of the folid, and placed at D, another point in thj
fame fuperficies, tliere v.ill be no variation in the force which
the fohd exerts on the particle A in the diredion A B.

The curve A C B, therefore, is the locus of all the points,
in which a body, being placed, will attrad the particle A in
the diredion A B, with the fame force. This condition is
fufficient to determine the nature of the curve A B C. From
C any point in that curve, draw G E perpendicular to A B ;

then if a mafs of matter, placed at C be called m', — ^

^ 'AC

will be the attradion of that mafs on A, in the diredion

A C, and ■

X AE

AC

will be its attradion ia the diredion

m'

AB: asthisisconftant, itwillbcequal to -— -J, and, thsre-

fore, A B' x AE= AC'.

All the fedions of the required folid, therefore, br
planes paCintj ilirough A U; have this jjioperty, tkit A C

GRAVITATION.

= A B- X A E ; nnd as tliia equation is fufficient to deter-
mine the nature of the cm-veto which it belongs, therefore
all the feftions of the folic!, by planes that pafs through A B,
are fnnilar and equal curves ; and the folid, in confequeoce,
may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of
A C B, any one of thofe curves, about A B as an axis.

The folid fo generated may be called the foUd of gnatejl
attraaioiiy and 'the line A C B the cum of equal attrac-
tion.

II. To find the equation bctivecn the co-ordinates of A C B,
the curve of equal attra^ion.

From C ( fig- 136.) draw C E perpendicular to A B ; let
AB = <2, AE = *, £€=;-.

It has been found that A B^ X A E = A C% that is
a' X = (x- + y')], or a* x' — {x' + /')', which is an equa-
tion to a hne of the fixth ord^r.

To obtain y in terms of x, x' -\- y" — a] x], y = a\ x] — *''
and y = X'- \'a'- — x\

Hence ji = o, both when « = o, and when r = a. Alfo,
if X be fnppofed greater than a, y is impoffible. No part
of the curve, therefore, lies beyond B.

The parts of the curv'e on oppofite fides of the line A B
are fimiliir and equal, becaufe the pofitive and negative va-
lues of y are equal. There is alfo another part of the
curve on the fide of A, oppofite to B, fimilar and equal to
A C B ; for the values of y are the fame, whether x te
pofitive or negative.

III. The curve may le eafdy conJJrudcd without having
recourfe to the value of y jujl obtained.

Let A B = a [fg. 136.) AC = z, and the angle BAG
.= ^. Then A E — A C X cof. (p = 2 cof. if, and fo
a' c cof. !j> = z', or a" cof. 0=2"; hence z. ^^ a ^/ cof. (p.

From this formula -a value of A C or z may be found, if
^ or the angle B A C be given ; and if it be required to find
z in numbers, it may be conveniently calculated from this
expreOion. A geometrical conftruftion may alfo be eafily
derived from il. For if with the radiuE A B, a circle B F H
be defcribed from the centre A ; if A C be produced to
meet the circumference in F, and if F G be drawn at right

A G

angles to A B, then •^— - = cof, ip, and fo z = iz x

a'- ?, and fnice A E"- : A C-_: : fcft. A E G : feft. ACT,
the fedor A C F = ■§ z' ^. But z' = a" cof. ^, whencs
the. feftor AC F=i z^ ?>. But z''=a' cof. ?i, (III.) whence
the feftor A C F, or the fluxion of the area A B C = i a" 5
cof. (?, and confequently the ai'ea A B C = 4 <t' I'u. y,
to which no coiiilant quantity need be added, becaufe it va-
nilTies when ((> = o, or when the area ABC vanillies.

The whole area of thif curve therefore is \ a, or i A B' ;

for when ^ is a riglit angle fin. ?i = 1. Hence the area of
the curve on both fides of A B is equal to the fquare of
AB.

2. The value of.v, ivhen _)> i'a maximum, is eafily found.
For when J', and therefore _)>■, is a maximum, | a^ — .Vj^^n^z .v,

, . a a

or \ x\ := a-, that is, *• = — = —

Hence calling h the value of y when a maximum, Ir =

a-. a- , /27I- i\ 2a'
a\ X = a J = , and lo * =

ay; 27r \ 27.; / V^7

V ^5= ^''A B X A G = A C.
■ ^ A B

Therefore, if from the centre A, with the diftance A B,
a circle B F H be defcribed ; and if a circle be alfo defcrib-
ed on the diameter A B as A K B, then drawing any line
A F from A, meeting the circle B F H in F, and from F
letting fall F G the perpendicular on A B, interftfting the
femicircle A K B in K ; and if A K be joined, and A C
made equal to A K, the point C is in the curve.

For A K = ^^A B X A G, from the nature of the fe"

mi-circle, and therefore A C = '^ A B x A G, which has
been fhewn to be a pro^^erty of the curve. In this way a
number of points of the curve may be determined ; and the
folid of greatejl atlracliow will be defcribed, as already ex-
plained, by the revolution of this curve about the axis A B.

IV. To find the area of the curve A C B.

I. Let ACE.AFG (fg-i^T-) be two radii indefinitely
near to one anotiier, meeting the curve A C B in C and F,
and the circle defcribed with the radius A B in E and G.
Let A C = z as before, the angle B A C = .;, and

A B = a. Then G E= a (?, and the area A G E = i

61-

/ 2
a , and therefore a : b : : i/ zi : ./2, or as 1 1 : 7

*/27

nearly.

3. It is material to obferve, that the radius of curvature

v^ a'
A is infinite : for fince v' =: a' xi — x',— = — ■ x.

X XI

But vihen X is very fmall, or y indefinitely near to A, —

X

becomes the diameter of the circle, having the fame curvature
with AC B at A ; and when x vaniflies, this value of— , or

— '■ .^becomes infinite,becaufe of the divifor.t-t being in that

cafe =^ o. The diameter, therefore, and the radius of cur-
vature at A, are infinite. In other words, no circle, having
its centre in A B produced, and paffing through A, can be
defcribed with fo great a radius, but tliat at the point A it
will be within the curve of equal attraction.

The folid of greateft attraction then, at the extremity of
its axis, where the attracted particle is placed, is exceedingly
flat, approaching more nearly to a plane than the fuperficies
of any fphere can do, however great its radius.

4. To find the radius of curvature at B, the other extre-

tremity of the axis, fince y' = ai .vj — .v, if we divide by

y- a^x]— X-

a — .f, we have — :- =: — •

a — .r a — x

But at B, when a — x, or the abfcifla reckoned from B

vaniflies, — — is the diameter of the circle, having the fame
a—x

curvature with A C B in B. But when a — .1= o, or a

= X both the numerator and denominator of the fradlion

— ^ '— vaniflies, fo that its ultimate value docs not ap-

a — X

pear. To remove this diflficulty, let a — x =^ %, or x =. a

— z, then we have ji- = (a — z)f — (a — z)-.

But when z is extremely fmall, its powers higher than the

firft may be rejefted ; and therefore (a — ^Y^z^a' ( i ) ^

=: a; [1 &c. \ Therefore the equation to tl>e curve be-
comes in this cafe, v'' = a' X aW 1 ~ J — a" + 2 a a

=: a' — 3 a s; — a" -)- 2 a 2 = J a a.

Hence

G R A V IT A T I O N.

Hence -— , or the radius of curvature at B = ? a. The

2 3

curve therefore at B falls wholly without tlie circle B K A,
defcribed on the diameter A B, as ita radius of curvature is
greater. This is alfo evident from the conftruclion.

V. To find the force 'wllh -which the fol'ul above defined attracls
the particle A in the dirctlion A B .

Let B {jig. isyO) be a point indefinitely near to B, and let
the curve A ci be defcribed fimilar to A C B ; through C
draw C f D perpendicular to A B, and fuppoie the figure
thus conilruAed to revolve about A B ; then each of the
curves A C B, Aci, will generate a folid of greatcft at-
traftion; and the excefs of the one of thefe folids above the
other, will bean indefinitely thin (hell, the attraftion of which
is the variation of the atlraiflian of the folid A C B when
it changes into Act.

Again, bythehneDC, when it revolves along with the
reft of the figure about A B, a circle will be defcribed ;
and by the part C c, a circular ring, on which, if we fuppofe
a fohd of indefinitely Iniall altitude to be conftituted, it
will make the element of the fohd fliell AC c. Now the
attraction exerted by this circular ring upon A will be the
fame as if all the matter of it were united in the point C,
and the fame, therefore, as if it were all united in B.

But the circular ring generated by C f is = n- (D C^ —
D c') = 2 V D C X C <:. Now, 2 1) C X C c is the va-
riation of jji% or D C", while D C paffes into D c, and the
curve B C A into the curve 1/ c A; that is, 2 D C x Cc is
the fluxion of y', or of a' x] — x', taken on the fuppofition
that X is conftant and;? variable, namely i a[ a x .v;. There-

fore the fpace generated hy C c ^ ^^^— a] x' d.

3
If this expreffion be multiplied by x, we have the ele-
ment of the (hell = — - a x-] d x.
3
In order to have the folidity of the fliell AC B i f , the
above expreffion mull be integrated relatively to x, that is,

4- „

fuppofing only x variable, ?nd it is then ^ x

+ c.

But C = o, becaufe the fluent vaniflies when .r vaniflies,
therefore the portion of the ftiell A C c ^= | *•; a- a, and

when .V =: a the whole (hell = - — a^ d.

Now, if the whole quantity of matter in the fliell were
united at B, its attraftive force exerted on A would be the
fame with that of the ihell, tiierefore the whole force of

the fliell = — a. The fame is true for every other inde-

5
finitely thin fliell, into which the iolid may be fuppofed to
be divided ; and, therefore, the whole attraction of the folid

is equal to I— — a, fuppofing ^ variable, that is, = — a.

Hence we may compare the attraftion of this folid with
that of a fphere of which the axis is A B, for the attraction

of that fphere = -^a' x ~= —^ X a : the attra£lion

6 a' 3

of the folid A D B H (fg. 136), is, therefore, to that of the

fphere on the fame axis as i-^ a
5

to a, or as 6 to 5.

3

VI. Tofnd the content 0/ the folid A D B H, we need only-
integrate the fliixionary expreffion for the content of the

fliell, namely, —■ d^ a. We have then

test of the folid A D B H, Since

— a = the con-
the folidity of the

fi'hcre on the axis A is = — a\ l)ie content of the folid
o

A D B H is to that of the fphere on the fame axis as— a'

to — a^ ; that \s, as — to /, or as 8 to c.

VII. Laflly, to compare the attraaion of thii firul lutlh the
aftraaion of a fphire of equal bulk. — Let m — any given
mafs of matter formed into the folid A D B H ; then for de-
termining A B, we have this equation -— a' = m\ and a =

.''5

>5

"'' ^ — ; and, therefore, alfo, the attraction of the foHJ,

4~

'5

4- V 4-5 /

Again, if m' be formed into a fphere, the radius of that
fphere = m' '' — , and the attradlion of it on a particle at

Its lurlace = m-

Hence tlie attraflion of the folid A D B H, is to that of
a fphere equal to it, as m ( i- t" V to m t — x' V ; that
is, as (27)', to (25)', or as 3 to the cube root of 25.

The ratio of 3 to ^25, is nearly that of 3 to 3 ^

or of 8 1 to 79 ; and this is therefore alfo nearly equal to the
ratio of the attraction of the fohd A D B H, to that of a
fphere of equal magnitude.

VIII. — // has been fuppofed in the preceding invefligation,
that the particle on 'which the folid of grealejl attraaion exert t
its force, is in contaa with that folid. Let it no-w be fuppofed-,
that the diflance betiveen the folid and the particle is given ; the
foHd being on one fid. of the plane and toe p<ir:icle al a gi^ft
diflance Jrom the fame plane on the oppofite fide. The mafs of
matter -which is to compofe the folid being given, is is required /»
confirud the folid.

Let the particle to be attracted be at A fjig. r37 ), from .\
draw A A' perpendicular to the given plane, and let E F be
any ftraigiit line in that plane drawn through the point A', it
is evident that the axis of tlie folid required mufl be in A A'
produced. Let B be the vertex of the folid, then it will
be demon (Irated as has been done above, tliat this foliJ is ge-
nerated by the revolution of the curve of equal attradion. that
of wliich the equation is {y := a\ x — x) about the axis of
which one extremity is at A, and of which the length muft
be found from the quantity of matter in the folid.

The folid required then, is a fegment of the folid of grcat-
efl; attraftioii, having B for its vertex, and a circle of which.
A' E or A' F is the radius, for its bafe.

To find the folid content of fuch a fegment, C D be-
ing = y, and A C = .«, we have y = a x- — .r, and
T. y' x — ■rr a' X} x — z- .v' x = the Cylinder, which is the ele-
ment of the folid fegment.

Therefore/:?/ .V, or the fohd fegment intercepted l>e-
tween B and D, muft be i :t a! x] — i ■* .r + C. This
muft vauifli wheu .v = <j, or when C comes to B, and there-

tux«

GRAVITATION.

fore C = — a'. Tlie fcgmcnt tlicrcfore intcrccjned be-
tween B and C, the line A C being ^, is — a'

«4 xj H x\

3

This alfo gives -— a', foi- the content of the whole fulid,
15

■when .V = o, the fame value that was found by another me-
thod at VI.

Now, if we fuppofe .y to be = A A', and to be given = b,

the folid content of tlie fesfment becomes — a' — j ^ a-, b)

15

+ - f which mud bo made equal to the given folidity, which

we (hall fuppofe m^, and from thiti equation a, which is yet
unknown, is to be determined. If then for ti. we put ti, we
have TT (r\ m' — ^ l>]ii' — ', b ) — m\ or ^S "' — i ^.«' —

- -^i',andi/'-2i;K=.-^- \\b-.
ir • 4-

The fimpleft way of folving this equation would be by the
rule of falfe pofition. In fome particular cafes it may be

refolvedmore eafdy ; thus, if -^ \\^' = O' "^ — i ^' "'

= o, and II- = I b; that is a] = s. b], or a — b x {%)l = ^'

IX. — 1. If it be yeqii'ired to Jitid the equat'ton to the fuper-

Jides of the folid of greateft atirad'ion, and alfo to the fedions

of its parallel to any plane paffmg through the axis ; this

can readily be done by help of ivhat has been dem-nflraled

above.

Let AHB {fig. 138), be a feftion of the folid, by a plane
paffing through A B its axis. Let G be any point in the
fuperilcies of the folid, G F a perpendicular from G on the
plane AHB, and F E a perpendicular from F on the axis.
Let A E = X, E F == c, F G = 'ii, then .v, z, and v are the
three co-ordinates by which the fuperficies is to be defined.
Let A B =:^ rt, E H = J', then from the nature of the curve
AHB, y'' =■ a\ x\ — i.r'. But, becaufe the plane G E H is at
right angles to A B, G and H are in the circumference of
a circle of which E is the centre ; fo that G E = E H = _)■.
Therefore E F^ 4- F G^ = E HS that is ='- + v" = y\ and
by fubftitution for ji^ in the former equation, z^ -t- tj" =
ciA'} — .v', or {x^ -f z' 4- "u") = fl' jr' which is the equa-
tion to the fuperficies of the folid of greateil attraftion.

2. If we fuppofe E F, that is z, to be given =: b, and the
folid to be cut by a plane through F G and C D (C D be-
ing parallel to A B) making on the furface of the folid the
feftion D G C ; and if A K be drawn at right angles to
A B, meeting D C in K, then we have, by writing b for z
in either of the preceding equations, b' -f- -u' = a\xi — .v',
and 11" = a\ .r? — .v'' — b' for the equation to the curve
D G C, the co-ordinates being G F and F K, becaufe F K
is equal to A E or .r.

This equation alfo belongs to a curve of equal attraftion;
the plane in which that carve is being parallel to A B, the
line in which the attraction is eltimated, and dillant from it
by tlie fpace b.

Inftead of reckoning the abfcifla from K, it may be made
to be^in at C. If A E or C K = h, then the value of h is

detemnined from the eqtration i' ;= j' oj — //, and if .y «=
b + a, II being put for C F, i'" = a< {h -j- v)\ — (h 4- «)" —
a)h. 4- fy, or v' + {h + u) " + b" — «} (A 4- u)', or {v"- -{- •
h + u)'+ If) '' = a" {h 4- uy.

When b is equal to the maximum value of the ordinate
E H (IV. 2) the curve C D G goes away into a point ; and
if b be fuppofed greater than this, the equation to the curve
is impoflible.

X. — The folid of greattjl allrai^ion may be found, and its
properties inve/ligatcd, in the ituiy that has tio'zv been cxem-
plijitd, iL'hatever be the hviu of the atiradi'oe force. It ivill
be fifficitnt in any cafe to find the equation of the generating
curve, or the curve of equal altra8:on.

Tluis, if the attraftion, which tlie particle C [Jig. 136.)
exerts on the given particle at A, be inverlely as the m

power of the diftance, or as-;^^-;;-, then the attraftioiv

in the direftion A E will b(

AC

AE

this =

we hare •

■ AC"-'
AE

A B "■ A C " + ■ A E ■

A E = .V, E C = 3', and AB :=: a, as before

=— , or <2"'.ir = (•» 4- /')"-V"' *"'!■'

and if we maka

or making

(•'^+^^)-

or y' =r -— .«-.

If m ^= I, or )« 4- I = 2, this equation becomes y' =r a .v
— .v', being that of a circle of wliich the diameter is A B.
If, therefore, the attrafting force were inverfely as the dif-
tance, the folid of greateft attraftion would be a fphere.

If the force be inverfely as the cube of the dillance, or
ni =: 3, and m 4- i = 4, the equation is y'' = a; xi — ,v'
which belongs to a line of the fourth order.

If m = 4, and m + I = 5, the equation is y'' = a; .v] — .v',
which belongs to a line of the tenth order.

In general, if m be an even number, the order of the curve
is n; 4- I X 2 ; but if m be an odd number, it is m 4- I fim-
ply.

In the fame manner that the folid of greateft attraftion
has been found, may a great clafs of fimilar problems be
refolved. Whenever the property that is to exift in the
greateft or leaft degree belongs to all the points of a plane
figure, or to all the points of a folid, given in magnitude,
the queftion is reduced to the determination of the locus of
a certain equation, as in the preceding example.

Let it, for inilancc, be required to find a folid given in
magnitude, fuch, that from all the points in it, ftraight lines
being drawn to any number of given points, the fum of the
fquares of the lines fo drawn ftiall be a minimum. It will be
found, by reafoning, as in the cafe of the folid of greateft
attraftion, that the fuperficies bounding the required folid
muft be fuch, that the fum of the fquares of the lines drawn
from any point in it, to all tJie given points, muft be always
of the fame magnitude. Now, tlie fum of the fquares of
the lines drawn from any point, to all the given points, may
be fhewn by plane geometry, to be equal to the fquare of the
line drawn to the centre of gravity of thefe given points,
multiplied by the number of po'iits togetlier with a given
fpace. The line, therefore, drawn from any point in the re-
quired fuperficies, to the centre of gravity of the given points,
is given in magnitude, and therefore the inperficics is that of a

fphcFC,

G R A

G R A

fpkeTc, having for Tts centre the centre of gravity of the
given points.

The magnitude of the fphere is next determined from the
condition that its folidity is given.

In general, if .\;y and z are three reftangular co-ordinates,
that detern'.ine the pofition cf any point of a foUd given in
magnitude, and if the vahie of a certain function 2 of .r, jp, and
2 be computed for each point of the foHd, and if the fum
of all thele va!;:es of * addjd together be a maximum or a
minimum, the folid is bounded by a fuperlicies, in which the
function ; is every where of the fame magnitude. Th?t is,
if the triple integral /.v_/' / ? i. be the greatoll or leafl; pof-
fible, the luperficits boundmg the folid is fuch, that f =. A,
a conil;.nt qizaniity.

The fame holds of plane figures. The propofition is then
more finiplc, as there are only two co-ordinates, fo xXvMfx/z k
is the quantity that is to be a maximum or mmimum, and
the line bounding the figure is defined by the equation
<5 = A.

AM the queilions therefore that come under this defcrip-
tion, though they belong to an order of problem", which
requires in general the application of one of the moll refined
inventions of new geometry, the calculus •uariationum, form
a particular divifion, admittipg of folution by much more
fimple means, and direclly reducible to the conftruction of
loci.

In thefe problems alfo, the fyntheticil demonftration will
be found extremely iimple. In the inftance of the folid of
greateft attraction, this holds remarkably. Thus it is ob-
vious, that (f^g. 136.) any particleof matter placed within the
curve A C B iri, will attrod the particle at A in the direc-
tion A B, lets than any of the particles in that curve,
»nd that any particle of matter witliin tlie curve will at-
tract the particle at A more than any particle in the curve,
and more, a fart'wrl, than any particle without the curve.
The fame is true of the whole fupL-rhcies of the folid. Now
if the figure of the fohd be any how changed while its
quantity of matter remains the fame, as much matter muft
be expelled from within the furface, at fome one place C, as
is accumulated without the furtace, at fome other point H.
But the aftion of any quantity of matter within the fuper-
ficies A C B H on A is greater than th.e aftion of the fame
without the fuperficies ACBH. The folid ACBH
therefore by any change of its figure mult lofe more attrac-
tion than it gains. Thus is its attraction not diilinguiflied
by every fuch change, and therefore it is itfelf the folid
of grealeli attraction.

Among a number of propofitions which the limits of our
work do not permit us to notice, it is propofed, " to deter-
mine the oblate fpheroid of a given fohdity, v.hich fliall at-
tract a particle at its pole with the greatelt force." And it
appears that the gravitation at the pole of an oblate fpheroid
is not a maximum, until the excentricity of the generating
eliipfe vanilh, and the fpheroid pafs into a fphere. When a
fphere paiTes into an oblate fpheroid its attraction varies at
firll exceeding (lowly, and continues to do fo till its cblate-
nefs, or excentricity, becomes very great

The cone of greateft attraction has the radius of its bafe
aearly double that of its altitude, and the attraction of the
cone, when a maximum, is about f the attraftion of a fphere
of equal folidity.

Of all the cylinders given in mafs or quantity of mat-
ter, that which attracts a particle at the extren-.ity of its axis
with the greateft force is when the radius of the bafe of the
cylinder is to the altitude as five to eight nearly, and it ap-
pears that the attraaion of the cylinder, even when its form
is the moft advantageous, does not exceed that of a fphere of

V»t. XVI.

the fame folid cootent, by nwre than a hundred and cighljr-
third part.

A femi-cylinder given in magnitude, attracts a particle
fituatcd in the centre of its bafe, with the grcatell force
poffible, in the direction of a line bifcdting the bafe, »he«
tlse altitude of the lemi-cylinder is to the radius of its bafe
as 125 to 216.

Gr.witation, Centre rf. SeeCESTEli.
Gravitatio.s', Line nf. See LiNE
Gravitation, Plane of. Sec Pl.we.
GRAVITY, Terke-trial, is that force by which all
bodies are continually urged towards the centre of the earth.
It is in confequcnce of this force that a body cannot remain
at rell on the furface of the earth, without cxercifing a pref-
fure either on fome intermediate body, or on thit {onion of
the furface of the earth which fuftains it ; and the inttr.fity of
this force is mcafurcd by the degree of prclTure, produced by a
given mafs. The tenfion of a llring, by which a weight is fuf-
pended, arifes from the force of gravity. The fpring fteel-
yard, an inftrument fold at the ihops for weigh;rg, is ex-
tremely well adapted to iUuftrate the cSect of the force of
gravity ; the fufpended fubltance draws out a fcale b/ over-
coming the refiftance of the fpring. Thefe machini* -ire not
capable of great exadtnefs, but if an inltrumcr.t of this kind
could be made with fuiSciert accuracy, the alteration of the
fcale, (the weight remaining the fame,) would flicw any
change in the force of gravity ; and we might, by taking
this apparatus to the fumn-.it of a high mountain, ob-
ferve whether any change took place in the force of gra-
vity bv fuch an operation. We meafure like«ife the force
of gravity by the time which a bod), fuffered to defcend
freely from a ftate of reft, employs to fall thiough a given
fpace, or (as has been explained under DvSA.MlCs) by the
velocity which a body, thus faUing, acquires at the end cf a
given time. Thus a body, filhng freely, durinij the interval
of one fecond, acquires a velocity of 32^, that is, it would
ftiike an obftacle with the fame force as another body
would of the tame mafs, which was monng uniforndy with
the velocity of 32 s per fecond.

The denVity of the earth being about 2.5 that of water,
we infer that the force of gravity of a fphere, 80CO mile*
in diameter, and whofe fpecihc gravity is twice and a half
that of water, would attract a particle of matter placed jull
without its furface, in fuch a manner as to caufe it to move
towards its centre, 16,-., feet in one iecoiid.

It is, however, to be obferved, that it is only at the pole
that the whole force of the earth's gravity is aftually ex-
erted on a particle of matter : at every other part of the
ear h's furface, the force of gravity is dimiiiilhed by the
motion of rotation, which producing a centrifugal force,
oppofite in its tendency to that of the force ul gravity,
diminifhes the effect of the latter as we recede from the^)oIe
and .ipproach the equator. But, befides this, there is an-
other caufe which contributes in a very remarkable maimer
to modify the force of gravity at dilTerent points of the
earths tarface, which is the elliptic figure of the eartlu
The equatorial regions being more ele\-ated than the polar,
are more removed from the influence of tlie central attrac-
tion. Both thefe cirrjmftances, and their cffcAs, muft be
attended to when we propofe to m.ake any very accuiate
computation of the force of terreftiial gra\ity.

The diminution of gravity arifing from ihe elliptic 6gire
is nearly equal to the product of the .^.jtli part ot the Jorce
of gravity, bv the fquare of the cofiue of the latitude.
The centrifugal force diminilhcs the force of gravity m the
fame proportion ; thus by the combination of thefe two
caufes, the diminution of gravity from tlse pole to die
4 R equaisr

GRAVITY.

equator is equal 0.00694 multiplied by the fquare of the
cofine of the latitude, the force of gravity at the equator
being taken as unity.

The moll exaft inftniment we pofTefs, for meafurmg the
intenfity of the force, is the pendulum, whofe ofcillations
are immediately accelerated or retarded by the flightell al-
teration in the force of gravity, and it is only by means of
this inllrument that we are enabled to infer with prccilion,
the. cxafl fpace that a heavy body falls through in one fe-
cond of time.

Gravity, The Nature of. — Of ihe nature of gravitation,
or the force of nravity, nothing more is known, than that it
is apparently an effential property of matter, or, at leaft, of
all matter that hitherto has become the objeft of human in-
vetlio-ation, for Newton was not difpofed to believe but that
matter might exilt which was not endowed with this pro-
perty, and fuggeits the fuppohtion that it is caufed by the
agency of an elallic medium pervading all ipace. This
medium, he fuppofes, to be much rarer within the denfe
bodies of the fun, the liars, the planets, and the comets, than
in the empty celellial fpaces between tliem, and to grow more
and more denfe at greater diitancts from tliem, fo thai all thefe
bodies are naturally forced towards each other by the excefs
of prefTure. Upon this fuppolilion, Dr. Young remarks, in
his Lectures, that the eflefts of gravitation miglit be pro-
duced by a medium thus conllituted, if its particles were
repelled by all material fubllances with a force decrealing
like other repulfive forces, limply as the diltances increafj ; its
deniity would tlien be every where fucli as to produce the ap-
pearance of an attraftion, varying like that of gravitation.
Such an ftiiereal medium would, therefore, have the advantage
of hmplicity, in the original law of its action, fmce tlie re-
pulfive force, which is known to belong to all matter, would
be fufficient, when thus modilied, to account tor tlie prin-
cipal phenomena of attraction.

It may be quellioned whether a medium, capable of pro-
ducing the eflefts of gravitation in this manner, would alfo
be equally fufceptible of thofe modiiications which have
been fuppofed neceffary to the tranfniifiion of light. In
f ither cafe, it mull be fuppofed to pafs througli the apparent
fubftance of all material bodies witii tlie moll perfeft freedom,
and there would, therefore, be no occalion to apprehend any
difliculty from a retardation of the celeftial motion ; the
ultimate impenetrable particles of matter being, perhaps,
fcattered as tliinly through its external form as Itars arc
fcattered in a nebula, which has ftill tlie dlllant appearance
of an uniform light ; and tliere feems no reaion to doubt tlie
poffibility of the propagation of an undulation through the
Newtonian medium, v.ith the actual velocity of liglu. It
muft be remembered, that the difference of its preffure is not
to be ellimated from the aftual bulk of the earth, or any
other planet alone, bat from the effeft of the fphere of
repulfion of which that planet is the centre ; and we may
thus deduce the force of gravitation from a medium of no
tery enormous elallicity.

Dr. Young oblervos, that a fimilar combination of a
fnnple preffure with a variable repulfion is alio obfervable
in the force of cohefion, and fuppoles that if two parti-
cles of matter, floating in fuch an elallic medium, capa-
ble of producing gravitation, were to approach each other,
their mutual attraftion would at once be clianged from
gravitation to cohelion, upon the exclulion of the portion
«f the mediiun intervening between them. The well known
experiment of the two exhaulled hemifpheres of Magde-
burg affords an illullratiou of this hypothelis, where we
Ice ap">arei.t cohelion derived from atmofplierical preffure,
aai if we place between them a thick ring of elallic gum,

we may rcprefent the natural equilibrium between the forces
of cohefion and repulfion, for the ring would refill any
fmall additional preffure with the fame force as would
be required for feparating the hemilpheres fo far as to
allow it to expand in an equal degree ; and at a certain
point the ring would expand no more ; the air would be
admitted and the cohefion deilroyed, as when a folid of
any kind is torn afunder. Thefe fuppofiuons, however,
are direftly oppofite to the hypothefis which affigns to
the elallic medium the power of paffing freely througl; all
the interftices of the ultimate atoms ot matter, fince it
could never pafs between two atoms cohering in this
manner ; we cannot, therefore, at prefent affert the identity
of the forces gravitation and colielion fo ftrongly as theory
would allow us to do if ellablilhed. In (liort, the \\ Lole
of our enquiries refpefting the intimate nature of forces
rnufl; be confidered as merely fpeculative amufements, wliich
are of no farther utility than as they make our views more
general, and affill our experimental inveftigations.

La Place, after having ftiewn how tlie law of gravita-
tion is deduced from the phenomena of the folar lyilem,
concludes his reflections on this fubjeft: by enquiring wlie-
tlicr the principle of gravitation is a primordial law of nature,
or if it may not be the general effeft of fome unknown
caufe ? Here, he oblerves, we are Hopped by our igno-
rance of the nature of the intimate properties of matter,
and deprived of every hope of anfwering this quc-llion in
a fatisfaftory manner. Inlcead, fays this great author, of
forming hypothefes on this fubjeft, let us content ourfelves
willi examining more particularly the manner in which
this principle lias been employed by pliilofophers.

They have admitted tlie live following fuppofitions :

1. That gravitation takes place between the moll mi-
nute particles of bodies.

2. That it is proportional to the maffes.

3. That it varies inverfely as the fquare of the diftance,

4. That it is tranfmitted iiillantaneoufly from ©ne body
to another.

5. And that it equally afts on bodies in a Rate of repofe,
and on thofe winch by their motion in tlie direftion of its
aftion fhould feeni likely to avoid a part of its influence.

The firll of thefe propofitions is, as we have feen, a ne-
ceffary rcfult of the equality which exifts between aftion
and re-aftion, every particle of the earth attrafting it as
the particle itfelf is attrafted ; this fappofition is confirmed
by the meafures of the degrees of the meridian, and by
experim.ents on pendulums ; for amidll all the irregularities
of the meafured degrees, we may perceive the traces of a
regular figure, winch is conformable to the theory. The
great influence that the compreflion of Jupiter has upon
the nodes and perigees of the orbits of its fatellites, proves
to us that the attraftion of this planet is compofcd of the
attraftions of all its particles. The proportionality of the
attraftive force to the maffes is demonllrated in the earth
by experiments on pendulums, the ofcillations of which are of
the fame length of whatever lubllance they arc compofcd.
It is proved in the celeftial regions by the conllant relation
which exiils between the fquares of the periodic times of
bodies revolving about a common focus, to the cubes of the
greater axes of their orbits.

We have feen with what precifion the almofl; abfolute
ftate of repofe of the perihelia of the planetary orbits
indicate that the force of gravity varies according to
the inverfe fquare of the dutance : and now that we
know the caule of the motions of thefe perihelia, we
may regard tliis law as rigoroufly exaft. It is the fame
with all emanations wliich proceed from a centre, fucli a.s

litfht i

GRAVITY.

light ; it feems m if all forces whofe aflion could be per-
ceived at fenfiWe diftances obeyed this law. It has
lately been obfervcd, that the attractions and repulfions of
eletlricliy and magnetifm decrcafe in proportion to the
fquares of the diftances. A remarkable property of this
law is, that if the dimenfions of all the bodies of the uni-
verfe, their mutual diftances and vekcities were to be aug-
mented or dimiiiiftied proportionally, they would defcribe
curves entirely iimilar to thofo defcribedat prefent, and their
appearances would be entirely the fame. For the forces
which animate them being entirely the refult of attractions
proportional to the mafies divided by the fquares of the
diftances, they would be augmented and diminiflied propor-
tionally to the dimenfions of this imaginary univerfe. It
may be remarked at the fame time that this property can
only belong to the law of nature. Thus the apparent mo-
tions are independent of its abfolute dimenfions, as they are
likewife of the motions it may have in fpace, and we can only
obferve and recognize relative phenomena.

It is thiii law which gives to fpheres the property of
attrafting each other mutually, as if their whole maffes
were united at their refpeclive centres. It terminates alfo
the orbits and tlie figures of the celeftial bodies by lines
and furfaces of the fecond order, at leall if we negk-tt
their perturbations and fuppofe them fluid.

We have no method of meafuring the length of time in
■which gravity is propagated, becaufe the aiftion of the fun
having once reached the planets, it continues to acl on th:-m
as if the attratlive force was communicated inftantaneoufty
to the extremities of tlie fyftem. We cannot, therefore,
afcertain in how long a time it is tranfmitted to the earth,
no more than we could meafure the velocity of light, were it
not for tlie aberration, and the eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites.
But it is not the fame with the fmall difference that may
exift in the aftion of gravity upon bodies according to the
direftion of their velocity.

M. de la Place has found by analyfis, that an acceleration
(hould refult in the mean motions of the planets round the
fun, and in the mean motions of the fatelhtes about tlieir
planets.

M. de la Place had affumed this method of explaining the
fecular equation of the moon, when he believed, with other
geometricians, that it was inexplicable on the principle of
univerfal gravitation. He found that if it arofe from this
caufe, a velocity muft be fuppofed to exift in the centre of the
moon, in order to releafe it entirely from its gravity towards
the earth, at leaft fix million times greater than that of
light : the true caufe of this equation being now known,
we are certain that the aftion of gravity is much greater
than this. This force, therefore, a6ls with a velocity which
we may confider as infinite ; and we may conclude, tliat the
action of the fun is tranfmitted in an indivifible inftant to the
extremities of the planetary fyftem.

Do any other forces act on the heavenly bodies befides
their mutual attractions ?

We are unacquainted with any, and we may affirm that
their efieCt is totally infenfible. We may likewife be cer-
tain that thefe bodies experience no fenfible refiftance trom
the fluids through which they pafs, as light, the tails of
comets, or the zodiacal light.

The attractive force difappears between bodies of an in-
confiderable magnitude, and re-appears in their elements
under a variety of forms. The foHdity of bodies, their
cryftalllzation, the refraction of light, the elevation and de-
preflion of fluids in capillary tubes, and all chemical com-
binations, generally are the refults of attractive forces, the

knowledge of which forms the principal obje^ of nattiral
philofophy.

Are thefe forces the fdmc as that of the gravity obfenred
in the celeftial regions, and modified on tlie earth by the
figures of the integrant 5)artic!es ? To admit this hypothe-
fis we muft fuppofe much Tnore fpace ePipty than full in all
bodies, fo thit tlie denfity of their particles ir.uft be incom-
parably greater than the mean denfity of their whole volume.
A fphencal particle of one hundred ihoufandth of a foot in
dianiiter fiiould have a denfity at leaft ten thoufand million
of times greater than the mean denfity of the earth, to ex-
ert at its furface an attraction equal to the terrcftrial gravity.
But the attractive forces of bodies greatly furpafs this gra-
Tity, fince they infleCt light, whofe direCtion is not changed
by the attraCtion of the earth. The denfity of thefe par-
ticles ft'.ould, therefore, be fo that of fubilanccs in a r lio
which the imagination would fear to admit, if their affinities
depended on the law of univerfal gravitation. The ratio
oi' the interYals which feparate the parti, les of bodies to
their refpeCtive dimenfions, would be of the fame order as
in ftars which form a nebula, which in this point of view
may be confidered as a great luminous body. There is no
reafon, however, which abfolutely forbids us to confider all
bodies in this manner. Many phenomena are favourable to
the fuppofition, particularly the extreme facility with whicK
light penetrates diaphanous fubftances in all direClions. The
affinities would then depend on the integrant particles, and
we might, bv the variety of thefe forms, explain all the va-
riety of attraClive forces, and reduce to one general law all
the phenomena of aftronomy and natural philofophy. But
the impoffibihty of afcertaining thefe figures, renders thi»
inveftigation ufelefs to the advancement ot fcience.

Some geometricians, to account for thefe affinities, have
added to the laws of attraction, inverfely as the fquares of
the diftances, new terms which are infenfible at fmall dif-
tances ; but thefe terms would be the expreffions of as many
different forces, and befides being complicated with the dif-
ferent figures of the particles, they would only complicate
the explanation of the phenomena.

Amidll thefe uncertainties the wifeft plan feems to be, to
endeavour to determine by numerous experiments the laws
of affinities ; and to cffedt this, the m.oft fin-.ple method ap-
pears to be, by comparing thefe forces with liie repuHwe
force of heat, which may be itfelf compared with that of
gravity. Some experiments already made with this view, af-
ford lis reafon to hope, that one day thefe laws will be per-
fectly known, and that then, by the application of analyfis,
the philofophy of terreftrial bodies may be brought to the
fame degree of perfection, which the difcovery of univerfal
gravitation has procured for aftronomy.

Ok.wity, in HydrojiaUcs. The laws of bodies granuting
in fluids, make the bufiuefs of hydrottatics.

Gravity is here divided into alfolute w\di J^;af.c.

Gk.wity, abfolute or Inn, is the whole force vfliercwitli
the body tends downward.

Gu.wiTY, Sp.'ci/ic, called alfo rt/jlivr, comparative, and
apfarfnt gravity, is the excefs of gravity in any body, above
tliiit of an equal quantity or bulk of another ; and denote*
that trravity, or weight, peculiar to each fpccies, or kind
of natural body ; and whereby it is diftinguiihed from ulJ
other kinds.

In this fenfe, a body is faid to be fp:cifcj!lj btav'er than
another, when under the fame bulk it contains a greater
weight than tiiat other ; and that other is faid to be ^.-.•-
fciilly lighter than the firft. Thus, if there be two equal
fpheres, each a foot in diameter ; the one wood, ti»e otner
lead, fmve the leaden one is found heavier thao the wooden
4 R « oar.

GRAVITY.

•ne, it is faid to be fptfifrnS^, er in fpecie, heavier : and
the wooden one fpec'if.c ally lighter.

This kind of gravity fome call relati-ut ; in cppofition to
nhfolnte gravity, which increafcs in proportion to the quantity
or mals of the body.

Gravity, laws rjf the fpccific, tind levity of bodies. — I. If
two bodies be equal in bulk, their fpecitic grarities are to
t-ach other as their abfolute gravities. Thus a body is faid
to be twice as heavy, fpecifitally, as another, if it have twice
its gravity under the fame bulk.

Hence, the fpecific gravities of equal bodies are as their
denlities.

II. If two bodies, compared togethr-r, be of the fame
fpecific gravity, their abfolute weights will be as their mag-
nitudes or bulks.

III. The fpecific gravities of bodies of the farne weight
are in the reciprocal ratio of their bulks. Hence the maffes
ef two bodies of the fame weight are in a reciprocal ratio of
their bulks.

IV. The fpecific gravities of two bodies are in a ratio
compounded of the direft ratio of the abfolute gravities,
and the reciprocal one of their bulks. Hence, again, the
fpecific gravities are as the denfities.

V. The abfolute gravities of two bodies will be in a com-
pound ratio of their fpecific gravities and their bulks.

VI. The bu ks of two bodies will be in a compound ratio
ef their abfolute gravities direttly, and their fpecific gra-
Tities inverfely,

VII. A b.idy fpecifically heavier than a fluid, lofes fo
much of its weight therein as is equal to the weight of a
quantity of the fluid of the fame bulk

For, fuppofe a cubic inch of lead immergcd in water; a
eubic inch of v,ater will, thereby, be expelled from its place :
but the -weight of this water was fuft;ained by the rellllance
ef the ambient water. Tiierefore, fuch a part of the weight
of the leaden cube mull be fuftained by the refiftance of the
ambient water, as is equal to the weight of the water ex-
pelled. The gravity of the body immerged, therefore, mull
be diminiflied by fo much.

Hence, i. Since a fluid, fpecifically heavier, has a greater
weight, in the fame bulk, than a lighter ; the fame body
■will lofe a greater part of its weight in a fluid, fpecifically
heavier, than in a lighter : and therefore it weighs more in
A lighter than a heavier.

2. Equal homogeneous bodies weighing equally in air,
lofe their equilibrium if one of them be immerged in a heavier
fluid ; the other in a lighter.

3. Since the foecific gravities arc as the abfolute gravities
under the fame bulk ; the fpecific gravity of the fluid will
be to the gravity of the body immerged, as part of tlie
weight loft by the folid, to the whole weight.

4. Two folids, equal hi bulk, lofe the fame weight in the
fame fluid : but the weight of the fpecifically heavier body
is greater than that of the fpecifically lighter; therefore, tiie
fpecifically lighter lofes a greater part of its weight than the
fpecifically heavier.

5. Since the bulks of bodies, equal in weight, areiecipro-
caUy as the fpecific gravities ; the fpecifically lighter lofes
more weight in the fame fluid than the heavier ; wherefore,
if they be in cquilibrio in one fluid, they will not be fo in
another ; but the fpecifically heavier will preponderate, and
that the more, as the fluid is denfer.

6. The fpecific gravities of fluids are as the weights lofl;
bv the fame folid immerged in the fame.

VIII. To Jind the fpecific gravity of a jliiid. — On one arm
of a balance lufpend a leaden globe ; and to the other, faften
a weight, which i$ in equilibrium therewith in the air. Im-

merge tlie glote fuece-ffivcly m the fcveral fluids, whofe fpe-
cific gravities are to be determined, and obferve the weight
which balances it in each. Thefe feveral weights, I'ubtra ;te<i,
fev^rally, from the firil weight, the remainders are the parts
of the weight loit in each fluid. Whence the ratio of the
fpecific gravity of the fluids is feen.

Hence, as the denfities are as the fpecific gravities, we
find the ratio of the denfities of the fluids at the fame time.

This problem is of the utmoil ufe : as by it the degree of
purity or goodnefs of fluids is eafily found ; a thing not
only of fervice in natural philofophy, but alfo in common
hfe, and in the pradtice of phyfic. See Hydrometer.

That the fpecific gravity may be found the more accu-
rately, the weight of the thread not immerged in the fluidf
is to be fubtradled from the weight of the folid in air ; and
the force neceflary to make the thread fubfide (if it be fpe-
cifically hghter) is to be added to tlie weight loft. But if
the thread that fuftains the folid be heavier than the fluid,
the weight of the thread in the air is to be fubtrafted from
the weight of the folid in air ; and the weight the thread
lofes from the-weight loft in the fluid. Indeed, this pre-
caution may be fpared, if, in examining the fpecific gravity
of feveral fluids, care be taken that the fame thread be im-
merged to the fame depth in each.

IX. To determine the ratio which the fpecific gravity of
a fluid has to the fpecific gravity of a folid that is fpecifically
heavier than the fluid,

Weigh any mafs of the folid in a fluid, and note the juft
weight therein : the fpecific gravity of the fluid will be to
that of the foHd, as the part of the weight loll by the folid'
to its whole weight.

X. The fpecific gravities of equally heavy bodies are
reciprocally as the quantities of weight loft in tlie fame fluid.
Hence we find the ratio of the fpeciilc gravities of folidi;, bv
weighing mafles thereof, that are equal in air, in the fame
fluid ; and noting the weights loft by each.

XI. A body, fpecifically heavier, defcends in a fluid
fpecifically lighter, with a force equal to the excefs of its
weight, above that of an equal quantity of the fluid.

Hence, I. The force which fuftains a fpecifically heavier
body in a fluid, is equal to the excefs of the abfolute gra-
vity of the body, above that of the fluid, under the fame
bulk : e. gr. 47J pound of copper loies jf- pounds of its
weight in v>'ater ; therefore a pov.'er of 42 pounds is able to
fuftain it.

2. Since the excefs of the weight of a folid over the
weight of a fluid fpecifically heavier, is lefs than that
over the weight of a fpecifically lighter fluid under the
fame bulk ; it will defcend with Itfs force in a fpecifi-
cally heavier fluid than in a lighter ; and, confequently,
it v.ill delccnd more flowly in the former than in tlie
latter.

XII. A fpecifically lighter body finks in a heavier fluid,
till the weight of a quantity of the fluid, equal in bulk to
the part immerfed, be equal to the weight of the whole
body.

hence, i. Since the fpecific gravities of bodies of tlie
fame weight are reciprocally as their bulks ; and the
bulks of fluids equal in weight, are as the parts of th«
fame folid immerged therein ; the fpecific gravities of fluid*
are reciprocally as the parts of the fame body immerged
therein.

2. A folid, therefore, immerges deeper in a lighter fluid
than in a heavier, and deeper, as the proportion of the fpe-
cific gravity of the folid to that of the fluid is greater.

3. If a body be of the fame fpecific gravity with a fluid,

the

GRAVITY.

the ■«-holc body will be immerged ; and it will remain in any
given place of the fluid.

4. If a fpecificaily liglitcr body be wholly immerged in a
fluid, it will be urged, by the collateral columns of the
fluid, to afcr^^d vn-h a force equal to the excefs of the
weight cf the iUiid, bulk for bidk, over the weight of the
folid.

cubic foot or cubic inch. As it would be rery difficuUi
and in many cafes impolTiblc, to meafurc the exact volume re-
quired to be weighed, a method of determining the fpecific
gravity of fohds has been dcvifed, founded on a principle of
Hydrojlatict. It appears to have been known to Arciiimedcs,
that when a folid body, heavier tlian water, is plunged into
that fluid, it lofcs as much of its weight as is equal to tlie

5. A body, therefore, fpecifically lighter, lying on the weight of the fluid it has difplactd.
bottom of a Tcfiel, will not be raifed up unlefs the heavier By the application of this principle we are enabled, in >
.fluid nfe above fuch a part as ,s equal in bulk to a quantity very eafy manner, to determine the fpecif.c gravity of a
of the fluid of the fame weight with the wnole folid. body by f.rft weighing it in air and afterwards in water.

XIII. The fpecific gravity of a folid is to the fpccifie Then if the weight in air be divided by the weight loft,
gravity of a' lighter fluid, wherein it is immerged, as the or the difference of the weights in water and air, the quo-
bulk of the part iir.merged is to the whole bulk. tient will exprcfs the fpeciiic gravity of that body, or the
. XIV. The fpecific gravities of equal folids are as their ''clative wciglit of an equal volume of that fubilancc, and of
parts immerged iii the fame fluid. ^'"^ water in which the experiment was made.

XV. The weight and bulk of a fpecifically lighter body, '^''^ fpecific gravity of two fluids may be determined by
and the weight of the fpecifically heavier fluid, being given, ''"^' ^^^^ principle ; for if vve weigh a folid of any magni-
to find the force required, to keep the folid wholly im- *""?'^' ^^ ^ ^'■^ '^{ glafs, firfl in water and then in any other
merged under the fluid. S^md, the quantities of weight loll in each experimtut will

As this force is equal to the excefs of the weight of the ^- .'" '"^ '^"""^ proportion as the fpecific gravity of the tv.-6
fluid bevond that of an equal bulk of the folid; from the ^^^'

given bulk of the folid, and the weight of a cubic foot of J^^^ fpecific gravities of any fubftances, and in particular
water, find, by the rule of three, the weight of a bulk of . ^^^^ ^^ ^'■': '"'ghter than water, may alfo be very conve-
\»ater equal to that of the body. From this fubtrad the ""^"'b' determined by means of a common balance, employ-
weight of the foLd; the remainder is the force required. '='g a pJ"al «itl» a conical ground ftopple filling it firll with
E.gr. Suppofe the force neceffary to detain a folid eight
feet in biilk, and ico pounds in weight, under water, re
quired: fince a cubic foot of, water is found to weigh 70
pound, the weight of water under the bulk of eiglit feet,
is 560; whence, ico pounds the weight of the folid, being
fubtrafted; the remainder 460 pound is the force neceffary
to detain the folid under water.

Hence, fince a fpecifically lighter body afcends in a
heavier fluid, with the fame force that would prevent its
afcent: by the prefent problem, we can likewiie find the
force wherewith a fpecifically lighter body afcends in a
leavier.

XVI, The weight of a vefill, to be made of a fpecificrlly

water and then either with a given fluid, or with a portion
of tlie folid of which the weight has been afccrtained, to-
getlier w ith as much water as is fufficient to exclude the air.

It is neceflary to attend to a great number of minute cir-
cumfl;ances when we wifh to determine tlie fpecific gravities
of fubftances to a great degree of accuracy : thefe will be
particularly noticed when dcfcribing the particular inftru-
ments that have been invented for the purpofe. See Hv-
DRO.ST.\Tic Balance, Hvdro.mkter, &c.

One mode of afcertaining the fpecific gravities of fluids,
differing but little from each other in denfity, is to have a
feries of globules of glafs fo loaded, as to correfpond to
the fpecific gravities indicated by as many numbers, wliich
heavier matter ; and that of a fpecifically lighter fluid, being at"^ marked on them, and throwing feveral of them toge-
given : to determine the cavity the vefiel muft have to fwim l''cr into the fluid, and to obferve which of tiiem remains
on the fluid. nearly llationary, v. ithout either rifing to the furface or

The weight of a cubic foot of the fluid being given, the fii^king. This method, though not expedition?, appears to
bulk of the fluid equal to the weight of the veflel is found be very fecure from error, and is well adapted to determine
by the rule of three. If, then, the cavity be made a httle tj'e ftrength of fpirituous hquors. But in all thefe expe-
bigger than this, the veflel will have lefs weight under the riments it is neceflary to be aware that a confiderable change
fame bulk than the fluid, and will therefore be fpecifi- of ''le joint bulk of two fubftances is often prt)duced by

cally lighter than the fame, and confequently it will
fwim.

XVII. The force employed to retain a fpecifically hghter
folid, under a heavier fluid ; and the weight loft by a heavier

their mixture, and that in general their dimcnfions arc con-
Cderably contracted. Thus, 18 gallons of water and 18
gallons of alcohol, iaftead of 36 gallons, make only jr,
confequently the fpecific graiity of the compound is one

folid in a lighter fluid, are each added to' the weight of the 35th greater thaii the mean of the fpecific gravities of the
-•■ . ° . . . ... •= ingredients. And in lome cales the w hole dimenfion of a

fluid, and weigh together with it

The fevcml theorems here delivered, arc not only all de-
monftrable from the principles of mechanics, but are conform-
able to experiment. In effetl, experience is here found to
anfwer exaftly to calculation, as is abundantly evident from
the courfes of philofophical experiments, now frequently ex-
hibited ; where the laws of fpecific gravitation are well illuf-
trated. See Hydrost.\tical balance.

fingle fubftance may even be contracted by the addition of
another fubftance ; thus iron, by the addition of one-eighth
of its bulk of platina, becomes contracted one-fortieth of
that bulk.

For mcafuring the fpecific gravity of gafTis, Mr. Leilie
has devifed a new method, which eonfifts in obferving the
time employed in emptying a veffli through a fmall orifice,

The fpecific gravity of any fubftance is the relative by means of the prelTure of an equal column of water,

weight of a given volume of it, compared with the fame
Tolume of fome other fubftance taken as a ftnndard, and
which is ufually diftilled water at fome given tempera-
ture. The abfolute gravity of a body is its entire weight,
its fpecific gravity is the weight of a given portion, as a

4

A Table of Specific Gravil'ui.

Principally from Davics and Lavoifier. Davles's table it
compiled with great diligence from many diifercnt authors ;
Lavoilitr's is chiefly extraded from BriiTen ; it is carried

GRAVITY.

'to four places of decimals, but little dependence
placed on the lall.

Mineral Produ3iont. Solids.

Platina, purified - r -

hammered - •

Platina, wire - -

laminated - •

Pure gold, cad

hammered
Gold 22 carats fine, of the ftandards of Lon-
don and of Paris, cad

hammered
French gold coin 2 ifj carats fine, cad

coined
French trinket gold, 20 carats fine, caft

hammered
Mercury - -

l^ad, cafl

Litharge
JPurc filver, cad

hammered
Parifian filver, 11 den. 10. gr. fine, cad

hammered
French filver coin, 10 den. 21 gr. fine, cad

hammered
Bifmuth, caft ...

Copper cad ...

■wire . - .

Brafs, cad - -

Brafs wire .• - -

Cobalt, caft

Nickel, caft ...

Iron, caft - -

Bar iron ...

Steel, hard, not fcrewcd
fcrewed
foft, not fcrewcd
fcrewed
Loadilone
Haematite
Tin, caft

fcrewed - - -

Zinc, caft - - - -

Antimony, caft - -

Glafs of antimony
Crude antimony
Tungftein - - -

Arfenic, cad
Molybdena
Ponderous fpar
Jargon of Ceylon
Oriental ruby
Spiuelle ruby
Ballas ruby ■ -
Brafilian ruby
Pfeudolopaz
Bohemian garnet
Syrian garnet
Sapphire of Puy
Oriental fapphire
Sapphire of Brafil
Oriental topaz ...

Saxon topaz
Brafilian topaz
ICmery - -

Hyacinth . -

can be

Beryl, or oriental aquamarine

Occidental aquamarine

Diamond, rofe -coloured

white - '.

19.5000

lighted

20.3366

Manganefe crude ••

21.0417

Black fchorl, crydallizcd

22.0690

amorphous

19.2581

Flint glafs

19.3617

White glafs

Bottle glafs

17.4863

Green glafs

17.5894

Glafs of St. Gobin

17.4022

Fluor, red

176474

green

15.7090

violet

157746

blue

13 5681

white

n 3523

Black and white hone

6 30

White hone

10.4742

Granitello

10.5107

Green ferpentine of Dauphine

10.1753

Green ferpentine

10.3765

Ophite

10.0476

Green jade

10.4077

White jade

98227

Black mica

8.7880

Bafaltes, from the Giant's cau

8.8785

Bafaltcs from Auvergne

8.3958

White Parian marble

8 5441

Green marble

7.8119

Red marble

7.8070

White marble of Carrara

7.2070

Jafponyx

7.7880

Chryfo'lith

7.8163

Chryfolith of Brafil

7.8180

Peruvian emerald

7-8331

Red porphyry

7.8404

Jaiper, grey

4.80

violet

420

yellow-

72914

brown

72994

red

7.1908

White antique alabadcr

6.7021

Rhombic calcareous fpar

4.9464

Pyramidal calcareous fpar

4.0643

Slite

6.0665

Pitchdone, red

57633

blackifh

4-7385

yellow

4.4300

black

44161

Onyx pebble

42833

Tranfparent chalcedony

3.7600

Red Egyptian granite

3.6458

Pure rock cryftal

3-53II

Amorphous quartz

4.27

Agate onyx

4.1881

Carnclian

4.CXD00

Sardonyx

4.0760

Purbcck ftonc

3-9941

White flint

3-1307

Blackidi flint

4.0106

Oriental agate

3-5640

Prafe

3-5365

Portland ftone

4.00

Whetftone of Auvergne

3-6873

Red zeolithe
2

few

ay

3-54*9
2.722

3-53 'O
3.5212

3 5°'

3-53

33852
2.9225

2933-3'
2.8922

2-7325
2.6423
2 4S82
3.1911

3.1817

3-1757
- 3.1683

3-1555
3-i3'i

2.8763
3.0626
2.9883
2. ['.960
2.9722
2.9660
2.9502
2.9C04
2.8642

2-4'53
2,8376
27417
2.7242
2 7168
2.8160
2.7821
2.6923

27755
2.7651
2.7640
2.711 1
2.7101
2.6911
2 6612
27302
2.7151
2.7141
2 6718
2.6695
2.3191
2 0860
2.0499
2.6644
2.6640
2.6541
2.6530
2-647 ■

2-6375
2.6137

2 6021
2.601
2 5941

2.5817
2.5901
2 5805
- 2.570
2.5638
2.4868
■CrvflaUi-/ed

G R A V I T Y.

Cryftallized zeolitlie »

Millftone
Paving ftone
Touchlljne
Cliinefe porcelain

Porcflain of Limoges

Porcelain of Seves
Lapis obiidianiis
Selenite

Sulphate of potafh
Sulphate of foda
Grindilone
Salt
Native fulphur

Melted fulphur

Traiifparent fulphur
Nitre - -

Brick
Alabafter
Plumbago
Sulphate of zinc
Alum
Borax

Sulphate of iron
Afphaltum
Scotch coal

Newcaftle coal

Staffordniirc coal
Jet - - - -

Ice, probably . . .

Pumice ftone

Liquids.

Sulphuric acid

Ph Lond.
Nitrous acid, Ph. Lond.
Nitric acid
Solution of fait

Water 27, fait lo

Water 3, fait I

Water 12, fait i

Water of the Dead fca

Sea water
Solution of cauRio foda
Muriatic acid - - .

Water of the Seine, futered
Naphtha

Siibjlances partly Mineral.

Acetite of lead
Tartrite of antimony
Muriate of ammonia

Solids.

Sulphuric ether
Nitric ether
Muriatic ether

Liquids.

Ehtjlk Fluids.
Kirwan.

2-0833

2483?
2.41 5?.

24153

2-3847

2.3410

2.1457

2.3480

2.322

2.250

2.200

2.1429

2.130

2.0332

1.9907

1.950

2.000

2.000

..87+

1.86

1.850

1.720

1. 718

1.700

1.400

1.300

1.270

1.240

1.238

•930
.9145

1.8409
1.850
1.550
1.2175
1.244
1.240
1. 217
1.060
1.2403
1.0263
1.200
1 . 1 940
1.0015
.708

2.700
2.100
1.4CO

•7394
.908S
.7298

Atmofpheric air
Nitrogen gas
Ammoniacal gas
Hydrogen gas

1. 000
.985
.600
.084

VtgelabU ProduBions.

Sulphureous acid gas 2.265

Carbonic acid gas 1.500

Nitrous gas J-'94

Hepatic gas 1.106

Oxygen gas, 1-103

Lavoifier.
Barometer 30".
Thermom. 52".

.00176

.00137

Cryrtals of tartar

Extract of liquorice

Opopanax

White fugar

Solution of potafh

Gum arabic

Honey

Catechu

Aloes, focotrine

Aloes, hepatic

Bdellium

Myrrh

Pomegranate tree

Cocoa Aiell

Opium

Lignum vita:

Box, Dutch
French

Affafcetida

Tragacanth

Ivy gum

Scanimony, from Smyrna
Aleppo

Sarcocolla

Myrrh

Guaiacum

Gamboge

Refm of jalap
Galbaniim

Gum ammoniac

Dragon's blood

Sagapcnum

Lignum nephriticum

Ebony

Olibauum

Heart of oak, 60 years old

Dry oak
Pitch'
Copal, opaque

tranfparent
Euphorbiuin

Storax . . .

Oil of faffafras
Benzoin
Sandarac
Yellow a.mber
Maftic
Yellow rcfin
Frankincenfe
Mahogany
Acetic acid
Oil of cinnamon
Anime, occidental

oriental
Malmfey Madeira ■ -
Oil of doves
Gall nuts

Elemi . . .

Cyder

Dillilled vinegar
Water at 60 •

.00128
.00120

.00009(1

1.850

1-7228

1.6226

1.606

1.570

'•4525

1.450

1.3980

'•3795
1.3586

'•37'7
1.3600

'•3540

>-345

1.3366

'•3330

1.328

.912

'•3275

1.3161

1.294?

'•2743

J-2354

1.2684

1.250

1.2289

1. 2201

1.2185

1.2120

1.2071

1.2045

1.200S

I.30O

1.177
1.1732
I. 1700

•932
1. 1 50
1. 1398
1.0452
1.1244
1.1098
1.094
I.C924
1.0920
1.0780
1.0742
I.C727
1.07 I
1.063
1.0626
1.0439
1-0426
1.0284
1.0382
1-0363

»-034
1.0182
1.0181
1.0C95
1. 0000
Exirad

GRAVITY.

ExtraA from INIr. Gilpin's Table; Phil. Tranf. 1794.

Water.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
. 10
10
10

9
8

7
6

5

4
3
2
1
o

Alcohol,
o
I
2

3
4

5
6

7
«

9

10
10
10
10
10
ip
10
10
10
10
10

Boiirdeaux wine
B'Jrgiindy wine
Liquid turpentine
Camphor
Oil of mint
Oil of nutmeg
Medlar tree
Linfei'd oil
Oil of caraway
Oil of mirjoram
Oil of fpike
Oil of rofemary
Elailic gum
Oil of poppy feed
Olive wood
Oif of beech maft
Oil of almonds
Olive oil
Logwood
Rape oil
Balfam of Tola
Oil of lavender
Oil of oranges
EffentiJ oil of turpentine
Acetic ether
Beech
Afh

Yew, Spanilh
Dutch
Alder
Elm

Apple tree
Pluml) tree

Indigo
Maple
" Cherry tree
Quince tree
Orange tree
Walnut

at 30".

1.00774

.98804

.9810S

•9763 V
.97200
.96719
.96209
.95681

•95173
.94675
.94222
•9374'
•93'9'
.92563
.91847
.91023
.90054
.88921
.87585

•85957
.83896

40.

1.OC094

.98795

•9i^'«^33
.97472
.96967
.96434
.95879
.95328
.94802
.94295
.03827

•93341
.92783
.92151
.91428
.90596
.89617
.88481

•87134
.85507

•83445

50.
1.0C068

•98745
.97920
.97284
.96708
.96126

•95534
.94958
.94414
•93897
•93419
.92919
.92358

•91723
.90997
.90160
.89174
.88030
.86676
.85042
.82977

6o\

1. 00000
.98654

.97771
.97074
.96437
.95H04
.95181

•94579
.04018

•93493
.93002
.92499

•91933
.91287
.90549
.89707
.88720
.87569
.86208
.84568
.82500

70".

•99894
.98527
.97596
.96836
.96143
.95469
.94813

•94193
.93616

.93076
.92580
.92069

•9M93
.90847
.90104
.89252
.88254
.87105

•85736
.84092
.83023

So"

•9939
•9915
.9910
.9887

•975
.948
.9440

•9403
.940

.940
•936
•934
•9335
.9288
.9270
.9177
.9106
•9153
•913
•913
.896
.8938
.888
.8697
.8664
.8520
.8450
.B070
.7880
.8000
.800
to .600
•7930

•7550
to .663

.7690

•755°
.7150
.7050
.7050
.6710

Pear tree . - .

Fir, yellow

white ...

Male fir ■ . - .

Female fir . - -

Cyprefs . . . .

Lime tree ...

Filbert wood

Arnotto ...

Willow , . .

Cedar ....

Juniper wood
White Spanifh poplar . - .

Poplar . . . .

SafTafras wood ...

Cork . . . .

minimal Siibfiances.

Pearl ....

Coral

Sheep's bone, recent
Oyfter (hell

Ivory ....

Stag's horn

Ox's horn ...

Blade bone of an ox
Lac ....

Ifinglafs ...

Egg of a hen ...

Human blood
Blood, buff coat
ferum

red globules
Ewe's milk

Affes' milk ...

Mare's milk

Goat's milk ...

Cow's milk

Woman's milk ...
Whey of cow's milk
Wax, whke ...

99759

98367

'

97385

96568

95826

95111

.94431

•93785

.93201

.92646

.92142

.91622

.91046

•9': 385

.896^9

.88781

.87776

.86622

.85248

.83603

.81530

.

.6619

.

•657

-

.569

-

.5500

-

.4980

-

.6440

-

.6040

.

.6000

-

.5956

-

.5850

-

.5608

-

.556

-

.5294

-

•3830

-

.482

"

.2400

_

2.750

2.680

-

2.222

2.092

-

1.917

1.875

-

J. 840

1.656

-

1. 1390

I. II I

-

1.090

'•053

-

1.056

1.056

-

1.028

1.0405

-

■•0355

1.0346

-

1.0341

1.0324

-

1.0203

1.0193

-

.9686

Wax,

.9648
•947 Q
•9433

•9423
.9419
.9368
•9342

•9235
.9232
.9263

■9233

.897

G R A

T^'as, yellow ....

Lard

Spermaceti ....

Butter .....

Tallow .....

Fat of hogs ....

of veal ....

of mutton ....
of beef ....

Ambergr^'afe ....

Lamp oil -
Solution of pure ammonia

Gravitv, in Mechanics, denotes the conatus or tendency
of bodies towards the centre of the earth.

Thst part of mechanics which coniidi-rs tlie motion of
bodies ariiing from gravity, is peculiarly callcd_y7ir/;Vj.

Gravity, in this view, is dilHnguifhcd into ahfohite, and
relative.

The former is that with which a body defcends freely
through an unrefifting medium : the laws of which fee
und;r Df.>;cent of lodks, Acceleuatiox, Motion, In-
el'med Plane, Sfc.

The latter is that with which a body defcends after having
fpent part of its weight in overcoming fome refdlance.
Snch is that with which a body defcends along an inclined
plane, where fome part is employed in overcoming the re-
liflauce, or fridion of the plane. The laws of relative gra-
vity, fee under i/iclineJ Plane, Descent, Fluid, Resist-
ance, Szc.

Gkavity, Cen.'re of. 5:e Cestf.r of grjvily.

Gravity, D'lam.ter of Sec Diametek 15/' n^ri7'y;V_y.

GllAi'iTY, Paracentric foUcitation of See Pauacentric.
■ Gravity, Plane of See Flase of gravi/y.

Gravity, Retardation from. See Retardation'.

Gravity of the air. Sec Weight of the Jir, Am and
Atmosphere.

Gravity, in Mu/ic, is an affedion of found by which it
becomes denominated ^jriii'i", low, or flat.

Gravity ftands in oppolition to acutcnefs, wliich is that af-
fection of found by which it is denominated acute, fliarp, or

The relation of gravity and acutcnefs, is the principal
property on which mufic depends ; and it is the dillintt,
fixed, and determinate quality of this relation which entitles
found to the denomination of melodious, harmonieaU or mufical.

Gravitv is, therefore, that modification of found by which
it is confidered as grave or low, with refpeft to, or compared
with, other founds, that are acute or high. See Acute.

The degrees of gravity, &c. depend on the nature of the
fonorons body itfelf, and the particular figure and quantity
thereof: though, in fome cafes, they likewife depend on
the part of the body where it is ftruck. Thus, e. gr. the
founds of two bells of different metals, and the fame (hape
and dimenfions, being tlruck in the fame ])lace, will differ
as to acutenefs and gravity; and two bells of the fame metal
will differ in acutenefs, if they differ in (liape or magnitude,
or be ilruck in different part?.

So in chords, all other things being equal, if they differ
either in matter, or dimenlion, or tenfion, they will alfo
dilTer in gravity.

Thus again, the found of a piece of gold is much graver
than that of a piece of iilver of the fame fliapc and dimen-
tions; and in this cafe tte tones arc, c<eteris paribus, Jiro-
portional to the fpecific gravities: fo a fohd fphere of
brafs, two feet in diameter, will found graver than another
of one foot diameter; and here the tones are proportional
10 the quantities of matter, or the abfolute weights.

Vol. XVI.

G R A

But it muft be obfervcd, that acutenefs and gran'tV, as
alfo loudntfs and lowncfs, are but relative thinTs ' Wc
commonly call a found acute and loud, in refp«ft to^anorhfr
which M grave, or low with refpeA to the fonnerj fo tliat
the fame found may be both grave and acute, and alfo loud
and low, in different comparifons.

The degrees of acutenefs and gravity makrf the different
tones or tunc;, of voice, or found ; fo we fay one found
IS in tune with another, when they arc in the fame degree of
gravity.

The immediate caufe or means of this diverfity of tone*
lies very deep. Mathematicians exprcfs the ^oportion of ,
found to found, by the ratio of numbers. The modem.? f»x
it on the different velocity of the vibrations of the fonoroui
body: in \yhich fenfc gravity may be defired, a relative pro-
perty of found, which, with refped to fome other, i., th'-
effecl of a kifer number of vibrations aocompliflied ir. th-
fame time, or of vibrations of a longer duration. In which
feni'e alfo, acutenefs is the effect of a greater number of vi-
brations, or vibrations of a (hortcr duration.

If the vibrations be ifochronous, the found is called nm-
fical, and is faid to continue at the fame pitch. See Ckohd
and Stuing, in flTufic.

If two or moie founds be compared in tlie relation of
gravity. Sec. tliey are either equal, or uneqval, in the degree
of tune. Such as are equal, or produced by ifochronoui vi-
brations, arc called unifons.

The unequal including, as it were, a diftancc between each
other, coniHtute that we call an interval in mufic ; whicJi
is properly the difference, in point of gravity, between two
founds.

Upon this inequality, or difference, does the whole effeft
depend ; and in refpeA of this it is, that thefe intervals aro
divided into concords and difcords. See Har.monics ard
Ratio.

As the gravity of founds depends on the thicknefs, length,
and tenfion, of the firings, or on the length and diameter of
the pipes, and, in general, on the volume or mafs of the fo-
norous bodies ; the increafe of any of thefe qualities (except
tcnlion) augments the gravity of found. But there is no
abfolute point of gravity in nature, and no found is^<rw or
acute, but by co:nparifon.

GRAULKET, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Tarn, and ciiief place of a canton, in the
dillria of Lavaur ; nine miles N. E. of Lavaur. The place
contains 3419, and the canton 7159 inhaoitants, on a terri.
tory of 135 kilionietres, in (w communes.

GRAUN, Charles Henry, in Biography, chapel-
mailer to Frederic II. the late king of PruHia", was the
favourite compofer of that prince, from 1732 to tlie lime of
his deceafe, in 1759. On the accelTion of the prince of
Pruffia to the throne in 1 740, his majelly, havin)^ determined
to have an Italian lyric theatre in his capital, fent Graun fo
Italy to fhidy the Italian language and tafte in mufic, and
to engage vocal performers. Graim rcinaincd t«o years in
Italy, during which time the king, his royal mailer, had con-
llructed, in Ipite of the Silefian war, one of the iroll mapfni-
fioent, complete, and convenient theatres in Europe, far
which Graun was the compofer to the end of hi? life ; and
even after his doceaie little mulic but of iiis compolition
was ever performed in it for a long time.

Tlie works of this mailer are very nuinerous ; before his
arrival at lierlin, lie let three or four operas in the German
language at Brunlwick, but the words were bad, and it is
not fair to judge of his genius by thofe early produftions.

He compoled for the Berhn theatre, in the fpace of four-

tseu years, from 1743 to I7j6, twcnty-fcvcn Italian opcra.<!

4 •'5 ¥«d

G R A

G R A

and for the cliurch, a Te Dcum, and a P affione, befides mif-
C'-'llaneous prodiiitions of lefs importance, as odes and can-
tatas, with the overture and recitatives of the palloral opera
of Galatea, of which his raajefty, Quantz, and Nichehiian,
fet the fongs.

On the deceafe of this excellent coniijofer, innumerable
poems and panegyrics were written to his memory. Among
the "Critical I^etters concerning Mufic, ' publilhed by M.
Marpnrg, there is an addrefs to M. Fried. W^ilhehn Zacha-
riii, the celebrated poet and niiifician of Bruufwick, recom-
mending the death of Graim to his mnfe. No great ftrefs
can be laid on panegyrics ; however, there are tew of
Oraun's admirers, who are not ready to burn with fire and
faggot all thofe who dare to doubt of this author's vera-
city.

" Graun, the brighte!l ornament of the German mule,
the noble mailer of Iwcet melody, is now no more ! creator
of his own taile, he fpoke not, but to our hearts ; tender,
foft, companionate, elevated, pompous, and terrible, by
turns ; — he could force tears of admiration from us, at his
plealure ; an artill, who made no other ufe of art, than to
.imitate nature, in the moil pleafmg and expreflive manner;
each ftroke of his pencil was equally perfecl, full of inven-
tion, and ot new ideas, his genius was inexhaulliblc. Tiie
model ot iacred muiic, and in the theatre inimitable ! a man
. who commanded our affettions, not only by his talents, but
by his virtues, of friendihip, probity, and patriotilm ; no
man was ever fo univerfally lamented bv the wliole nation,
from the king, to the louell of his fubjcfts.'' 3!tittfcl;C

dCricfc ubct Die Coiifuiifi. 1. 'BanD. li5ctlin 1760.

Nov.-, to revei'fe the medal ; it is denied, by the other
p^rty, that Graun was the creator of iiis own tajle, which
is the tafle ot Vinci ; they deny, that he is ever pompous
or terrible, but lay, tliat an even tenor runs through all his
works, w'.iieh never reach tlie fublime, though the tender
and graceful are frequently found in them ; tliey are equally
unwilling to Inbfcribe to his great invention, or the origina-
lity of his ideas ; and think that Hill more perfecl models
of facred mufic may be found in the clioruifes of Handel,
and the airs and duos of Peigolefi and Jonitlli : nor can they
well comprehend, how that compofer can be called inlmilui/f,
who is hinifelf an imitator.

We have recently examined the fcores of Graun's operas,
and fee no reafon for changing the opinion wlilch we formed
30 years ago. He was certainly a great mailer, elegant in
his melodies, and correCl and regular in his harmony ; but
if any one of his operas were now to be revived, it would be
thought in want ot variety and lire.

During the life of his great and ilhillrious patron, he was
revered as much at Berlin as Handel in England ; both
great men, moll alfuredly ; but much difcriir.ination is ne-
celTary in drasving a parallel between thrm. Handel formed
his ilyle on the bell models of the old Ichool, at the time of
its grcatell perfection ; fuch as C.iriirimi, Colonna, AlelT,
■Scarlatti, Steff.nii and Corelli ; Ciraun on that of the in-
ventor of the new Ilyle, Vinci ; who, though extremely and
juiUy admired for the grace and elegance of his n.elodies,
tiie fimplicity of his acconipaiiiir.ent, and the facility and
clearnefs of his Ilyle in gentral, has been f ; r furpafled by
Pergolell, JomclL, Piccini, Sacchini, and Paeficllo. Ger-
many is perha]is more obliged to Graun for fmootliing,
fimplifying, and polilhing the rough, laboured, and inelegant
Ilyle ot their old mailers, than to any Italians that have been
employed at the imperial coin-t or at Drefden, to fet the
dramas of Apollolu Zeno and Metallalio. Handel had
more Ijjirit and invention, and Graun more polilh and refinc-
idient. Handel was wholly uiirivulkd in the cot.ntry where

he fpent the greated part of his life ; but Graun had a rivart
in the Roman Catholic courts, in the celebrated Hafie, his
countryman, whofe compolitions \\ere as much in circula-
tion and favour all over Europe, as thofe of Vinci and Per-
golefi. Thofe of Graun teem wholly confined to Germany,
and almofl to die couri of Berlin ; nor do we ever remember
to have heard Mara ling one of his airs in England, though
during many years fhe performed the principal female parts
in his operas at Berhn. His Te Dcum was firft appointed to
be performed at the concert of ancient niulic in 1786, by
the late duke of Leeds, then marquis of Caermarthen, and
it has continued a Hock piece everfince. Many of his duets,
and his ^OD jCcfU are admirable comjjofitions, and he cer-
tainly delerves to be ranked very high among the great
mailers of the lafl century.

GuAl.:.s', John Gotti-IB, brother of the above compofer,
and concert-mailer to his late PnifTian majelly, Frederick II.
his admirers at Berlin, fay that " he was one of the greatell
performers on the violin of his time, and moll alfnixdly, a
compofer of the firll rank ; his overtures and lymphonies
are majellic, and his concertos are mailer-pieces, particularly
thofe ior two violins, in v.liich lie has united the moll agree-
able melody with all the learning that the art of counter-
point can boall ; he has likewife frequently fet the Sa!vt
Re[;iriti, and comjioled mafies, which are rendered grand
and noble by fimplicity and good melody, even in the moll>
laboured parts."

But lels quarter is granted to this mailer, by the adniirer.<i
of more modern mulic, than to his brother ; tliLy olten find
his overtures and fvniphonics too like thole ot LuUi, and
too full ot notes to producs any other cfieft, when played
at Berlin, than that ot llunning the hearers : and in his con-
certos and church mulic, when that is not the cafe, the
length of each movement is more immoderate, than Chrillian
patience can endure.

Perhaps the truth may lie between thefe two opinions ;
and with refpcci to the chapel-mailer Graun, it lliould be
remembered, that he was ftldom allowed to follow the bent
of his own genius.

GRAl'NT, JoiiK, born April 24, 1620, was brought
up to the trade of a haberdalher, but by his good
fenfe and integrity in bullnefs lie acquired the eileem
of his fellow citizens, fo as to be elected into the common
council of the city of London. The bills of mortality,
which were annually laid before this bedv, led Mr.
Graunt to turn his attention to the fcience of political arith-
metic. From very fiiiall beginnings he ccUeihted a large
body of materials, from which he compoled a work enti led
" Natural and Political Obfervations made upon the Bills of
Mortality." This work was well received by the public,
and palfed through feveral editions ; it obtained likeuile for
the author an admifiion into the Royal Society, ujion the
particular recommendation of the king, who gave it in
particular charge to thofe concerned, that if they found
any more fuch tradefnicn, they fyould be fure to admit
them ail. It is generally fuppofed that Mr. Graunt
received valuable alhllance from lir W. Petty ; but the
Ilyle is fuch as might be cxpefted from a plain citiien,
and the tabular form, prefenting at one view tlie general
relults of a number of important fiiits, was a thought
efTentially leading to all the coneluliuns which have lliice
been cllabhlhed relative to thele fubjeCls. After he
retired from bulinefs, he was admitted a trufiee for lir Wil-
liam Backhoule, into the management of the New River
Company, which, with the unlucky circumllance of his
being a convert to popery, gave occalion to tlie groundlefs
calumny of his having had a hand in the great lire of London.

The

G R A

G R A

The (lory, tliougli i^iven by Burnet, is ahnndantly refuted
hy tlie writers of tlie Biojra;)!iia Brit?.niiica. Mr. Graur>t
continued his appliciUion to hi-) lludies, and made large ad-
ditions to his " Obferv;itions'' but two years before his
death, wliich happened on the i8th of April, 1674. He was
buried at St. Dunllan's \VlII, and manv of the moll eminent
and ingenious perfons of that time, among whom was fir Wil-
liam Petty, paid thi-ir lall refpecls to iifs memory. He left he-
hind him a diicourfe upon the advance of the exoife, and fome
papers on religious topics, which have not been piib!i(h<d.
It muil be mentioned to his honour, that immediately after
the publicati<in of his book, Lewis XIV. or his minillers,
enacted a law to enforce the moft exact regiller of births and
burials that was to be found anv where in Kurooe. Biog.
Brit.

GRAUPEN, a term ufed bv the German miners to ex-
prefs the reliduum of any ore after the reguhis, or metalline
part, is run from it. Thus the ores of bifmuth leave beliind
them, after the regnlas is melted off, an earthv fiibflance,
called bilmuth graupen, with whicli, mixed witli flints and
an alkali, they make a kind ot fmalt, not dillingnilhable from
the true fmalt made from cobalt. Phil. Tranf. N ^90.

(^RAUSTONE. SeeGi'.EvsToM-.

G R AU WAC KE. See Tran/ition Rof K.«.
. GRAY, TllOMA.";, in Bir^raphv, a diUinguifhed Englifll

poet, defcended from very refpertable citizens of London,
was born in Cornhill, December the 26th, 17 16. His
grandf,!t!icr \vas a confidernb'e merchant ; but his father,
Mr.Piiilip Gray, was f)f an indolent and referved temper ; and
therefore dimini(hcd rather than increafed his paternal for-
tune. He had manv children, of w hom Thomas, the fiibjeft
of thefe mersoirs, was the iifth : all of them except himfelf
died in their infancy, and he is faid to have narrowly efcaped
fuffocatiiin, owing to a too great fiillnefs of blood, which
deilroyed the reil, and he would certainly have been cut off
as early, had not his mother, with a courage remarkable for
one of her fex, ventured to open a vein with her own hand,
which inftantlv r«moved the paroxyfm. He was probably
deiHned for a profefhnn, and accordingly fent to Eton
fchool to acquire the fundamental llock of claffical literature.
Here he was placed under the immediate careot Mr. Antro!>us,
his mother's brother, at that time one of the afllllant mailers,
and likewife a fellow of St Peter's college, Cambridge, to
which place Mr. Gray removed, and was admitted a pen-
fioner in the year 17^4- Of his rcfKlencc at Cambridge few-
memorials are recorded ; he feems rather to have cultivated
a literary talle in filence, than to have had any aim at public
^ilHnflion. He neverthelefs appeared as a poet among the
univerfity congratulators of the prince of W ales'.s ma' 1 iage,
and his verfes were admitted to be tlie beft of the academical
colleftion. His li-tters, during this period, to Mr. 'Well,
which are printed by Mr. Mafon, fliew that he had little re-
verence for the graver iludies, or for the dignified perionage^
of the place, and that he had acquired that claffic fadidioui-
nefs whicli was the permanent feature in his character. He
quitted college in 173S, and occupied a fet of chambers in
the Inner Temple, with the avowed intention of iludying the
law. A Latin ode, addrefl'ed upon this occafion to Mr. Well,
who had the fame purpofe in view, exhibits in a ilriking man-
ner the afcendancy which the poet poU'elfed in his mind over
the ideal huvver ; and on tiie mvitation which Mr. Walpole
j;ave him to he the companion of his travels, he laid alide this
intention, and never after relumed it. They fet out in the
fpring, and liis letters from the different Uages of his pro-
greft, are a proof of the intelligent curiofity with which
he viewed all the ftriking objects of art and nature, and the
manners and habits of mankind. Thus, in hii letter from

Amien% he defcribes even- thing that he favr on tl e road,
paints in vivid colours what was remarkable in the fevcml
towns through which he paffed ; and he adds, that " on
every hillock is a v^-indmili, a crucifix, or a Virgin Mary
dreffed in flowers, and a i rfcnct robe ; one fees not many
people or carriages on ihe road ; now and then a ilrollingr
friar, a countryman with a great muff, or a woman riding
aflride on a little afs, with ihort petticoat', and a great
hcad-drefs of blue wool.'* They travelled liiroi:t;-h France,
croffed the Alps, vifited the priricipal towns of Italy as far
as Naples, returned to FIi>rence, and in the fpritig of 1741
proceeded for Venice. Upon their way thithrr th~ two
companions fell into a difagreement, which occalioned ihfir
feparation Of this unfortunate incident th-- hiograplicT
fays, " Mr. Walpole enjoins me to charge himfelf with the
chief blame in their quarrel ; confeffmg that more attention
and complaifance, more deference to a v. arm fricndfhip, fu-
perior judgment and prudence, might have prevented a rap-
ture that gave much uneafmefs to tht m both, and a lafting
concern to the furvivor; though, in the year S744, a re-
conciliation was effected between tiiem.'' ^Jr. CJray, with
his own v.-ry moder.'.te refources, finiilied the reft of the
tour, and an-ived in England in September 1741, two
months previoudy to the deatii of his fathiT. He now re-
tm-ncd to academic retirement r.t Cambridge. In the follow.
ing year he had the misfortune to lofe hi.-; friend Mr. Weft,
the confident of his fentiments and partner of l.is ftudi'S.
The death of this hopeful young man left a vacancy m Mr«
Grav's heart, which was never after fupplied. He had an
ambitirm to exc<-l in Latin poetry, but was convinced that
lading fame could only be acquired by works acccrdant
to the general tafte of his cinintrynvn. He m.ade many
noble bi-ginnings of poems, whitli, if he had po.Teffcd pcr-
feverance enough to have completed thitn, would have re-
dounded to his immortal honour. In tiie year 1742, he
took the degree of bachelor of civil law, a circumllance
which gave him every neceiTary privilege for improving an
univerfity refidence, and he fat down to a courfe of reading,
which he piirfucd « ith the diligence of an ex7Ct critic. I or
fevcral years his exquifitc learning ami high poetic talents
were known to but a very few of his moll intimate friend'.
In 1747 he publilVdhis " Ode on the di'ant Profpect of
Eton College;" and in 17^1 hs " Elegy written in a
Country Church-vard," was fent into the world without the
author's name. Eew poems w ere ever lo popular ; it hai
-paffed through an almotl indefinite number of editions, ard it
at this moment one of the moft favourite proiluclions of th-
Britilh mufe. It has been tranllated into Latin and Greek
verfe. In i 79^ Gray buried his mother, to whom he had
always behaved with true filial duty and affection, and on
her tomb he wrote, " the tender mother of many children,
one of whom alone had the misfortune to turvive her *" .\t
college he was, on account of fome peculiarity in his man-
ners, fubjetl to the boi(li;roiis tricks of a few riototis youn«
men of fortune, who tooka ]>leafurcin dilhirbing and alarn -
in<T him ; he made remonlli-ances on the lubject to the head*
of the houfe, whicli not producing the effccl which he anti-
cipated, he removed his refidcnce to Pembroke Hall in i •'5^,
and in the fucceeding year he was, on the death »f Cibber.
offered the poll of poet laureat. which he declined. H:.
motive tor refuling this office could not have been throu,u:!i
any doubt of his being adequate to its duties, for in the fan ?
year he ihewed what he was capable of doing as a lyric poe;
bv the publication of his two principal odes, entitled '• O.i
the Progrefs of Poefv ;" and " The Bard.'' It would in-
deed have been moil lamentable that a man of his gi-niui
and Ijidependeot mind Ibouhl have been fettertrU by the obi:,
4 S J gatiijK

G R A

G R A

jifation of producing periodical oblalions of conn inoeiifi-.
The odes jtill mentioned were much lefs popular than ihe
elegy : many could not underftand them, fomc ridiculed
them, and in general they were more theobjeftsof afloniih-
nient than of rapturous feeling ; iieverthclefs, among per-
fons of real literary tafte, they raifed the author's poetical
charafter to a level with that of the fuil poets of his country.
In the year 1759, Mr. Gray varied the uniformity of his
life by a refideuce, wliich continued three years, in lodgings
near the Britifh Mufeuni, chiefly for the purpofe of confult-
kig curious books and manufcripls in that great national re-
pofitory. In 1765 he took a journey into Scotland for
his health, was iiitroduccd to the moil eminent literati in
that. co\uitry, and fed his imagination with thofe fcencs of
natural fublimity and beauty which no man was better qua-
lified to tallc, and to improve. He had, previoufly to this,
iought for the profeiTorihip of modern hillory at Cambridge,
but either his application v.as too late, or the patron, lord
Bute, bad other intereils to ferve ; it was given to another
candidate. A fecond vacancy occurred in 176;-, wlien it
was conferred upon liim, unfolicitcd and miexpectcd, in the
molt handfume way pofliblc, by the duke of Grafton, who,
notwithlianding fome defefls in the former part of his lilc,
has always been capable of doing noble things in a noble
manner. The place was worth 400/. pir aim. an<l Gray
made a voluntary return for the favour by an " Ode to
Mnfic," for the inllallation of that nobleman, as chancellor
of tlieimiverfity in 1769. His new office laid him under an
obligation to iome exertions : he might indeed have flieltered
himfelf by the example of his predeceffors, arid received the
emoluments without paying any regai-d to its duties, but
the idea of retaining a perfeft fmecure did not accord with
his temper; he immediately fct about preparing for adtive
fervice, he ftietched an admirable plan for his inauguration
fpeech, in which, after enumerating the preparatory and
auxiliary ftudies requilite, as ancient hillory, geography,
chronology, &c. he defcended to tlie authentic fources
of the fcicnce, fuch as public treaties ; ftate records, pri-
vate correfpondence of Embaffadors, &c. He alfo drew up
and laid before the duke of Grafton, three different fchemes
ior regulating the method of clioofing pupils privately to be
luftrudled by him, which were highly approved, and if he
had been accuftouicd, by general habits, to thofe exercifes
which he ielt would have been beneficial to the improvement
of his pupils, much might have been expetled from his
lectures, but with a mind replete with the llores of know-
ledge, ancient and modern, he was totally unable, through the
baneful effefts of habitual literary indolence, to bring his vail
acquiiitions to ufe on demand; and after many uiieafy llrug-
gles, he proceeded no farther than to iketch out a plan.
His health was indeed rapidly on the decline ; low fpirits,
" the indo'ent fcholar's familiar malady," feized him ; an
irregular hereditary gout made more frequent attacks than
ufual on his feeble conftitution : at length a fuddcn naufea,
with v.'hich he was affefted while dining in the College Hall,
indicated tli.at the difeafe had left the extremities and
eilabhiheditfelf in the ftomach. He died July 30th 1771,
ift the fifty-fifth year of his age. He was fenlible to the
laft, aad aware, through the whole of the difeafe, of his
great danger, but exprelTed no vifible concern at the thoughts
of his approaching dilToIution. With a warm imagination,
Mr. Gray had cool atledtions, anda calm fedate difpolition.
He was attentive from economy, yet wholly void cf avarice :
he was generous, even when his circumftances were the mod
narrow. He was careful of himfelf, and fo timorous, that
it is aflcrted, fome cf the lined views in a tour to the Lakes
efcaped him, becaufe he did not choofe to venture to thofe

fpots whence they were to be feen. This want of pcrfonal
courage is a fmgular contrail witli the manly and martial
llrains of his poetry. In morals he was temperate, up-
right, and a conllant friend to virtue. Hii religious opinions
were not known, but he aKvays abhorred the dilfemination
of fcepticifm and infidelity. Few men of his reputation
have had lefs vanity, and he bore with g<!od-lumiour and
eafy negligence all the criticiirns upon liis compoiitions.
The learning of our poet was general and deep : it com-
prifed almoil every topic of human enquirv, excepting what
belonged to the fcicnces properly fo called. As a poet his
name mull defcend to the latell poilcrity, at lead, as long
as there is talle enough left to ieel and enjoy elegant
writing. No one appears to have poffcfTed more of that
faculty of poetical perception which diitinguiflies among all
the objects of art and nature what arc iitttil for the poet's
ufe, together with the power of difplaying them in their
richcll colours. According to a critic, Mr. Gray "did
not excel in pure invention, neither is he highly pathetic or
fublimc, but he is fplendid, lofty, and energetic ; generally
corrcit, and richly harmonious. Though lyric poetrv is that
in w hicli he has chiefly cxercifed himfelf, he was capable of
varying his manner to fnit any fpecies of compoiltion. Per-
haps he was bell of all qualified for the moral and didaftic,
if we may judge from his noble fragment of " An Effay on
the Alliance of Education and Gosernmcnt." As a writer
of Latin verfe he is perhaps fiirpalTed by few in clafllc pro-
priety. His letters are entertaining and inltruCtive ; free
from all parade ; they polTefs a fund of pleafantry, v,hich will
ever render them popular among thofe of his countrymen,
who are at all imbued with the principles of literary tafte.
By a friend who has detcribed his character it is faid that
" perhaps he was the moll learned man in Europe ; he was
equally acquainted with the elegant and profound parts of
Icience, and that not fuperficially but thoroughly. He knew
every branch of hillory both natural and civil, and had read
all the original hiilorians of England, France, and Italv ; and
was a great antiquarian. Criticifm, metaphvlics, morals, and
politics, made a principal part of his plan of iludy ;
voyages and travels of all forts were his favourite amufe-
ment, and he had a fine tafte in painting, prints, architefture,
and gardening : with fuch a fund of knowledge, his convcr-
fation mufl have been equally inilruftive and entertaining ;
but he was alfo a good man, a well bred man, a man of
virtue and humanity. There is no ch.araiter without fome
fpeck, fome imperfection ; and I think the greateil defect i:i
his, was an allegation in delicacy, or rather effeminacy,
and a viiible fallidioufnefs or contem.pt anddifdain of his in-
feriors in fcience. He alfo had in foir.e degree that weak-
nefs which difgulled Voltaire fo much in Mr. Congrcve ;
though he feemed to value others chiefly according to the
progrefs they had made in knowledge, yet he could not bear
to be confidered himfelf merely as a man of letters ; and
though witliout birth, or fortune, or ilation, his defire wa-s
to be looked upon as^ a private independent gentleman. '
Mafon's Life and Letters of Gray, four vols. 8vo. 1778.

Gray, or Grey, a mixed colour, par.aking cf the two
extremes, black and white. In dyei::g, many of the
varieties of grey, iron-grey, flate colour, Uq. are given by
procefies, in general, limilar to thofe for black, but with
Imaller quantities of the ingredients, and f fpecially a fliorter
time of immerfion. They are often fini.licd with a weak
bath of weld, cochineal, Brazil-wood, and other liveher
colours to give fomc particular tints.

In the ]\lnnene tliey make feveral forts of grays : as the
ln:iid:d ov bLickaird grzj, which has fpots quite black, dif-
perfed here and there. The iM^^lcd gtRy» wLicli has fpots

cf

G R A

G R A

of a darker oloiir thnn t!n- rcR of tlic- liodr. Th'' ll^hr nr
///;■')- gray, wlicrciii there is but a fiiiall niixtmr of black
Jiairs. Tlu- /?!rfor;;o« gray, wliicli has but a finall mixture
o\ while. And the Irotciu/li or fitnds-inlourcd gray, where
there are bay-coloured hairs mixed with the black.

Gi: \Y, in Zoology, a luime given in ionic eoii;ilieJ of Eng-
land to the badger.

GuAY is alio nied in fomc places for a fpeeies of wild-
duek. more commonly known by the name of l\\c gaJwa//.
aceDlXK.

GuAV, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a di^lrift, in the department of the Upper Saone,
ieated on the Sa6ne, which is navigable bv boats to Lyons,
whither the inhabitants fend grain and iron, the chief
articles of their commerce. Tiie place contains 5009, and
•tl.? canton 13,825 inhabitants, on a territory of 215 kilio-
■nietres, in 26 communes. N. Lit. 47 27'. E. long. 53'
■40'.^

Grvy, a pofl-town of America, in Cumberland county
and ilate of Maine; ij miles N.W. from Portland. The
townfliip was incorporated in 177S, and contains 987 in-
habitants.

Gu.w'.s /?(')'> a Ii^y on the K. fide of the river Columbia,
in New Georgia. N. hit. 46^ 19'. W. long. 23G 22'.
Gkak'.s Cnei, a river of Vuginia, which runs into James

river. N.lat. 37 8'. W,

long.

76° 56',

Gii Av's Harbovr, a port or bay on the W. coaft of North
America, examined and defcribed by Mr. Whitbey. The
furrounding iliores are low and apparently fwampy, with
falt-marfiies ; t!;e foil is a thin mixture of red and white fand
over a bed of flones and pebbles. At a fmall diftance from
the water fide, the country is covered with wood, chiefly
pines of an inferior flunted growth. The number of Indians
inhabiting this place were eftimated at about loo ; they
fpoke the Nootka language, though it did not feem to be
their native tongue, and they appeared to vary in little or
no refpeCt from thofe people occalionally feen. N. lat. 47 .
E. long. 236° 7'.

GRAYLING, or U.mbf.r, the Englifli name for the
fifli called by authors thymallus, and thymus, and by Artedi
nnde a fpeeies of corregonus, and the S.VL.MO thymallus of
Linna-us, whidi fee.

It is caught in the frefh rivers and clear rapid ftreams,
chiefly in the mountainous counties of England, and in the
like iituations in Germany, and other kingdoms, and is one
of the fined tafted of all the freih-watcr iilh. It is common
in Lajiland, where the gnts of it are uied inftead of rennet
to make cheefe, which they get from the milk of the rein-
deer. It is a voracious fifli, rifes freely to the fly, and will
verj- eagerly take a bait. It feeds on worms, andfpawns in
May.

GRAYSON, in Geogrjpby, a county of Virginia in the
»ippcr waters of the Great Kanhawa. It contains 3742
free inhabitants, and 170 fiaves. Its form is triangular;
the longeil line being about 50 miles, and its greatefl breadth
15 miles. It is mountainous, abounding with timber and
iron ore ; and two fets of iron-works are erecl.'d in it : about
2 fiftl; part is arable. The court houfe is in N. lat. 36' 35',
250 miles S.W. of Richmond.

GR.-^ZALEMA, a town of Spain, about i| mile from
the borders of the province of Granada, built partly on the
fide, and partly on the top of a mountain. Moil of the
inhabitants are employed in the raanufafture of woollen and
coarfe cloths, and alfo of crucibles. Their number is about
5C00.

GRAZIANI, Axton-Maria, \x\ Bkgraphy, a bifnop
and elegant w/iter, was borii of a dil\ingi;irncd fauiily at

l?>rgo-ran-Sepo!cro, in Tufcany, about the year X^\-.
Having obtained a good knowledge of grammatical learii.ng
at Friuli under the celebrated Abllcmio, lie wa fent to
Padua to fludythe law. In 1560 lie vifited Rome, and wa.s
kindly patronized by Commendone, aftcr.varda carditia).
He accompanied this friend, between whom and bimfelf
there WHS an unalterable attachment, in all his journeys into
Germany and Poland, and refufcd to quit liim, though fo-
licited with great promifes by Henry of Valois, at thai lime-
king of the latter country. After the death of Commen-
done in 1584, he was made fecretary to pope Sixtiis V ,
and took a confiderable fiiare in the election of Cl-.--
ment VIII. who, iii 1592, in gratitude for his fervice?,
created him bifliop of Amelia, and fent him as his nuncio to
the Italian princes and liatc;, in order to unite them in a
league again !l the Turks. AYhcn at Venice, lie prevented
that republic from declaring in favour of Cifar d'Ellc after
the demife of Alplionfo II. duke of Ferrara. In 1598 lie
retired to his fee, where he remained, till his death in 161 I,
mofl afliduoufly employed in the duties of his high otBce.
As an author Graziani is known by the following works,
" De Billo Cyprio," hb. v. 410. 1624 ; " A Hiftory of the
War of Cyprus:" " De Vita Cominendoni, Cardinalis,"
which was intended as r. tribute of gratitude and affection to
his deceafed friend and patron : " De Cafibus adverfis Vi-
rorum illullrium," and a coUeclion of fynodal ordinances.
In 1745 ^^'^ public were prefented with a curious pofthumous
work of this author, entitled " De Scriptis Invita Minerva,
ad Aloyfium Fratrem," lib. xx. in which he not only gives
an account of his own life and writings, but that o? his
native town and family ; of his brother's travels, and of the
public affairs in which he was engaged. Morcri.

GiiAziANM, D. Bonifacio d.v Makiko, maeftro dicapella
of the Jefuits' chapel and feminary at Rome, was a very
voluminous compofer of facrcd mufic and cantatas, who
flouriflied from the year 1650 to 167S. Padre Martini has
given the following lill of his ecclefiallical publications ;
three books of pfalms for five voices, a due cori, or fur twj
choirs; publiflied at Rome 1652 and 1670. Mafles j j
Rome, 1 67 1. Six books of motets, for i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
voices; Rome, from 1651 to 1671; antiphor.s, for llie
blffled virgin Mary, for 4, 5 and 6 voices, Rome, i66j.
Ri-Jporif. dtlla Sellim. fiinta, Rome, 1 663. Z./Va/;/i; for 3, 4,
5, and 8 voices, Rome 1675. Sacred auJ moral compofi-
tions, for i, 2, 3 and 4 voices, i67{>. Of his cantata",
though none are mentioned in this li!l, yet the number of
them, that have been preferved in MS. coUedions of old
muiic, i.s equal to thofe of Cariirimi, Cefli, and Luigi RoITu
particularly in the Britifli Mufeum ; Dr. Aldridge's collec-
tion of mufic in the library of Chrill -church, Oxford; Dr.
Bm-ney's Colled. S:c.

GRAZIER, in jlgnmhure, a term commonly applied
to fuch farmers as are engaged in the art and bafincfs cl
fattening various forts of live flock on pallure and other
grafs-lands. That this fort of bufmefs may be managed
to the bell pofiible advantage, the grazier (hould have a
perfect knowledge of the nature, properties, and value of
all forts of cattle and flicep llock, as well as of tho qua-
lity of the ground on which they are to be fed, and of
the moil proper metliods of failing them to each ether.
And he iboulJ alfo be well informed concerning the na-
ture and fliites of markets in general. It is obvious tLit
upon thefe being well uaderllood and properly re^.rded,.
much of the fucceis of this fort of fanning bafurels muft
depend, as thereby proper advantage may De taken, not
only of fairs and markets, but a v.vriety o£ other ncccf-
fary glrcucillances. _

G R A

TliP niaikots for the fale of fat (lock, cfpecially thofe
of the neat cattle and (lieep kinds, are generally as high
abo'jt the end of April as at any other period of the year,

G R A i

The frequent weighing of tlie fattening ftock fhews the
grazier the different degrees of progrefs which the animals
have made in different periods and fituations, as well as what

that could - not be readily acquired
ner.

any

other

ai-e really fat at that time are fure to fetch a good price yier,

in the markets, and particularly at Smithfield With the maim r ,,-.•. », n-

iRltcr animals, however, the tufe is, in fome inftances, ra- But affiltance of tins nature is not by any means nrccfTary

thor different 'as to thofe farmers who are good providers : for fuch graziers as have been long accuilomed to the hand-

fnrinr food is now beginning to be ready, though feldom ling and judging of the weights of animals, as they can in

in fuch plenty, from the number of bad' managers, as to general form tolerably corrett ojimions by the eye and th

pie ,.
reduce the market? in any great degree.

TTie inexperieno d grazier (liould confequently tully wei<^
and confide'r the dift'erent modes in which he may be able
to difpofe of his fat ilock to the greatcll advantage. The
iirll aud principal place to which iiis attention will be ch-
ecked, will probably be Smithfield market, efpecially for

If he be fituated in a dillr;ct

fullv

feci, in confequcnce of Inch long experience ; though it
not unfrequentlv happens that they are deceived, the beafts
turning much better and heavier than they had imagined.
It has, indeed, been remarked that, let the grazier be as ex-
perienced as he may in buying and felling, as well as in judfr-
ing by the hand and the eye, the butcher will beat him, from
havincr been able to bring the live to the tcft of the dead

the more fouthern graziers. __ . • ,- • r , ■ c tcr -a , ,

thit is divided into fmall or middhng fized farms, and in weight, in inch a variety ot dihercntmltances, as mult render
which the farmers are commonly in the regular practice his judgment perfect. The grazier, though he cannot
of emiloviiig diilriA drovers, in whom proper confidence therefore equal bun, may, in a great meaiure, approximate
can be placed, he will of necelTity be as fafe as liis neigh- to him by means of frequent careful weigb.ing of the living
\ hours, and mav not have reafcm for any particular caution, animals.

This mode is very common in the eallern part of the county It muff of courfe appear evident that it is a matter of

of Norfolk. Where he occupies a very large farm, what- great confequence for the ilock farmer, to make himfelf, as
■ ■ ■ ' ' loon as polhble, perfectly converfint with this part of his

bufinefs, as without it he muil be liable to be greatly deceived
in his dealings.

GRAZING, the practice of feeding and pafturing
11, he may fafely truff to him ; as the ufual con

ever the natvire of it may be, whether an arable gra/mg
one, as is cullomary in Well Norfolk, or a grafs grazing
one, as in the county of IJncolii, on a fcale that enables
him' to fend many droves in a pretty regular manner to

his falefman, , . . • r c

fidence and integrity of trade molUy take place in fuch
cafes. But it mull be obferved, that it is feldom the cafe
that the grazier wh.o fends occalionally or accidentally a
lot of fat bealls or Iheep to Smiilificld market, gets as fair
a price for them as his great neighbour, who is in con-
ilant dealiii'.^, gets the fame day, or liis little one, whofe
ilock took "tlie fame chance through the means ot a confi-
dential drover. The perfon who thus drops in a lot, out
of the regular courfe of his bufinefs, is fcarcely ever fatisfied
with the treitment he meets. And there is, without doubt,
much truth in the remark, in conlVqucnce of the frequency
of its being made by pcrlons from ditferent places.

On tlus account the incxix-rienced grazier ffiould con-
fider the circumllance well, and try the country butcher.^.

down grals-lands with different forts of live l!ock^ with
the intention of improving and rendering them fit for the
market. It is a fort ot management that cannot be carried
on to much advantage, except in thofc diltricts where the
quantity of paffurc land is confiderable, and of a fuitable
quality for the purpcie, or where the value of tbe produce
of inch fward land is but fmall in comparison with the
Ilock which is fed upon it.

There are particular diftricls in dilTerent parts of the king-
dom that are much more in this fyllein of farming tluitj
others, as i;. exemplified by thole of the counties of Lincoln
and Leicefter, in the middle part of the ifland, Somerfet,
Glouceiler, &:c. in the weff, and Romney uiarfli, &:c. in
the fiiutli.

But there are trafls of grazing ground of more or lefs

in order to feel ^i way thnnigh the difficulty as well as extent in moll of the counties of the kingdom.

he can, -provided liis farm be of fuch a lize, and in ftich It is well remarked that there are certain fituations as

a fituation as to lav liim open to its influence and elfefts. well as defcriptions of patture ground on which tiiis method

In the bufinefs of gra/.mg, great advantage may be de- ot farming may be had recoiirfe to with better profits, and

rived, by thofe who have not had much experience, from more luccefs than that of any branch of the dairying fvllem;

the frequent weighing of the anitnals while alive ; as by a Tliis muff be the cale in till tliofe diffricts where the propor-

comparil'on of the living with the dead weight, in fuch tion ot land in the Hate of tillage is very fmall in coniparifon

cafes, as when they are killed in their own neighbonrhoods, to that of the palhire kind, confequt-ntly the price of pro-

they may foon become able to judge, with a tolerable degree duce of the grafs fort trifling in coniparifon to that of the

of con-eCtnefs, of the dead weiglit of any common li/.ed fat ffock. In all fuch dillricls of the kingdom where the

heart, of which they have afcertained tlie weight while in grais-lands are of fo fine and rich a quality, as to be ca-

thc Hviii"- Hate. And where the living weiglit has been ])able of fattening large bullockfi or other cattle, this fyllem

taken from tables of admeafurement, luch as tlntfe com- may be had recourfe to with much fucccfs and profit, and is

pofed by Bantor, they may compare the refult in a pretty perhaps the betlapplication to which the lands can be iipplicd,

exact wily. ''^ '^ f"'!}' ff'ewn by fuch olillrifts being moiUy under fomo

The work of afccrtaining the living weight in flieep, calves, management or other of this nature,

hogs, and other tinilar kinds of animals, may be eifeiled in It may be obferved that the art of grazing to advantage de-

a hmple and cafy manner, merely by tlie contrivance of pends ui)on a variety of circumllances, fuch as thofc of the

a fort of cage or large covered balket, with a door at each nature and quality of the grounds, the propriety of thf

end for their reception and difcharges, to which is attached management of them in r^fpeft to feeding down, changing,

S pair of large ileclyard;, fo as to Ibew the weight. and Uuitting them up ; the properly adapting the ilock ta

them

GRAZING.

able regard to the qualities or propcrtie« of the kinds of
animals, whatever they may be, in the intention of graz-
ing thorn with profit ; thofe kindu, whcth-r of catdt- or (Ivep,
uliicli have thi- property of keepiHg thcmfelv.s fat, or in
tok nibly fiMl condition, by the leall tonfumptici. or expendi-
ture of food, b>'ing condantly prefera-d, whatever the fize

tliein m quantity, fi/e, and quality ; the jndpjnient of the
grazier not oidy in feledting fiich as are molt fuitable for the
p'.irpofe and moll difpoled to fatten, but in olitiining them,
where they are to be purchafed, at fuch prices as that they
may pay well for keeping ; and difpofing of them, when fat-
tened, at their full Vidue and advantage.

It has been Hated, by Mr. Kent, that the (locking of land or breed may be, "as that is evidently a quality of much
with proper cattle is one ot the nicell parts of the fcience greater imj)i)rtance to tlie grazier than tliat of mere fizc,
ol farming. Where nature is left to herl'elf, Ihe always pro- cmilideriid in an abllract maimer. It is Aated, that where
duces animals fuitable to her vegetation, from the fmallell there are fnic and rich pallures, the graziern-.ay " choofe lii«
(keep on tiie ^Vellh mountains to the large-fl lort in the bealls as large as he can lind them, provided thev are of the
I.incolnlhire marflics ; from tlie little hardy bullock in the right breed and (haiie ; but let him ;J-.vays prefer fliape to
nurtliern highlands to the noble ox in tlie richeil pailures in h/e ; for it will all'undly pay him better ;" and, that

Somerfetlhire. But good hulliandry admits of our increaf-
ing the value of the one in pi'oportion to that of the other.
Land improved enables us to keLp a better fort of ilock,
which (hews the double return the earth makes for any judi-
cious attention or labour we bellow upon it. The true
wildoni of the occupier is bell fliewn in preferving a due
equilibrium between th.i improvement ot his land and Ilock.
They go hand in hand, and if he negleft the one, he cannot
avail himfelf of the otlier. It fhould, tlierefore, be lirll
confidered what kind of cattle, or other forts of ilock, will
anfwer the i)urpofe beft, on the particular defcription of
land upon which they are to be grazed ; and next, what forts
may pay the moll in the confumption of the produce.

" In general, it will probably be found, that upon llrong
florid paltures of the driell kinds, the large lorts of cattle,
w ith fnnie of the larger breeds of Iheep, will be the moll
fuitable ilock ; but that where the grals-lands are neither
lo luxuriant nor fo dry, and upon turnip-lands, the Imall
ICnglilh, Wcllh, or Scotch cattle, with lome of the fmall
breeds of Iheep, will be motl profitable. Thus, as different
forts of grafs-land and different kinds of produce leem in
point of profit to require different defcriptions of animals
to feed upon and conlume their produce, it is of much im-
portance to be at fome pains to make the bell and moll iuitable
application." And in cales wliere the grazier breeds liis own
ilock, he will have little difficulty in ielecting fuch of the
different kinds as are the moll adapted to his views ; but
where the animals are to fee pure! ,'ed in, which mull moll
frequently be the cafe, more care and eireumlpeclion will be
neceffary. It will be proper, though a dilHeult talk, to
make a choice of fuch as have been well kept and are in a
thriving conditicm ; as when they have been Hinted in their
food, and have the contrary appearance, tley feldom do lo
well for the ufes of the grazier. It will likewife be of advan-
tage to have them from lit uat ions in which the lands are interior
in point of richnefs. It is noticed by lome, that many tanners
have found great advantage in buying Iheep from the poorell
fpots, as they generally thrive moll when they come into a
richer pailure, like trees which endure tranfplanting the bet-
ter for coming from a po ir nurlery. They likeu ife think that
they endure folding and penning better than Iheep which are
bred on a more luxuriant foil. And they are certainly right,
in thefe obfervations. But, with-refpect to the notion wliich
farmers are apt to entertain, that all kinds of Iheep will not
end'jre penning, they labour under an error. It is believed
that all lean or llore-llieep are tlie better for being folded.
They are generally more healthy ; and, above all other ad-
vantages, this one is certainly obtained by it ; when fuch
Iheep are put to fatten they thrive much better and taller,
as oxen do that have been moderately worked. But wliore the
grazing-lands are very moid, Iheep are not by any means a
fort of Rock to be depended upon, as they are extremely
liable to become difeafed.

In addition to thcfe points, it is neceffary to have confider-

" thole who are upon indifferent grafs mull take tare to pro-
portion the li/.e of tlieir bealls to the goodiiefs of their paf-
tures : their cattle had much better be too fniall than too
large ; as there are vail tracls ol land that will anfwer in graz-
ing, which are not good enungh to ftip[)ort large breeds."
And it is not improbable, but that the fame thing may hold
good in a great degree in regard to Iheep. But in all fucb
cafes, as w here tlie Ilock is reared upon the land of the farm,
which is often a good practice, there can be little diificultv,
as has been fecn, in fixing upon fuch animals as are the mod
proper in thefe different intentions ; but as it mud t.ften be
neceffary for the glazing tanner to purchafe his live-lSock at
fairs and markets, and in ottier circumllances, much care
and attention, as well as knowledge, will be required
tor him to accomplilli it m the moll advantageous man-
ner.

In a lyllem of Practical Agriculture, lately publifhed, it
is noticed to be " of great importance in this bufinels to
provide fuch as have been kept in a proper manner, and are
in a healthy, improving date ; as, where the contrarv is the
cale, they are difficult, and require a much greater length
ot time to be brouglit into the date pro])er for lale than
would otherwife have beei< neceffary. It is, perhaps, expe-
rience alone tliat can quality the grazier to form a corretl
judgment in tliele relpeets ; in general, however, lie is led
to the choice ot Ilock bv no fixed or feientific principles, but
bv the impreffion the appearances ot the animals liave upon
him.'' And, it is dated on the authority of Mr. Mardiall,
" that the experii need gra/ier, who has been accullomed to
attend fairs and market.s, knows at light, or by the allillance
of the llightell touch, wliether the animals he is about to pur-
cliafe will luit him. Their general form and looks pleafc
him. 'I^liey are every where clian ; ha\e little ollal about
them ; their eyes are full and vivid ; their coiuitenances
brilk ; their tkins alive, and their flelh mellow. On the
whole, thev have the refemblanee of thole which have been
grazed before with fuccels. Dthers are rejeiled, from the
grazier not having found any Inch as thev refemble to have
dime well, but numy to luive f.aned out in an unprofitable
manner." And the writer ot the above work conceives,
that there are certain " principles in this branck c.f the
farmer's bufinels which may be attended lo with gre.it advan-
tage, as the animals have certain points or parts, the proper
or improper forms of which denote them to be valuable, or
the contrarv, for this purpole. Thele are, that the legs
fhould be ihort in proportion to the llze of the animal ; the
back very llraight, broad, and Hat ; the loins wide ; the
careale deep round, or rather barrel-fiiaped below ; the
fore-quarlers round, full, and fpreading ; the bones imall ;
the rtelh ;ill"ording an eladic feel ; the Ikiu thin, and a difpoll.
tion to fatten well, and on the bed parts. Where thefe
marks are predominant, the dock is modly fuitable tor the
piiri)ofes of the graziers." And, " that where the hair of
the hide, in fattening cattle, is incLaed to curl inllead of
I being

GRAZING.

Ijcing Urii'c.ht, tlicy are mod JifpofeJ to thrive. This has
liccii found to be the cafe in praftice in different parts of the
kingdom," as has been fhewn in various publications on
agriculture.

" In lean beads alfo, when the hair of the hides is curled,
lhey commonly keep thcmfclves in better condition than
where the contrary ii; the cafe. In all cafes a difpofition in
the animals, of whatever fort they may be, to wildncfs, and
not remaining quietly in their pailures, forms an infur-
mountable objection lu this fyftem of management ; as no
animal over fattei s well that has a tendency to ramble :
it is quietnefs, feeding quickly, and lying much, that
has the greatcll tendency to make them become fat in a
fhort time ;" a fa£t which is fully confirmed by what hap-
pe!is in the new Leiceller or Difhley breed of (heep,
v\hich are fo tame and quiet as fcarcely to m.ove over a com-
mon gutter in the paiture. And, " from the refult of actual
experiment with fof:r different bealls, in which the lead pof-
fible diirereuce could not be difcovered on the mod minute
cx-cimination, it has been (liewn tliat too much attention can-
not be bedowed in the choice of tlie breed of fattening dock,
as, though they were in every refpett the fame in appear-
ance, two, from their fuperior dilpofition to fatten, were
found to afford aproiit in the proportion of fifteen fliillings
tlie week, while the other two did not yield more tlian about
five (hillings and ten-pence." This fatl is recorded in the
Annals of Agriculture, and clearly diews that too much at-
tention cannot be paid by the grazing farmer to the difcove-
ry of tliis propenhty in the docking of his padure, or other
grafs-lands.

Notwithftanding it mud often happen that the gra/.ier
cannot fully avail himfelf of this, from tlie impolTibility or
vad difficulty of procuring fuch animals, and is coniequent-
ly under the necellity of buying in fuch as are more at hand,
and ready for his ufe.

It is theufual cullomin Leicedcrdiire, and the neighbour-
ing didritls, to have commonly recourfe to the improved
lon^-horned breed of cattle, from the animals being found
to fatten in a ready manner, and to afford good beef. And,
in the adjoining county of Lincolnfhire, a mixture of the
large forts, of both the long and fhort-horned breed, are
had recourfe to as grazing dock, befides thofe bred in the
county, and fuch as are brought into it by the Sotch
d. "Overs.

On the contrary, in SomerfetPnire, the dark-red fort, or
Devondiire breed, has been long much in edeem by the gra-
I'.iers, and have lately fpread themfelves much into the mid-
land diftrifts, as Lcicederdiire, Oxforddiire, and Warwick-
ftire, from the grazing farmers in thefe didric'ts finding them
to anfwer upon their padures more perfeftly. And in Suffex,
the fame breed is alfo held in coniiderable eftimation by the
farmers, as well as their own variety of it, as ihey are both
found to fatten kindly, and with coiifidcrable expedition,
i:pon their lands, and to have a ready iaie in tiieir markets and
fairs.

However, in the more arable or tillage didricts of Nor-
folk and Suffolk, where turnips and artificial grafi'es are
more in ufe, the Kiloe, Gallov/ay, and other fmall Scotch
breeds, as well as thoie of the WelOi runt kind, are in pre-
ferable demand, from their anfwering better on thefe forts of
food, their more kindly difpofition to fatten, and the excel-
lent quahty of their flefh, which never fails to have a ready
f ale in the London market, where thegreated part of their
fat dock is fold. But the grazing farmers in the northern
counties have modly recourfe to their own long-horned breed,
raifed nii the farms, with the dilferent Scotch breeds brought
into the didritts, their home fort being in their experience the

lead difpofed to take on fat and become faleable. And the
large Hereford fort, as \\-ell as that kind of V/eldi cattli
termed the Glamorgan, are alfo very advantageous grazing
dock ill fituations where the padures are good, and tliey can
be finidied with other forts of food. Great numbers of the
former of thefe forts are purchafed by the graziers round
tlie metropolis for being fattened or brought cor;fiderably
forward on the rich grals land», which Irdve been mown for
hay, and finidied with other forts of food. Yet the fmali
breeds of the Scotch, Welfli, or other fimilar kinds, may, in
many cates of the inferior forts of grazing lands, often be
the mod beneficial in aftordiug profit to the fanner, as he
can fuit them more to the nature and date of fuch lands, and
they have more chance of becoming fat upon them. Indeed
it has been dated in the tentli volume of the Bath Papers,
on the experience of fifteen years, that the fmall animal Jiai
generc.lly " a more natural dilpofition to fatten, and requires
(proportionably to the large animal) lefs food to make it fat ;
confequently tlie greater quantity of meat for confumption
can be made per acre." If this point was fatisfaftorily
proved, there could be no doubt of Imall animals being pre-
ferable both on this defcription of grazing land, and tliat of
a better quality ; but, as an able and accurate obferver has
upon mncli experience been induced to think differently on
this fiibject, tlie gra/ier diould be cautious how he has re-
courfe to fmall breeds upon lands that are capable of fat-
tening large ones, until the quedion has been fully de-
cided.

In refpeCf to what relates to the fort of cattle that
may be employed to the greateli advantage under this
iydem, oxen, and fuch heifers as have been fpayed, are
in general confidered, by the bed informed grazier,",
as the bed iort of dock ; as befides being more
qviiet, the latter have not only tlie property of fat-
tening in a more expeditious manner, but with a lefs con-
fumption of food. They are not, however, fo neadily pro-
vided by the grazier. The ox is of courfe the mod com-
monly-, as well as mod extenfively, employed for the purpofe
of the grazier, as having the advantage of being capable of
being fattened, and of afi'ording good beef, after he has been
beneficially wrought in ti'e team <j(f the farmer. Cows, under
different circumdances, are likewife often bought in by the
grazing farmer for th.e purpofe of being made fat, fuch as
thofe that have become dry, have flipped the calf at an early
period, or are becoming aged; but much caution is neceffary
in the purchafe of this fort of grazing dock, as they fre-
quently turn out lefs favourably than bullocks or heifers,
though in fome cafes they leave a good profit. When old,
they rarely thrive well or get fat with any degree of expedi-
tion. Indeed it is, perhaps, the bell way, in all cafes, for
the grazier to have fuch dock as is not too far advanced in
age, as young animals are invariably more difpofed to get
fleih, and become fat, tlian fuch as are old. In the grazing
of both heifers and cow.s, they ihould be fuffered to take the
ball as foon as they have an incliiration, ar.d be ready for
being fold off fat feveral r.ionths before the time they would
have calved. Such cow or heifer dock as are in calf, may
lometimes be purchafed in at a cheap rate in the^^rsin the
autumnal feafon, and be fattened off in the early fpring
with a good profit. There is likewife another defcription
of this Iort of dock fometimes grazed, which is what are
termed y)vf )H.'/r//'«j, or cows tliat are barren ; but thev are
faid to feldom anfwer in this intention in any very advan-
tageoui manner.

In relation to the moll proper flieep deck for the graziet,
wlien the padures are rich, and aftord full keep, the improved,
lurge iorg-woollcd breeds, as liie new Leiceders, may yield

the

GRAZING.

ihc bed profit; but wliere the lands are lefs rich, and the
Feed of coiirfe lefs plentiful, the fmall, improved, (hort-wooUcd
breeds, as the South Downs, may leave a more am])L- pro-
fit to the farmer. Wlicre wethers of the former kind can be
procured, they moftly turn out well for the purpofe. And
Ml the contrary circumftances, pcrh ips the South Downs
■aniiot be excelled by any of the fliort, or middle-woolled
! ■reeds. But iu particidar fituations and circumflanccs of
tjrafs-lands, many other breeds may, ln)\vever, be more profit-
;ilile to the grazing farmer- It is ilated, in the Agricultu-
ral Survey of Soraerfctfiilre, that the Dorfets, forint-rly fo
prevalent in that dillrift, have lately given way to the
polled, native breed of the lower part of tlie county; from
the circumftances of their giving a larger proportion of wool,
and th.'ir fattening more expeditioufly, and at tliefanie time
more fully, efpecially on the internal parts. However, in
tlie rich marfhes in the fouthern parts of the illand, the
grazing farmers, who are moftly in cxtcnilve bulhiefs, have
conftaiitly recourfe to the polled, white-faced breed, and that
uf the South Down, which they find the moft profitable
forts on their lands that can be employed.

In the northern parts of the kingdom, the graziers havs
principally recourfe to the native breeds, the liealli and Che-
viot forts, and find the former the quickeft in getting fut,
, jid the moft hardy in their nature. The Cheviot fort fecms,
iiowever, lately to have gained ground in the more elevated
nnd hilly fituations.

Wiiatever the breeds of t!;e aiii.iials may be that are made
ufe of as grazijig ftock, it has been found, from long expe-
rience, that it is a matter of much importance to procure
tiiem from diilricfts, where the quality of the land is infe-
rior to that on which they are to be fattein-d, as by fuch
means they not only get fat in a more expeditious manner,
but without fuffering any check upon being (irll turned upon
tlie paftures.

It is a matter of much confcqucnce in (heep grazing that
tliey have a fine clofe pafture ; and that they be prevented from
going upon fuch grafs-lands as have been covered by water,
and become fandy, as under fuch circumftances, they are li-
able to become difeafed. And, befides this, it may be be-
neficial in many cafes for the farmer to be careful that
horfes are not turned upon the paftures along with tlieni, as
it has been found that the tufts of long, rank grafs that rife
about the dung-heaps, are apt to render them in a ftate of
difeafe, except where froft has taken place, when the dan-
:;er is for the moft part removed ; and it is fuppofcd, that it
io alfo dangerous to fuffer ftieep to browfe upon the grain,
efpecially that of barley, which (boots up among tlie ftubble,
after the harveft is completed; and fallows that are wet and
iifound are equally detrimental, whether the foil be li^hl or
ftroiig. In the former fituations, they frequently pull up
tlie herbs by the roots, which they eat with the dirt adhering
to them, which will inevitably give them the rot ; and, it
t'le fallows be llrong land, and fhould not afford a iuflicient
I'.ipply of food, they are liable to the hunger-rot, from
f .ing compelled to eat the rank, unwholefome vegetables pro-
duced on fuch grounds^ efpecially the lefter fpcar-wort, and
t!ie marfli-penny-wort, both of which plant,, llourilli in wet
'uations, and ought carefully to lie eradicated wherever
.';ey are found. It is further advifed, that in turning fheep
'to paftures, particularly water-meadows, and alfo into thofc
iaces that are fubjeft to rot, to piu-fue the fame precaution
as with neat-cattle ; which is previoufly to fatisfy the craving
■if appetite, by giving them hay or cut ftraw, and after
the dew lias been evaporated by the rays of the fun, to
flrive them gently round the field for two or throe liours be-
'ire thev are fuffercd to eat. But, whenever any fort of dry

Vol.' XVI.

food is given, they ouglit to be fupplicd witli pure rvitfr,
particularly during the intcnl'e he tt that ufually prevadi in
the lummer months, and whicli often renders thc'-.Tafi at dry
as a ftubble. " For this purpofe, clear, light-runnmg water i»
always to be preferred, where it can l<e obtained ; thuugh, in
general, whatever prefents itfelf is made ufe of. Eut uhere
this neceffary of life is found only in a tainted ftate, or over-
charged with the juice of dung, it will lie advifahlt- to rive
them well-water in troughs or (hr.llov/ tubs. Thit mult be
particularly attended to in the folds, fo long as the Ibecp
are coniined there by the fevcrity of the weather.'' It hat
been noticed, tliat " the watering of fiiccp is, on the Con-
tinent, regarded as a circumltance of tlio grcateft moment,
and accordingly receive! that attention which it n.i|uirc».
Thus, in Sweden, and at the national farm at Rambouiikt in
France, they a-e daily watered with running-water, or w-ith
that obtained from lakes or l'prings,_//(7jr/;n/ water being mod
properly and rigoroudy prohibited. Infomeofthe .Saxon
!heep-farms, the flieep are watered in the cots or folds durn;j
the winter, inftead of taking thejn to watering-places. Spr'i g
or well-water is candufted by mean's of pipes into trougba,
out of which the fiiecp drink at ])leafure ; they in confe-
quence drink oftener, and eacii time take lels water, which
i» favourable to their health. Tiie ordinar/' n-.odc of water-
ing iheep iu that, and we may add in many parts of our own
country, is attended with many inconveniences. The ani-
mals rcfufe to drink water in tlie «-inter, if it lie too cold ; tliey
hurry wiiile drinking, and do not take enough when the
weat'ier is very windy, or hail, rain or fnow fall-.

" Befides wliich, they often dilhirb the water witli their feet ;
tliis difgulU them, and at length one part of tlie flock com-
pletely prevents the otiier from approaching the watering-
plaice." And it has been advifed to fold them before the
dew falls in funimer and winter, and not remove them till it
exhales, letting them have hay or otiier dry food of fome
fort.

1 1 is ftated, that ail grazing-lanJ of ricii quality ought to
be ftocked with flieep, cattle, and horfes, fo that the grafs
may be eaten clean otf ; for, unlefs it is regularly depaf-
tured, much damage eiifues. Each of the above three
kinds ot animals prefers, as moft palatable food, fomc graffcs
which the others rejeit ; and none of them will Lite near
their own dung, though they may near that of others ; and
thus they conjointly contribute to keep the pafture level
without much expence. Paftures or grazing-lands (hould
be kept as level as a bowling-green, both for ornament and
ufe ; for, by one part being left higiier than another, the
long grafs keeps increafing in patches ; and land where it
grows may be confidered as taken away from the pailure,
as the cattle will almoft fooner ilarvc than eat it. By leav.
ing the fort of graftcs the animals rcfufe from rear to year,
the laud increafes in utelefs plants, and diniiniihes in ufeful
ones ; as the feed of fuch plants continually drops, and .the
ufeful ones are prevented feeding by the cattle eatinff them.
If fuch paftures were mown in thofc places, it would give'
the ufeful plants room to grow. There are in this kingdom
ail infinite number of acres of rich and excellent Isnd, which,
from bad management, and from want of judgment in
llockiiig, become of no more value than a barren foil. ' But
fuch grazing land as is intended for the purpofe of feeding
cattle, a few ftieep are conceived abf^liitely treceftijry to'eat
up the weed;;. If any part ot the pafture be getting into
bents, or higher grafs than it ought to be, and the animals
begin to neglect it, you miift iuow it iiuiiH-di^tely, and as
near the ground as pofiible ; for the clofer you cut down
fuch coarfe parts, the fweeter and the quicker will tbo grafs
fpring up in the place. Could aniaidls, by hunger, be
4 T drive*

GRAZING.

driven to eat the long graf?, they would not fatten upon it ;
for, as the nearer the bone the fweeter the flefli, fo the nearer
the ground the fweeter the grafs ; it is not, he fuppofes, fo
much the quantity as tlie quality of the food that muft be
attended to. And in further proof of the advantage of
hard Itocking, it is dated, that it is a common complaint,
that the land is good in fpring, but it goes off. Is this to
be wondered at, when one-third, or perhaps one-half of the
field is become fo rank, that no one animal in the pafture will
bite a mouthful of it ? Suffer the V(;ry beft piece of grafs-
land, entirely free from weeds, to lie witliout either eating
oil the grafs, or mowing it, and in a few years it will be
over-run with weeds, have very little ufefiil grafs in it, and
in faft be little better than rubbifli. Confequcntly, there
can be httle doubt of the beneficial confequences of hard or
clofe ftocking on the older forts of grazing-land ; but on
the new leys it (hould probably be feldom attempted, as
injury may be done to fuch lauds without the Hock being
thereby adequately improved.

But m grazing farms, there are feveral different fyftems of
management purl'ued, in refpeft to cattle as well as fheep.
The practice with fome graziers is, " to purchale tlieir
cattle in the fairs in the autumn-ftaion, about Oclober, or
in the following month, fupporting them througli the win-
ter, principally witii llraw, or iometimea, wliich is a much
better practice, with a little hay mixed with it, till towards
the beginning of March, continuing their fattening through
tho.t and the fucteeding month with fome fort of fucculent
food, fuch as turnips, potatoes, or other fimilar kinds, until
the grafs be in a ilate lit to be turned upon in May, on which
they may be carried forward and completed, according to
GJrcumltances, about Auguft, or in the following month.''
And another praftice " is to purchafe their bealls lean, as
foon-as the grais-lands are in a itate lit to be turned upon in
May, wholly completing their fattening on the grafs about
the latter end of October, or later in the autumn, according
to their quicknefs in feeding. In this fyifcm of management,
the fmaller kinds of cattle Hock may be found in general the
reioll advantageous, efpecially where the lands are of the leis
fertile and luxuriant defcriptions."

Another practice, fomelimes had recourfe to by grazing
farmers, but which is, in general, perhaps lefs profitable than
tither of the above modes, is that of buying in ilock at
fuch periods, according to the difference in their fizcs, as
that they may be ready to be fold ofF about April, or in
the fucceeding month, a period at which they ufually fetch
high prices in tlie markets. It has been obferved, that " in
this fyitem, with large oxen or oth::r forts of beatts, it is
fomelimes the prattice to keep them through two winters,
giving them only one rummer's grafs ; being in the firft win-
ter not fully fed, but kept in good grafs in the fummer-fea-
fon, and forced on with the beft feeding in the fecond ; but
with the fmaller forts of (lock, one fmnmer's grafs and a
winter's ftalling is the ufual mode ; the cattle being bought
in as foon in the fpring as the grafs is rifen to a good bite."
It ds in very fe\v inllances that the animals can pay for this
length of keepit^g. And, " in fome diftricls, lieifers are pre

for being converted into manure. Under other circun>
ftances, the fecond mode of management will be much more
profitable. The two laft methods are the leaft convenient,
and, probably, on the whole, except in very favourable cir-
cumftances, the leaft profitable, efpecially tlie former of them,
as, from the great length of time which they are kept, much
management and attention to food becomes neceflary to ren-
der them advantageous ; which, with common fervants, is
feldom fufficiently regarded."

But in addition to thefe feveral modes or plans of fatten-
ing neat-cattle, there is a practice followed in fome rich hay-
diltrlcls near large towns, and particularly by the hay-farmers
in Middlefex, which is, that " of buying in fmall cattle in
tolerable condition in the autumn, as foon as the afler-grafs
is ready, in order to their being fattened out on the rouens,
and difpofed of towards the latter end of October, or begin-
ninc: of the following; month."

And, regarding fheep ftock, the fame difference of fyftem
takes place ; as, in fome cafes, where the lands are in a ftate
of inclofure, it is the " practice to buy ewes in lamb in the
latter end of fummer or beginning of autumn, keeping them
on the inferior forts of grais-l.inds, ftubbles, or fallows, till
the beginning of January ; and then, by giving them tur-
nips or cabbages, to keep them in good condition through
the period of their lambing, and afterwards in the bell man-
ner that can be contrived, in m-der that the lambs may be-
come fit for the butcher fufficiently earl)- to admit of the
ewes being afterwards fattened, and difpofed of in the begin-
ning of the autumn." This, in many cafes, is found a pro-
fitable fyftem of management, but which requires much care
and attention in direfting it.

Another practice in this bufincfs is, to pwchafe wether
ftock about the beginning of May, at the age of two or
three years, keeping them fparingly till fome weeks after
the grounds have been cleared from hay ; then bringing them
to good keep in the rouen, afterwards fattening them by-
means of turnips or cabbages, fo as not to have them ready
fooner than the beginning of March, which is commonly the
feafon ui which they fetch the higlieft prices. In this fyf-
tem of grazing management, a good profit is moftly afford-
ed by farmers who piiriuc it in a judicious and fteady man-
ner, i

And a- further pratlice in fattening fheep is purfued in
fome cafe 5 with great profit and luccefs, which is that oi
buying in lambs of tiic wether, or other kinds, about the
beginning of SepteTr.ber, which are kept in different methods
by different gra/iers, being by fome brought forward with
the greateft pof'ihle expedition by the beft keep, fo as to be
ready to be fold off as foon as poflible. But others have
recourfe to the contrary method, keeping them only in a
middling way during the winter, till about the beginning of
A])ril, and then forcing them forward by good keep, fo as
to have them ready for the butcher in Auguft, or continu-
ing tliLin in the following month ; and then clearing the
whole of the ftock from the land. In this practice, large
profits are often made by judicious graziers, efpecially when

ferred to oxen ; in Which cafe, they buy them in about fituated near large towns where the population is great.
March or ^Vpril, and, after keeping them through the fum- Another fyftem of fattening, which can only be purfued
jner, fell in October and November.' This method is thought, to advantage in fituations near large populous towns, is that
by fome, a profitable fyitem of management." By the au- of providing grafs-lambs for the markets as early as pofTible
thor of the Modern iiyftem of Praftical Agriculture, on in the fpring months, which pays the grazier well in many
thefe ditfwent fyftems, it is noticed that they may all " pro- cafes. With this view, it is the prattice to procure the
bably be praCtifed wiih advantage under different circiim- more forward ewes, luch as thofe of the Dorfct breed,
ftances ; tut it is obvious that the firft can only be had re- which drop their lambs in the beginning of January, if not
courfe to with propriety, where green winter food is raifed before. In Middlefex, where this management is much at-
'» fiiftkient abundance, and tic -grazier has a ftore of litter tended to, in coufequence of the great demand, it is the cuf-

tom

GRAZING.

torn to purcliafe this fort of cuts at Kingfton, Weyliill, aiicT
other fairs in the neighbourhood. 'J'hc cwts, in order that
they may have a plentiful fupply of milk, arc extremely
well kept on turnips, brewers' grains, and fine green fweet
roiien hay, and the lambs thereby forced forward iu fuch a
rapid manner, as to be ready for the markets in the begin,
uing of March or April. And the twes, from their becom-
ing dry io early, are capable of being fattened and difju-led
of towrads Michaelmas, ufually fetching the prices at which
they were purchafed in at : as the whole of the ftock is in
this fyftem cleared within the year, the farmer has the oppor-
tunity of fully atcertaining its advantage or difadvantage.
The ilatcment of which is thus given in the able Survey of
the Agriculture of the County of Middlefex :

Lamb, fold at
Ewe, do. do.
Wool, zs. 6J. or

Stattimnt.

Together
Deduct prime coft

s.

IO

IO

2

J
o
o
o

.S i

0

I 12

o

I IO

o

Remains the iacreafe of an ewe in one year

It is hinted, that " in this management very much de-
pends upon keeping the ewes perfectly well fed, and in dry
warm inclofed paftures, as without fuch attention the ewes
are apt to become thm and lean, in confcquence of the great-
nefs of the evacuation, and afterward to require a much
longer time in being made fat,'' by which much lofs mull
be fullained. In the Economy of the Midland Counties, a
practice in refpeft to fattening grafs-lambs, is fuggelled,
vrhich in particular cafes may be beneficial ; which is that
of removing the lanribs from the ewes when they decUne much
in milk, before they are perfeftly fattened, in order to com-
plete them on young clover, or other forts of " prime keep.''
The chief objeft in this cafe is, that of the ewes becoming
fooner ready for the butcher. Some, alfo, conceive, that
after the firft fiufh of milk is gone, and it begins to be fcan-
ty, the lambs thrive better " on grafs alone, away from the
ewes," than when kept along with them, as the hankering
after the little milk that is afforded prevents their feeding
freely on the grafs. Hence it is fuppofed, that " where this
method is followed, which can proljably be with advantage
only where the milk of the ewes is greatly deficient in fup-
porting and bringing the lambs forward, much attention
muft be paid to having the keep early and in abundance. In
this view, rye-grafs and white clover for early iiic, and broad
clover at a later period, may be the moll proper and ufetul
crops. In this management the ewes ftiould be carefully
examined occafionally ; and, where much deficiency in the
milk is found, the lambs be immediately removed to the
paltures."

In refpect to the flocking of grafs-lands in tlie molt advan-
tageous manner for the grazier, it mull depend materially on
the richnefs of the lands, and the nature of the Hock in
refpeft to fize, and other circumllances. But, according
to Mr. Bilhngdey, the Somerletfhire graziers, in Hocking
the rich and middling forts of grafs-land, allow, to an ox,
from one acre to an acre and a half; and fome add one flieep
to each ox. But, in Lincolnfhire, they llock in much larger
proportions ; as is fhewn in the Agricultural Survey of that
diflrict, where they are brought into a tabular form as be-
low, for the more rich paftiu-e land.

Table of Stocking ricli Paflurpi.

Nam*« of |>1-.»:i-|.

! Long Sutton . . .

Mr. Scroop . . .
Bollon, &c. -

Skirbeck . . .

Bo don . - . .
Deeping Fen, Mr. Graves

Alderchurch, Mr. Bcrridge

Swinefliead . . .

Eweiby - - - .
Horbling, &c.

Hov.el - . - -

A £

"a 5 a,

tM

m

■= t
5 =

i

Ji

ii

n

Nu I.-I1I rka.

4

;!

2

5

2

s

I

3{

1

1 5,

2

li

40 1

, ^^

2

3

^

; 2l

1

2

3

^\

2

30.

llmmingham

.

>'.

2

jGraiiitlurrp, &c.

-

- 3

3

li

1

1 Stalleiiborough

2

2

iSkidbrook

- !

1 1

.1

Ditto, &c.

. , .:

2

35

,Addl(lhorpe -

-1 5

'I

2

40 1

Gofbcrton

-i 6

I

a

Burgh, &c. -

- 5

2

2

40I

Wrangle

- 2

2

—

36 '

1 Hundred of Skirbeck

- 2

'i

2

45

, Wibberton

.

- 5

2

2^

1 Marfii Chapel -

-

- 3

2

^?-!

Ditto

-

- 3

I

—

4V

^ Grimfhy -

Average

-

- 2\

•

2;

-■ 3i

'i

.,

Upon this it is obferved, that " confidering the fize if
the fheep, which cannot be ellimatcd at lefs than z^lb. a
quarter, on an average ; and that the bullocks rife from
50 to 100 flone (141b.), tliis rateof flocking is very great
indeed. There are, on every acre, 3601b. of mutton, and
reckoning the bullocks at 42 flone, dead wtight, tlierc is alfo
3361b. of beef; in all, 6961b. of meat per acre in fummcr,
bcfides the winter produce, whicli is immenfe.''

But, in the rich grazing counties in the more fouthem
parts of the illand, a I;irge proportion of both fhi-ep and cat-
tle flock is admitted per acre : the exaifl pnjportion, how-
ever, ditlcrs with dilfi rent graziers very greatly.

But the gre.nt aud leading principle in this bufmefs is,
however, never to flock in fuch a manner as to reftricl the
animals in the leafl ; as it is by their being enabled to fill
themfeKes quickly, and to lie down much, that the grealefl
progrefs and advancement in fattening are made, whetlitr in
tloek of the cattle, flieep, or any other fort, when at grals.
But, on the inferior or weaker grafs-lar.J,-;, a much fmaller
proportion of flock than on thofe of the rich and fertile
kind only can be employed. It can frequently not be more
than an ox and a fheep or two, to two acres, or two atrts
and a half. However, in flocking with neat-cattle, for the
purpofe of fattening, it fhould conllantly be fuch as that
the animals may have a full bite ; but with fheep, fuch as
to keep the padure in a rather clofe flate of feeding. An-
other circumflance is neceffary to be attended to, in order to
bring the grazing-llock properly forward in paftures, which
is that of changing them more frequently than has generally
been the cafe with grazing farmers. And it is, perhaps, on
this principle, as well as thofe of their affording greater
4 T 2 degrees

GRAZING.

degrees of warmth and (lu'ltcr, and th'.Ti-by promoting the
growth of the herbage more ;\b'.nidantiy, that Imall in-
chsfurcs are more advantag-ous in tliis practice than thofe of
a iize larger. See Pastuke.

But the praftice of different diftriiils, where the grazing
fyftem is much in nfe, will, however, afl'ord a more clear
idea of this fort of management-. In the Agricultural
Survey of I.,incoln(hire, it is Hated, that in the low-land
ill Barton on the Humber, there was a horfe-pallure and a
ihcep one contiguous, and upon the inclofure it was remark-
able to obferve the great difference between tlieni ; that
which had been under iheep fo greatly fuperior. And in
the traft of marfh-land on the fea-coall they obferve, that,
where moll grafs is left in autumn, there the herbage is the
coarfeil and uorft next year. The remark was, it is ob-
ferved, made in anfwer to recommending eddiHi for fpring-
feeding flieep, which they thought would not do on rich
marQi, though it might on uplands. This likewile iliews
that the Ronmey Marft fyftem of clofe feeding is right,
and would anfwer as well in Lincolnfhire. And in the hun-
dred of Skirbeck, they like, it is added, to have a tole-
rable head of grafs in the fpring, before turning in ; and
afterwards fo to ftock as to prevent its getting coarfe by
runiung aiva-;,, fo as to prevent the necefTity of hobb'mg,
which, however, mull be done in a wet growing feafun.
Mr. Parkinfon obferves, that the lefs flieep are changed
the better. This remark, which he takes to be very juit,
demands, he fays, attention : it bears on the queilion of
folding. Bcails are changed while hobh'tng is done ; and
the fooner it is hobbed the better, as, if cut while young,
cattle will eat it. But in Somerfetfliire, according to Mr.
Billingfley, in fuinmer feeding, attentive farmers have the
dung which falls from the animal fcraped up and wheeled
into heaps, and the thillles and rough fpots frequently mown.
Belldes they make a point of excluding horfes and (heep
from their cow-pailures. And when their mown ground
is fit to be flocked, they hayn their fummer leaze, fo as to
have a good fupply of rough grafs or rouen in the winter.
They alfo mow and feed alternately, by which means the
bell forts of gralTes are prefervcd and encouraged ; and in
the Synopfis of Hufbandry, it is Hated, that, " when the
fummer turns out moift and growing, the herbage often
ihoots fa'.ler than the llock can eat it down. In this cafe
it is common in Kent, to brufli over the marfhes at the
mowing feafon, though they had not been originally laid
in for that purpofe ; by which economy the farmer becomes
pofrefTed of a much larger portion of hay than he had be-
fore formed an expeftation of, and which, in countries
where this commodity fetches a ^jood price, is an advantage
whereof he is right to avail himfelf ; for thefe cafual brudi-
ings may probably furnifh him with a quantity of winter
provender fufficient to his own ufe ; whilft thofe marflies
which were primarily intended to be mown, and having been
defignedly laid in with that view, will produce a commodity
of abetter quality and m.ore faleable ; that may be difpofed
of at market. Ou the removal of this old grafs, the ground
is left at liberty to fend forth a more vigorous (lioot in the
autumn, fo that thefe rouens do at that time produce a
iweet and wholefome patturage, which would otherwife have
been choked up with the rotten tore ' of the Lift year ; yet
there are cafes whore it may be neceffary to fiiffer this old
grafs to remain on the ground, as where a portion of food
is required for the cows or other horned beatts in the winter.
Then this old tore, having been fweetened by the frofts, will
be found exceedingly ufeful, and the cattle will at that time
greedily devour what in the fummer months they turned from
with difguft.''

The fame writer alfo adds, that " the manner of flocking
a grazing farm in the marfhes differs according to the nature
of the land. In Romney Marfli, the view,s of the grazier
are chiefly directed to the breeding and management of
fheep : and in the Ille of Sheepey, both bullocks and fheep
claim his attention, vvhilft in fome parts the marfli land is
wholly appropriated to the breeding of horned cattle and
colts. Thofe grazing farms are molt eligible, which admit
of breeding and fattening on the fame palture. This is the
cafe with Romney Marlli, a tratt of land fo eminently diftin-
guillied for a valuable breed of polled flieep, that it fur-
niflies the graziers of Sheepey, and other places in this
county, with an annual fupply of lean-ftock over and above
what is referved for feeding ; fo tliat it is evident the gra-
zier here enjoys a double profit from his farm, though it is
believed, iince the increafed value of lean-flieep, that the
graziers in the Ille of Sheepey have many of them adopted
the method of breeding their own flock.'' This is pro-
bably the moil beneficial praftice.

In the county of Wellmoreland, the cattle bought in in
September are wintered on the coarfe paftures and in the
ftraw-yard. In May following the young ones are fent to
the commons ; and thofe of an older dcfcription turned
upon the beft paftures as foon as pofTible, according to tlie
earlinefs of the filuation. But in the Agricultural Report
of the North Riding of Yorklliire, it is faid that " there
the ufual time of breaking the paftures is the 12th May,
from which time they continue regularly flocked until
about OAober, when, if the ftock confifts of milch- cows,
or feeding cattle and fheep, they are removed to fog (after-
grafs) ; the paftures, with the addition of the itubbles,
remain flocked during the winter with ftore fiieep or lean
cattle ; biit the latter are, by many farmers, taken into the
flraw-yard for the night. The herbage of the paftures is,
however, it is thought, thus completely deftroyed before
winter, and the land thus left naked is ftarved, and the
growth of mofs greatly encouraged, to the almofl certain
ruin of the grafs-land. An inftancehas not occurred in the
courfe of the furvey, of the prattice of preferviug a conii-
derable part of the fummer growth of grafs upon the lancf,
for fpring feed, a praftice well worthy of attention. This
winter clothing, it is fuppofed, enriches the fwards, deflroys
the mofs, and, by keeping the roots of the grafs warm,
caufes an early vegetation in fpring, when tlie fcarcity of
the herbage fo much enhances the value of it. On farms,
the foil of which is not adapted to turnips, this pradlice
would, it is faid, be peculiarly beneficial."

" In March, the land intended to be paftured the enfuing
fummer, is, or ought to be freed, and the flock put into the
land intended to be mown, where they remain, until thofe
paftures arc broken up in the beginning of May.

" In the dales of the Moorlands, the lower lands only
are adapted to meadow ; confequently, the land cannot be
changed alternately from meadow to pafture, as may be
prattifed in many other parts of the Riding ; though there,
as before noticed, the practice is not fufhciently attended to.
There are many inftances of cow-pafture, which have been
invariably fummer-fed during feveral generations." See
PASTUKE-/-nnc/j'.

" The beft farmers ufually pafture their new laid ground
the firll two years, and that chiefly with fheep, as fheep im-
prove grafs more than any other kind of ftock, both by
their treading more lightly and uniformly, and by the dung
and urine being more regularly difperfed over the land.
But the praOftice of eating them very bare during the firll
autumn and winter after fowing, and alio mowing them tlx;
firll fummer, is too prevalent ; fach praiiliccs ai"e, it is oh-

ferved,

GRAZING.

fervcd, the ruin of feeds Some, however, think tliat
paihinng new laid ground is moll excellent management ;
tiie tev^ral grades, hy being frequently cropped, become
not only firmer in nature, but niich more numerous. Stock,
when pafturing new 1 mds, ought to be often clianged ; if
ever you over-eat, they will require fomc time to lecover
their ulual vigour. New laid-i^rounds fonvtiiiies give fliecp
the rot, particularly three or four years laid, on indifferent
foil."

And the priclic of fnifting the ftock from one pafturc
to anotlier, of mixing diif.\-ei)t kinds of lloek togetlier in
a due proportion in the fame pafture, and under itocking
with (heep, palhire? d-llhied fur feeding larger cattle, Ihould
always be particularly attended to.

It is Hated in the Survey of Lincohilhire, that " the rich
grazing lands are the glory of that county, and demand
a fingular attention. Tlu- foil is a rich loamy clay, fome
very llifi, but of uncommon fertility, as may be feen by
various inftances. Some of the grazing lands in Long
Sutton that were common, will carry five or fix iliecp an
acre, and four bullocks to ten acres. Mr. Scrope has
tliere four acres, which carry .^J iheep in fnmmer, and mult
h\^ liolhed oitcn to keep it down. And on the grafs-lands in
Deeping Fen, improved by paring and burning, Mr. Graves
keeps five ilieep an acre from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and
one and a half in winter, and a bullock of •60 Hone to two
acres befides in fummer."

And from fome trials which were made by T. Fydcll,
efq. in the grazing of neat cattle on the beil lort of ground
in Lincohilhire, and vvliich are given below, Mr. Young is
led to conclude, that 3/. an acre is the highell rent he has
heard of in that county, and much higher than common,
even for t!ie bell lands. Tliis feems to confirm- the idea he
has entertained, that the rich grazing lands of this dillrict
are lower rented than fuch or nearly fuch lands in other
parts of the kingdom. And further, that " tlie average
weight of the bealls was 70 ilone, being of the York or
Lincoln breed ; the (heep all Lincolns. The former bought
in April or May, and all gone by the I ith of December ;
the iheep are bought in May ; they are clipped twice, and
fold fat in April or in May following ; that there is little
difference in feafons, except that, after a bad winter, the
fheep are not ready for market fo foon by a menth as they
are after good winters. The lofs in weight in driving to
Smithfield is very little; the expence, beails ijj. ^J. flieep
IX. 9'(/. each. Mr. Fydell held for feveral years a piece
of land in Skirbeck pariih, which mcafured 21 acres, and
kept, communtbus annis, from Lady-day to Michaelmas, 19
heavy bealls, and a 100 (heep, and wintered fifty (heep.
Aind he now holds a palture adjoining his garden, at Bollon,
of eight acres, which keeps in fummer ten oxen and forty
(lieep, and winters thirty (heep. But the finell grazing
bdds are at Bollon, Alderchiirch, Fofdyke, Sutherton,
Kirton, Frampton, Wibberton, and Skirbeck : thefe will
r".rry, in fummer, a bullock to an acre and a half, befides
lour (heep an acre ; and two fheep an acre in the winter
;"eafon."

It is ftatedthat " the Rev. Mr. Berridge,of Alderchurch,
1. as near his houfe forty acres of the rich grafs, upon wliich
tje flock is- upon an average 300 fheep, fixteen fattening
:ilocks, three cows, four horfes, and carries through the
. inter three iheep an acre. This land is valued at 40J-. an
;.ere. It is a vail flock. He favoured him with thefe par-
ticulars in th.e prefence of a dozen neighbours, and called in
his manager to confirm it ; it wanted, therefore, no after-
correctious." Aad " iu the grazing lands at Swinoihead, a

beafl an acre of 40 to 70 flone, and two or three fheep ; alfff
two (heep an acre in winter. ^Ir. Tjndal, at Ewerby, whick
is on high-land, compared with Holi ,nd F?n, ilocks a bul-
lock to two and a hail acres, anii three flicep per acre in
fummer, and two llieep an acre in >viriter. And In the lord-
fiilps of Horhling, B:lIingborough, Bcrthorp, Sempring-
ham, I'ointon, Dmvfhy, Dunfby, and Hackonby, tliere are
cxtenfive tracts ot rich grazing land applied to fattening
bullocks and (heep, carr j-ing a bullock to two acres, and three
fheep per acre i.. fummer ; and two (heep an acre in winter,
wliitli lands are gner^lly rented at 30/. p:r acre. Mr.
F.lkington, of Howel, keeps one bullock and nine fheep to
three acres, and in the winter two (heep an acre." But
" Hanworth, north of Lincom, is chiefly grafs which is fed
by cows, calves, and youiig cattle. On the Lawn at Norton
Place, which is heath-land, two couples per acre in fummer ;
but tlie foil Mot adapted to permanent gfafs without great
exertion '' Ar.d "there is a tradt of pafturc-land, which
is of confiderable extent north and fouth, but very nairokV
eail and well, which lies in the vale between the heath ai:d
the Wolds. He viewed it from Norton Phicc in going to
Owerlby, which is in it ; tlie quahty is good, but of the-
fecond rate." And further, that " the grafs-land clofe to
Gainfborough lets at 4/. and 5/ an acre. The marlh grafa
on t!ie Trent and Knailh, &c. 20s. to 30*. and produces
one and a half or two tons of hay an acre. The niarflies on
the river are (locked from the 12th of April to the 1 2th of
May ; this of late has, however, been omitted, as they
found the grafi hurt by it. Clear the hay by Lammas, one
to one and a half ton an acre. Then turn in mi!cli-c6\<i5,
and afterwards other (lock, till November. Rent zos. but-
meafiire fhort. And at Garthorpe, in marfh-lands, foist
rich grazing lands, which will carry a good bullock an acre,
but no Iheep fed. This land is now let to break up a:
3/. 15X. an acre for 14 years." But that " Mr. Keffclden,
at Barton, has four acres near the town ; levelled and ma*
nured it after the allotment, and this year it feeds four
cows: three of them joilled at 31. a week, a produce of li
guineas. At Tinmingham and Stallenhorough, there are
fome marfh-lands that will carry nine bullocks of 80 ftone
upon 12 acres, and 12 fheep, and two fheep per acre in
winter ; fome has only one. But the fame lordlhips hjvT,
it is remarked, clay pallures that will not do any thing Kke
this. And, at Thornton college, Mr. Uppleby has a few
clofes of extraordinary fine grazing-Iand, which will carry
the larged bullocks, and it is worth, he thinks, 50/. an acre
rent.

" The raarfli on tlie coaft of Grainthorpe, Salt fleet by,
and Theddlethorpc, &c. is very good : it will keep three
flieep an acre, and an ox to three acres ; and one iheep and
an half to an acre in winter. The hilly wold good pallures
on marl and chalk at Gayton, near Louth, will carry three
ewes and three lambs per acre, and a fprinkliug of young
cattle, &c. befides ; fome only two ewes and lambs, befides
cattle, fuch land as is worth 1 5/. to 2Cs. an acre. In the ■
marlhes that are in the vicinity of Saltflect and Suttoa,
there is fome dillinclion, which it will be proper to note by
parilhes. In Northcots, the ((uahly rather inferior, being
chiefly for breeding. Mars Chapel, better, but Hill weak ;
and for breeding alfo. In Grainthorpe, a great deal very
good grazing laiul. Coni.'holm, low, lwam;:v, and but
little good. Skidbrook, a great deal, and \-er)- good. South
Somcrcois, the fame ; but loco acres of ingi, or common
meadow. The three Saltfleetby's 5000 acres, and a great
deal very (Inuig and good for feeding heads. Some of tlie
bte Mr. Cliapliu's marlhes h^ve luid fa high as 77/. the

ilaiuie

GRAZING.

ftatute acre. In general, the mfafure fhort from Saltfleet
to Sutton, there ftatute. In the Theddlcthorpcs, much very
<rood ; but fome low, and not well drahied. Marblcthorpv,
very good. Sutton, remarkable good and ftrong feeding

land. . , r 1

" In thefe marfh parifhes, the rich grazing ground of the

firft quaUty lets at about 4.0s. an acre, and the reft about

^o.r. Such as will not feed, but only breed, at 20s. to 25/. ;

and this dillindlion of feeding and breeding is here alio ex-

prelTed by faying, that one fort of marfh will feed flieep ;

but the other, keep them in holding order, will make them

hold the flefli they have got, but not fatten profitably. If

the beft of thefe lands are compared with the graziDg diftrifts

ot Bofton and its vicinity, it was remarked to him, that

thefe are more naturally good, and much better watered :

they have at all times plenty of freili water here, which is

a great objeA; but for artificial fertility, locahty to fairs

and markets, &c. the Bolton lands are much fuperior.

The nieafure at Bollon, &c. is here faid to be more than an

acre ; here lefs, not more than three roods, and the iiig land

ftill iefs. On ten acres, at Skidbrook, eight beails and

fixteen (lieep have been fumniered, and the flieep wintered

alfo. And, in general, the marfii that lets from 30J. to 40J.

will carry a beaft to two acres, and two flieep an acre ; but,

perhaps, he fays, more generally one and a half (heep."

With refpeft to the profit ot grazing the belt land, it is
ftated in this manner :

Slatenunt.
A beaft bought at 20/. to two acres, at the £. s. d.
profits of 5/. - - - - 2 10 o

Two fheep/>«- acre, bought in at 45.f. and fold

at55x. 100

Four fleeces at (jMb. 38/J. at 8(/. - - 1 5 4

Either, therefore, the land carries more ftock, or it is too
highly rented. Grazing is accounted a profitable profeni')n ;
but when it is confidered that this 26/. capiri.l would ilock
five acres of good arable land, and that they could not be
reckoned to pay a lefs profit than from 12s. to ijj. an acre,
from 3/. to 4/. 5^. it will appear that the plough is much
more beneficial than fuch grazing calculated in this way.

Mr. Kerfhaw, of Driby, and Mr. Bourne, of Haugh,
agree in the following marfh account for land there at ajj.
the acre.

Prodi

roiliice.

Two flieep at loj. tlie fummcr
Two ditto in winter
Half the profit on an ox

Espcnces.

Rent

Tithe

Rates and dyke-reeve

Shepherding

Cutting thiitles and dreffing

Ditches, folds, &c.

Interefl of Capital.

Bullock, half £.6 o o

Two (heep 3 o o £. s.

Rent - 2 o o o 1 1

d.
o

£. s. d.
100
I o o

I 13 4
3 »3 4

I 15

o 3
o 8
o 1

O 2

C O

Expences.

Rent

Tithe •

Rates

l)yke-reeve

Shepherding

Wafliing and clipping
Incidents

Capital employed.

Beads - £-io o o
Sheep - 4 10 6

A year's rent

At 5/. per cent.

24 10 6
200

26 10 6

4 15 4

£.

-

- 2

0

0

-

- 0

I

0

.

- 0

3

6

-

- 0

0

9

2

5

3

-

- 0

I

0

•

- 0

0

6

-

- 0

0

6

£. s.

d.

I 6

b

Profit

Going to look at ftock £.0 o 6

3 » o
Produce -

Expences

3 '3 9

Here the total intereft made is about 9/ per cent, on the
capital of 26/., and this leems to be rather inadequate, for
there is nothing for lofTes, which, in a courfe of time, muft
be fomething confiderable. The intereft made ought to be,
at leaft, 10/. per cent, after a proper dedudion for lolfes.

- ^-3 13 4
3 I o

Profit

The grofs intereft rather better than 10/. per cent.

Mr. Parkinfon, of Reevefby, obferved, that the rich
marfhes were better managed, and in better order, twenty
years ago, than they are at prefent ; the wold farmers had not
then got fuch poflcffion of them, and they were in the hands
of refident graziers, who attend much more to hobhhg,
which kept them fine ; for nothing hurts marfli land 10
much as letting it run coarfe, from permitting the grafs io
get a head. And he calculates an acre of rich marfh in
Wrangle, &c. thus,

Expences.

Rent

Tithe
Rates
Shepherding

Dyke-reeve

Ditches, folds, and gates

£ I 16
o o
o 6
o I

230
-008
- o o €

Interefi

I

GRAZING.

Inlerejl of Cap'tlal.

2 Shearlings £.^
Bullock to two

acres 20/. 10
Year's rent 2

0 0

0 0
0 0

17

0 0

Grazing ^cctunt of ten Acta of the firft Quality.

£.0 17

3 I

" Rent

Tithe, 3i.

Town charges.

Poor and conftable, &c.

Church

Highways

Produce.

Improvement of 2 iheep, 4 fleeces, 3 to a tod,

I' tod - - - - - I 6

Difference in price 10s. - - -10

Loffes 5/. pc-r cent.

2

- 0

6

2

8
4

Bullock, profit about 4/. jC.2 0 0
Loffes one-fcrtieth - 010

2
I

4
19

4

Expences

4
3

I

3

I

4
2

Profit per acre

2

2

Or total interefl 1 1/. Jj. Cd. per cent.

In the hundred of Skirbeck, the pafture confifts of three
forts in point of rent, &c. the higheft at about ^^s. being
from 32J. to 5CJ-. The fecond from 26s. to 32X. averatfe
28.;. The third, average i/. is. Befides this a fmall
quantity of open meadow, called in^s, average about
i8j. The bi-il kind of pallure is chiefly ftocked with
(hearling wethers, bought at the fpring market at Bofton,
which, having yielded two fleeces of wool, are fold off eafily
in the next year ; and by hearts in the fummer, fold in
autumn ; fome kept on farther in eddifh, but all gone in the
tsinter. The fecond bed is chiefly fed by young beads and
hogs, kept on to fliearlings : thefe are well kept, as their
value materially depends on it ; there a.e alfo fome few
breeding fiieep on this divifion of the partiire. The third
clafs is chiefly mown. But it is to be noted that all thefe
partlcrJars relate to an acre larger than ftatute meafure,
aljout 4 J roods."

" The firil div'Jion is ftocked at the rate of three (heep
per acre, winter and tummer, with the overplus of fome
bought in the fpriiig, and not cleared from the land till
fome months later than the time at which thev are bought.
The beafts are in proportion, on an average of feven to ten
acres, from 54 to 100 ftone. The fecond clafs winters
about five (hcep to two acres, with not lefs than four per
acre in fummer, with a few cows and young beafts ; and on
both thefe there will be fome few horfes, too uncertain to
average. On the beft land, they are chiefly liorfes making
up for fale ; and, on the fecond quahty, horfes employed
,'in worU, or young ones ; it is not ufual to keep any horfes
in fummer except on the paftures. The produce of hay
on the third may be about 35/. an acre; the eddifti eateu
by cattle from the other grounds ; or by lambs or Logs,
before thev go to their winter keeping.

Expmcei.

£. I. d.

22 10 o

1 (O o

In the pound 033

Dyke-reeve, 5^.
Shepherding. 2/. dd. an acre
Fences, is.

Iiitereft of capital
Seven oxen, at 14/.
Thirty ftiecp, 45/.
Enters at Lady-dav, but a

year's charges
Surplus neceffary, becaufe of

rtitep unfold at time of

purtJiafe

Intereft at 5/.

Loffes on dock very little in-
deed, i/. per cent, will pro-
bably cover it

Cutting thiftles, bobbing equal
to it, ftuck as above

Incidents
Profit

Produce.

Seven beafts, at 2/ 10/.
Thirty Iheep, at 54;.
Sixty fleeces, at %s.
A horle, twelve weeks

3 '2 9

27 12 9

042
I s o

o 10 o

29 1 1 II

98 o o
67 10 o

27 o o

1800

210 10 O

10 10 s

220

165 10 c
2C7 13 II

500

212 13 II
15 16 I

22S 10 o

121 10 O

i)I o o

24 o o

200

11% 10 o

Per acre i/. i u 6</. profit.
Produce 6/. ds. od. per acre."

The writer hints that the profit upon this firll clafs of
land is greater than upon tlie reft ; aad that the tliird fort
yields very little profit by^graziiig, and would pav much
better in tillage. There are many graziers there, wjio have
no other land than what is upon thefe flats, and fome who
are fiippofcd to have n.adc by their bufir.cfs enough to have
3 realized

GRAZING.

n

reslizcJ a comfortable fubfiftcnce. The grazing accounts
of certain fie'ds in the occupation of Mr. Loft, of Math
Ciiapel, arc- Hated in tliis way :

Expencet,

" Rent

Tithe

Rates - .

Shepherding

.Intereft: of capital

" It carries a bullock to two acres, and three fheep per
acre.

jfc-l

'5

0

o

2

0

o

3

0

o

I

0

o

12

0

2

13

0

Proiiui

« Half a bullock.
A fheep and half

£1 10 o

I 10 o

300
Expences 2 13 o

Profit

Of better land.

Rent

Sundries

■Intereft of capital

It carries a bullock and three fheep an acre.

A bullock
Three fheep

.

£2

S

0

-

0

7

0

-

I

4

0

3

16

0

an acre.

.

3

0

0

-

3

0

0

6

0

0

Expences

3

16

0

Profit

2

4

0

It is however ftated, that very few fields will yield
any thing like this : he has but one clofe ; and there are
fome expences omitted. And " Mr. Tennifon, of Lincoln,
has 13 acres of marih at Grimfby, that fummer-i'eeds 14
bullocks ; and carries 35 fheep the year through.'' But
that " in the traft of raarih-land on the fea-coalf, they
obferve, that where moft grafs is left in autumn, there the
herbage is the coarfefl and word next year ; the remark was
made in anfwer to recommending eddifli for fpring-feeding
fheep, which would not do on rich marlh, tliough it might
on uplands." It alfo fhews, that tlie fyllem of clofe feed-
ing is proper, and would anfwfr well in many diilricts where
it is not the praftice.'' And " in the hundred of Skirbeck,
tjiey like to have a tolerable head of grafs in the fpring,
before turning in ; and afterward.'; fo to flock as to prevent
its getting coarfe by running away, fo as to prevent the
neceffity of bobbing, which, however, mufl be done in a
wet growing feafon.''

But after the flock has been brought into a proper ftate
for the market, there is in niany fituations much difficulty
iadifpofing of it to the befl advantage. Mr. Miirihall has

remarked, that though it be attended- with lofs difRculty
than that of buying in the flock, it requires much know-
ledge, as well as experience, to execute it in the bell man-
ner, or with the leall pofiible lofs. A due confiderati -n of
the progrefs of the Hock while ■ feeding, and of the length
of time they have been upon the land, m;iy afford fome fort
of guide in the bulinefs ; but the moil correft judgment
may be formed by tlie young grazier, by the prattice of
frequent weighing, and the accurate comparifon of the hving
with the dead weight of fuch flock as are killed in his
neighbourhood, as- it is a mucli more certain method than
the ufe of the eye and hand, as has been fliewn under the
h?ad Gu.AZlER. Having recourfe to frequent weighing has
alfo the advantage of fiiewing the progrefs that is made by
animals under different forts of keep or food. But befides
this, the grazing farmer mull be regulated in the falc of his
flock by the nature of his fituation. In mofl of the mid-
land and fouthern parts of the kingdom, Smith field is the
place where the fat flock 0/ the farmers are difpofed of :
while in other parts, tliey are frequently fold in the neigh-
bourhood, or to the large towns which are at no great
diiiance. In the former cafes, efpecially on the lefs exten-
five farms, the fat Hock are brought up by perfons, who
make it a bufinefs, being employed by various graziers iu
the fame vicinity, who have an entire confidence in them.
With the more extenfive graziers, who fend up frequent
lots, the bufinefs is done by a falefman, in whom they have
confidence. Witli little grazing farms, the cuflom is often
to fell them to the butchers in the neighbourhood, which is
frequently the befl method. And the advantages of thefe
different modes mull depend greatly upon circumflances.
Some, however, fuppofe that the London market is the
befl calculated only for thofe who give a weekly attendance,
on account of the uncertainty of the fupplies. The ex-
pences being materially different, as with the falefman's com-
mifTion, they frequently amount to twelve fliillings, a head
there, while in the country they are not more than from
three to five. Confequently, that fat flock may in many
cafes, where only a few, or wliat are termed fmall lots, are
to be difpofed of, be fold at liome with lefs expence than
having them fent to dillant markets ; but that with large
lots, the latter mode mull be had recourfe to, as more cer-
tain, expeditious, and convenient. Upon the whole, the
fatis which have been flated fully fhew that the advantages
of the grazing fyfleni mufl be materially different under
different circumflances, and be greatly influenced by thofe
of a local kind. It has indeed been remarked by a Kentifh
grazier, that the profits of no two grazing farmers are ex-
aftly " alike on the fame given quantity of land," nor even
on the fame land, as years, prices, as well as the exertions
and talents of each individual, are different. In all cafes,
the fuperiority of the fuccefs mull in a great mcafure de-
pend upon the knowledge, exertion, and excellence of the
method which is adopted by the particular farmer. State-
ments can of courfe only fhew what are the general profits
of the fyflem. With neat-cattle, in the weflern and mid-
hmd dillrids, they are givi'u by Mr. Billingfiey, and Mr.
Young, in the Surveys under the dlretlion of the Board of
Agriculture. In this way, the former fays, that a grazing
farnier who has, 200 acres of land, may fatten annually one
hundred head of cattle, as oxen, with feventy fheep and ten
colts, which together may aflord a comfortable but not
exorbitant profit to him.

6 Statement.

GRAZING.

d.

4C0

0

0

?o

0

0

550

0

0

350

0

0

25

0

0

7

10

0

?o

0

0

20

0

0

Slatemtnl.
Sr.

To rent of 200 acr<"s, average value 4CJ-, an

acre ....

'ro tithe and taxes, fay
Feb. To fifty oxen, at 11/.
July. To fifty oxen, at 7/.
To mowing and making fifty acres of hay, at

lOx. .....

To lliimming and making fifty acres of fum-

raer-lea/.e, at y. . . .

To wages throughout the year, bcfides the

farmer's labour ...

To accidents ....

1452 10 o
To profit (intcrefl of capital and accidents

included) - - - 277100

Cr.

Oa. By fifty oxen, at 18/.
f.Iay. By fifty oxen, at 13/.
By profit on feventy (heep, fummer kept
By profit on ten colts ...

By profit c'l two hundred fliecp winter fatted,
and fold in April unfliorn

And on the rich grazing lands in Lincolnlhire, according
to the latter writer, the practice feenis to afford a much
greater advantage to the farmer; as the account, given
by T. Fydell, efq. M. P. for twenty acres, in 1796, ilaiids
thus :

1730

0

0

£.

t.

fi.

900

0

0

650

0

0

40

0

0

40

0

0

ICO

0

0

1730

0

0

Stalemcnt,
Dr.

To 1 3 Ix-ails, at 12/ each
To 80 (heep, at 46^.

Thhe

Dyke-reeve

Rates

Shepherding

Expences

Xiofs, fuppofed one Hieep

Iiitereil one year
One year's rent

Hire of a clofe for the winter, for 35
ftieep . , . -

Profit

Vol. XVI.

£. s. J.

216 o o

184 o o

4c 0

0

3

£.

I.

J.

I

10

0

3

0

0

10

0

0

3

0

0

5

0

0

22

2

10
6

e

424

16

0

.

21

4

0

-

60

0

0

By 18 beaPts, at 19/. jj.
By 80 (heep, at 55/.
By J2 tod of wool, at i^

£. / J.

346 10 »

220 o o

44 4 o

610 14 o

And that " tl.e difTerence between the buying and felling
price, lofs dedudtcd, 2c8/. 8/., is the produce of the land,
or 10/. 8/. per acre, which is very great indeed, and ftiewi
that tliis land would let at 5/. ^t. an acre, fuppofing thi»
year to be an average one.

" This diffcrei.ce of rent wauld dcduft 44/. from the
profit of 87/. and leave 43/. which, with 21/. charged, make
64/ ; intcreil on the year's advance of 546, or u^ per
cent.''

But in the fyftem of graii.ng purfued in fotne of the
fouthcrn rich marlliy dillritts with (heep, as flated fome
time ago, the amount Itands as bi.low, according to Mr.
Price ; but at prefcnt the profit mull be n.ich higher,
from the improved management of the Romncy Marlh
gra/.iers in general.

Account r,f Sloch bought in for Fifty Aim of Frrfure Land,
for the Tear 1778.

310 barren ewes, at lA i.r. each
90 South Down wcihers, at do.
1 o (leer runts . . .

10 SufTex oxen
8 Steer runts
Rent, at 30J. per acre
ILxpences, at 5/. per acre

Stoch fold off Fifty Acres of Paf.ure Laid, in tie Tear

£.

/.

</.

325

10

0

94

10

0

9^

•5

0

«'y

0

0

49

10

0

7S

0

0

12

13

0

770

'5

0

£. J.

4'^3 10

139 10

130 o

150 o

i3 o

72 o

I 16

506 o o

I- 10 o

523 10 o

87 4 o

610 14 o

17SS-89.

310 barren ewes, at 31/. each
90 South Down wcihers, at do.
10 ilcer runts, at 13/. each
10 SufTex oxen, .it 15/. each
10 ditto, to keep 18 weeks, at zs. per
week each ...

8 ilecr runts, fold at 9/. each
2 ditto, to keep 12 weeks, at is. 6d. per

week each ...

8 packs 3 draughts of long wool at
8/. let. ....

li ditto of fine wool, at 12/.

Total
Deduct

Clear profit

Profits on Fatting Land, al/otving los. for each Sbetp.

One acre.
Winter, 2 barren ewes, off in May
Sumu-.er, 5 wetiiers, off at Michaelmas

Wool of 7 (heep, at is/, per pack

One bullock to fat

d.
o
o
o
o

o

o

4U

74

7

6

18

0

0

1084

3

6

770

•5

0

3'3

8

6

jcl) Shctp.

£.

/.

d.

I

0

0

2

10

0

1

2

0

3

0

u

i

liTo

Rent

GRAZING.

Brought ovsr , -

£. s. d..

Rent - . 1 10 o

Expences - 050

Afrcircs and taxes 050

8

£

12

0

d.
0

chaelmas

Clear profit

6

12

0

One acre.
Three vvetliers, on at Mi
Two ditto, in May
Wool
One bullock to fat

I
I
I

3

10
0

10
0

0

0
0
0

Rent, &c. as before

Clear profit

■■

and.

0 0
5 0
7 0

5

0

0

2
0
0
0
0
0

2

13
4
4

5

10

Profits on Breedh

One acre
Winter, 2 1 ewes and 3 lambs, at
Wool of z\ ewes
Wool of 3 k'.mbs
Wool of one teg
The fummer improvement of do.
Joift bullock keep

14.-.

t

0
0

0
0
6

0
0
0

Rent

Expences

One in twenty lofs by deaths

3

I

18

12

6

0

Clear profit

2

6

6

It is remarked, "011 the firll of tlicfe ftatcmcnts, tliat
tile year was favourable for vegetation ; and that fuch pro-
fits could not probably be made feven years together,
which is the moit accurate method of calculating profits on
land. There bein<r no afTeffes on the land, alfo, makes it
more profitable." And further, that two modes in rcfpeft
" to the profits on fattening land are dated ; the firil ufed
by the bed graziers ; the other, the moll common : fome
take bullocks in to keep, others buy runts ; the profits of
which muft depend on their judgment ; but 3/. is the medium
profit between the whole : los. each fheep is generally al-
lowed as the gained profit by fattening."' It is added that
" it cannot be fuppofed that this profit will always
amount to fo much as the years differ ; therefore dry f'-a-
fons will abate it, and a large trail of land cannot have the
fiipply of flock to make it fo great. There are loffes
to be taken out ; but, upon the whole, it is very profit-
able, as the expences are fo moderate, that one fcrvant-man
can manage a ihoufand acres of paflure-land. The value
or rent of land is put too low, except for long leafes unex-
pired, or where a large quantity of land is taken. Tlie
average price of rent is from 40.r. to 3/. for fattening land,
unlets fpur or five hundred acres of breeding and fattening,

perhaps about 30J. ; and fome old leafes i/. breeding
land."

It is dated that where (heep, in order to fatten them in 4
more expeditious manner, or to finifh them in cafes where
the grafs is infufficicnt for the purpofe, have the addition of
turnips or other forts of luxuriant green food, great care
diould be taken, by the grazier, that a due proportion of
fome fort of dry material be had recourfe to at the fame
time ; as without fuch precaution, not only lofs may be fuf-
tained by the death of fome of the fheep in particular in-
dances, but by their making Icfs progrcfs in becoming fat
than would otticrwife be the cafe. Hay, cut cliaff, bran,
or a few oats, anfwer the purpofe very well. See Soil-
ing.

It is necedary, in order that the confumption of thefe forts
of food may be conducted in the mofl economical manner,
that proper troughs, racks, crib«, or baflcets, diould be
provided, and fixed in fuch a way, as that they cannot be'
o\erturned. Tiie gra/iers, in fome parts of Lincolufhire,
have a large fort of crib or wicker-work badcet, being eight
or ten feet in circumference, and wattled to the height of
one foot or a foot and a half, in a dole manner, and then
left open for about a foot and a half; after which it is
clofcly wattled again for nearly a foot, being drawn in, in a
narrowing manner at the top, fo as to have only proper
room for introducing the food. The duds or Haves are
placed about eight or ten inches apart, which admit of the
dieep feeding in a dillinft manner. Jt is defcribed in the
fourth volsme of the fird feries of the Repertory of Arts, S:c.
and denominated a tumbril. It may be feen at_;fj. 8. in the
Pliite on Granaries. This contrivance affords much advan-
tage, botli in the faving of food from being waded, and m
affording the lefs drong fiieep an opportunity of feeding
without being dilhirbed or driven away by the ftrong ones,
and confequently much injured.

In the Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, it is
noticed in refpetl to the practice of grazing in inch fcafons
as are very wet, tliat an incident of this fort tl>at occurred to
the writer in the very wet autumn of 1789 is intereiling.
" The general complaint is, that grazing dock, though they
have this year roiled in grafs, have not done well ; Mr.
Henton, of Hoby in Leicederdiire, being fingular in fay-
ing, that his feeders had done tolerably. Indeed his dock
corrobatcs his affertion. He had a lot of cows at Lough-
borough, the 1 2th of Augud, the fatted in tlie fliow.

" But his manngcment is more remarkable tlian his fuc-
cefs." He "foddered them with hay all the wet weather;
that is, he mov/ed the broken grafs for them, beginning
under the hedges, and continuing to mow the coarfeft
patches throughout the piece.

" The fird day (the day it was mown), the cattle feldom
touched it ; but the fecond or third day they fell to it
freely, eating it "between whiles," in preference to grafs.
In the morning, it was always the fird thing they filled their
bellies with.

" The cattle having eaten up the more palatable parts of
the herbage, the thidles, and other offal, were raked up,
and carried off the ground : mod excellent management !

"This dock confided of about fixty head. At firll one
man only was employed in mowing, &c. But, before the
rainy weather ceafed, he fet on another man.

" What an admirable thought ! that which other men dif-
fered to dand wade in itfclf, an encumbrance to the ground,
and anurfery of weeds, was converted to food, more nutri-
tious, in a wet fealon, than the bell of the Handing
herbage."

Mr. Tarkinfon, of Lincolnfliire, had made a praftical ob-
I fervation,

G R A

fenmtion, which is, that " the lefs (hcep are changed, the
better." It demands the farmer's attention, as fhewing the
injury of folding in many cafes. And it is noticed, that the
grazing cattle are changed while the bufinefs of hohb'wg the
hclds is performed, and that the foon?r tliis is executed tlie
better ; as when the grafs tufts are cat while young, the
cattle will eat the produce well.

Upon the fubjed of llocking grazing land, Mr. Marfiiall
remarks, that " the fairs at Birmingham are among the worll
in the country for fat flock, the butchers giving tlie graziers
T\o encouragement to drive their (lock to them, preferring
the toil of riding twenty, thirty, or perhaps forty, miles
from home to pick up tlieir "fat!" fpending a jirincijial
part of their time and their profits in an emplovmcnt truly
ridiculons. Hov.- convenient it would be to the grazier, as
well as to the butcher, to have a weekly market, a Smith-
field at or near Birmingham ! to the grazier, in tliereby having
a ciniitant and certaui inarkct whenever he wanted cither
keep or money ; and, to the butcher, m faving time and
travelling expences. Yet the few animals which are taken
there at prcfent, are frequently drove out unfold. But
Thurfday, which is the ordinary market-dar, is improper.
Monday or Tuefday would be a more fuitaljle day ; and Sut-
ton, perhaps, the moil fuitable place. In performing the
bufinefs of purchafing in tlock, the nearell fairs are always
to be preferred, if it can be done there with propriety ; as
much injury and lofs is frequently fullaincd by driving from a
cmifiderable diilanoe.

And the bufinefs of grazing other forts of animals may,
in feme cafes, be a profitable concern, but mull alwavs be
regulated by the nature of the land and circumliances of the
farmer. Where he has a confiderable extent of the more
coarfe fort of pafture-land, he may often find it advantageous
to graze young horfes, efpecially where he has tiie conve-
nience of breeding them likewife. But though it is a practice
fometimes followed by grazing farmers, to admit horfes in
the fame pa'.lurcs with the other iiock, it fliould conllantly
be avoided as much as pofiible, as they are very injurious by
teazing and driving the fattening cattle about, and prevent-
ing their refting fo much as is otherwife the caie. It is a
better method to let them follow this fort of (lock. ^Vhen
horfes are admitted upon the grazing lands in Somerfetfhire,
it is feldom done in a larger proportion than that of one to
twenty acres. But there is another animal which it has long
been a practice in particular fituations to graze. This is the
hog, which, where the farmer has a piece of rich grafs,
1 either of the artificial or natural kind, he msy turn upon it
with much advantage. With clover, and fome other arti-
licial grafies, the animals are found to fucceed perfeftly well
in this fort of management ; but it is obieclionable as lofing
a vail fource of manure of an excellent kind. When the
field is fo fituated as that the hogs can return in the evenings
to the well littered (lies, it may, however, b« a highly
beneficial lyilem of practice. There can be no doubt but
that this fort of management might be much more extcn-
fively employed with this animal, and that thereby much of
the food of ilore pigs might be faved. See Hoc.

GRAZIOSO, Ital. Grac'uujhnent, Fr. gracefal, are
terms in Miijic, addreifcd to the performer ; but if the com-
pofition is devoid of grate, the term can convey no inllrnc-
tion to the performer. It is in vain for the coinpofer to
fit down with a refolution to compofe a graceful raovenunt ;
it mull come inifought, and infenfibly.

Marmontel has defined grace in poetr)-, grace in attitudes,
grace in motion, grace in the arrangement of words in
profe, of figures in painting, as a polilh, a lacquer, a vamifh.

G R E

a gilding to every human aclion ; without which we may be
lurpnfcd and entertained, but never perftctly plcafid

No poet, perhaps, abounds in grace ind fac-ility fo much
as Mctallafio ; for examples, fee his cantatas.

Among mufical compofers, perhaps, none hare beea
more gifted with tliis charm than PtTgolcfi, Sacchini, and
Limarofa.

The time of a grazlofo movement is nearly tlic farrc a«
amiaiilc ; fmooth, gentle, and inclined to piano ; no coarfe
i.ro.ws of the bow on tiic violin, or drv .-ovp, ,!e /.;«.-« oo
the Cr flute, except, to vary the expreiJion and effcc'i, the
con-pofer indicates the contrary.

.. PJK'^^.'^^^'^' '" ^^''S'-aphy, a town of Italv ; 1 1 milr«
S.S.W. of Verona. ' •'

GRAZZINI, Gro. P-voLO.of Ferrara,in Z?/Vr<7«/.r,Icft

the proteinon of goldlmilli to become a painter at an advanced
pcnod of his life ; his clii.-f inftruaions he owed to the friend-
(liip of Carlo IVmono. Th^ firft fpecirr.en of his capacity wai
a p.cture of St. Eligio placed in the goidfmith's hall of
Ferrara. • Eight years which he had employed to finifh the
work were amply redecn-.ed by the difplay of a n;a.'>erhand,
and a tone of colour that j.laced liim near in rank to Porde-
none, and allonifiitd all Ferrara, who had known Grazzini
for half a century. He continued to produce works of lcf«
compafs, but of equal taite, which are met with in private
colledions. He died in 1632. Fufcli's Pilkington.

Gr.azzi.m, .A.ntiiony-Fr ANci.s fumamcd // Lafca, an
Italian writer, wa.< born at Florence in 1503, and is known
to polterity as a confidera'.ik- writer in profe and verfe. He
is particularly remembered for his light and jocofc poems,
among which are many of the Canti Carnafcialcfchi, or
Carnival Songs. Thefe, it is faid, were tirll invented by
Lorenzo de Medici, and a collection of them was poblilhcd
by Grazzini at Florence in 1559. His other works are
as follow : " La Guerra dc Moilri, pocma giocofo," 1584.
"Stanze," 5;c. " Comedie VII. ;" " 11 Lafca, Dialol
golo," &c. ; " Lettere,' " Orazionc," «' Rin c,' No-
velle XI. The lall was an extremely popular work, and at
a noveliil Grazzini was thought to be a worthy rival of Boc-
cace in the elegance of his narration and purity of his ftrle.
He was one ot the founders of the academy Delia Crufca.
Morcri.

GREASE, among Farrier 1, &c. an inflammation and
fwelling of the heels about the fetlocks, and fometimes of
the legs of a horfe, as high as the knee or hock, with the
fecrct on of an oily matter, to which the difeafe owes iti
name. The matter diiVharged from the heels has a peculiar
ofTeiiCve fnuil, and the heels themfclves are fometimes ulce-
rated. Heavy horfes, with round flrfhy legs, are the moft
fubjedl to this diforder, rnd the white legs more thji the
reil. It is almoft always found in the poUerior cxtren.hics,
Greafe is occafioned by fudden changes from a cold td'a hot
temperature, fucJi as the removing of horfet from rral's into
hot ftables ; fn;m the too fudden change of a generous to an
impovendiing diet ; from negleA on the part of gro..n'.s ia
leaving the heils wet and full of fand ; and from conftittitional
debility. On the approach of tliis difeafe, and for fcvcral dan
before any very conliderable appearances of fwelling and lij-
flammation. the animal feems u> fcil much pain in the affi rtcd
heel, which is indicated by his railing it frequently from the
ground, and his not being able to rell upon it without un.
eahuefs X\. this early period, the diforder may in general be
removed by :i poultic- of boiled brao and linfeed powdei-
conllantly applied to the pert, and kept nioill with warra
water; giving every iiigfit, or every fecond r.ij;ht, a n:ilj
diiirctic. Wheo theii-.flammation and fwelling are confider.
4 '^ 2 ^Is^

GREASE.

able, the fore-mentioned poultice may be tifed, and a ftrong
diurL-tic, or a purgative may be adminillcred as long as the
cafe feems to require it. When the fwclling and iiiflamma-
tion have abated, which will commonly happen in three or
four days, the poultice may be difca:;tinaed, and the fol-
lowing aftringent lotion may be applied five or fix times a day.
Forms of affringent lotion, r/z. No. T. Alum powdered,
I o/., vitriolic acid, i dr. and water, I pint. No 2. Alum
lowdercd, 4 oz., vitriolated copper, ^ oz , and ivater, li pint.
Wo. 3. Sugar of lead, 4 oz., vmegar, 6 oz., water, I quart.
In each of thefe recipes mix the ingredients. Some altera-
tion may be necelhiry, according to circumllances, in the
ftren>'-th of thefe lotions. Where the inllammation and irri-

I

marfli is ferviceable : and a few months' run on a fak-rriar(tj
has frequently eradicated the diforder, when other remedies
have failed. Obftinate cafes of greafe may very frequently
be cured by withholding the horle's allowance of water for
two days, or even a longer time, and then riding liirn into the
fea or fait water, when his tliirft will induce him to drink
freely ; and the fait water will aft as an useful laxative and
alterative. This procefs muft be frequently repeated, when-
ever it does not appear to be injurious in any material re-
fptft. In a few obftinate cafes, Mr. White fays, (Treatife
on Veterinary Medicine,) that he has fcen the mercurial
alterative of fervice, giving one ball every morning, until
the bowels are opened : it is formed of calomel, t; dr ,

tabilitv of the part are confiderable, they muft be diluted aloes, I dr., Cailile foap, 2 dr., and oil of Juniper, 30 drops,
with an equal quantity of water ; but if the inflammation made into a ball with fyrup for one dofe. In the treatment
be fubducd, and a fwellin-i- and ulceration remain, the alum of thofe ulcers, or " cracks," as they are often termed, which

folution cannot be made too ilrong. If the lieels be idee
rated, and efpecially if they appear foul and have an o.^len-
five fniell, one or other of the following ailringent oint-
ments Ihould be apphcd to the ulcers, toz. No., i.. Hog's
lard, 4 oz., oil of turpentine, 2 dr , and water of acetated
litharge, i oz. No. 2. Venice turpentine, i oz., hog's lard
4 oz., and" ;dum finely powdered, I oz. Mix the refpeftive
ingredients. If the ukers bo deep, and do not readily he;d,
tliev fnould be waihed with the detergent lotion previoufiy

particularly occur in ihe back part of the pallern, and
which are of difScult cure, cleanlinefs is of gi-eat import-
ance ; and when thcv appear inflamed and painful, it will
be ufeful to apply a ioft poultice, in which a little Goulard
has been mi.vcd, for two or three days. The foUowir^
ointment, viz. irefh hog's lard, 4 oz. and white lead linely
powdered, i oz. mixed, may then be applied, fpread on tow,
and fecured with a light thin bandage. If cracks or iilccrj
appear in the heels, without that general fweliing of the

to each dreffing. Regular exercife on clean and dry ground legs and difcharge of matter, which conititutc the difeafe
is of tiie higheft importance. In (light cafes of greale, the
aftringent lotion and a few diuretic balls will generally effecl

a cure ; but if the difeafe is of long ftandmg, and more
efpecially if the horfe has had it before, it will be m.ore
dirncult to remove it. In fuch cafes an alterative powder,
eompofed of powdered nefin and nitre of each 4 ounces.

named greafe, they may be foon cured by applying th«
aftringent ointment, and giving a few do!es of diuretic
alterative : but when thefe are accompanied by the greafe,
laxatives or purgatives are proper, according to the condi-
tion of the animal. The aftringent ointment is made cf
hog's lard, 4 oz. palm oil, 2 oz. and fine olive oil, 1 cr.

mixed and divided into 8 dofes, fliould be given in the corn melted by placing the pot which contains it in boiling water,

everyday, until it produces a confiderable diuretic efFcft. and, when melted, ftirring in 1 J. oz. of the water of acetated

In sery obllinate cafes, rowels in the thigh have been found litharge, and continuing to ftir it till the mixture is nearly

ufeful. Di'italis, or fox-glove, has been recommended ia cold. If the ulcers are deep, the horfe ftiould be kept in the

thofe fwcllings of the legs which are the confequenccs of ftable till they are nearly healed, with a cooling opening diet ;

ereafe ; but as this is a violent medicine, and apt to injure the and his legs (hould be frequently and brifKly rubbed with

llomach, it (liould be cautioully adminiilcred ; the Cofe is the hand ; and a few of the diuretic alterative powders

from h.alf a dram to one dram. When a horie has fuffered fhould be given. Wlicn pro>id ticfh, as it is called, appears in

much from this difeafe, and appears to be weak and out of the ulcers, it muft be deflroyed by caullic^, fuch- ar. blue

'condition, a liberal allowance of corn will tend to recover vitriol powdered, or difi'olved in warm water, or limar cauf-

liim, efpecially if it be affifted by the aftringent lotion, and tic. When this is neglected, they fomctiines incrcafe to a

careful grooming. In cafes of this kind exercife is indilpen- large fize, and becoa-e almoft cf a horny conf;ftence, in

fible. When tl.ie difeafe depends upon debility it is obvious
that a dofe of phyfic would be improper; but confiderable
benefit has fometimes attended the exhibition every mormng,
td! the bo\s-els are moderately opened, of the following al-
terative ; vis. foccotrine aloes, 1 «7., caftile foap, l^ oz.
powdered ginger and myrrh, of each i oz. Form thefe into
a mafs w ith fyrup, and divide it into fix balls. This medicir.e,
tfioiigh of an opening quality, will improve the horle's
ilren<^-ih, and at the lame time promote abforption. Or tiie
following preparation may be adminiftered : ii/r.. antimony,
finely poirdertd, and flowers of fulpliur, of each 607..; linfeed
powder, 2 oz. ; and houey fufi'icient to form a mafs for 12
balls ; one of v/hich mav be given once or twice a-da

which ftate they are commonly named " grapes. '

In retent cafes of greafe, in which the heels are infii-.med
and fwollen, and difcharge a whitilh-coloured matter, much
benefit has reluited from fomenting tiieni for a confiderable
time with warm water, in which a iniall quantity of Goulard
has been mixed, and immediately applying the Goulard poul-
tice. In obftinate cafes of greale, wliere the matter difcha.'ged
is verv fclid, the fomenting poidtice is ufeful, ihat is, a poul-
tice of linfetd mical, warni water, and yeaft, which foon ren-.ovts
the oSenfive Ar.ell, and caiifes a lefs aci"id matter to be formed.
Powdered charcoal has alio been recommended for the fame
purpofe. In recent cafes the Goulard poidtice and mild
purgatives will foon reduce the infiammatiou ccr.fidtrably ;
Nothing tends fo mucii to prevent greafe and fweli.ng of and tiien the cure is eaJiiy accomplifiicAby aftringent lotions,
the legs as frequent hand-rubbing, ani cleaning the heels For preventing a return of the complaint, exercife and good
carefully, as foou as a horfe comes in from exercife. In inve- grooming are indifpeniabiy ricceflary ; freqi-.cnt hand rub-
terate cafes of greafe, where the difeale appears to be in bing ci the leg?, and a diuretic powder occalionally, are alfo
fome degree habitual, a run at grafs is the only remedy. If uietul. Horles with w hite hinder legs, or fuch as are much
a dry paddock can be procured where the horfe may be fliel- difpofed to fweliing of the legs, ft-.ould be bandaged for
tered in bad weather, it will be found very convenient ; for fome time, particularly after hard work, keeping the bandage
thus circumftanced the horle m.ay perform his ufual labour, conftantly n.oill with a folution of alum and water. In
and be kept free from the complaint. In the earlier itages of fon.e cafes of greafe the inflammation feeras to exteiid to
the difeafe, th.e praftice of tu.-r.itig the horfe into a lalt- the cel'ular membrane under the Ikin, the confcquence of

2 which

ORE

wliich is a more fovere pain and laraenefs than when it is fu-
perficial. Tiic iiifiaminat:o:. generally terminates in an abfcefs
of the heel, which burlls and leaves a deep ill-lookin^r ulcer.
Aithoi;gh the general fivelling of the legs fubrulcs, tlie uU-fT
is extremely irritable, and healed with difficulty, particularly
if the hone be exercifed. By applying poultices and warm
digeilive ointment, and by keeping tlie horl'e at rell, tlie ulcer
gradually heals. When ulcers of the heel do not appear
difpofed to heal, the aftringent ointment above-mentioned
ftiould be changed for the following, which is more llimu-
lant, and. previoully to its application, the fore fhoiild be
waiaed with a folution of blue vitriol. Tiie llimulating oint-
ment is prepared by mixing ointment of yellow rehn, 4 o/..
ohve oil i o/. and red nitraied quickfilver in line powder
i oz. See White's Tivatife of Veterinary Medicine, vol. i.
If the greale be an attendant of feme other difeafe, it will
be in vain to attempt the cm-e before the difeafe be remov-d,
that is the original caufe of it ; asd therefore, if it be a
hectic, the yellows, or the iarcm, 5;c. the directions given
for thofe dileaies arc to be followed, and in the mean time
proper applications are to be uied outwardly for the greafe.
GuEA.vE, Molten, a difeaie of the inteilines, incident
to horfes, and generally dependent on fomc conllitutional
affection. Horles that have been well fed, without me.ch
exercife, are peculiarly fubjeit to this complaint : although
they appear (leek and tat, they are not lit for violent or
long-continued exertion, unlefs they have been brought to it
gradually : and therefore when they are put to work in this
Itate, and violently exercifed, a fever often en'.ues ; and this
fever commonly depends upon general inflammation or in-
creafed action of tiie whole arterial fvllem. In this dileafe,
nature makes an eflort to remove it by a violent purging ;
and the mucus, formed on the inner furface of the bowels tor
the purpjfe of lubricating and protefting theui from tiie
action of any acrimonious matter that n.ay hapjcn to be
paffing through them, being now more abundint, appears
fomewhat hke fat mixed wi:h the dung. When blood is
drawn from a horfe in this Itate, a large quantity of inflamma-
tory cruil, coagiilable lym;;'!, or butf-eo!oured i-l!y, appears
on Its furf.ice. Such is the account which Mr. White gives
of this dileafe, and he expljdes the account of thofe veteri-
njrv wTiters who reprefent molten greafe as confilbng in a
coIUquation or general melting of tlie fat of the body,
Treat part of which is abforbed, and thrown upon the blood
and upon the inteilines, wh;ncc it is voided with the excre-
ment. Nor Joes he approve of the defcription of this dileafe,
given by Mr. Blaine, in his Treatife on Veterinary Medi-
cine, wh'o confiders it to be the fame with the human dyfen-
tery. In the courfe of a ten years' extenfive practice, he fays
that he iiis never met with a fmgle cafe that refembled
the dvfi ntery defcribed by medical authors. " I have
often obferv.-d,'" fays this v.-riter, "during the progrefs of
fymptomatic fever, internal iniiamnv/.tion, mucus mixed with
the dung, wiiich had fometiuies the appearance of part of
eras of thofe long white worms fo often found in the horfe's
buwl.; at others it rellmbled a membrane. I have ob-
fervd the fame thing in hories apparently healthy, or after
the operation of very ilrong phyiic. I have alio leen many
ca-r.-s where there was tenefmus or coniiderable irritation in
the rectum ; the horfe frequently- voiding a fmall quantity of
dune:, and appearing in pain. But this was always a fymp-
tonr^r-fome more important complaint, and eaiily removed,
or the . it-.-a of phyiic, and very unlike dyfentcry.'' Molten
greafe, according to Mr. White, is not to be confidered as a
diltinet u.fcafc, but merely as a fymptom, fometiuies appear-
ing in general inflammation, but more frequently in fevers.
In either of thefe cafes fome o£ the internal organs are more

G R E

afFefted than others. When a difTiculty of breathing occurs
indicated by an unufually quick motion of the flanks and
expanlion of the noftrils, it is a fign of an affection of the
lungs. When molten greale appears, it <hcw5 that the mu-
cous membiane of the hov.els is more particularly afTeded
f<)metimts both thefe parts are affefted at the fam» time

le principal remedy in this difeafe is copious bleeding,
according to age, nrengih, and other circiimllanccs of the
cafe. It IS often iiecelfary to repeat the operation of bleeding ;
and if the difeafe appears to be principally feated in the lungs
only laxatives fiiould be admiiiiilered and rowels inferted in
the chell and belly ; the lid- s alfo may be blillered, or the
muilard embrocation rubbed on the fides and belly. In mol-
ten greafe, or when the bowels are affected, if a copioii»
purging occurs, it ftiould not be fupprelTed, but encouraged,
by giving frequent decottions of liiifced, gum arabic diftolv-
cd m water, Itarch, or the powder of arrow root, and boiled
in water. When the dung is voided fparingly, but freqiientlv,
and particularly wian any knobs are mixed with it, let 'a
pint of callor oil be given, which may be repeated, if neccf-
fary, about two day.'^. In this cafe it will be propi r to rub
the mullard embrocation on the celly. If the difeafe ccn-
tinue, and efpecially if there be coniiderable irritation about
the anus ; the horfe frequently cjeaing a fmall quantity of
excrement, and appearing to be in great pain, the foUovniig
opiate clylter may be given, vi~,. opium i ' dram, warm
water 807,. mix.d, to which add about a qij^rt of ftarcli
water, / e. flarch boikd in water, of a proper confiftcnce for
a clylter. If the exhibition of a clyller feen-s rathrr to in-
creafe than alleviate the pain ai-d irritation, the dofe of caflor
oil mull be repeated, and a clyller thro.vn up only of water
gruel or a little oil. As the gut in this cafe is very tender
and initable, the clyfter pi))e fhiuild not be rough, and it
fliofild be introduced with caution ; it ihould therefore be
perfectly fir.ooth, covered with oil or lard, and not protruded
v.ith violence. It is probable, fays Mr. White, that a fmall,
ftiort tube of bone, about three times the bulk and length of
the pipe ufed in human fiibjetts, would be pn-ferable on this
occalion to that which is commcnly employed. White'*
Treatife of Veterinary Medicine, vol. i.

Gke.v.se, among Hunters, denotes the fat of a boar or
hare.

GREASY, in j'}-yr'uull::rf, a term provincially made ufe
of to imply any thing foul, whether in animals cr land. It is.
frequently ufed to iignify fuch tillage lands as are much
over-run witli grafs when in the llatc of fnlle.w.

GKEA.sY-Z>/i;f.', or Crnchy-Ujtj, in Mining, arc firms,
by wliicli kind Ihale or (late clay, ct that which has agreafy
appearance, and works or digs eafily, is diilhiguifljed. See-

Sli.\LlL.

GREAT, a term of comparifon, d. noting a thing to
have more extenllcn than fonie olhcr to which it is rcftrred.
Thus we fay, a great fpace ; a great dillancc ; a gn at
figure, a great body, &c. See CoMi'Ar;isoN.

Grkat is like-.viic nfcd figur.itively, in inatterj of mora-
lity, &c. to fignify ample, iiobl.-, elevated, crtracrdinaryj
important, &e. I'hus we fav, Shakfpcare was a great gt-
nias ; queen Eli.sahe:h had a gri-at foul ; Cri>mwcll was a
man of great deiigns ; Da Vmci, a g.'iat p.-iiiitet ; Galileo^
a great pliilofophtr : Bofl'u, a great critic, &c.

Gke.vt is alio a title or quality appropriated fo ccrlaii*
princes, and ether ilIu(5rious perninages. Thu!> we fr.v the
great Turk ; the great Mogul ; tiie great khan of Tartarv j
the great duki> of Florence, 5rc.

Gueat is alfo a furname bellowed on (brrral fcrngs aod
emperors. Thus we fay, Alexander the great, Cvrusthe
great j. Charloo the great, or Ciiarlemagne ; Hei:ry the great

fit

G R E

of France, &c. So the Englifli frcqiiently fay, Edward
tlic great, or the great Edward ; William the great, mean-
ing king William III. or the great William The French
fay Louis the great, le rri^n//, fpeaking of Louis XIV.
Giles of Paris fays, Ciiarlcmagne hrll got the furnanie great
from the tallnefs and eminence of his llature. Helgaud adds,
that Hugh the great of France was thus denominated on ac-
count of his great piety, goodnefs. Sec,

Gkeat is alfo applied to feveral officers who have pre-
eminence over others. Thus we fay, the lord great cham-
berlain ; the great marflial of Po'and, Sec.

Cheat CircL-s of thefpkre. See Great CiRCLE.

Gkeat Circle faUing. See Sailimj.

Gv.e.x\: Apparatus. See Appauatiis.

Gkeat Artery. See Aktehy.

Great Bairam. See BAiiiAir.

Great Bank of Neivfomidlaud, in Geography. Sec Bank.
It lies between 41 " and 50- 24' N. lat., and between 49' 45',
and 54 4S' W. long.

Great Barrington. See Barrinoton. The number of
inhabitants by a late ellimate is 1754.

Great Biiy, a bay of North America, at the mouth of
the Pifcataqua river, between Portfmouth and Exeter, in the
ftate of New Hampfliire.

Great Bear lake. See Bear lake.

Great Bear. See Uuka major.

Great Cape, in Geography, a Cape of Upper Canada,
where lake Superior dcfcends into the narrows of the fall
Si. Mary.

Great Diachylon. See Diachylon.

Great Egg harbour, Sec. in Geography. See HLgg hariour
river.

Great Famine, a river of America, in New York, which
rifes in the mountains near the fource of the river Oneida, and
runs N. W. by W. to lake Ontario.

Great Gun. See Cannon and Gun.

Great Intervals, in Mafic, fignify the fame, with Holden
and fome other writers, as greater and major do with the
generaUtv of muficians, and is applied to the intervals mark-
ed with Roman capitals, as II, III, V, VI, VII, Sic. See
Greater.

Great I/land, in Geography, a fmall idand in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the N. coail of the illand of Flores. S. lat;
7 " 59'. E. long. 120' 54'. — Alfo, an ifland in the river Nia-
gara, between lake Erie and lake Ontario. N. lat. 53^. W.
long. 78° 59 . — Alfo, an ifland of Ireland, in the county of
Cork, being the largeft of the iflands formed by the river
Lee in Cork harbour ; on it is the flourifliing town of Cove.
— Alfo, an idand in Pifcataqua harbour, Now Hampfhire, in
the United States.

Great Kanhaway. See Kanhaway.

Great Letters. See C.triiAL.s.

Great ATafs. See Mas.-^.

Great Mecatina. See Mecwtina.

Gre.vt Oilave, in Mufic, is applied by the Germans, ac-
cording to their tablature, or notation of muiieal notes, to
the oflave, or rather feptave, begiiiiiitig with C on the fccond
leger line below the bafs ftave, and ending with B on the
fecond line, or mi of Guido, and to wliicli they excluhvely
apply the Roman capitals C, 13, E, F, G, A, B. See Dr.
Calleott's Muficnl Grammar, art. 34. See alfo S.mai-I-
Octavk, Once-.marked Oilave, and Twick-marked Oc-
tave.

The objeft of this tablature is, to enable mufical notes to
be written or printed without clefs or lines and fpaces in a
ftave.

Great OJlccrs. See Ofpicer.

G R E

CiZ.t\.T Pelican Ifland. See Pelican".

Great Repeat. See Repeat.

Great Ridge, in Geography, one of the ridges of the
Alleghany mountains, which (eparates the waters of the Sa-
vannah and Alatamaha. At the S.E. promontory of this ridge
is that extraordinary place called Bu-flaloe lick, diftant aboiit
80 miles from Auguita. It occupies feveral acres of ground.
A large cane fwanip and meadows, forming an immenfe plain,
lie S.E. of it, and in this fwamp Mr. Bai-trara apprehends that
the branches of the great Ogechee take their rife. The hck
is nearly level, and lies between the head of the cane fwamp
and the afccnt of the ridge.

Gre.\t River, a river of Virginia, which runs into the

Staunton river. N. lat. 36 '46'. W. long. 79" 12' Alfo, a

river of Canada, which runs into the river St. Lawrence, 20
miles below Quebec.

Great River. See Rio Grande.

Gu^\T Scale, m Mvjic. The late fir Marmaduke Overend,
after a life almoil fpent in reiearches into the nature and pro-
portion of mulical intervals, fuc^eeded, to the fatisfaftion of
Dr. Boyce, his intimate friend, to whom his labours were
fubmitted, in unravelling the myileries of the Greek fcales of
mufic, as he lays, in a paper on the great fcale, in his
quarto manufcripts, vol. ii. page 113 to 133, uow in the;
libraiy of the Royal Inilitution, which is thus entitled, iifz.
" All the Greek fcales of mufic combined, with the diato-
nic inteufe, extended in the acumen and gravitas, with their
remifiions and intenfions to double flats and double iliarps
in each ; iirit reilored, elucidated, and calculated, by Mar-
maduke Overend, Ifleworth 1779." In pages 143 to 14JJ
of the fame volume of MS. we find alfo the feveral ratios
of this fcale in their leaft terms, and the indices of the com-
ponent primes, of one oftave of the acumen and the gra-
vitas with the fynemmenons, tha remifiions, &c. This fcale,
which contains 86 notes within the ottave, is a great mufical
curiolity, which we are forry that our limits will not admit
of inferting : by the notice here taken of it, the curious
may refi)rt to the manufcripts themfelves for further fatis-
faftion. See Greek Scale.

Great Seal. See Se.\l.

Gre.'VT Sixth, Redundant, in Mufic, or redundant great
fixth, according to Holden, is the inverfiou of the deficient lefs
third of his fcales (i), and has a ratio of /,, ::= 475.947C9S
-1- 9_/" 4- 41 m in Farcy's notation, its common logarithm
being .7659167.9396, its Euler's log. or decimal of the
oftave -- .7776075, and it contains 43.38868 major commas.
This interval does not belong to the received or diatonie
fyllem, having the number 7 in its ratio.

Gre.vt Sodus. See Sodus.

GlKi',\r-Third, in Mufic, probable, according to Holden 's
new and fjiiciful lytlem, is the ratio which the mind " pro-
bably' conceives (page 371 of his " EiTa)'') as pertaining
to tlic major third in the common chord minor, and, to
which lie alfigns the numbers '.-, ^ 206.270982 1 -|- 4_/ +
18m in the new notation: its common logarithtu is
.8985423 5924 and that of Euler, . 3370^550, it alfo contains
18.80576 major commas; it is far removed from the receiv-
ed or diatonic fyilem of intervals, as involving the prime
number 19, and yet it is one of thofe which refp It from carl
Stanhope's directions for t-niing; it i; the lelTercqua!-be-iting
biequal third of his lordihip, fee Equal Be.\t:.\;;. Mr.
Holden, at page 384 of his effay, relates an experiment in
which this third proved an " intolerable difcord," which is
more than might be expcftcd, from the temperament of
rather more than y", ihs of a comma, which it has.

Great Tithes. See Tithe.s.

GiiiiAT Wardrobe. See Wardrobe.

Crkat

G R E

I - Crsvt IVL'cf, in C/oci or Watch-wnrt, is that wheel
»Lich the weiglit, fpring, or fufoe, firft moves.

Great IVork, in Chamjlry, is the alchemical proccfs
whereby gold is made, or pretended to be made.

Great Tear. See Platokic j^wr.

GREATER 5.7r«.w. See Baron-.

Greater Enbarmomcal dlefis . See DiE.St.'?.

Greater Excommunication. See E.kcg.m.munication'.

Greater Fafii. See Fasti.

Greater Hexachord. See HEXACiroRn.

Greater, i.t ^/a/7c, is applied to diflingiiini feveral in-
tervals, whereof there are two of the fame name, as greater
fecondjlelTtr fecond ; greater third, lefTer third ; &c. Ma-
jor interval is as often applied to thefe, and by fome few
writers they are called great intervals. Tlie femitone or dif-
ference between theii-rra/crand the /(j^v intervals of the fame
namei, are not all equal, but of two different magnitudes,
TOi. the femitone minor (i-? = 36S +/+ 3 m), which
occurs between the thirds and the fixths major and minor,
and the iemitone mcdius ( f-| = 47 j; +/+ 4 m), which
occurs between the feconds, fourths, fifths, and fevenths,
majar and minor : the diiierence of thefe fcmitones being the
major comma l^ = iii;-|-m.

GREATHAM Fleet, \\\ Geography, ■h.t'wcx of Eng-
land, which rifes in the county of Durham, and runs
into the German fea, 5 miles S. of Hartlepool. N. lat. 54^

43'-

GREATMAN's Bay, a bay of Ireland, on the N. coaft
of Galway bay ; i\f. miles N. from S. Arran ifjes.

GREAVES, John', in Biography, was born at Colmore,
near Alresford, in Hampfhire, in the year 1602. He was
educated in the claffics, and in the other eleraentary parts of
learning by his father, who was reClor of the place, and the
mofl. celebrated fchool-mafter in that country. When he was
fifteen he was fent to Baliol college, Oxford, where heap-
plied himfelf with great affiduity to the ftudirs of the place,
and took his firft degree in the year 162 1. Three years after
tliis he itood candidate for a fellowftiip of Merton college,
when he was the hrll on the lift of five who were then elcAed.
In 162S he took the degree of M. A., and more particularly
direfted his attention to the ftudy of the mathematics and
oriental learning, and becam.e the friend of the moil eminent
fcliolars in the univerfity, among whom were Mr. Brigy;s,
Savilian profefTor of aftronomy, and Mr. peter Turner, pro-
feifor of geometry in Grelham college, London. Had he
wanted any motive to induce h.i'n to purfue his lludies with
vigour, the example of hiscontemporarieswonldhavefurnifhed
that motive. Mr. Greaves read over all the writings of the
moll; celebrated mathematicians of that and the preceding
r^ge, and he made Iiinifelf familiar with the ancient Greek,
Arabian, and Periian authors. In the year 1630, upon the
refignation of Mr. Turner, he was elefted profeffor ot geo-
metry at Grefliam college, in confequence of the higii repu-
tation which he fuftained in the univerfity. At this period
he was introduced to archbifliop Laud, the chancellor of the
univerfity of Oxford, from whom he received Icveral marks
of favour. Soon after this, Mr. Greaves refolved to travel
for improvement, and in 1635 we find him in Holland, at-
tending the leclures of James Golius, profeffor of Arabic at
Leyden ; from thence he proceeded to Paris ; afterwards to
P.ome, Florence, and Padua, making exacT: obfcrvations upon
everythiuTdefervingof notice. Uponhis return he determined
to take a voyage to Egypt, a defign which met with
the decided approbation of the arclibifhop. His objeft in
litis was not only to make himfelf acquainted witli fnch rc-
imins of antiquity which that far-famed country poffefied as
might fcrve to illuftrate ancient literature, but alfo to make

G k E

aAronomical and geographical obfrrrations; hethcrefort fur.
niflied himfelf with inftruments of every kind fur the pjr.
p()fc, and fuch printed Greek and Arabic'books a he thou-ht
might be advantagcoiifly cxchangr-d for MSS. -jlt-A other ob-
jefts worthy of colleclion. He embarked in the river Thames
for Leghorn in the year 1637, accompanied by his friend
Mr. Edward Pococke, and proceedcJ tiril to Italy, und
thence to Conftantinople, where they arrived about Mi-
chaelmas. Here he was received with great attention by
lir Peter Wyche, to whom he brought out letters of retcm-
mcndation fr.>m arclibifhop Laud. He was immediately
introduced to Cyril Lucar, the Greek patriarch, who
afforded him much valuable adiftance in purchafin"
Greek MSS. The venerable patriarch promifcd to recom"
mend him to the monks of mount Athos, in Macedonia,
where, he fald, " he would have had the liberty of entering
all the libraries in that place, to have colledcd a catalo-ruc
of fuch books, as either were not printed, or elfe, bv'the
hcljjof fome, thefe might have been more corrcctlv fct out."
Thefe, by difpenfing with the anathemas which former pa-
triarchs had lain upon all Greek libraries to prcfer>-c the
books from the Latins, the patriarch propofed to have pre-
ft-nted to tiie arclibid.op of Canterbury-, for the better pro-
fccution of his grace's defigns in the edition of Greek au-
thors, but the death of that patriarch fruflratcd Mr. Greaves'
intention of vifiting the celebrated mount, and occafioned liis
being a fufferer in another refped ; for having procured from
a Greek monallery fome MSS. of the fathers, he was under
the necefTity of relloring them, and lofing his money to avoid
a greater inconvenience. Mr. Greaves, having loll his friend,
determined to proceed to Egypt, but before his departKre
he had an opportunity of Ihewing his great attention to allro-
nomical fcieiice : knt)wing that there would be an eclipfe of
the moon in the courfe of a few months, he furnifhed proper
perfons with convenient inllruments for obfervinrr it at Con-
ilantinople, Bagdad, Smyrna, and Alexandria, and gave
them neccliary inllrudions for the purpofe. For his conduft in
thisrefpect Dr. H alley paid liiin thehigheil complimcntbv fay-
ing that a greater iervice could not be rendered to the fcience
of aftronomy than by taking the phafes of the moon's eclipfcs
at thole places, in order to determine their longitudes, tince
in and near them were made all the obfcrvations by which the
mean motions of the fun are limited. Mr. Greaves having
finifhed his arrangements for tliis bufinefs, went by Rhodes
to Egypt, and arrived there in the month of September
163S. Tliis was the boundary of his intended journcv, and
liere an immenfe field for the exerciie of his inquilitive genius
opened upon his view. He omitted no opportunity of ex»
amining whatever the heavens, the earth, or fubtcrraneous
parts offered him, that might be defcrving of notice ; but
complains of having his ailronomical obfcrvations frequently
interrupted by the clouds and rain, which he found to be fre-
quent, efpecially in the middle of winter. But what parti-
cularly engaged liis attention, and employed his care, were the

pyramids, ot which, at that time, there was no fatisfadory
account before the public. This tafk he undertook, and
towards the dole of the year 1638 he took a car.ful lurvey
and menfuration of them. Having gratified his curiofitv,
furniihed his mind with a large llock of ufcful knowledge,
and coUedcd fome Greek, Arabic, and Pcrfian MSS., as
well as ancient coins, and other varieties, he embarked at
Alexandria in the month of April 1659, and .-srrived at
Leghorn in June. He now made a fecund tour of Italy,
which occupied him nine months. At Florence he was re-
ceived with particular marks of refped by the grand-duke
of Tufcany, Ferdinand II., to whom he addreflcd a Latin
poem lent from Alexandria ; and he alfo was permitted to

have

G R E

liave free accefs to the Medicean library, which had been re-
fufed to him as a ftranger when on his former tour. Fi'om
Florence lie went to Rome, whence he returned to Leghorn,
and embarked on board a vclTel for London, with a rich
cargo of MSS., gems, coins, and other valuable antiquities.
Uponliis arrival in England he found his native country dil-
traded by the contells between the king and parliament : he
was, from principle, a friend to the royal party, and in-
volved himfelf in much trouble by the zeal which he difplay-
ed in the caufe of monarchy, and in his attachment to arch-
bilhop Laud. Having made a fliort Hay at Grefham college,
he went to 0.^furd to digell and prepare his papers fur pub-
lication, in which he was alTiRcd by archbifliop Ulher, who
had long known and eftcemtd him ; and he now drew a map
ot the Lefier Afia, at his grace's requeft, who was writing
Ins diflertation on that country, which was printed in 164 1.
In this year archbifliop Laud having prefcntcd to the uni-
verlity a iecond collection of mcdah, the talk of arranging
them was confided to Mr. Greaves, which he performed to
tlie entire fatislaftion of that learned prelate. By continu-
ing to refide fo long at Oxford, Mr. Greaves loil his profef-
lorfliip at Grefliam college, but he was almolt at the fame
time cLofenthe Savilian profefTor of aftrcnomy at Oxford,
and obtained likewife a royal difpenfation to hold his fel-
lowfliip at Merton college, on account of the diminution in
his llipend as profedor, ariling from the circumftances of tiie
civil war. The labours of tlie profefForKiip being fufpended,
he proceeded with his literary avocations, and in theyear 1644
tranflated into Latin the '• Lemmata of Arcliimedes,'' cor-
rcding tlie diagrams, and fupplyingwiiat was frequently found
defeftivejn the demonllratiun itfelf. This piece was publilhed
by Mr. Samuel Folier in his Mifcellanies, or " Mathemati-
cal Lucubrations," 1659. Mr. Greaves, about the fame
time, compiled " A Perfian Lexicon,'' out of fuch words as
could be met with in the evangelills, the pfalms, and two
or three Arabian and Perfian nomcuclators. In 1645 he
drew up a feheme for gradually introducing the new or Gre-
gorian llyle, by omitting the intercalary day of the leap-
year for forty years, which feheme was highly approved by
the king and council, and would probably have been carried
into execution, had the times been favourable to the innova-
tion. In 1646 iie publifliedhis work entitled " Pyramido-
graphia," or a defcription of the pyramids of Egypt, and
loon after a " Difcourle on the Roman Foot and Denarius,"
from whence, as from a common llandard, the meafures and
veights ufed by the ancients may be deduced. About the
year 1648 Mr. Greaves found that he (hould be under the
neceffity of refigning his profefTorfhip, he accordingly, before
his interell was entirely gune, introduced a fucceffor, v'lz.
Mr. SethWard, aftervrards bifliop of Sjhlbury. He then
went to London, wiiere he married, and hving 'upon his pa-
trimony, devoted his time to hterary labours. He publilh-
ed many learned works, among which was " Elementa Lin-
gua; PeiJic.T," 4to. to which the author fubjoined " i\nony-
nius Perfa Siglis .Arabum et Perfarum Allronomicis." In
1652 he publifhed an allraiiomical work, to which he pre-
fixed " A (liort Hillury of the Riie and Progrefs of Agro-
nomy among the Arabians," and fuhjoined his Bins Tabula;.
Belides thefe, he publilhed many other works, and had
prepared many more fur the prcfs, 'when he was attacked by
a dilorder that proved fatal to him. He died in the fiftieth
year of his age. Of his learning, ingenuity, diligence, and
wonderful perleverance, there is abundant evidence. He was
highly efteemed by many of his moll eminent contempora-
ries both at home and abroad ; fleady in his principles and in
his frienddiips, and his death was lamented as a real lofs

to fcience and hterature.

Biog. Brit.

G R E

GREBANISH He.\d, in Geography, a cape of Scot-
land, on tlie E. coaft of the peninfula of Harris. N. lat. C7 '
48'. W. long 6'^ 43'. ^

GREBE, in Urniiholn^y, is claffed by Linnxus under
the genus of Colyml/us, which fee.

GREBENAU, in Giograjhv, a town of Germany, in
the principality of H-ffe Dannltadt ; 35 miles S. of Caffel.
N. lat. 50 43'. E. long. 9' 31'.

GREBEiMSKOI. See Cos.sacks.
GREBENSTEIN, a town of HcfTe-CafTel, 12 miles
N.W. ofCaCel. N. lat. 51 26'. E. long. 9' 22'.

_ GREBER, GlACOMO, in Biography, a German mufi-
cian, who had been fome time in Italy, and who brouglit
hither a female finger, his fcholar, la figujora Margarita di
I'EfTme. He fet to mufic a palloral entertainment, entitled
" The Loves of Ergafto," after the manner of the ItaHan
opera, that is, in recitative, with airs intermixed. Tliis waj
the firil performance in fir John Vanburgh's new theatre iiv
the Haymarhet, afterwards called the Opera Houfe. Gre-.
ber's fcholar, Margarita, fung in moll of the early attempts at
operas in England, and from the name of her mailer, Greber,
was long called '.' Greber's Peg ;'' which occufioned his name
to be better known, and longer remembered than his works.
See M.AnGAiuTA.
_ GRECI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Principato Ultra, foimded by a colony of Alba-
nians, who left their country after their prince George Caf-
triot, near Ariano.

GRECOURT,,Tonx-EAPTi.sT Joseph ViLLAHT de, ia

Biography, was born at Tours, in France, in 16S3. He was
devoted by his friends to the church at a very early period,
and was in poiTeilion of a canonry when he 'was on^y four-
teen years of age. He became celebrated as a preacher, but
his difcourfes were fatirical rather than moral, and did not
redound much to his credit as a preacher of the gofpei.
Quitting his profefhon he became a man of the world, and
made his way to the fafiiionable circles by his convivial talents,
and his faculties of writing and reciting Hcentious and bur-
lefque verfes. He was patronized by the marihal duke
d'Etrees, who frequently carried him to his feat, which th-
poet called his eartlily paradife. The hfe « hich he led would
not bear refledion ; and though he apparentlv fpent a joyous
courfe, yet there was a fmall portion cf re'fpedjbility at-
tached to his charafter. He died in 1743. His printed
works were tales, epigrams, fon^s, fables, and other light
pieces. Few of them rife above mediocrity, but they are
lively, pleafant, and popular. His poem, entitled " Plidota-
nus," wiiich was a fatirical hillory of the bull Unigenitus,
had prodigious fuccefs. The verfes are buriefque, fome of
them e.\tremely humorous, though their general texture is
mean and vulgar. Moreri.

GRE DING, m Geography, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Aichllatt, on the Schwarzach ; 12 miles
N.E. of Aichllatt.

GREE, 3. town of Perfia, in Segellan ; 20 miles S.W. of
Meimeud.

Gkee, in our Law Boohs, fignifies agreer.'.ent, content-
ment, or good liking. Thus, to make gne to the parties, is
to latisfy them for offence done. " Judgment Ihall be put
m iufpenee, till gree be made to the king of his debt." Stat.
25 Edward III. ^

The word is formed from the French ^re, good iviU, ■yood
hhiiig, or allowance. "^

9^i5^^^' '" Geography, a country of Europe, fubied
to the Turks, and more generally known under the name of
7 iirh'y in Europe, which fee.

GRliECE, in J iiciait Geography. Sec Gk.ECIA.

Gk££K

G R E

G R E

Greek ^...«//. See AccEVT. h^ f,,„, for the vo!e,. This h the more Jikcly. „ ,h,

Greek Bdk. bee Biur.E. > Greek fcrvice abounds in gcfticulations and manual dcx-

Greek Church. See CiiLRClI. terity.

Greek Church, Mufu: of I he. The fchifm between the The abate was informed, that though the oriental Greek*

Greek ana Roman churches, which happened m the ninth have I'lgns for miifical founds equivalent to our's tlit-y fm"

century, prevented fuch changes as were made m the Roman more by tradition than fcience. However, the dillindion'i

was eliablifncd, in which the modern method oj writing inform him. In this it appears, that tlic tliarjcters amount

mulic was received. But in the Greek iiles a notation pecu- to more than fifty ; among which moll of the namei. of thofe

liar to its inhabitants is ftill In ufc, which is not only as dif- mulical terms, given by Du Cangc, from a MS. trcatife on

fereiit tiom onr's as their alphabet, but totally unlike that in llie eccMaftical mufic of the Greeks, are to' be found

the ancient miffals. (GlofT. Med. et Inf. Gricitatis.) Du Cange, who hai

In examining the mod ancient of thefe m the Vatican li- fo amply coll.cled and explained the characters ufcd by the

brary, which were written in capitals, the firll notation modern Greeks in chcn:illrv, botany, aftronomy, and other

wiiichwe could diicover, confilltd chieP.y of accents ; and arts and fcienccs, is fiienl as to ihei'r mufical notation; nor

w'l.n fmall letters were afterwards ufed, thefe acoiils were have we been ;.ble to acquire any information on that fubica,

only fomewhat lengthened. In the tcnlii and eleventh cen- except that -.villi which the abate Martini has fupplied us.'

turies, they verymuch re(emble the characters to be found The title of tii-: treatife by Lampadarius 13 the foUowine :

in contemporary Latin miffals. However, the me'odies in
the lower ages became more elaborate, and the notes more
numerous than in thoi'e of higher antiquity.

.St- John Damafcenus, who lived in the eighth century, is
celebrated by the writers of his life, and by eccK fialUeal
hillorians, as the compiler and reformer of chants in the

by i^ampaiiarius 13 tne louowing ;
Ts;;^w',V/>iK ,;,- ,^i,:„.~.- i-yt'^ . The extrafl from it, wiiich is
in our podeffio'i, is too h.ng for infertion here ; nor would it
bj of much iiL- .;'Hild we allow it room, as no equivalents
to the Greek ciiaraCtei-s are to be found in our own notation.
But with-<eipccl to the author, we find amoog the memo-
r.inda which we made in the king of Sardinia's library at

Greek church, in the fame manner as St. Gregory in the Turin, an account of a Greek MS. ol" the iiftecntJi century,
Roman. And Leo AUatius (De Libris Ecclef. Grxcoruni) N. 353. b. 1.24, hi which Lampadarius is often mentioned
under the title " Octoe'chus" (G!tTi.«;i/S- ; eight tones), tells as author of the mufic to the hymns and prayers it contains,
us they were compofed by J. Damafcenus. Zarlino goes Fabricius likewife, fibl. Grx-c. vol. ii. p. '269, 564, and
ftill farther, and informs us ( Inilit. Harm. 410. parte, cap. 586 fpcaks of a MS. in the Selden collection at Oxford, and
viii ) that in the firft ages of Chrillianity the ancient Greek another in the .lefuits library at Louvain, in which there are
notation by letters having been thrown afide, John Damaf- explanations of the notes ull-d by the modern Greeks, and
cenus invented new charaders, which he accommodated to mnlital compofitions by feveral authors, particularly Lam-
the Greek ecclefiallical tones ; and that thefe characters did padarius. In the patriarchal church of Coullanlinople there
not, like our's, merely exprefs fingle founds, but all the in- aiv four fingers, who are placed on the right and left fides
tervals ufed in melody; as a femitone, tone, third minor, of the choir ; the firll on the right iscalled lI;»-;o4.i>,TTf, the
third major, &c. afceiiding and defcending, with their dif- principal finger ; the firll on the left A»uT?.ia,-i;-, Lampada-
fereat duration. This refembles, in many particulars, the rius ; the two others who aPi'ift the principals are caMed do-
notation in the ecclefiaftical books of the Romilh church, be- mcjl'ic'i. It is probable that Lampadariuf , who flouriihed
fore the time-table, and charafters in prefent ufe were invent- about the year 13CO, either took his nauic from the office
ed, or, at leaft, generally received. he filled ; or, on account of his eminence in mufic, tliat his

The abate Martini of Venice (fee "Prefent State of name was given to the office.
Mufic in France and Italy") having vifited the Greek ifles To iniert here the mufical characters ftill ufcd in the rituals
in hopes of acquiring fuch a knowledge of the mufic prac- of the Greek church out of Ruffia, and endeavour to ex-
tifed there at prefent, as would enable him to judge whether plain them, will perhaps be conferring but a finall favour on
any of the miraculous powers attributed to it by their our readers ; for from the fcarcily ot mufic written in fuch
ancellors ftill remained, as well as to compare its excellence charafters, fo few will be their opportunities of making ufc of
with that of his own country ; and as this learned and fa- any knowledge tliey may acquire by the ftudy of them, that
gacioub enquirer confided to us his papers on that fubiei!rt,v\e it would be like learning a dead language in which there are

no books, or a living language without the hopes of cither
reading or converfing in it.

Thole readers who may be defirous of gratifying them-
felves in matters of curiofity, may confe.lt Dr. 13umev*$
Hillory of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 50. where they will find
the f(jurtcen mufical char.icters that occur in the

fhall communicate to our readers a fl<etch of their con-
tents.

The fyftem of modern Greek notation feems much more
complicated and obfcure than the ancient. The charaCleis
convey nothing to the mind either by their form or names,
the greatell part of which cannot be conllrned ; and the reft

are conftrucd to no purpofe. Their fignification, as words, Greek MSS of the Evangel; ils, written in capitals dur-

does not poir.t out their meaning as mufical charafters ; and
all that we can difcover is, that fome of them feem dofcrip-
tive of geftic'.ilations ; fuch as ajau-pa, which, perhaps, d;-
reftcd the prieft to look up, or ftr^ tch his hands towards
heaven. Orztjo-, which might direft him to make the
fign of the crofs, or to carry tlie crofs. Ai/^ir/zi, ^cviO;

ing the feventh, eighth, and ninth centiu-ie.s, though
at prefent they are wholly unintelligible, even to the G.-tcks
themlelves. It is obforvable that the n-.ore ancient the ^I^S.
the fewer and more Un.p'e are the notes : the " Cinlex Alex-
audrinu':," in tlie Britiih Mufeuin has none; and the Lvan-
gelillerix MSS. in the Harlciaii colieft'on, 57S5, 5598,

eontorlio. Indeed, it is faid in the papers, that fome ot thefe botli of the tenth century, haw only fuch as theic, which
charafters are for the X<i«owutx, or k^erdemain, and not were copied in Grtvce bv the abate Martini.

Vol. XVI. ' ' ' 4 X The

GREEK MUSIC.

The " Codex Ejilirerii,'' in the king's library at Paris, of
the fifth century, has likewife the fame kind of mufical
notes, and it is affigned as a reafon for the " Codex Alexan-
drinns'' not having them, that it was written for private ufc,
not for the feiviceof the church.

Kircher undertakes to give his reader an idea of modern
Greek mufic and its characters ; and has indeed coUefted a
great number of notes and their names, but pretends not to
furnifh equivalents in the mulic of the weftern world. And to
infert fuch barbarous names, and more barbarous charafters
here without explanation, would no more help to initiate a
ftudent in the myfteries of Greek mufic, than the He-
brew or Chinefe alphabet. At the firft glance they very
m.uch refemble the chara.^ers ufed in Choregraphy, an art
invented about two hundred years ago to delineate the
fiii-ures and Heps of dances. They are too numerous and
complicated to be inferted and explained here; however,
we have given the names and correfpondent notes in the Hif-
tory of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 51—52, by the ftudy of which the
mufical reader will be able to form fome idea of the melody
which they are intended to exprefs.

There are eight afcending, and fix defcending charafters,
fome for fingle founds, and others for wider intervals, as
thirds and fifths, fuch as Zarlino, in the paffage mentioned
above, had imagined were invented by J. Damaicenus ; and
all thefe have their particular Chironom'ia, or figns tor the
geftures with which the prieft is to accompany the inflexions
of voice.

The beginning, or firft note of every chant, is called Ifoii,
which is equivalent to the key or tone in which any melody is
fung.

Kircher, to whom even Egyptian hieroglypbies are eafy,
has refolved the names of thefe Greek notes into Latin.
Mufurgia, ubi fupra.

The abate Martini heard the Greeks, in Paffion Week,
fing feveral tropes or modes, which they now term nx''^i '"
four parts, in the llyle of Paleftrina : and tins kind of mulic
they call Cretan, but why, is not eafy to divine, unlefs they
learned counterpoint while the Venetians were matters of the
ifland.

The abate fays that he often heard the common people of
Greece fing in concert, and obferved that they made frequent
ufe of the fourth : " della confonanza che noi chiamiamo
oggi quarta.'' By this he muft mean that they ufed it as a
concord in two parts, or if there were more than two parts,
in pofitions where our harmony forbids the ufe of it ; other-
wife it would not have affcQed his ear as a fingidarity.

The fail is curious, and we find it confirmed by Zarlino,
who obferved the fame praflice in the Greek church at
Venice. The fourth, we find, was in fuch favour during
the time of Guido, as to be preferred in difcant to every
other concord, and thought to conftitufe the moft pleafiniT
harmony.. This partiality may probably have arifen from
the importance of fourths in the ancient Greek fyftem, and
the want of a temperament to render thirds and iixths more
agreeable ; but the improvements in harmony foon brought it
into difgrace in Ita'y, while, from a contrary caufe, it has
kept its ground to the prefent time in Greece, at leaft among
the populace. And, indeed, even in Italy, it feenis to have
retained a jiart of its ancient privileges long after the time of
Guido, and when harmony was thought to be in great per-
feftiou : for Zarlino fays, that Jufquin, and the other old
Flemidi matters, ufed it frequently in their compofitions :
*' nella parte grave, fenza aggungcrle altro intervallo.''

The prefent ilate of Greek mufic, indeed, does not con-
firm or favour the opinion of Dr. Brown, who afi'erts with

his ufual courage, that, '• about four himdred years after
Guido, the debauched art once more paflfed over into Italy
from Greece : certain Greeks, who efcaped from the taking
of Conttantinople, brought a refined and enervate fpecies of mu-
fic to Rome, &c.'' As many travellers afiert that the modem
Greeks have no mufic in parts, we may fuppofe, that in
thofe places where it was heard by the abate Martini, it had
been brought thither by the Venetians, during the time that
they had pofieffions in the Archipelago.

That the Greek mufic has undergone many alterations
fince the ancient treatifes that are come down to us were
written, is certain from the change and increafe of its voca-
bulary. Bryennius has given, as names of intervals, a li(t
of barbarous terms not to be found in any preceding writer
within our knowledge ; and in the Greek gloflary of Du
Cange, and the abate Martini's papers, a great number oc-
cur that are not to be found either in writers of high antiqui-
ty, or in Bryennius.

The technical language of the Greeks has always been
copious, and in mufic perhaps its feeming redundance is more
confpicuous than in any other art or icience. But in other
arts and fciences words are reprefcntatives of things exiiling ;
whereas, in denominating the tones and inflexions of voice,
which, to re?,lize, require new creation, there can be no
correfpondence between the type and fubftance. The co-
lours, the form.s, and obiefts, which a painter wiflies to re-
prefent, are in nature ; and tlie poet, in all the ebullition of
wild enthufiafm and fervid imagination, defcribes what he has
feen and felt, or what is to be ieen and felt, and for which
common language mutt fupply him with lymbols. But it has
never entered the thoughts of man to give nan';es to all the
minute fliades of colour between black and white, or to the
gradations by which light is propagated between the time
of total darknefs and the fun's meridian. And yet, in a
fcale of founds, from the loweft mufical note in the human
voice to the highett, where octaves are not reprefented by
fimilar figns and appellatives, the names and charafters muil
be numerous. Tlie lines and clefs of the European mufic
have certainly freed it from many perplexities with which it
was embarralfed, even in the artlefs times of canto fermo.

But however flowery the Greeks may have made their ec-
clefiaftical melody, or however they have multiplied its cha-
ratlers, the defire of permanence in the heads of tlie weftern
church, with refpeft to all facred matters, long kept mufic
in the plain and iimple ftate in which it vvas left by pope
Gregory the Great ; for we do not find, till the invention of
counterpoint, that it received any matei-ial change or- in!-
provement. Our own bible and liturgy, if they remain ir:
their prefent ftate five or fix hundred years, will, perhaps.
be unintelligible to the vulgar, though written in the bell
language of this country when they were introduced intt)
the church. And the Greek and Roman languages, which
were fo well underftood by the primitive Chrittians, becarT>.
dead and obfoletc by degrees, to all but the learned in after
ages. Tiie preclufion of change or innovation in facred
concerns which has occafioned permanence, has likewife been
the caufe of inelegance and oblcurity.

" Peter the Great, like his predeceflors, had a particuLir
partiality for the mufic of the church ; maintained his own
choir, or fingers for divine fervice, and read publicly in t! -
church the epittlcs and the hours, which, in that country, u.
permitted to be done by any layman, who delights in fuch
oxercife, as well as bj the prieils." (King's Rites of the
Greek Church.)

Many of the kings of France not only fung in the
choir, but compofed hymns for it, and fet them to mufic-

(Laborde. )

GREEK MUSIC.

(Laborde.) And we hare heard his prefeiit majclly, at fix
o'clock prayers in St. George's chapel at Windfor,
officiate iilone as clerk ; repeating the refponfes, and reading
the pfalnis aloud verfe for verfe, with the miniller, and utter-
ing the amen in the clerical ftyle.

Mufic has been veiT^ much cultivated at Peterfljurgh in the
Imperial chapel and metropolitan church during the lad cen-
tury, as well as in the theatre. And though no inllruments
are admitted in the Greek church, any more than in the
SilHne or pontifical chapel at Rome, yet every vocal refine-
ment, both in compofition and performance, that can with
propriety be allowed in ecclefiallical mufic, has been re-
ceived in the church fervice at Peterfburgh, in the Imperial
chapel and cathedral of which capital, near a hundred
voices are daily employed ; and at Mofcow, in feveral
churches, when the fovereign is there, forty or fifty.

The mufic of the Hymnologia of the Ruffian ambaffa-
dor's chapel in London, is fung to figurative mufic in three
and four parts, dllliMtt f;om the intonations or canto fcrmo.
It confills of (liort, elegant, and fimple ilrains or movements,
in the Italian ftyle, in plain counterpoint, compofed to Slavo-
rian words, by Bortnianiki, who was lent to Italy, early in
life, by the em prefs Catherine, to ftudy compofition.

The taiie for good mufic pafled from the theatre to the
church. The plain chant of the modem Greeks is different
from that of other Chriftian churches. It is more varied
than the Gregorian chant ; and that of the hymns rather re-
fembles the figurative mufic of motets, than canto fermo.
The emprefs Elizabeth, who was well acquainted with the
kind of counteVpoint a capella, and had great pleafure in
uniting her voice with the choir, would never allow the
Italian Jlorld Jong to have admilfion in the facred fervice ;
but fays the Gotha Almannje, in an abridged hillory of the
mufic of Ruifia, 1772, " Italian mufic has invaded even
the Greek church as well as the Roman.'' This voice of
complaint borders on croahing. We have taken confiderable
pains to obtain information on the fubjeft, and have heard
the fervice of the Greek church performed in feveral parts
of Europe ; and we have been favoured with a fcore of
fome of the mufic in prefent ufe in that fervice, compofed
by BortniauHvi, a native of Petei'fburgh, and find that it is
neither fo bald and dry as canto fermo, nor fo florid and
flighty as that of the Italian theatre. It is plain counter-
point, non fugalo, in which the words feem well accented,
the parts moving all together ; fo that there is meafure, clear-
nefs, tranquil and foothing air, pure harmony, and natural
and fimple modulation. Nothing vulgar occurs, nor any
thing to remind us of the opera houfe, yet the Ilrains are
not without grace or gravity. It feems to excite attention
by its fweetnefs and fimplicity, more than by the art of
fugue, or extraneous modulation.

GiiCEK Mufic, Anaent. We Ihall here introduce fome
obfervations on the fubjcct, extraded from a dilfertation
written leveral years ago.

Section I. — Of the Notation or Talhture of Anc'iint Muf.c,
including its Scales, Intei'vals, Svflcms, and Diagrams.

The mufic of the ancients, according to Euclid, Aly-
pius, and Martianus Capella, was divided into feven conlti-
tuent parts : thefe were founds, intervals, ffems, genera,
modes, mutations, and melopsia, or the compofition of
melody. To thefe divifions, which comprehended only
what was denominated harmonics, or the fcience of mufic,
ftriftly fo called, were added five other requifites, no lels
elTential for a mufician to know, than the preceding feven :
and thefe were, rhythm, or the regulation of cadences in all
kinds of movement ; metre, or tlie meafure of vcries ; organic,
or the initrumental art ; hypocriiic, or gefture ; and poetic, or

the compofition of vtrles. And ftiU to thcfc divii.ous
Arillidcs Quintihamis, and fome other nuifical writer*, add
oJicum, or the art of iinging ; whicli, indectJ, fccn.» of 11 oie
importance to mufic, llian either the organic or hypocrhic ari.
In order to communicate to our reader* all the ii.fonnatioi.
we arc able, upon fo dark and difficult a fubjcct, «c lluJl
confider the mufic of the ancient Grcck= under fuch heads
only as abfidutely concern mufic, according to our accepta-
tion of the word ; for it is plain tlial feveral of its ancient
i^ivilions more immediately belonged to potlr)-. Indn-J
thefe two arts were at firK fo intimately coiuiccicd, and fo
dependent on each other, that rules fur pottrv were, i» gtiJc-
ral, rules for mufic, and tiie properties and 'l-STlCU of Wli
were fo much confounded together, that it is extremely dif-
ficult to difentangle them.

Leaving, therefore, for tiie prefent, all other diain£tioni,
divilions, and fnb-divifions, with v\!iich .-.ncieiit mufical trca-
tifcs abound, we fliall proceed to fulfil tl,e title of tlii» dftion

In the fludy of modern imific, the firft objtcli of cnouiry
are the names by which the feveral founds 10 the fcalc are
exprefTed ; and, if we regard mufic as a language, tlw fcalc
or gammut may be called its alphabet.

Plutarch fays, that it is not fiiflicieiit for a mufician to
know what kind of miif;^ fliould be fet to any partirillar
poem ; he ihould likewife know how to write it down in ail
the genera, that is to fay, in the dia/oni^- or natural fcale,
confining of tones and femitoncs as at prefent ; in the dra-
matic, in which the fcale was divided into femitoncs and
minor thirds ; and in the enharmonic genus moving by quarter
tones, and major thirds, as will be explained hereafter.

It d()es not appear from hillory, that the Egyptians,
Phoenicians, Hebrews, or any ancient people, who culti\-atid
the arts, except the Greeks and Romans, had mufical ita-
raaers ; and thefe had no other fymboli, of found than llic
letters of their alphabet, which likewife fcrred them for
arithmetical numbers and chro ological dates.

As the notation of the Grei ks was imagined in the in-
fancy of the art of mufic, when the flute had but few holei,
and the lyre but few firings, the fimplicity of cxprcfFing the
odave of any found by the fame fign, as in modem mufic,
was not thought of ; the moll ancient and conilant boundary
of mufical tones having been the diatejferon, or foiirtli, the
extremes of which interval were fixed, though the inter-
mediate founds were mutable : and in the manner of tuning
thefe confided the difference of intervals in the leveral genera.

The Greek fcale, in the time of Arilloxenus, the uldril
writer upon mufic, whole works are come down to us, ex-
tended to two oftaves, and was called ftjlcma perftSum,
maximum immutatum ; the great, the perfect, the in.mutable
fydem ; becaufe its extremities formed a perfect confonancc,
including all the fimple, double, direct, and inverted concords,
with all the particular fyllems ; and it was the opinion of
the ancients that this dildiapalon, or double octave, wai the
greated interval which could be received in melody.

This w liole fyllem was compofed of live tetrjchorJs, or dif-
ferent ferics of four founds, and one note added at the bottom
of tiie fcale to complete the double ocla\e ; w hence the llrin''
which produced this found was called Tf-xr\»_.«aK!fin V, prc%
lambanomenos, or note fubjoined to the fcale ; for though'thij
was conllantly the lowed found in all the modes, it was not
included ifl the tetrachords.

All thefe founds had diifercnt denominations in the fvftcm,
like our gammut, A re, B mi, C fa ut, &c. belidcs two
different characters, one vocal, and the other inllrumenja),
appropriated to each found in the feveral modes and genera,
for the purpofe of writing down melodies.

That the foi^rth was a favourite and important inter\-al in
+ >>^ ^ the

GREEK MUSIC.

tlie :nu!ic of the ancients, is plain from the groat fyftcm of two
oftavcs having been compofed of five of thefe tetrachords, in
the fame manner as the fcale of Guide is of different licxa-
chords.

Tl>e firft tetrachord is called by the Greek, muficiaii^
hypaton, or principal ; the founds of which are denominated :

1 . Hypate hypaton, principal of principals ;

2. Parypale hypaton, next the principal ;

3. Lic'hanos hypaton, or index of principals ; from its hav-
ing been placed with the index or fore -finger. This third
found of the firft tetrachord in the diatonic genus was
likesvife cal'ed hypaton a'iatonos.

4. Hypate mefon, or principal of the middle or mean
tetrachord ; for this f mud noi. only terved as the lall or
higheft note of the firll tetrachord, but as the firll or lowefl
of the fecond ; whence thefe two tctrachords were called con-
joint, or conneAtd. Thefe four denominations of the iounds
in the firft tetrachord may be compared with the terms B mi,
C fa ut. D/al re, and E la mi, in the Guido fcale ; or with
the founds

The nicfe in ancient mufic was of equal importance witk
the key note in modern mufic : being an oftave above the
proflambanomenos, which was thelowelt found of the ancient
modes, and a kind of key note to them all.

Euclid calls mefe the found by which all other founds are
regulated. And Ariftotle, in his XXXVIth Problem,
feci. 19. fays that all the tones of a fcale are accommodated,
or tuned, to the mefe. The fame author likewife tells us,
Problem XX. that all melody, whether it moves above or
below the mefe, has a natural tendency to that found.

The third tetrachord, beginning by the laft note of the
fecond, was thence called _/)'«■"'""'"<'"; thi^- united, or c.tijun^
tetrachord ; the founds of which proceed in the fulloaing
order :

Mefe;

Trite fynemmencv, or third flring of this tetrachord from,
the top ;

Paranete fynemmentn, pcnultima of this tetrachord ;

Nete fynemmcnon, lall of the fynommenon tetrachord ; the
four founds of which correfpond with thofe in tlie centre of
our gammut, that are called A la mi re, Tija, Q Jol fa ut,
and 13 lafol re, cr

The founds of the mefon, or middle tetrachord, were placed
in the following order :

Hipate mefon, or principal of the mean tetrachord ;

Parypate mefon, next to the middle principal ;

Lichanos niefon ;

Mefe, or middle, as this found completes the fecond
tetrachord, and is the centre of the wliole fyftem. The
founds of this tetrachord corrrefpond with thofe which in
the bafe of the fcale of Guido are called E la mi, Y fa ut,
G fol re ut, and A la mi re, which are equivalent to

:^

bo

-O.

=1T-

S

After afcending regularly thus far, up to D, by three
conjoint tetrachords, tlie fourtli tetrachord in the great
fyilem is begun by dtfcending a minor third to B natural,
the oftave above the firll found of the lowefl tetrachord.
Soinethinsj of this (/o(/j/ht kind is to be found in the fcale of
Guido, divided into hexachords: for, after afcending fix notes
regularly in the durum hexackord, it is neceflary to dcfccnd
a major third, if we would begin the natural h.xachord ; and
when the natural hexach«rd is completed, if we would begin
at the nwlle, it cmi only be dofie by a leap of a third below.
This will beft appear by an example in notes :

Durum HexachorJ.

Natural Hexachord.

MoUe Hexachord.

==-ii:zzi::5=3=::§:

e Q-g -e-^-g:z!±zzr=z:

Lit re mi fa fol la. Ut re mi fa fol la

L't re mi f.t fol

It appears from the Greek tetrachords, as well as from
this example, that neither the ancients nor the early moderns
admitted ihc fharp fewnth of a key into their fcales.

The fourth tetrachord, afcending, is called diezeugmenon,
disjunft, or feparated, as it begins at B natural, whicii is
not a note in comraoTi with any one in the other telracliords.
But though this fy'lem of four founds is only an octave
higher than that of the firft tetrachord, and though the
next is but a replicate of the fecond, we (hall prefent them
to the ri ader, as the feveral founds of which they are
compofed have in tlie Greek mufic different denominations.

The firft found of the fecond octave, or feries of eight
founds in the ancient great fyftem, is mef, and the lirft of the
fourth tetrachord begins with the note

Paramef, near the mefe, or middle found ; the next is
called

Trite diezeugmenpn, or third flring of this tetrachord from
the top : then follows the paranete diezeugmenon ; and laftly,
the

Netc diezeugnuticn, or final found of this tetrachord ;

which includes the founds B mi, C fol fa ut, D la fol re, and
E la mi, in the middle of the Guido fcale, or

The laft found of the fourth tetrachord is the firft of the
fifth, which is called the hyperbohon, or fuprcnie tetrachord ;
the founds of which afcend in the following order :

Nete die-zeupnenon, laft of the diezeugmenon tetrachord ;

Trite hyperloUon-, third ftring of the hyperbolson tetra-
chord ;

Paranete hyperholitcn, penultima of the fuprcme tetrachord ;

Nete hyberboldeon, laft of the fupreme, or higheft tetrachord,
and of the great fyftem, or diagram.

This laft tetrachord, being added to the fcale long after
its firft formation, was called hyperboUon, frcm its founds
being more acute than the reft, and beyond the common

bounds

GREEK MUSIC.

bounds of th;; fcLile ; in the fame manticr, as, w-ith us, the
notes above D Ih the treble are faid to be in all. This te-
trachord includes the founds E /ami, Y fa ut, G f'jl re iit,
and A la mi re, or

The ancients uffd likewife four different monofyllables
ending with different vowels, by way ol jhlmijalion, fur tlie
exercife of the voice in finginjj ; like our mi, fa, fol, hi.
Thefe were, for the lirfl note of each tctrachord, li, for the
fecond xr, for the third rf, and for the fourth, if it did not
ferve as the firfl of the adjoining and relative telrachord,
T£ ; but if it began a new tetrachord, it was called by the
firit name, tsT.

The repetition of thcfe monofyllables is a further proof
that the fourth in the ancient muiic ferved as a boundary to
a fyllem of four found?, in the fame manner as a hexachord
did in the Guido Icule, and as an octave does for eight founds
in the more modern pmctice.

Any interval between the terms of which one or more
founds intervened, was by the ancients called zjv/lem : EG,
for example, conilituted a fyftem of a third minor ; EA, of
a fourth ; EB, of a fifth, &c,

Thefe fmaller fylle:'.is were of different fpccies ; thus
there were three kinds of tetrachords, that differed in me-
lody by the poiition of the femitone, which was fometimes at
the beginning, fometimes at the end, and fometimes in the
middle ; as in the following example, where the black notes
are femitones, and the white, tones.

Wz

"•--^

;-e— air

m

-ft.--

As the Greeks ufed all the four and twenty letters of
their alphabet for mufical characters, or fymbols of found ;
and as their moil extenlive fyflem or fcale did not exceed
two oftaves, or fifteen founds, it fhould feem as if their fim-
ple alphabet was more than fufiicient to exprefs them ; for
their raulic b-jing at firfl only a notation of their poetry, the
rhythm, or air, mull have been determined by the metre of
the verfes, without the aflillance of figiis of proportion
pecidiar to muiic. But fuppoiing it was neccHary for them
to have different characters to exprefs the differeat feet of
the verfe, it is certain that vocal mufic was in no want of
them ; and inilrumental being chiefly vocal mufic played by
inflruments, had likewife no need of them, wlien the words
were written, or the player knew them by heart.

However, in order to multiply theft- chi,ra6lers, the letters
of their alphabet weve fometii'.ies written in capitals, and
fometimes fmall ; fome were entire, fome n-.utilated, feme
doubled, and fome lengthened ; and btfidcs thefe diiliiiclions
in the form of the letters, they had others of fittir.tion, fome-
timesturning them to the right, fomctimestothe left; f.)n>;times
inverting, and fometimes placing them horizontalh ; for in-
flance, the letter ^amma, by thefe expedients, ferved to ex-
prefs feven different founds : PLT. b ti T: ^^. Some
of the letters were alfo barred, or accented, in order
to change their fymbolical import ; and thefe flill not fuf-
ficing, tfiey made the common grave and acute accents ferve
as fppcific mufical notes.

It is a matter that has been long difputed among the
learned, whether accents were originally mufical (karaders,
3

or marks oi profoily. It is \h vain to fet about determining a
qutflion concerning which the proofs on both fides are fo
numerous. (Sec Gaily and Spelman agninJI accinti, and Pri-
matt and Forfter in defence of tlicm ) Mr. W.-ft is firmly
of opinion "that accents were originallv mu/ualnolet.kloseT
words to dir.ct the feveral tones and inflcJiions «f the voicf,
requifite to give the wh(jle fentencc its proper harmony and
cadence" (Find. vol. ii.) And the abbe du Bos, who
frequently by a peremptory decifion culs the knot of
fuch difHcuhies as he is unable to untie, afT^rf;, without
fufficient proof, that as poets originally k-t tliclr own vrrfes,
they placed for tiiis purpofe a figure.'or accent, over each
fyllablc. So that, according to this writer, we are at
prefent not only in pofTefTion of the poetry of Homer,
Pindar, Anacreon, and Sippho, but their' mufc. Whv
then do we complain of the total lofs of Greek muiic'?
(See Reflex. Critique, c. iii. p. 85.) But as mufic had cha-
racters different from accents fo early as the time of Ter-
pnndcr, to wliom the invention is given by the Oxford
Marbles, which place this event about fix hundred and
feventy years before Chriil ; and as accents for profody are
hkewife proved to be of high antiquity, it feeii.s .?« if there
could have been no nccelFity for the ancients to ufe one for
the other.

But it has already been remarked that the letters of the
alphabet, though turned, dillorted, and mutilated, fo many
different ways, were infufficicnt to exprefs the founds of all
the modes in the three genera ; fo that recourfe w.is kad
to accents, as the fcale became more extended, in order 10
augment tiie number of charaders. And Alypius, in the
enumeration of the notes in the enharmonic genus, tells u>,
that trite fynemmenon is reprefeuted by beta and the acute
accent ; and farancte fynemmenon eiuirmonios by alpha, and the
grave accent.

This is a proof that the accents were kno^m at the
time of Alypius, and v.ere then ufed chiefly for profi>dy,
not mufic, for which dicy were only called in cccafionally.
Indeed they are mentioned as accentual m.irks by writers of
much liigher antiquity than Alypius ; for not onlv Cicero
and Plutarch, but Arillotle and Plato, fpeak of' them as
merely regarding the elevation and deprelfion of the voice in
fpeech. However, in the early Greek and komsn miffals,
as will be fliewn heriaf;er, tlie mufical charadcrs ufed in canto
fermo, feem to have been only l-.ngthen-d accents.

Thefe various modifications of letters and accents in the
Greek notation compofed in all one hundnd and twenty
different character.., which were ftiil coniidtr.iLlv multiplied in
practice ; for each of thefe characters iVrving many purpofcs
in the vocal as wi 11 as inilrumental lablature or gammut,
and being changed and varied aceoi-ding to ti.e different modes
and genera, as the names of our notes arc changi-d by diffe-
rent cleffs and keys, the one hundred and twenty Greek
charadtersproducedoncthoufandfixhundrcdandtwenty notes!
Two rows of tl-.efe characterj were ufiially placed over
the words of a lyric poen: ; the upper row fcrving for the
voice, and the lower forinilrumeuts.

If we had not tlie teftimony of all the Greek writers who
have mentioned thefe characters, for their ufe and dellinrition,
it would be natur;d to fuppofc th.it the double row of dif-
ferent letters jjlaced over each other, and above the words
of a poem, were ii. tended to exprefs Sffc rent parts, with re-
fpett to harmony ; as with us, in modern n.ufic, the treble
notes are written over the bafe, and the firll treble over the
fecond ; but Alypius, who is extremely minute in his in.
IlruAions concerning the ufe of thefe charadcrs, in all thcfe
modes, tells us, in exprefs terms, that the upper fine of the
notes is for the words, and the lower for the lyre, ^^'.^.^ta ^j.

GREEK MUSIC.

itsv avM, Ti;-: ?!!•£»■;• tx Se kkto) t»); x^atrw;. Introd.'Muf. edit.
Ikleibom. p. 2.) We arc told, not only by Alypius, but by
Gaudeiitius, p. 23, th;it of the two rows of letters ufed for
niufical charadlcrs, the upper h for the words, that is, to be
Jung, and the under lo lie flayed. And he afterwards proves
them to have been unifons to each other, both by his defini-
tions and by placing them oppolite to the fame found in all
the fcales.

In this author, the notes of the great fyftem of the Ly-
dian mode in the diatonic genus are arranged in the follow-
ing order :

7. T R * C P M I 0 r !5 Z E n ■& J. M' I
h rLFCu '1 <VNZl:. ^ZvJ-.n' <'

And thefe he defnies in fuch a manner as leaves no room to
doubt of the identity of their fignification.

It is fomewhat ihauge that the notes for the voice in an-
cient mufic fliould bo placed aiove thofc for the lyre, and
confequently further from the words. Meibomius, in his
preface, has, however, given a curious reafon for this cuftom,
from a fragment of Bacchius, lenior ; " The upper hne of
notes is for the poem, the lower for the lyre ; becaufe the
mouth, which alone gives utterance to the words, is placed
by nature above the hands, which produce tones from the
inllrument.

ZE-i Projlamhanomenos, an imperfeft Zeta, and Tau placed
horizontally.

1 r Hypate hypaton, an averted Gamma, and a Gamma
direft.

R L Parypate hypaton, an imperfeft Beta, and a Gamma
inverted.

0 F Hypaton diatonos, a Pki, and a Digamma.
C C Hypate mej'on, S/gma and Sigma.

F O Parypate mcfon, Rho, and Sigma inverted
M H Mcfon diatonos, Mu, and a lengthened Pi.

1 <! Mej'e, Iota, and a horizontal Lambda.

©V Trite fynemmenon, Theta, and an inverted Lambda.

V N Synemmenon diatonos. Gamma and Nil.

tjZ Nete fynemmenon, an inverted Omega and a Zeta.

Z Ch Paramefe, Zda, and Pi placed horizontally.

Y. ixTrite diezeugmenon, Epfilon, and an inverted Pi.

UZ Diexeugmsnon diatonos, as Nete iynemmcnon, which
was the fame itring in the lyre.

■& r, Nete diezengmeron, horizontal Pki, and a fmall Eta
lengthened.

0, / Trite hyperboUoti, an mvertedUp/i/oit, and an imperfcft
jf/pha.

M'n' Hyperbo/aoii diatonos, JlTu, and a lengthened Pi, ac-
cented.

I < ' Nete hyperboLon, Iota, and an accented Lambda,
placed horizontally.

It is from the indefatigable labour of the learned Meibo-
mius, in his Commentaries upon the ancient Greek mufi-
cians, particularly Alypius, that we are able to decypher
thefe characters; which,, before his time, had been fo altered,
corrupted, disfigured, and confounded, by the ignorance or
negligence of the tranfcvibers of ancient manulcripts, that
they were rendered wholly unintelligible.

With our utmoil ftudy, reading, and contemplation, we
.could reduce the Greek notation to no order, nor afcertain
whether it was to be read upwards or downwards. The
negletl of thefe diftinftions will introduce an univerfal fcep-
ticifm concerning every part of ancient mufic.

Galilei, Zarlino, Bontempi, Tevo, M. Roufleau, Dr.

Brown, and others have afferted, that the terms high and low

had different acceptations among the ancients, from thofe in

which they are underftood by the moderns, without guard-

7

ing, as they ought to have done, againft fuch confequences,
with refpeit to the fituation of the fcale, as it was natural
for the reader to draw from that affertion.

At length, an infallible rule prefented itfelf to us in the
works of the great Euclid, who has been regarded for fo
many ages as the legillator of mathematicians, and whofe
writings have been their code. In his feftion of the Canon,
p. 37, edit Meibom. he re'preknts projlamhanomenos by the
ivhole firing : fo that, if any thing concerning ancient mufic
can be made certain, it is, that this whole ftring reprefented
the loivejl found in the Greek fcale, which, in the Hyper-

borian mode, was equivalent to the note A *-*-' J_

Half the ftring, Mefe, its oftave, a,

Third part, Nete die'z.eugmenon, fifth of the
octave, e, - - - -

And the fourth part of the firing, Nete hy-
pcrboUon, the double ofluve, aa.

which include all the concords that the ancients admitted.
Eight ninths of the ftring are allotted to the found Hypate
bareia gravis, which is B in the bufc, one tone higher than
pr'flambanomenos, or A.

This reprefentation of the whole ftring a:id its divifions
into harmonic and aliquot parts, nniil put an end to evety
doubt concerning the order of the fcale, which may have
arifen from the inverted application of the words high and
lott; conftantly occurring in all the more ancient and authen-
tic Greek writers on mufic.

Seit. II — Of the three genera. Diatonic, Chromatic, and En--
harmonic. ' See Geneua, Diatonic; Chromatic; and E^---
HAiiMONic refpeftively.

Sul. III.— 0/ Modes. See Modks.

Sea. lY.—Of Mutations. See Mutation.s.

SeS. V Of Meloptein. See Mklopckia.

Sed.W. Of Rhythm. See RiiVTilM.

Sea. VI \.— Of the Praaice of Melopaia. See MelOPCEIA.

Sea. VIII. — H'hether the Aiuients had counterpoint or piufic in
parts.

This is a fubjeft which has given birth to many learned
difquifitions and dil'putcs ; and as it long remained a mere
matter of opinion, thofe who believed, and thofe who de-
nied the point in quellion, confequently treated each other
with all due polemic acrimony. The champions for anti-
quity thought themfelves involved in the controverfy ; and
v^hether they were poficned of mufical knowledge, or were
fenfible to the charms of harmony, or not, they determined
to regard every man as an enemy to found literature, w ho did
not fubfcribe to the articles of their faith.

A poem, called " Le Siecle de Louis le Grand," written
by Charles Pcrrault, of the Academy of Sciences, and
brother to Claude Perrault, the famous phyfician and archi-
tcft, occafioned the long and acrimonious diipute between
him and Boileau, and foon brought on a general war among
the learned throughout Europe, concerning the fuperioritv
of the ancients or moderns, with relpeci to arts, Iciences,
and literature. This piece was firft read by the author at
the Academy of Sciences in 1687, and was foon followed
by his " Parallcle des Anciens et des Moderncs." The
notes to Boileau's tranfjation of Longinus were intended as
a reply to Perrault, and are full of bkter inveftives, not

only

G R E

only againll liini, but the moderns in general. Racine, La
Briiyere, and Fontenelle, took fides in the quarrel, which in
France was kept alive, with great animofity, for near thirty
years.

In England, the controverfy between fir William Tern-
pie and Mr. Wooton, Mr. lioyle and Dr. Ik-ntley, and
S.vift's " Battle of the Bjoks,'" were coiifequcnces of this
quarrel.

Tiiofe who had written ex profejfo on mufic, had frequently
differed in their opinions concerning counterpoint haviim-
been known by the ancients, previous to the learned, in ge-
neral, interefting thcmfelves in the difpute ; and before we
J give our own opinion, as an indi/idual, it is incumbent on
I us, as an hillorian, to inform our readers, who were the prin-
cipal champions on both fides. Would it not render our
rticle too long, the reafons afllgned bv each for feizing his
' '-orJ, that is, his pen, in the quarrel, fliould hkewifc have

place here. But our limits will only allow us to fay, that

e moll eminent defenders of ancient harmony in our fenfe

r the word, are Gaffurio Zarlino, Gio. Battida Doni,
Iliac Vofiius, Zaccharia Tcvo, the abbe Fraguier, and Mr.
'^ illingfleet, author of " Principles and Power of Har-
mony."

Theif oponents are Glarianus, Salinas, the cavalier Her-
. ';!es Bottrigari of Bologna, Artufi, Cerone, Kepler, Mer-

:;iU3, Mariiiius Ficinus, Kircher, Claude Perraiilt, and the
i^ie elegant and learned poet Mr. Mafon, who had Ihidied
nioderu mulic, and has left his decided opinion againil the
ancient Greeks having cultivated counterpoint. (Hill. Muf
v.jl. i. p. 125.) To thefe we may add Bontempi, th; firil
I-dian muiical hiilorian, the learned Dr. Wallis, M. Burette,
'..lio has explored the fuhieCl, and conudered it in all its ra-
..ilications. Padri M:irtini of Bologna, a learned and dili-
: at inquirer, has given a fpecimen (Stor della Muf. t. i.
. 174.) of fuch meagre counterpoint as was likely to have
- -en produced without the ule of imperfecfl concords, which
the Greeks termed difcords. The late flirewd and pene-
trating critic J. J. Rouffeau is very explicit upon this fub-
■d in his" Muiical Diftionary,'' at the article Counlerpoint,

liich he terminates by faying, " It has long been difputed
\. iiether the ancients knew counterpoint ; but it clearly ap-
r -ars from the remains of their mulic and writings, efpe-

lly the rules of practice, in tlie third book of Ariltoxenus,
1 . i -It th^y nev^r had the kajl idea of it.''

After tliis liil of the moil refpeftable writers on both
"lies of this long difputed quellion, it now remains to tell

e reader ingenuoufly our own fentiments : and to confefs
':e truth, we will venture to fay, that we do no! believe the
■;eients ever did ukjimu/taneoiis harmony, that is, mufic in dif-
f rent parts ; for without thirds -and tixths it mull have been
i.iiipid ; and with tlum, the combination of many founds
and melodies moving by different intervals, and in different
times, would have occafioned a confufion, which the refpeft
that the Greeks had for their language and poetry would
not fuffer them to tolerate.

Sscl. IX. — Of the Dramatic Miific of ths Ancients. See

D H A M A TIC Mujlc .

The Greek dramas confided of foUloquy, dialogue, and
chorus, and it has naturally been fuppofed, that thefe were
fung to different kinds of mufic. Soliloquies full of fenti-
ment and pailion had probab'y a diiferent, more elaborate,
and refined melody, than the dialogues ; but the chorus muil
necelTarily be fet to meafured mufic, or the performers, if
left ad libitum, could never have kept together.

S.'H. X. —Of the eji-ds attrib:!ted to the mufic of the ancients.

Materials for tiiis part of our dilfertation are fo numerous,
that if we were only to prefcnt the reader with all the llorics

G R E

that have been related by the mod grave and rcfpec'table hit-
torians and phiiofopherj of Greece and Rome, concerning
the moral, medicinal, and fupernalural powers of ancient
mufic, this fedtion would be as full of the miraclct of mu-
ficians, as the " Golden Legend" is of thofe operated by
the faints. The credulous and cxclufive admirers of antii
quity have, however, fo long read and reverenced all thefe
narrations, that they arc impreffcd by them witli an extra-
vagsnt idea of the excellence of ancient mufic, wliich tlicy
are very unwilling to relinquifh ; and yet, after a moll care-
ful invelligation of the fubject, and a i:.inute analyfis of this
mufic, by examining its conftituent parts, we have not been
able to difcover that it was fuperior to the modem in any
other refpedts than its fimplicity, and ftrict adherence to
metrical feet, when applied to poetry. For, as nmftc, con-
fidcred abilraftedly, it appears to li..ve been much inferior
to the modern, in the two great and elFcntial parts of the
art, melody and harmony.

We have coiifidercd the marvellous effefts afcribed to an-
cient mufic, under three feveral head^ :

Firll, in foftening the manners, promoting civilization,
and humanizing men, naturally favage and barbarous :

Secondly, its effedls in excitmg, or reprefling the paf-
fions :

And thirdly, its medicinal power, in curing difeafcs.
And we think, tiiat the whole may be conllrued into
poetical fables, allegories, and vulgar errors. Many itrange
llories of the power of mufic over man and bead have
gained admidion into books, even in this philofophical and
unbelieving age, at which pofterity will doubtlefs dare !
GuEEK Crofs. See Cross.
GitKEK Empire. See E.mpire.
Gkkek Grammar. Sec Grammar.
Greek Language, the language of the Greeks. Whether
we confider the high antiquity of tiiis tongue, its varied excel-
lencies, the unrivalled models of compoi.tion which it con-
tains, or the extenfive influence which the dudy of it has
produced on the more modern dialetts of Europe, it clai.nis,
in an eminent degree, the attention of learned men, as a
fubjecl no lefs curious than ufeful. The advantages to be
derived from the dudy of thofe authors who have written
in this tongue, are too notorious to need defcription, and
are recommended to us by the united tcdiinony cf tie
learned in every age and country. The Greeks have Icit
the mod durable monuments of human wifdom, fortitude,
magnificence, and ingenuity, in their improvement oi every
art and fcicnce, and in the fined writings upon every lubjccl
nece'fary, profitable, elegant, or entertaining. They ba»e
furnidied the brighted examples of ever)- virtue and accon -
phdunent, natural or acquired, politica', moral, or military ;
they excelled in mathematics and philofophy ; in all the
forms of governments, m architcilure, navigation, comir.erce»
war; as orators, poets, and hidorians, they dand as yet
unrivalled, and are hkely to continue unrivalled for ever;
nor are they lefs to be admired for the cxercifes and amufe-
ments they invented and brought to perfeclion, in the indi-
tution of their public games. Nor can we become lenfiblc
of thefe admii-ed excellencies in any of the bed lr.inil.<tions
from the Greek. They may indeed communicate lome
knowledge of what the originals contain : they may prelent
us with propofitions, charaders, and events ; but allowing
them to be more faithful, more accurate than they really
are, or can well be, dill they are no better than copies in
which the fpirit and ludre of the originals are in a great
degree neceffarily loll. The powers ot the Greek are »-adly
beyond thofe of any oth.er tongue. Wiwitever the Greek
writers defcribc is always feJt, and almoll feeu ; motion and

mutift

pofiefs the niiiv

™ The Greek tongue, as it was fpoken in different pro-
vinces, «as divided into different .foto called the ^«,.,
the lonk, tlie Dork, and the JEolh: The Attic is that
which u-as ufed at Athens, and in the adiacent country ;

GREEK LANGUAGE.

mufic arc i'l everv tone, and enthufiafm and enchantment refined (the fame orighial term hence fplitting into many),
muhc aie i.i ^J"^ yj°"^' ^^.^j-^ ^j,^^ „.ith tafte and judg- was afterwards d.vcri-.hed uUo d>ftn. • d.al.ots. Pnd at length
' loll in diilinft languages. Nor H • , wc .:oncuve, beyond

the reach of philological enquir.. ' vo prov^ that the limple
terms of any one language hav- their kindred terms in all
other languages, difguifed ind -ed by the difil-rences of
charader, termination, and meaning ; and that tlicy may be
thofe who ha^-e particularly diftinguiilied themHves in this traced back through the feveral Ilages of focialhfe, till thcjr
dialea, are Thucydides, Ariitopb.anes, l;>huo,^llocrates, meet, hKe lo many fltoots, in one common root.

Tiie Greek language is a very copious fubjeft, and a full
account of it would carry us beyond the limits ncceffarily
prefcribed by our plan ; we Ihall iherefere content ourfelves
with fome remarks cal.uLited i<j afc-rtain its origin, and to
unfold thofe analogies by whit!, it grew from a few fimple
roots to the copioufncfs and reiiii-ment which diltinguilh it

Xenophon, and Demollhenes. The Ionic differed very
httle from the ancient Attic ; but havmg afterwards made
its way into fome towns of Alia Min..r, and mto tiie ad-
jacent illands which were colonies of the Athemans and
Achaians, (among which are reckoned bamos, Miletus,

Ephefus, Smyrna, and fome others,) It imbibed a ne>v.mc- , n .y ,

tu?e, and feU ver - far ibort of that delicacy to which the beyond moft other tongues, . , „ .

\lhenians afterwards attained. The principal writers in In enqu.rmg into the ongm of the Greek tongue, or la

ihis dialed were Hippocrates and Herodotus. The Done referrmg it to a higher dialecl, we of courfe mean its roots

firft prevailed amono- the Lacedxn-.cr.ians and the inhabitants or pnn.Kval words, «h.ch were iu>.p!e, fevv in number and

of Arws It trav-elled afterwards into Epirus, S.cily, conhlbng of two, three, or at molt four letters ; wlule Us

Rhodes and Crete This dialeft has been ufed by Archi- compound terms, which are exceedingly numerous and

medes ard Theocritus, (both of Syracufe.) and Pindar, divedijied, mult have been md,g.',.ous, the products of time.

The MoWc was fpoken at firlt am.nig the Bieotians and their and ot improvement m knowledge and the arts of life, long

neidibours, and afterwards it palled into iEolia. a province after the mtrodudion of its more elementary parts into

of Alia Minor, between Ionia and Mylia, which included Greece. A\ ith this hmitatien we have no hehtation in

ten cities, all Greek colonies. Tlie chief writers m thi* iaying, that the hmple words of the Greek language are

dialeft were Sappho and Alcjrus, of whofe writings l.tde aU derived from the Hebrew Arabic, and Perhan, and

has furvived the lofs of ancient learning ; but this id.om is principally from the i.rft of tlK-fe tongues And for the

occalionallv blended with the ufe of the oth.r dialects in tiie affirmation that the Greek is derived from the Hebrew, or

compolitions of Homer, Theocritus, Pindar, and others, that the Greek primitives are Hebrew radicals we offer the

It may be remarked farther that the lapfe of time which follovv'ing obfervations. Mofes, in the tenth chapter of

occafioned the difference of thefe dialeAs, as they arofe from Genefis, the fountain head of univerlal hiilory and geography,

a common item, has moreover caufcd them to differ from enumerates thofe heads of fepai-ate families by whom the

themfelves For intlance, in the Attic there is a wide earth was divided after the flood. He delcribes them by

dillinction'betwcen the ityle of Demollhenes, and -that of thofe names which the nations that fprung from them, or the

Thucydides Nor has the Ionic dialett invariably con- countries they feverally occupied, retained in his time. By

tinned the fame, the people of Alia fpeaking it differently thofe parts of the earth, which he culls OMJH '\V, er di

from the old lonians of Greece, who followed the ancient ijks of the nations, it is underftood that he means Europe, and

language of Athens, and the fame obfervation holds in
regard to the Dorians and ^Eolians.

The ramilieation of the Greek tongue into its feveral
dialeds, while it forms one leading caufe of its copioufnefs,
occahons one of the moft ferious difficulties m the acquiii-
tion of it by learners. This difficulty, however, wiU be much

Its adjacent iflands. Thefe were divided by the fons and
grandions of Japhelh, or rather by Corner and Javan, and
their fons, — " In their lands every one after his tongue, after
their families in their nations." This divifion mult have
been regularly condudled. It muft have taken place in the
time of the patriarchs here mentioned ; for the adl was theirs.

diminiihed ' if the dialects be reduced to thofe unavoidable and the nations retained their names to tlie time of Moles ;

chancres, which are founded in the nature of language, and nay many of them long afterwards, for we find them recog-

in the organs of fpeech. The changes we mean are fucli as nized by hiilory and geography. Javan is well known as

flow^from the fluctuation of the vowel founds, from the the parent of the Greeks, the name /wranj being anciently

different manner of combining, or of refolving any two con- applied from him to the feveral branches of that nation,

current vowels, and lallly, from the fubftitution or inter- Tov: ©jaza,-, xa. A^aioi;,-, xai Boiireou; I

change of the homogeneous confonants, i.e- the confonants n«.T^..; EXXnvac lacin,- c.i Ba^fiajc. =><aAo:

of the fame organs. j- -i j

Oriental grammarians, with much propriety, liave divided

the confonants into three claffes, correfponding with the

tirn-ans employed in founding them. Thus -, p, ?, being

■^x.'xXo:,. Hefychius.

But it appears from
the facred hiftory that Javan fpoke the Hebrew tongue ;
and he, with the colony under him, mult have introduced it
with them, and made it the firil language of Greece. The
leters of the Greek tongue refer its origin to the fame

founded by the lips, are hence called labials. On the other oriental fource ; for they are nearly tlie fame with the Sama-

hand v '' 5, -, ^> ■•) 5> enunciated by a contatl of the tongue ritan when inverted, or written after the European manner,

with 'the 'extremities of the upper teeth, are, for a limilar from left to right ; and with little variation they have ever

reafon Itvled dentals; while y., ',, xt uttered by a conirac- retained the names of the Samaritan or Hebrew alphabet,

tion o'f the larynx, receive the name of gutturals. This This is confirmed by Diodorus the Sicilian, lib. v. who gives

diilribution of the confonants, though here coiihned to the it as the opinion of j erkns in his days, that letters were

Greek alphabet, neceffarily extends to any other fyilem of invented by the Syri,v:s, from whom the Phoenicians firft

letters and well deferves the attention of liim who would leflnit their ufe, and then communicated them to the Greeks,

acquire a phdofophical acquaintance with the origin and Thefe Affyrians, Herodotus defcribes (1. lii ) as the inha-

derivatioH of words. To the interchange of the homoge- bitants of Jerufalem, to which he gives the name of Ci;</)'/;;/.r,

eo'iS confonants, it is chiefly owing that the prim;Eval Ian- the name it had of old, and ilill continues to have in the

rriiaffe of men, at tirlt rude and barren, became copious and Eaft. The authority of Herodotus and Diodorus, Ptiny, it

CREF.K L

h probable, cliicfly had in view, wlirn lie fays, Hill. 1. viii.
c. 58 ; " Literas icniper arbitroi- AfTv Has 'fmlli; ; fed alii
apiid jEgyptios a Mercuiio, ut Gcllius; alii apud S\ru3
rcpertas volunt, utiqiie in Grxciain intuli.To e Plicenici
Cadmiun fedecim nuinero.''

From the fame authority it appears that the Pliccni-
cians only changed the (liapc or form of the HebreT\-
letters, and were not the firll who difeovered them; nor
were they the lirll who introd'.icod the ufc of letters in;.)
Greece. For Diodori'S declares tliat Linus corapofed a
book, concerning the cNploitj of tile fnil Dionyfuis in Pe-
lafgic charaB is, and that tlie lame were ufcd bv Orpheus
and Pronapides, the preceptor of Homer, lib. iii. Zeno-
bins writes that Csdinus flew IJnus for teaching charafters
differing from his: and Paufanias in his Attics alTures us,
that he hiinfelf faw an infcription upon the tomb of Corce-
Lus, who lived at the time when Crotopus, a contemporary
with Deucalio:i, was king of the Argives. The lirll tribe
who fettled in Greece were called Ps/a/^!, (probably from
vs'.K- o , ylv7,) which name correfponds to our appellation
o( ijl jnthri ; and is tlK" fame in import with what Mofes
calls the firlt inhabitants ot Evirope, tin ijl^s of ihc nalions.
The firll European coloiiills, it appears to us probable,
with the life of the prnnreval language of men, introduced
its ktUri or charadcrs, which, by their difperfion and con-
feqiient relapfe into barbarilm, neceirarily became corrupted,
thougli not entirely loll; while Cadmus introduced tiie
original alphabet in a more pure or improved Hate. The
Phecnician and the Pelafgic characters, previouilv ufed in
Greece, Were elTentially the fame, and differant onlv in de-
grees of refinement: and it is a remarkable facl, tliat after
the introduction of the Cadmcan alphubL-t the Pelafgic ha.s
left no trace of its exi!tence, which in our opinion clearly
proves that tliefc two fyilems, in confequcnce of their affi-
nity, coaleiced, and have been perpetuated under one and
the f.ime form. See Lennep. De Analogia, vol. iii. p. 2S.

The introduclion of the Pliccnlcian al|)habet preceded tlie
Chriflian era only about fifteen centuries; and it is curious
to obferve the form and extent of it as taught by Cadmus.
It tlood thus, K, :, I, '., :; ,5, ir; y, y.; «, r; x, ;, ?, ;j, ■..
Hence it appears that the divifion of the Greek or Pliani-
cian alphabet correfponds to that which obtait:b in all the
Oriental languages; the vowels being feparated from the
eonfonants, and the ctmfonants themiclves clalTcd coiiform-
ablv to the organs employed in founding them. It appears
farther, that the alphabet at this time exiiled in its moll
fimple Hate, and was afterwards enlarged by combining its
more iim'ple elements. Thus £ repeated gave birth to «,
which conliils of on: epfilon turned backwards to face an-
other, as ?!, and thence abbreviated into the form of ■. . Alio
i was doubled, which formed the long 1, its figure having
faithfu'ly preferved the double «> blended into one letter.
The early Greeks c'cprelTed the afpirate by the figure H,
which the Lstiiis have hence copied: and this letter com-
bining with the lah'tals .?, -, gave birth to ; ; \> ilh the
gutturals -. , z, to X ; •^ith the dentals '■, r, to ?. Moreover,
the fibilan*^ ^ coalefcing with ~, ,?, .', produced i ; nith
r., y, Xf produced *; with 7, ^', S, produced f. The alpha-
bet of Cadmus was accordingly augmented by the following
letters r 1, ? 5 x:. I ■!- ^ The Greeks, wifhing to difplar
their own improvements, have dignified tlule compound
letters (which in reality are only combinations of tlie fiinple
elements,) as the inventions of P.ilamedes in the times of
the Trojan war, or of Simonides of Cos, who flourilhed
about 800 years before ChrilL See Beut. on Phalaris,
p. 241.

Tliefe eight letters, bv whomfoever fi»rmed, were firft
Vol. XVI.

ANGUAGE.

received by the Ionian.?, whofe alphabet, confifling of four.
and-twenty letters, was called the lonit, in oppofition to the
yittic alphjbft, which confided of merely the fixtet-n fimple
elements, the Athenians having, with the other llatci of
Greece, for a long time rejected the additional l-ttcri.
though after the death of Euripides, in the archonniip of
Euclid, tliey were admitted by public authority ; and thu»
the Greek :jphabet, as we now find it, became the coramua
alphabet of all the Greeks.

Lallly, the Greek language is of Hebrew cxtraAion,
becaufe it; roots will, upon examination, appc-ar to have
been no other than radicals uf that language. In proof of
this alfertion we give the following (liort lill of them as
fpecimens.

^{^, ab orani, (lem, root; hence x-ro, origin, beginning.
It means alfo^»^«, youth; hence rpi. n.3N» "*<■• to love;
hence r.-ir, , mild. tl"X' "■' ■'> "'^"> °"<^» '■» "■=» foli:s. '^^J^,
aia/, to eat, y..:w',, a piece of bread, x''''- > l''^ ''r» X''''i
food, j;'""'-> to feed; xiX>», culina, kitchen. r\'^J<> •'^i
a>.;i-, K/.^Ti, a>.*;«ik, a>.;ai>x, a>. "^i, to fludy, invent, in-
vedigate; 7,^^*, awal, to be languid, feeble, a^aJ.o.-, ten-
'^•-'■■> n!2S'> """> ^t^'^'y 'l"^ fiioiilder; T'^y, nnt;n, to \>c
true, hence ay., uu-, u'». This word in Hi brew alfo
means to defend with fidelity; hence lutm and y^iv-.x'., t*
aid, protect; Q'J*,*, arm, j uo , cruel; *{<, a;e, an ifland;
hence >:z, the earth; Ti^', ap'.^cn, a wheel; hence x^rr.rr, a
wain or carriage; Tiff, ank, to Uretch forward, '-/-,*;
P"1{.{, a chrf, t;jio», unm ; V"\)f, arriz, in Chaldecui p"l{s*t
earth, to cultivate the earth, hence ?f,'- , -'vi^-jji, in Sy-
riac, y ■*,{>, arc; hence ijoi, to plow, ■■'■f.:-r: and iji,
terra; 1~\jV, urr, to curfe, hence a^i, x^xnuxi; \^^i\, frc,
■•ryv.^i, a hearth; Hw'X' ^ facrifice, ;,-.»-, to feaft, trzn,
to e-jt, UJbi.-o;, Vulcan, is rji'{<3JC, father of fire, or of
lacrilic ; ^2> haa, B^-^, to go; H jll> ^''^'''f ?«Vi. to cat ;
nQn]^> '"""k -'..uir., a flock; n'^T— > ^""'''i a I'ig'i pl»<^»
where an altar was raifed, $^u.'.; an altar; •'2, bfm, to un-
derlland, -r.-.v and -c.-.to , prudent; "IT^, burvi, to prar,
blels, to rain, ;5»;x^» ^'^ rain, ^^rir, a drop. Hcrce alfo
in the fenfe of to fupplicate came .Sj'-fii, the bending of
the knee, fupplication. Hence moreo\er jjana^, a covering
for the kneo.i, breeches; nji'i S!'"'' y^'t ^'^ gi'J'^-; "^1^,
to move raiiiid, tarry, ••.;->i, gyij; "11^2' ""^''•'•'■1 a plit;
of abode, u",x;r,i, a refidcnce; "'T, (irn, to contend, to
litigate; r-i-.i-, -ju-.a^i-, -J-no.-; p'T, il.rt, a defence -'"XV, »
wall; n2"1> tLjma, to fubdue, ox tx. ; "l^p, ti.1, to vene-
rate, to celebrate, praife, uSi, asi'i-, to fing, o-iu, to re-
verence, iKvx., to exprels; nTI' " "'" ".'-''' " ^'> VMt '^
eutertain, J^w/, a hoft, ?!"vi ; yi*, =uo, to r-.ove, ck- ;
^'\f^, Ibu!, to illumine, an-, in; '*lp, »';i;, a hero, »:;i- ,
a lord; npHj to be inferior, rrvai ; Ji^JT' •''■■'*'• ^° ftair,
tia;..; n*7t2, tuL; a lamb, :xXxr>i , iiti>.-, ; •»», fer, -.- ,
wine; wxt and oii..>r, a wine-cellar; ny» '^■"t '° a/Eicl,
aim, i.i>.i; 7|0' ^'"^ ^° buxn, xxii, it»^ ; pp, Itih, power,
x.xi,, xi/v;, i-.tst/i ; jn^"' ^'j' •<> read, to collect, »r;v, Xi-,»„
'■'>'^» ; bnj^i ^^ pollute, ui>.i-, 4,->>Xi-,>-; QT", nyw, 1 (lain,
fii-ya;, auvuv., without a ilain, blamclcfs, f.- '/i; , lo ccnfure;
p.") ', /i3.-, to inhabit, >ii» ; "liy, aor, to exc.te, oji ; jyir,
pke,v/h, to explain, ?;ii^»; ^nV' '""' '° ftiine, !r...,a;,
o-'ijiiv.!, to iJiine, s-uew,-, Sirius, e-!.;-, the fun ; 'iV'?, h!,\.ci
call, «.•.>.!.; pI1p> '*"■'> to expect, lean upo... .-; P^iri
turbi, •■^■'ix, turba, a multitude, alfo ^5;vi^-, a tumult,
^'j=v'i'.x; m*1, rv, f!Ui, ?«>, fi«>J, (»w, fftiAif, to flow, ta
water; {CD""- rapha, to repair, to few, to heal; ;»rTi,
fjxji--, a needle, fxytot, a clafp; y^J^, _/3.», Txr, to five;
T'J*. /•.-/-, JT ;■•>?, (ri.-ijrn, to play on a pipe; '^^p, l-r,
to in-.elligMc, contemplate, v'-n, ?!i;-<-; ^'jj?. iJitiin, a

vip r, THJ.I, ?li«:9.-.

4.Y Th.'^'e

GREEK LANGUAGE.

There examples are fufficient to (hew how the Greek has
been derived from Hebrew roots. Some thoufands of
Greek primitives owe their origin to the fame fource ; and
it is not too much to fay that, if the Hebrew language had
been preforved in the full extent in which it once flourifhed,
rot a Greek, term could be named, which might not be
traced to fome one of its roots. But as its records are
comparatively fo fcanty, many of the parent terms of Greece
may more immediately be found in the kindred tongues
of Syria, Chaldea, Arabia, and even Perfia, which laft,
though different in flrufture from the Greek, contains a
multitude of its radical terms. The conclnfion that Greek
originally flowed from the Hebrew tongue, ferves to explain
many of the properties which dillinguiflies this celebrated
language, and to corredl many errors into which learned men
have fallen in treating this fubjedl.

"Thceaftern tongues, faysDr. Gi'lics, (Hiftocy of Greece,
vol. i. p. 15.) are in general extremely deficient in vowels.
It is, or rather was,> much difputed, whether the ancient
orientals ufed any chardSers to exprefs them. Their lan-
guages, therefore, miifl liave had an inflexible thicknefs of
found, extremely different from the vocal harmony of the
Greek, which abounds not only in vowels, but in diphthongs.
This circumilance denotes, in the Greeks, organs of percep-
tion more acute, elegant, and difcerning. They felt fuch
faint variations of liquid founds as efcaped the dulnefs of
Afiatic ears, and invented marks to exprefs them. They
dillinguillted in this manner, not only their articulation,
but their quantity, and afterwards their mufical intona-
tion." We do not think this obfervation altogether jull,
but think it 1-athcr founded in a mifconception of the ori-
et>tal languages. In thefe every confonairt included in
itfelf the vOwel neceffary to its enunciation ; and while
they thus prefented a feries of confonants to the eye, each
, in pronunciation is accompanied with its appropriate vocal
found, which rendered every word juft as many fyllables as
^t had of confonants, and gave to the language an exaft
mixture of vowels and confonants. When the Hebrew
tongue ceafed to be a living language, its true pronunciation
was of courfe loft ; and with it was loil the found and
cv<;n the exillence of the included vowel ; and to fup-
ply this lofs were invented the vowel points in Hebrew,
Arabic, and the accents in Greek, which appear to be of
kindred or rather of the fame invention with the diacritical
marks in the Afiatic tongues. The early Greeks, being
fcnfible of the included vowel in the parent tongue, gave it
a feparate exiftence, by annexing it to the confonant : and as
this vowel, though originally the fame and always fhort, was
liable to fluctuation, and to perceptible difference of found,
it naturally gave birth to the feveral ihort vowels. In Homer
the digamma, which was a labial confonant, interpofed be-
tween two vowels, which otherwife won d have formed a
diphthong. And this circumilance might lead us to con-
clude that the early Greeks conformed to the Afiatic
tongues in rejefting the ufe of diphthongs, and that ihe
ufe of diphthongs prevailed only as the digamma was laid
afidCf In the more ancient languages of Afia, all the
included vowels' were fliort, and every vowel that had an
indepegdent form was probably long: but fliort as well as
long vowels came in time to have a feparate exilteuce ;
and the Shanfcrit, fo far from being deficient in vowels,
can boafl oi fixteen, a number more than the double of
tliofe in Grick.

We remark, in the fecond place, th.at the derivation of
the Greek primitives from the oriental tongues will, in
general, fet alide as nugatory and erroneous the deriva-
tions of the ancient fcholiqjh, and o£ thofe modern lexi-

cographers who have adopted their explanations. TIicTe
fcholiafls and grammarians are valuable as expounders of
the Greek text ; but as they were apparently ignorant of the
oriental tongues, the account which they give of the words
thence derived are often frivolous in the extreme. It is
neceffary to juftify this affertion by a few examples. Ai,<Ka-i2,
a hedge or fence, occurs in Theocritus, Idyl. i. 47, and the
fcholialt derives it from a.iu-y, blood ; becaufe thofe who
pafs through fuch a fence are made to bleed. This deriva-
tion, nugatory as it appears, is adopted by Hederic in his
lexicon : whereas its origin is the Hebrew '^f •;;;N', amez, to
Jlrengthen, to feciire, and tlience applied to a hedge, which by
furrounding defends a place. On the fame pnnciple y.yzo;,
a garden, the origin of which neither Hederic nor any of
the ancient fcholiafts, we believe, have attempted to unfold,
is borrowed from r|ip, hcph, to furround : hence the term
denoted a place iurrouaded or fecured as a garden is.
Lennep indeed derives it from xsciroc, breath, a word quite
foreign to the purpofe. The word /Swjsik, which occurs in
Theocritus Idyl. vii. 10, is thus explained by the fchohall j
7r/;'>'K £v Ki', aTo Toy /Sou ft-o^icv, Ji.c-i. icj ^ix r] oTi ^ooi j;ivi 1:0.00.-
•n-X>io-;o:-, /. e. a fountain in Cos, from the particle pqo (large),
and f!!', to flow, or becaufe it reiembles the nolUils of an
ox; whereas /Soi/j;iK is evidently the Hebrew ~lj>f2> t^<^r->
or m^, bur, a fountain. The Greek fcholia, annexed to
every author, abound with fuch puerilities as the above ; nor
is the " Etymologlcuni Magnum" to be excepted, though
the Greek lexicographers have fought for no better or more
rational guides in their enquiries after the origin of the words
which they explain.

Hemflerufe, Valckenaer, Ruhnken, Villoifon, Lennep,
Scheid, are indeed julUy celebrated among modern critics
for their refearches into the origin and meaning of the Greek
tongue. Their theories contain many valuable obiervations
on the analogy by which that language gi-ew from compa-
ratively few radicals to its prefent cumplicated form ; but
their fyllem of etymologies appear to us, for the m.oil; part,
fanciful and erroneous ; becaufe in no inilance, or at leall in
very few inflances, have they fought the Greek terms in the
languages of the Eaft, whence aliuredly they had been de-
rived. Hemflerufe derives '^lo:, l")eus, from the verb S-!i, to
run, to difpofe ; while its real origin, in our opinion, is the
Hebrew and Arabic nX3>' "'"'' pronounced in the latter
language dhao, to Ihine. The Chaldeans reprefented the
Supreme Good under the figure of light ; and to this repre-
fentation the facred writer feems to allude, when he fays
that God is light. The fame writer deduces c,?jiuc , Jlrong,
from /JjiSu,-; while its fource is "l^^f, abur, to be Itrong.
From the fame origin he fuppofes irji; or •iroi, before, to have
flowed, though it leems to point to the Hebrew y"^^, phra,
which in Arabic means the head or root of a family, and
hence it came to fignify origin or priority in the form of rrj* :
hence^n'or or pnus in Latin.

Scheid derives -'.^y.c, an omen, from tiiv, tero, to wear,
becaufe omens, fays he, obterant, quaii, five flupore percel-
lant, enecent que mortales. But the word is the Hebrew
"1*^, teer, a bird, divination, which was taken from birds.
The fame writer wiU have Tr.oi, or rfjfli', to eat, to have
come from tivu.-, or -rfi 1, to ftretch, though far more natu-
rally it points to the Perfian ~IJ^, dead, dens, a tooth ; ml
hence T!:L' primarily meant, to cut with the teeth. The
Hebrew nTiVj zer, '.o flnne, to fcorch, gave birth to |r;(;;,
aridus ; but Villoifon fodlilhly derives it from J;i, radere.
The fame critic as wifely traces fiAo» to the fame root,
becaufe, fays he, li.gnum fit ad radendum aptum. But its
origin is evidently '^iJ\V. a grove, hence aJ^^o•, wood, and
by diopping the lirft vov.cl fi,?.o>, and by tranfpofition kX^o;,

nemus.

GREEK LANGUAGE.

a few examples. The firR we feka occurs in
Iliad, II. 815 ;

Remus. Ottki', fl^, ab, erra?, alTus, fays Schcid, quod ab
o-TTx, quod idem atque oKi', et. ay^ni, pungo pungendojigo. But
the parent word is nSK> to roaft ; and o-rxt.', to fry, as-xi',
to kindle, £4-^', to boil, are, with all their compounds, but the
common offspring of this term. We fhall only add one in-
ftance more from the Etymologicum of Lennep. O^y^'ofjuM
falto ab o«ii. Dici videtur a motu in altum. Componcndum
quoque eft cum rj;^ouai (venire.) Ab 0=10 fatfum ex ojFi,
hincoj-yi', cum contailione moveo, pec. in altum : unde facillima
via ad o^'.x^ ; os^^; ojp^si. Rediffime igitur Etymol. c. 634,
52, Ttx^a, TO o^iyuy, nat ekteiveiv rxq X-^?-'-^ — '■°" "iX"^^' Ajn;-,
i vjKi'/nro; itarx Tro^sfiov. Unum tamen addidiffe liceat, fecun-
dura analogic leges, ab o^x"-' (derivata voce verbi o^x'") PP-
i-epeti?ndum fuilfe oj^^^'' cujus Media forma ell o=x'°H-^''

Tliis paragraph is a fair ipecimen of the manner in which
thefe etymologills have, by certain analogies, founded on
their own fancies rather than on the real ftrudlure of the
Greek tongue, yoked together under one common root
words the moil foreign to each other.

The verb o^^x^ '^''i "ot come from ofv, or o^'.u; but from
J~l];, ii>\'g, to defire, or to ftretch to an objeft, when dedred.
From the fame origin are dei-ived o^ ?^»ii,ui, o^'.x^^i^, o^s^^u;

c^'.KT^u], o^iji^xojLtai, o^iyvxojxa.i, o^yac-xy and us^yauj, all of which

are but different modifications of the fame primitive words

by different people who ufed tlie fame tongue. On the

other hand, ■^•/jija.v.i, to come or go, originated in n"1Js*»

arukb, or *]"1J\', anh, to travail, prolong, e.xtcnd. On the

other hand ' '

in which an

to arrange or place in order. From o^x^-.y arrangement

meafure, rhythm, came the verb i^x>'^, or o^x'''i^''-h *-o move

to the founds of muiic in a dance or to battle. The move-
ments in a dance and in war appear to have been regulated

by the fame meafures ; and hence dancers and warriors had

the fame names applied to them. Mars being called o^x'^i^h

as the author of the Etymologicum writes, ui; ■tt^o; ^roAsjuo*

ai-ut>n:. Hence, too, a leader, i. e. one who put the men in
order of battle, was called oix'-'-t^'>-: > and, moreover, n-fu/i-,
which denoted a fpecies of dance, came in Latin to fignify
praslium. Such learning, acutenefs, and diligence as were
poffclfed by Hemfterufe, and the celebrated men above-
mentioned of his fchool, however perverfe, could not alto-
get>her have been mifapplied. Their labours, therefore,
muft prefent fome inflances of jufl etymology, but their

fyftem, upon the whole, appears to us both fanciful and afcrihes the bejl name to the gods
erroneous, and calculated more to perplex their readers than
to furnifh them with folid information.

Etymology, as it may ferve to afcertain the primary
fenfe of a word, to unfold a general principle in the formation
of language, to exemplify the manner in which philofo-
phical notions, political occurrences, and religious iniHtu-
tions influence the mind and give birth to new modes of
fpecch, is a fubjeCl of rational and ufetul enquiry. In this

Ho

Toy Tfsu avj{=,- BaTifixj v.wXrfjKwtui,

Of this pafFage the following is a literal verflon : Tly,'
extjs apart m the plain, in tl^ front 0/ the city, (namely Tl<Oi .
a lofty mount, accejlble by a circular afunt. This men call
liATlEl.| ; but the Immortals the tomb offar-loundlng Myrhw.
Ifie language of the Trojans, though a dialed of ti e
Greek, was, we may well fuppofe, from iheir iituation.
mixed by an mflux of Afiatic terms. Of this clafs is
Bary.^, which in Hebrew is n'3, belt, and mtrin^sii abode,
in Haiah, x:v. 18, and Job, iii. 15, it fignifics the laft liome
of man. The term here occurs in the Syriac form N'r.-J
bateea, and has the fenfe which it bears in the .lewifh fcrip-
tures. Hence we difcover the meaning of the paffage
which has efcaped the knowledge of ftie critics, ancier.t and
modern. BaT.i.>. means the fame thing with =-r,«, and the
claufe, TTcXva-HK^Syoic Mt.iwr,-, is to be connefted with th»
former as well as with the latter ; and the import of the
phrafe is. Men call it (Batleia) the grave, and the Im-
mortals the tomb, of ATyrinnes. By mm Hcmpr meant the
vulgar people of Troy ; by the Immortals he intended th-
, . . „ pohflied Greeks. Here ive fee the partiality or rather the

o;';c^:. which means a row of plants, or the order pride of the poet rcfpetiing his language arid countrymen,
y thing is done, is from the Hebrew -jly, arfZ-, The phrafe is purely oriental. The elegant Shauferit is
' - - ' ■^ ftyled Z)rtfiJ iVajom-, writings of the Immortals Conform-

ably to the fame lofty figure. Homer calls Greek, from its
fuperior polilh, the language of the immortal gods, while he
charaaenzes the dialed of Troy, from its barbarity and
rudenefs, the language of men.

The explanation which the critics have given of Pa7,.,x
is various, each rendering it more uncertain and improbable.
Hefychms explains it to be :roX.; Te:..,tr. Others derive the

go ; and others again from

term from /Sai, or pain-, to

0aTo-, bramble, becaufe, as Heyne fays, coUis fentibus ob-
dudus effe potuit. As the commentators did not know
the origin or meaning of the word, it is not to b^ expeded
that they Ihould underffand the Angular phrafeology
grounded upon the ufe of it. Euflathiuss account of it is

TO //:V cXi'? X^'iTOV

&V0/LtaTi7> C=i

Ei,' Gcvapu."7V0'j:

th

1- cHio-iv i. rroi'^t ; the poet
The fcholiall fays, 7o» ^e»

cjOfM Hi dov: av^^fff!. I mtrr.r.s, to h y.;Txyi»i.:^cr
; the poet refers the more ancient name to the gods ;
more recent name to nun ; w hich cannot be true : for
SxT.E.x is at leafl equally ancient with e^r.yx. Clarke comes
nearer the truth, who iuppofes the language of the Im-
mortals to mean the language of the learned ; and this Treat
critic would have fecn that Homer intended to contraf? net

_,--- - - - -,--,- - the language of the learned with the vulgar Greek, but

enlightened view it blends itfelf with the hiftory of philo- t'"'^ polilhed language of the Greeks with the barbarous
fophy, of politics, and of religion, with the ilrudure of the dialed of the Trojans, if he had been aware that /3a-:iiia
human frame, and even with the theory of the human mind. '" t'u^ dialed, meant a tomb, or the fame thing with crrua.
Ccnneded with any or with all of thefe purpofes, none but We (hall only obferve that this word exifts in Celtic, and
the uninformed \v\\l neglect or decry this branch of philo- bears the fame fignification — bedd, a grave.
logy as vain and ulelefs ; and without fuch connedion none The next palTage in which the ufe of the Oriental tongues
but pedants will purfue or extol it as worthy of attention, ferves to illulfrate obfcurities in Greek authors, wc ftiall
As the Greek originated in the Afiatic languages, a know- feled from the Agamemnon of jElchylus. On this para-
ledge of thefe languages to a certain extent is abfolutely graph much has been written, and written in vain bv the
neceffary, to form a rational and competent etymologiil in critics. Clylemncflra, the lady Macbeth of ancient days
the dialeds of Greece : and many paflages muil exifl in the hoafls in it of her tidehty, during the abfence of her lord
Greek writers, efpecially tiie more ancient poets, which can ""'d ''i>-' j"}' with which (lie would receive him on his return'

be underftood only by light refleded from the Eall. It will
not be foreign to our purpofe to illuftrate tliis pofition by

4V2

The

GREEK LANGUAGE.

The lines arc thas rendered ir. tlie clcgr.nt and poetical
■ftrfion of Mr. Potttr:

Never knew T jilcafi;re

In the blamed coiivcrfc of another man,
More than the virgin mital in the mines
Knows an adulteratt and debafing mixture.

On this pafTagc the author has the following note: Taw
fconcftly fays, " aliquid fiiheft qnod non intelligo." Mr.
Heath difapproves the alliition, though he thinks it a pro-
verbial exprellion, the grace of which is lot! on our igno-
rance, and fays, " quod nos non vidcnuis alius olim forfan
■♦.debit."— In the old Perfian called the I'tUi'i, the fn-ll
j;rinciple of tilings n as called ^l^n = ^"^ "''""'S'' fuppofed
to he fire l)y tlie difciples of Zoroaller, the term is a nio-
•ilficatian of :3X, r'j, water, which tlic Arabians nain-
tai:ifd to be the original clement, ^\'ith the notion that
n-utcr is the primary matter, the early Greek iihilofophers
appear to have borrowed the term. Hence i^y-u; to j'luiige,
(which I-ennep ahfurdly deduces from Sai') : hence too
i:-xtr,, immcijlon; and the phrale 5^a>x'-'-' Z^'^-" '* •' metaplior
ioTwP.abnT ZL'ui:ri(l, it bring produced by a weapon plunged
iiitothe body as into water. The fentiment which the
words convey to the hi raid, v.hum ClylenmeRra ad-
drcffei', is to this cfFeft, / ino'u no ple.ifure iiHlh any mini,
endftct tiJ more iheJUw^ of cahinmy, than the p'/wtofjhd But
the language is lludioudy equivocal ; and in this pecuharity
«on!iiled at once the Ikdl and the obfcurity of it. While the
O'.ieer. (J '/«<;/■<■</ to exprefs the above meaning, (he in reality
exprefled quite tlie reverfe. I know no greater pleafure,
tlKiUgh no report more difgracetul, than a Heel plunged
in him, (namely Agamecinon,) by another lui(band. This
artful equivocation ariles from tlie manner in which tlie
claafe xWrj crc'^i a>^;o; is conncftcd. If taken with tec I" the
lines convey \.\vi Jiijl fenfe ; but with x^''-'-'^''^ /"+^-'> tl'ey
co^l^'ey the lujl.

For this interpretation we have the beft authority, name-
ly that of the Chorus, wh-o were prcfeut : who, perceiving
that the herald was milled by the artlul ambiguity of the
words, hints at their true fignification as foon as the queen
withdrew from the llage.

Whxli maybe thus renderd : Th:s iLi-jrnnn hiiih told thee
learning [ih.e -who haj) yil to learn,) -what J].ie is, a tale ii'hieh
d'lfcerning interpreters perceive to be very becoming, — well to Le-
toine her churader and i".cn.cs. Here tojoi^iv i^u'.t:-^7n depend
on vjTzn-u::. ; and the Chorus intimate, that her words, un-
derllood, as they feem to have been by the herald, were
falfe and unbecoming, but llriftly true and appropriate in
the fenf.- iu which they, who knew tlie woman better, had
Tcafon to regard them. Taken in the firfl fenfe, the metaphor
yj:>./.-,-j p»?x-- is too violent for the f;mpl:city of the fenti-
ment ; and ih? falfehood, moreover, is fo glaring as to clafs
t'le queen with tlie bafelt of deceivers, without a trait of
that mafculine intrepidity and elevated ardour with which
flic prcfVtd to tlie objed of her defire. In the latter it
txnctlv fuits the dark ambiguity of prophetic language : and
the boldiiefs of it is in unifan with that veh.emer.ce and glow
of pleafure, with which (he anticipated the plunging of the
>veapon in the bofora of htr hufband. For thefc reafons the
Chorus ju!Uy pronounce her language air^.Ti;-, as at once
f sprefTive of her true feelings, her artifice, and her intre-
pidity.

Lycophror, wlio flour;(licd under Ptolemy Ph'ladelphus,
i» known to fcave ilwdiouf.y aSTcded the ufe of hard and ob-

fcure terms, which, from their antiquity, mull demand the
attention of Afiatic fcholars. In his Ciifftindra, tlie only
remains of his voluminous produftions, occur thefe lines :

II ili^>5;' ooovra;, iKT&^a; ^XrjLtju'jgica;,

Thcv contain a prophetic addrefs to Paris, now com-
mencing his expedition for the rape of Helen, and may tlun
be literally rendered : - Thejhip and feet of Pherecleus ivill bear
thee to the tivo ports and coqjis of Gythnitn, h,ii'ing in thefe fixe il
to therr.cLs the crooled teeth nf the pine, HeHors {f.e.fvfiaincrs,)
of the flood. Pherecleus as an artiil conllrucled the (hip,
and as a foothfaycr, cnfultcd the gods, and endeavoured
to conciliate them to the projefted expedition. As fuch,
he was naturally led to give the veflel the name of T^y.^m';,
which with the Greek termination is the Chaldean and Phoe-
nician term for the tutelary gods, C'D"'"' t'lrpim, or Iraphn.
The fcholiaft fays, it is the titlWQ oi a foreign flip ; and in
this he is followed bv Plefychius. It was certainly ufual
to carve the itnages of the gods on the (liip, ■which they
were fuppofed to protect ; and to th.em the failors fled in
feafons of danger. (SeeHor. i. 1.4.) The figures, which at
this day are often framed in the forepart of the (hij), are but
the remains of the fame ciidom. The prafticc, no doubt,
originated with the Phcenicians : and it wr.s natural for them
to call their fl;ip by the name of thofe gods which were fup-
pofed to preferve them. The rudders, the oars, the fail.^,
by which the velTel was moved, are here aflcftedly called
theylcV of Pherecleus, he being the author of them. Of
the derivation of the term the fcholiall and Hefychius ap-
pear equally ignorant, and the whole of this pafTage is a
itriking inltance how incompetent the ancient commentators
were to expl;-.in in many places the terms of the Greek
tongue.

The ancients had ftatues of their gods ereCled before their
doors, and in the cntrai-ce of their harbours. Thefe re-
ceived the falutations of ilraugcrs and paffengers. Lucretius
mentions this cu'lcm in his lirlt book. Hence the doors and
ports received the name of ^'/X'/y,3ci, as being places where
the gods were fainted, from the Araliic D^f';1^J', falaam, falu-
tation. The. account which the fcholiall gives of this term
is ridiculous: crx/.^.^y^iti hit l-j.-xi ^/.'^,'■.■,~'.■.■., 7ry»a to iv c-kXv
^y-i-iw. The explanation of Hefychius is more rational,
though not the true one ; c-x>cijj^n -,' o-y, ,'; ,',- to c-'.Xy..: Pzrr-i.
This is a fair Ipccimen of the manner in whicl- th-, Greek
words, derived from the Eatl, are explained in tl>" old glof-
faries But farther, ^/.xv.a , corfis, isihc Hehrew ^^r}, falrgt
or plag, (the vowels being arbitrary, and not exifiing but
as included in the confcnants of the origin;.!,) ar.d fignifies
to divide, and thence as a notin any thing divided, fuch as
portions of the land and Tea. From the fame original is de-
rived T!7»x70:-, as ferving to divide the earth into diilinft ter-
ritories : hence too, the Latin pirga, a clime or region.
Finally, the unufual terra m ct.;^ origiucitcd in the Perfian
iiiiaar, an extremity or limit which, as the lim.its cf a river
came hence to lignify its banks ; as the limits of the fea its
Jl.'ores, or the rochs lining them. The limits of a diior are
its polls ; and hence the Celtic word hynnor, the door ports;
and probably from the fame fource, on account of their
remotenefs, has been derived the appellation affigned to the
Canary Iflands.

The attempts of Paris, under the aufpices of Pherecleus,
to appeafe or conciliate the gods, are alluded to by Horace,
lib. i. 15. who appears to have had the pa.Tage of Lv-
cophron in his view. Pherecleus, the firll advifcr, perhaps,

of

GREEK LANGUAGE.

cf the fspeJin'on, is reprefented by Homer as properly
piiniflicd ; for lie received an igiioiiiiiiioiis death tVoin the
hand cf Merioo, The poet adds, 11. v. 65. ss-ii oun 5;iv
f>-.5:t7.*xT5t. r,^r., iince he did not at all know the decrees of
the ffods. To fay tliat Phereclcus did not pofTefs this know-
ledge, appears not only a prolaic, but an nnnecen'ary fay-
ing: for who is the man that is acquainted with the divine
decrees, v.hile yet unfuliilled? Bnt when it is confidcred
that Pherecleus had pi-ii^ndcd to be fo knowing, and pro-
L.ibly prcdicled uhini.ite fncccfs, while the event turned out
very different from his prediciiona, there is much proprietv
and even point in the remark ; fnice it holds fortli the di-
fi/ier as a dfc/fver, who by liis inipolhires brought ruin upon
liimfelf and liis country. From this we may conclude, that
the beauties of Homer, who conlines himfelt beyond any
other poet to general nature, yet in many inftances depend
upon circumlhmces unknown to, or unoblerved by modern
rcadors.

Tiie prevailing taftc for oriental literature promifes to con-
tribute much to tlie improvement ol philology. And when
claflic fcholars Shall engage with due attention in this purfuit,
the more ancient Greek writings will fliare in the general
benefit, by the light reflefted upon them from the Eall.
The derivation of the Greek from the oriental tongues, the
frequent ufe of terms which Homer, Hi-fiod, Lvcophron,
and others have adopted in their primary fignificatioriS, have
occafioncd difTiculties which a critic, however able, but
verfed only in Greek and Roman authors, is hardly able to
folv-e. Thef^ difficulties, inilead of being explained, have
been gloffed over by the futile etymologies of the ancient
fchohalls and lexicographers: and they can be properly felt
and fuccefsfully removed only by thofe who have extended
iheir ihidy from the elegant language of the Greeks, to the
no lefs polifiied languages of Perfia, Arabia, and Judea. Of
tliis pofition tlie examples above cited afford fufficient illuf-
t ration : and thev are, it is hoped, too curious, new, and
folid, not to be undefcrving of a place in a diftionary of
fcience.

In the lad [ilace, the derivation cf the Greek from the
ancient langr.ages of the Eall, will account for the origin of
tlie much difputed digamma. In thefe tongues gutturals
;'.bo!inded, which, like other confonants, contained in them-
ielvcs the vowel neceffarv to their pronunciation. But it is
thf tendency of every guttural, when become habitual, to
foften down, in the rapidity of utterance, into a mere afpi-
rate, till it at length vanilhes. Thus conui has degenerated
into horn ; x-'l^^'t i'''*o hiinn:!, earth, and into hovio, a crea-
ture of earth, man. Thus r.lfo tlie Hebrew »p (x'>) which
iigaiiies life, foul, f elf , appeared in Greek in the form of .'y,
•n, \. Moreover ~I33' I^^^J'^'U '' li'-'i^i') gave birth to i!:r'«7-D;.
This word retains an unqucilionahle mark of its derivation ,
fi>r it has the form l^]^, hnhcd, or, "l^™' '•'"^'7''-" and this
variation lias been transfufed into the Greek !•? ^ and i-Trar-'-..
Hence we obtain the origin of the afpirate placed over a
vowel. It ViT.s originally a guttural, which lofing its power
as a confonant left the included vowel behind, with an in-
verted comma above, to perpetuate tliat part of the letter
wl'ich fell into difiife.

The guttur.al, when foftencd into an afpirate, is apt to be
dilated into a long vowel. Hence the reafon wliy n, in the
ancient Greek, feems to have been accompanied by an
afpirate, as in r.:7x». On tlie fame principle that a guttur.il
foftens into an afpirate, the afpirate often melts into a gentle
breathing, or becomes in pronunciation quite qniefcent, as
tlie L.itin l>onor and h:nef!:is become in Enghfli homur and
h'.n..J},\.\\e h being mute. On the fame principle too t^i became
iilent in our tongue, as in taught, fought. So iu the Greek

iKP> ihatin, a king, has degenerated into (ziKfftrk, which
Homer pron<iunced Jxvzya-i. This IcaJs us to remark, that
the afpirate, in'lcad of vanidiiiig, was changed ii;to a labial
letter w, :', ^,/, or .•. Thus Lugh, cough, which arc Hill
Urong guttur.il founds among onr northern neighbours, are
founded l,iff, crff, among us. Thus alfo in Greek, wiiat was
at full written ;^=--j;c:r3-i, was pron»)unced Ja.z-rji ; and the
words 'A, 'a, ', were founded Tt'c/u, luoy, 'Wi, or fou, foi, fe.

But the digamma did not always originate in a guttural,
but fometimes in confonants allied to our •a' or y. Thus
from y"I', I'/V/'j, is derived the Greek si-ji', which in Honi.-r
is founded -iv'tdn, becaufe the original is \ido, hence the
Latin video. So again fron •?', j'm, is taken civo.-, cfin,-,
founded irhws: hence vinum, and tvine.

AVe have already obferved, that in Hebrew CTerv con-
fonant contained in itfelf the vowel necedan- to its pronun-
ciation. This vowel tlie Greeks detached and gave it a
leparate exillence, by fubjoining it to the concomitant con-
fonant. And as the Hebrews ieem at lirfl to have founded
every confonant, thus dividing each word into as many f\l-
lables as it had of confonants ; and as tliey farther feem to luive
ufed vowel-, only in conjunction with confonants, and to have
confidered them as unfit to be employed alone and independ-
ent, fo the Greeks, in imitation of them, ufed at tiril onlv
ihort vowels : they next adopted the long or compound
vowels r, and a ; but ilill avoided the diphthongs, and when
any two vowels concurred, they converted the lirft of them
into a labial confonant. Tlius, ?av.TSTo. v-i, was founded
not himpeloouti, but lainpi.towonti, or lampetovonti ; and
jj.ova-'j-v:, pronounced moufaivon, or moufi'vi.n ; n-r, -.vilo.

This letter is called dignmma, becaufe it has the form of
two gnmma.', one upon another like our capital F, and alfo
called JEol'ic, as fuppofed to belong exclufively to the JF.olk
dialect. But this account of it proves, that it did not be-
long, as Dr. Bentley and others have fuppofed, to the jEolic
dialecil only, but to ail the diulcAs of Greece, in their more
ancient mode of pronunciation. It follows alfo that tlie
univerfal opinion of the learned, w ho fay that the d':^amma
at jiifl prevailed, and was afterwards fucceeded bv the
afpirate, is the reverfe of the truth. For the true flate of
the cafe is, that gutturals at firil prevailed; thefe foftencd
into mere afpirates ; and thefe again were changed for a
mori, eafy and agreeable letter, which being Gmply a hbial
was diverfiiied by different people into y, iv, -v, ~, i, at f.
But the digamma, it will be laid, is to be found ot;ly in
Homer, by far the moil ar.c'icfit writer of Greece, while the
afpirate is in all the more recent authors. The ai.fwcr is
this: the ufe of th: afpir.-.te obtained in the written lan-
guage, and was, therefore, lefs fulceptible of corruption.
On the otlier hand, that of the digamir.a prevailed in pro-
nunciation, which was more liable to change, and to deviate
from the original terms. Homer, we may naturally fup-
pofe, adopted the firil in compofing and iL-rilirg his poems,
and the lail in redliug them to the people. Tlie written
form, we n.;.y prcfume, was at firil ufed but little, but pre-
vailed by degrees; while the peciiliaiilies of pronunciation
in their turn began to decline. The laiigiiage, as written
by Homer, at length became fafhionable in the converfation
cf polilhed people, and the afpirate, being thus triumphant
ia the d;;ily cor.verfe ot learned men, would of courfe, iu their
writings, triumph over oral and temporal corruptions.

The change of a guttiir;J into an afpirate, or into a lc:ig
vowel, or into a labial letter called the digtimma, is not pe-
culiar to any one language, but is founded on the ftrufture
of the organs of fpeech ; and inllanccs of it prevail in all
languages, both ancient and modern.

The preiervati'jn of the afpirate iji the written language cf

Horner^

GREEK LANGUAGE.

Homer, while the digamma was ufed in reciting them, is a have been followed by the writers of the New Teftament anJ
proof (if a proof be wanlinjr) that Homer did atlually ufe a the Greek fathers.

<writlen lan"-uagc, and that his works were preferved by a
written langnage : othcrwifc the afpimte would have been
Lill, and the di\;amm(i alone would have prevailed in all the
Greek authors who fuccceded that ct-lebratedbard. If an
eiitor of Homer in modern days would infert the digamma,
hi would corrupt the original orthography of Homer,
and fubftitute in the room of the original charaders the cor-
ruptions of pronunciation.

We fhall now make fome obfervations on the leading parts
of fpeech, which may fervc to unfold the peculiar nature
and amazing extent of this language. As gender is the
dillinclion of fex, there cannot in itriftnefs be in any lan-
guage more than two genders, mafculine and feminine ;
nouns expreffing inanimate objefts, or things without life,
being in a philufopliical fenfe neuter or nc'ilher gender. But
neuter nouns had by analegy affigned them the termina-
tions of mafculine and feminine nouns; and unfortunately for
Greek, and the other European languages affefted by it, the
termination becnme foon regarded as an index oi the gender,
without anv reference to the meaning. Thus nouns dellg-
nating females ended in a or i; ; and for tliis reafon the names
of inanimate things, and alfo adjeftives, having the fame
ending, are faid to hef.mi/:iiie. For the fame reafon nouns
in o; or r.{, though meaning things without life, arc generally
mafculine, becaufe thefe happened to be the predominant
terminations of the names of males. There are, therefore,
in this language two princijiles which regulate the gender ot
nouns, the fignihcation and the termination : the former
afcertainiag the gender of living things, or things whofe fex
it is of importance to diilinguilh, the latter that of inanimate
objefts. There is, however, a third principle, on which is
founded the diltinilion of gender, we mean the analogy
which inanim.ate objects fometimes have to living creatures.
There are fome terminations common to males and females,
and thefe afford fuch analogy an opportunity to operate.
Thus A^^oi, realon, though expi-efiive of what is neither
male nor female, is made mafculine, as fignifying the com-
manding and the mod excellent faculty of tlie human
mind; whereas o^o-, away, from its ailinity to 711, the earth,
or from the paffive nature of its fignification, a characterif-
tic more of the female than of the male, is made feminine.
That this analogy is not fanciful might be proved by many
inilances. In Arillophanes (Ss/to; is mafculine ; but Theo-
critus (Idyl. i. 132.) in reprefenting it as producing 'uio/et,
makes it feminine. This affinity to the female fe.x is the rea-
fon why arhor, with the fpecihc names of trees in us, are
always feminine, though the termination is decidedly mafcu-
line. In cafes where the termination abfolutely belongs to
the names of males or females, this principle of analogy necef-
farily gives way to the termination. Thus, becaufe ri final
is invariably appropriated to feminine nouns, ^xy-acra-r., thefe,!,
is feminine : on the other hand, xi''^°h 'if"') is mafculine, from
its termination as well as from analogy.

Cafes have been defined by all modern grammarians to
be changes in the termination of nouns; but the name -twc-ei;,
in Greek expreffive of cafes, clearly Ihews that this is not the
primary meaning of a cafe. For tttij-i.; means a fall, and,
from fignifying a fall, it came to fignify the place in
which a noun falls in a fentence. The idea, then, which a
cafe at firft exprefTed is the po/ition of a noun in a fentence,
and by that pofition expreihng the relation of one word to
another. Thus, if a noun denoted the direS fubjeft of a
propofition or difcourfe, it is faid to be in the right cafe,
^TTiio-i; oj6i;, /. e. the direft or ftraight pofition ; but if a noun
exprefs an objeft or quality indireSly, it is faid to be in an
oblique pofition, TTTio-i; •rXa^ix, and this deviation from a direct
to an indireft pofition, as the fubjeft of difcourfe, is in the
language of grammarians farther called hXi^,;, declenfion.
Farther, cafes exprefs the relation of things in motion or ac-
tion, and the relations necefiary for the purpofes of language
are chiefly the following : the relation of caufe, the relation
of cffirB, the I'clation of beginning, the relation of medium or
inftrument, and the relation of end. A noun denoting the
relation of caufe, ;. e. denoting the agent of an aftive or the
fubjeft of a neuter or connefting verb, is in the nominative ;
that of efFeft in the accufative ; that of beginning in the
genitive ; that of medium or infirumenl in the ablative ; and
that of end in the dative. The nominative alone is called
the right or direft cafe, the reft are all deemed cbJique cafes ;
though the accufative, as cxprefiTnig a direft part of a propo-
fition, might more properly be called a right, than an
oblique caic.

Moreover, the relations of bodies in motion or a<Elion
were at firft exprefied by prepojitions : and as our ideas of re-
lation arife from the things related, and which fuccceded
them in their formation, prepolitions (hould, and probably
did, in the early ufe of language come after, inftcad of goin>T
before the nouns which they governed. In confcquence of
this arrangement, they combined into one word with the
final fyllables of the connefted noun, and thus ferved to give
it adiverfity of terminations. Hence the origin of cafes in tlie
fenfe in which cafes have hitherto been underftood by modern
grammarians. It is wonhy'of remark, before we quit this
fubjeft, that the nominative, as expreffing caufe, has a clofe
affinity to the genitive, which means beginning. But the
former fixes the attention on the noun, as an agent or a caufe
in aclion : while the latter holds forth its noun a&xhtfource
or beginning of motion. The beginning of a thing is often
the author and owner of that thing : hence the genitive has
the fccondary fenfe of pojfejpon. On the other hand, the
accufative is nearly allied in fenfe to the dative ; but the
former is not ufed m its ilrift and original fignification, un
lefs it denotes an ejpa, or the thing in which action termi-
nates ; while the latter, in ftrift propriety, marks the end to
which motion points, and in- which it terminates. The geni-
tive ftands oppofed to the dative, as beginning to the end,

Nouns and verbs in Greek have a dual number to exprefs like the oppoiite points of a right line f whil? the "ablative

two things, or fuch things as are in pairs, as hands, eyes,
feet. The ufe of the dual occurs frequently in the poets,
though not p.^culiar to them, nor always obferved by them,
when fpeaking of two objeds. The dual number is by no
means necefiary in language, though it may enable the
Greek to exprefs the number two or pairs with more em-
phafis and precifion. It was, therefore, rejefted by the
./Eolians and by the Latins, who derived their tongue
from the JE,o\\c dialeil. The feventy tranflators, moreover,
have rejected the ufe of the dual number, and in this tliey

expreffcs the medium or inftrumentality of the motion by
which that line is generated. The ablative cafe tlierefore de-
notes one of the moft important and diftinft relations in kn-
.guage, and yet the Greek, with all its boafted copioufnefs and
precifion, has not a diilinft termination to exprefs this cafe,
but denotes it fometimes by the genitive, and at others by
the dative, with or without a prepoCtion. Finally inanimate
things only move after they are put in motion, or ad as they
are aded upon. This is probably the reafon why neuter nouns
in Greek have no termination to exprefs caufe, diltind frcm

7 that

GREEK LANGUAGE.

that

wliich marks efFeft, tliat is, why the nominative and the has been called an a;7;f/f ; whereas it is a ^/j/fn/Vfijf derived

accufative of Greek neuter nouns are always the fame. from the Hebrew ^, ha, which, as an abbreviation of 'pt, en,

A mukitiide of nouns in all languages exprefs the abflracl ferves to direct the attention to an object, and thus to dillin-

ideas of action, and confcquently arc derived from verbs, as guifh that object from all other things. ()',, w/jo, anTo-, t/ic

fubfequcnt to verbs in their formation. Our ideas moreover fame, ifTo , /his, are but different nuulificalions of/. In

of the perfons, the charaders, the offices of men, are dc- fpeaking briefly of the verb, v.e fliall do little more than

rived from tlie fame fources ; and from verbs arc derived copy Mr. Jones's fyilem, as explained in that part of his

the nouns wliich exprefs tliole perfons, charafters, and Greek grammar wlicre he treats of the origin of verbs.

offices. This fyilem is founded on tiie Hebrew tongue, in which all

The name of the aflor is derived from the correfponding the varieties of mood, tenfe, number, and perfon arife from

Verb by adding TO ■, rj, i^-, w; ; as ^aSsi', lo learn, jMxSmr.i the combination of th.e pcrfonal pronouns with a radical noun

the perfon that learns, a learner; i;)f»ai', to fcek, i;)^v-t/Trf ; or verb. Though a multitude of abllraft nouns are bor-

fiassi/f, to enquire, iwxri'j, the perfon luho aiquins ; cr-rzu^j;, to rowed from verb.-:, yet all or molt of the Greek verbs are

Jq-u) \ (TOTfiv-, afo'uter. nouns converted into verbs, by annexing to them the per-

Nouns exprelung the adtion of the verb abllraftedly fonal pronouns. His own wordh are : We acquire the ideas

confidered, or the eficcT; of that adtion, are derived from of action by refledling on ourfelvcs, or obfervino- others in

the correfponding verbs by adding o-i; in the room of certain circumllances ; and die moil limple way which na-

ihe final w ; as -i^-z-w, to delighl, Trjxs-i- ; t<j4.i.-, delight, ture could at firil fuggeft of exprefllng tliefe ideas was to

the aH of delighting ; tsz-i-, to produce; Tizs-ir, i^-, , combine the name of the perfon or thing which adts

the aB of producing, prodiiflion ; y.^it-j:, to judge, x^uj-i.-, xjiVi,-, with the perfon or thing adtcd upon. Thus oiw,- and

judgment. Hence it is evident that verbs in -».• or liix, (Su, (px, ly^ joined, and abbreviated, is oi;o!l- : and this term

mult have their correfpondinir nouns- in J. K : thofe in x.i.-", yti, would be futficient to exprefs / ^/WnZ- luine, though it ori-

Xi, and thofe in 5-0-1/ ( for > .i-) in 5>; ; and thole in ^i; and o-jij ginally meant only wine I; aflbciation fupplying to the

(for fa) in ^i;-. The penultimate vowels a and s are changed ipeaker, and to the perfon addrelfed, the intern.ediate notion

into «, and 0 into w; as iJ.x.fl:x,to learn ; ija9ri(nf,inJiru3ion;oi^(iox; of driniing. From t! s account of the origin of verbs, he

to rrclify ; oj^is-i:-, reditude. ' deduces three conclulions of importance to be obferved.

Other verbs are changed into abftradt nouns by changing Fiijl, verbs were originally the names of things ; and thus

the laft fyllable into u--. or /.<,or, or limply into r, the peniilti- received their charadters as verbs from affociatiou. Secondly,

mate e "being changed into o after the analogy of the perfcdl tlsat every verb confifts of a pronoun exprefling an agent,

middle; as !i\'ir^, ta fee; ^X-T:^a,, ^\mij.a, a fight; Kji-/-i-, and of a noun or the fubftitute of a noun exprefling an ob-

K^uiACi., xiiu'j., judgment ; Tfaw for -r^av-x, to pierce ; t^avij.'j., a jedt. Thirdly, that the terminations, t,-, h:, u, >ik, Ojuii,

•wound; d^ir^i^u, to plunder ; a^iraa-i^o; plunder ; ifi^a, to de- '■''-, ova-i. Were originally the perfonal pronouns, and from

fne ; oji^y.o-, dejnition ; (p'd'.i^,'-; to corrupt ; $6o^r., corruption ; thefe, with the changes which they underwent, have pro-

<r-!if,-t, tofjiu; ai^o^r., feed. cceded all the variations of mood, tenfe, number, perfon

Adjedtives are converted into abftradt nouns by changing and voice.

the latt fyllable into 7n-, or into vtir, or into «.-, or into k.-. ; The firft perfon, !■, is afragment of =■,!.■ ; and by the fame

wcio , quaUs,fiich; -oios-r,:, quality ; (y.y.Q , lafe; ■^:.:xornr, bafc- analogy that tya- becomes e/./.s, verbs in a are changed into

nefs ; licia , alsne, ov one ; fimjc:, the numl/er one, monad; avu:, verbs in t^ui ; as ir^i', <rK!;*i, to place, Sei, or Tiia, -riiaui, to

Jix ; iou:, or Stcow, t-i-'ofjui, to give ; xXw-, or xtr-Xvy, >.Xv!f<i, or
■-iiyj-v^iji, to hear. The perfonal terminations of verbs in tpi
are therefore but a modification of thcfe in i-.-, and confe-

tzva; Suae, the number tnuo ; c\rfyr,., true; a'/.rfina, truth;
onxi/j-o--, approved; io<i:x'y.aiy.,apprchatiijn.

Adjectives, being the names of qualities, are taken from the
names of theobjedtsto which thofe qualities in a prominent quenlly a modification of the perfonal pronouns sjut, t-, («,
manner belong ; as om;, an aj's ; ma-o:, contemptible ; ay-^yo.:, !-c», '^.i-., irt, la-i. On this principle the vcibs in ^ii, which

•wind; Kv-//.oii--, ii'indy ; c.-hij-'Ak:, empty, like the ivind. But
adjedtives are derived from nouns by annexing to them the
verbs exprefiive of fimilitude, eiko;, like ; iiio: refemllance ;
li-i-, fuch, like ; as a»5^i"s-o,-, a man ; cc-.Q^j'-iko-, man-like, manly ;
"guiit'-io: for a>bj-^— 'lo;, man-like; alfo KvO^mirwciV..-, for -afi^n^

grammarians have hitherto divided into four diitir.d\ clafies,
are, according to Mr. Jones's theory, but one clafs, having
each the fame perfonal termination, and difierine; only by
different modes of contraction ; as .'r«!fi, iyi-t; Ti&s.-or,
Ti9i!ji/.i ; oiooiiJLi, oiSi/jji ; zix'W:"', >:ix>.uui. This complex fpe-

TOfjon-, having the form of a man, manly. This compofi- cies of verbs is hence reduced into great fimp licity, and
tion is the origin of that clafs of nouns called patronymics, the acquifition of them rendered very eafy. The fjrit
nsAsu:', TliXsiJr,;, one having the form of Peleus, i.e. the fon perfon optative, even of verbs in v, conforms to the aua-
of Peleus. logy of verbs in fjn, Tiisr-oi,j;, which originated in ■;v~-iuf,i.

There are in Greek but two perfonal pronouns, that is, though oblolete. From this fourcc the Latins have derived
fubilitutes for nouns, or, as we have explained them in the the final m, amabam.

article G RammaR, numeral adjedtives, afiuming the charadler The fecond perfon in Hebrew is p,, iha, or ta, a fra"-ment

of nouns by atfociation with the verb. Thcfe are <>a, /; ^•. or oi ■^p\^, ata. Hence the loKians formid this perfon in

TV, thou ; rmd they are evidently derived from the Hebrew Ok — vis-ij:, thou kno-uv/l ; r.o-ix, thou ri'aJL The above frag-

'Z3^N> "'-ke^'y iy which in Greekis written in the various forma ment, confiding of t'h or .' only, has been corrupted into s.

of lyi-, (>!», !>i.»', li'-vK, ii'vra ; HPN*' "'"' ^"^ ^Y dropping Hence the fecond perfon in every tenfe of the active voice

{if, P5fl, ?/j;<, or the iEolic Tt/ : ii/alwavsexpreffes the fiibjecl terminates in j', with e or a fliort preceding. The fubjunc-

or agent in one of the oblique cafes, and tiierefore, as not lives i, i, form no part of the original pronouns, but were in-

wanni g, has not a nominative cafe Its origin is the He- ferted,as is often the cafe, to lengthen the precedino- vowel,

brew 'n, khi, life, foul, f:!f, which htttir is the fenfe of m. The third pronoun in Hebrew is ^IH) hoe, which is the

Pronouns of the third porlon are only definitives or reilridtive parent of he in Eugliih, and in Greek of f. This, « ith the

adjedtives agreeing with tlie noun defined, expredcd, or im- fubjuiidtivei, forms the third perfon, Tirrri. To the origi-

plied. The chief of thefe is tj/iif, Zf, winch very improperly nal i the louians added tri. Thus in verbs in ju, tiS;-.-.,

GREEK LANGUAGE.

i.*'-Ti, for 7."r, anJ in tlie fulijiinflivc nf verbs in i-, we meet
vith Aiwi for :\ir. In Shaiifcrit, a language which has a
great limilitudc lo the Greek, fu or fuh means he.

Ill Arabic the ordinal of tzvo is tan. Hence the Greek
dual 1','. or rn:', T-^rr'-Toi, or -tutteth'., /icji /TO5 ira/. The per-
I'oiial termination in the plural are all formed from the hngii-
lar. Thus =>., by the ar.alogy of the third deelenfion, is
SUS-, and in this form it was ufed by the Doric, the moll
ancient dialed of (Greece, t-jttojji--, '.Tulv.jj.r,. In the com-
mon tongue the linal ■ became corrupted into ■/. The leeond
plural is the fame in its origin with that of the lingular te or
If, ivTrsT > and the tliird plural is the fame with the third
iingular differently contrafted, -.A-,'.yi li'lmt, he places, riGi^i,
they jiLice. The tliird of verbs in i is formed trom the third
of tliofe in ,ui, with the fubjunelive k annexed, -^u-z-'.-.,
TiT::i,3-i, which is the iEolic form, and hence in the common
tongue, Tvrrro^Ti. The vowel ;, not only in fmgle inllances,
but in whole clalfes of words, is changed into c. Thus in the
formation of nouns from verbs ts/j^h-, to cut, tou/, afeclion ;
in forming the perfect middle, mt'h; to p.rfiiatic, ^:-'ji^=t,and
iometimes the perfed aiAive B^'-x^; lo rain, B-lB^oxx ; inform-
ing cireumdex fro:n other verbs, '.;!//.i-, to tremMe, Tfoy-v ;
bv corruption in Tingle words oJ<ii7:;, si'ovrsf, leelh, yor.y^enu.
On the fame principle the vEolic s^^-i became wn.

The perfonal terminations of the iMperfeCl or pall tenfe
in jui, are sv, =,■, -=, !t'.v, !t>,v, .=/x!v, ete, es-zv ; as ii^ieui -Tij -v,
^'i^c-Ey.t i^jt^r-vj, ifXEfctEt Wz-:v, xr-cX'j-Eai E/.t/.\i'-:v. I liele are
alfo formed, according to Mr. Jones's theory, without the
reduplication, fisEjii e^e-ev, -'o-su.! eJo-sv, rx-i|ui ;,-«-!», KX-j-s/ii
rtJ,u-;j. Thefe are hence contrafted either with or without
the reduplication ; eti&sev nAm, eSeev eGw, i^m-m i^Avj, e^o-»
i<ix-j, ty..KAuvj vm\v; E<XvE» c/.x-jv. By the converfion of e into
', on the principle above illullrated, the perfonal terminations
of the verbs in ft., it was that s., i-:, &c. became o), r,, e, m-.,
iTW, ouEv, ETE, or-/,». Tile lirll perfon lingular in Hebrew is
»1Ji^, eni, I. Hence the perfonal termination i or o>. The
third plural ss-xj or wxti, is the PerlKiii :^'i^, eefn/i. Hence
we read rX-.o^xv in verbs in i, and i-.-.h-Ty.i in verbs in jxi ; but
oT'j.:- is contratled in the common tongue into ov ; as ETt/iioo-Kv,

The fecond aoriil is the fame tenfe with the iinperfeCl,
and verbs of the iinperfecl differ fiorn verbs ot the fecond
aoriil, not beca-ife they expnils difierent moditieations of
pall time, but becanfe they came from difleiviit roots. Thus,
from Tn~Ti' and cr-rajw are derived the imperfect ^Tvirtov and
<3--ri;ov ; while etj-m and ;cr-x;-<v, in the fecond aoriil, have
b-en deduced from the obfoletes -.xj-ttj: and s-ttx^d ; as is the
lignilication, fo are the terminations the fame in both. The
pluperfect has its perfonal terminations from the imperfect,
by annexing the fnbjunftive i in each perfon --r:, e.-, •, &c. siv,
E1-, El, &c. The characlerillic of the firll future is o- inferted
before the final ^ of the prefent — tu-ti.' or -.I'-x, tjito-d
Tali-, 'k'-y-i-, Xs-,!ri', %-^r. And what grammarians call the
fecond future, is no other than the firll future, where, after
a very general analogy, o- is dropped. Thus, /5acif^, i fut.
i3x'lii<ri', ii'j.iij} ; £i!,-^--i>, I fut. Ez;^;3-i', ej(;^Ti', / It'll/ pour ; E^EXaa.',
to expel, E|EX/.5-i-, contracted e^eXJ. So -^v-x, faid to be the
fecond future, is a rontratlion of tuteti', from the root ii/ff?!'.
And this oblervation holds in regard to all other verbs
fuppofed to be the fecond future, while, in fadl, no fuch
tenfe exills.

The fubjnndlive mood is derived from the indicative, by
changing ■ into r, o and '.v into u, and fubfcribing i where it
occurs. It is thus formed, in every tenfe, through the aftive,
the palfive, and the middle voice. Thus, tj-t-,, 7i-r=i.-, &c.
have given birth to imitiw, tu^tt,;.-, &c. : fo, ia the firll
future, Ti/|ii, iv4-s»:', •v\ii, originated Tv4-i', -ivir',:, ivif-f,.,

which is not the firft aorift, as is fnppofl'd by grammaviaru,
but the firll future, which is, indeed, proved by its iignilica-
tion, as well as by analogv : for, in all inllances this feiife
exprelTes a future time, not ablolutely io, but time future in'
regard to another verb connected with it in tlie lenience.
The optative has its tcnfes, in general, derived (rom the corre-
fponding tenfes in the indicative, by changing e into ■> : but
the firll perfon, as has been obferved, is derived from verbs
in J71 ; as, it lUTTfEyi, ti'Xtei--, ^i'Ttci^x, Tvarioi.-. The tiiird
plural, like the third fingular, follows the analogy of verbs
in /xi — r'jTTTo.'ii-i:!', contracted ivzrioai ; in the iame manner aj
^otriTocs becomes c'^.i^v.

The imperative mood, originally in the firll perfon, re-
tained £v of the imperlett tenle ; as Xx|3e-, /;■/ me receive.
Thence, dropping the final v, it has, in the common tongue»
the firll perfon m ; — -.I'w.t. The pronoun ii/, which, iu
Perfian, is to added in the form of ra, conllitutes the fecond
or third perfon — t-j-tteti-. And is-ai', contracted into j-i>.v,
forms the third plural — ru-TETi's-av, which, by dropping o->,
is again abridged into •:-...t7tsti,v, erroneoully fuppoled to be-
the dual number. When a command is given, it is necef-
farily given in the prefent time, and it can be executed, not
in X.\k pajl, but in tUx; future. It is impoffible, therefore, i.i
reafon, that the imperative mood can have a pa/l tenfe.
Thus, T-j-E is the prefent imperative, or that of the fecond
future ; and rvlo-j the firll future, not the lirll aoriil. In
fome of the dialects , is fubllituted for the fubjuiiftive vowel.
On the other hand, the [oniaiis change v, with or without its
concomitant vowel, into u. Thus, in the imperfect, for r.j,
or Ei», they ufed ek, I was : tor the pluperlec\ sTETi/fsiv or
(TetuJev, £7--ifsa, which the Attics contracted into ir^.-.i/Xn ;
and in the third perfon plural, of the palTive form, for
7UTTMVT0, they write rv—zoixro, and for \s.vtki, xekth. In
the fame manner tvIo:; which is faid to be the firll aoriil,
but which, in reality, is the firll future, becomes, when rui is
added, not TtJ-oini-, but -v],a-sx: From the imperative thus
principally ending in ov, we obtain the attic third perfon
plural ino»ri" — ru— -ovi'Tiv, noiovj-x-, whicli are contractions of
TotowTxtrxv, TVTTTovTacr^ii', tiic lirll bciiig TToiiv or xo.ji'v, and
i»-Toy for TK-T?». By the above Ionic analogy, we alfo ob-
tain what is called the iEolic firll aorilt, -.vl;iu, which has
the perfonal terminations of the firll aoriil indicative. It is
thus changed trom -iul-ur.v or Tui-oir,/, uled tor tl- J. <='/''<> in the
iame manner as JiX<-,jv,v is for :i?Mtji.

The infinitive is formed by adopting v.; or, as it is in
Hebrew, £»i — tjittev, and by fubjoining i, t.-teu. In the
perfeAit has evxi, TET^fE^3i ; but in the lirll aoriil » is dropped
— Tu4-^-', probably for -ui,^v.ci, which, alter the analogv of
the perfect, would be tv4- !»'-". In the Ionic and .Attic dialeCts,
the infinitive, however, is formed from verbs in /j.t, though
obfoletc, 'VTTT'.f^i, 'iL'TTEyEv ; See^i, or v=/.(t, -^E/y-Ev ; ^oe^j or ^oui,
^Q|U!» ; Eiyi, / am, eiu-v or ;(uue>. To thele, after the analogy
of the perfect, is added zt — rirxEUEvzi, df^Ev/i, injj.'.i^.i, •^ftfAinA.
The paffive voice is formed by combining the fubjeft of
difcour e with the perlonal pronoun in the dative cafe — jum,
o-oi, Toi. Thus oii-.o.Y.(oi, houfe forme; oixo;cr«, houfe for thee ;
oixofioi, houfe for him. Thefe combinations, which by a flight
change become oim^ojiai, oixi^so-ai, oixi^et^.i, came to convey
the idea, / have a houfe, thou hafl a houfe, or / am houfed,
thou art houfed. And this is the realon why the palfive form
in all authors have cither an aCtive or a palfive lignification,
the context alone lerving to afcertain the fenfe of the verb.
The dual tov is made palfive by changing t into 5-5 — ri/^rr-r'.;,
Tt/iTTEc-'i'yv and not Tviz-ih'.n ; and it is worthy of remark, that
in the firll perfon plural 6 takes t before it very frequently,
as Ti'rouEjfla for ■n.-ioftESci, and in the imperative 13-O1 fori?(.
As the perfonal jnonoun, combined with the radical '

word

I

CRF.RK LANGUAGE.

vorJ to form tit; pafih-e voicf, was ;y.oi, tlie primary form
of the verb mult have been TKTrrs/^wi, and not -^i/Tio/zai ; and
in tlie iinperfeiil ETv:rT!,ut;», and not !7i/rro/i>iv : but aftriwarjs
I was changed into o, as in other numerous inftances. Hence
the pallive form of verbs in ui was originally the fame witli
that of verbs in jut : and this form iiad only two fenfes, ^<ai
for the preient; and ijm for the part. The fecond perfon
fuigular is formed in the common tongue by droppinjj r, and
can trafting the t wo luccecding vowels in every mood andtcnfe.
'i hu3 TV~r;a-zi, Tvrrsjii, TLTrrv; imperfeft £7^;:-r!3-o, !Ti.7rT£o,
trirrrov, ; firil aoriit middle £7i/ J. xto, eti^J^ko, eti;4-i; ; optative
'iv-TiiTt, T-J--010 ; ir=iri, S=n. Tlie iirft future middle is de-
rived from the firll future aftive, by changing o into o/^.m,
zvlouzi. The fecond future middle is derived front ir^Tic-i-,
(which is from the obfolete tu-ei-,) rvjnrofiy.i. This drop*
0-, and is contrafted — Tur-o^xi, TtrriVfjxi. Hence what is
called the fecond future is no other than the lird future.
The fame obfolete radical has given rife to the fecond future
]>airive, whicii is no other than the lirft future — nz-ir, Tiro^-if,
■:vr<^TouLy.i ; wlule the iirll future is from the obfolete in

The termination n of the two aorifts paffive is borrowed
froni verbs in ix. ; and from this fonn, though obfolete,
verbs in thefe te:if-'S are in reality derived. Thus i-\j~r.\,
which is erroaeoudy fuppofjd the fecond aorift palfivc, is
only the pail of verbs in ^i ; as cr-r4;rft>, (the obfolete of
cr7;i3i',) is ia--x.fr.:- ; Tvrry/i, E7ii->i». Wlirit grammarians call
tke lirll aorift paifive is from verbs in ;G;x' ; as ■rv^'i-v, rvf S'-./ni,
£Tv*i>:v ; y-.-/^-.,-., X\x^r,jjii, -^^-i^jir,:: In the third plural cr is
<lropped — ;2v5<-,Txv, ^a)i'ir,-j, jxvSiv. So in the active voice,
Tt— roi;-'. for Tu-ronrav; TiS-isv for tiO;1>i-ki ; etuI-kv for i.vl-y.'yx-i;
and ErLTr-,v for sTv-TTorav. In the infancy of language, wliile
words were yet Icanty, the moll natural way whereby a
writer or fpcakcr might give an additional vieight to his
meaning, was to repeat fuch terms as he \\-ilhed to render
emphatic. The more ancient any language is, the more
numerous appear the traces of fuch repetiti«n ; and, next
to the Hebrew, they form a reniarkai)lo feature in the Greek
longue. Thus, fizi-, fif.-j.; I J. fire., (-/.-//rf, blended into oiie
word, become f^i.'^xi, and means I greatly il-fir; ; ^V.;, .■3*i;,
I -walk, ii'.i/i ; »"i^xi', IJtride: and inch words arp nmnc-
rous in this tou'^ue ; from which we m.'v vlraw the followin,'
nilerences.

Firjl, that the augment is only the remains of a verlt
lioiiiL-J, in order to augment the fenfe. Secondly, th.is aug-
ment takes place in the prelJent tenfe as well as in the
imperfecl ; as t«i»v, tito.^i ; r.f.r.y^, <i-<\\>.x ; Sn^^tt, ti'ir.yi.
Thirdly, that the augment of the imperfect, and of the
aorills, is but a corruption, ftill^ more remote of the
reduplication ; and that the dialed, which prefixes a cou-
fonant to the vowel likt t'le pcrfecl, fuch as ~;-7Ai-,)'yv:;,
for £-Xr,y!iJ!-o is the moll ancient ufage, and comes neavell to
the primitive fimplicity of the language. Fourthly, the
augment is applied to the firll and fecond futures ; and
tiie efTecl of it is to increafe the fiirnification of the verb ;
-,j1.u, T:7'j4.u ; xjxji', X zfzlowxi, J 'lestl cry loudly ; y.y.^xu;
---.%/xv, J tvdl greatly fati^uf. Fifthly, that tin- form called
by grammarians paulo [>oJl futurum, is not a dillinct tenfe,
but the lirll future middle augmented ; t<j-3,ui., r'.-.tyjfiai ;
T^4.'J;/.xl, TSTK J-o/xai. Si.vlhly, that the augment of the per-
fecl comes nearell to the original reduplication than that of
any other tenfe, wliich is prelerved Hill more dillinclly in
the augment of verbs beginning with vowels o\-i■^z, <,T-.c-ri,
and the like.

The lonians, we liave obferved, changed v into at ; and
tliis analogy, perhapSj converted tlie i'wperfect form r;i-j7o:,
■Vol. XVI.

or TETv^;;, into ti-.wx, or nrv^x. Tlie third perfon plural
woul.l be then ■;;:oZ-x^.c,. Hence the Boeotians ufed tetk "a,.
The Dorians write TE:t/;-/.vr;, whioli, in tlie common tongue,
is foftened into t--:iPuTi. Tlic fimple and itntural way of
forming the perfed was to give it t!ie charaCteriflic of the
jirelent which it always implies, as an aftion, though pall.
Hill continuing in its cftea ; n-sn-, tetutt^ ; /.tyi,, /.s^t^,-K.
]5ut from the facility by which letters of the fame organs
are changed for one another, tit-j-x became t^-.v'Pi, and
x-.Jioyx, or ?,a:yx, became As\;;/z. Hence tet^-k, ai.d ^(\->-/'x,
which are improperly called the perfeft middle, feem to
have been the original perteft aclive, accidentally corrupted.
And as there is no foundation for the dillindtion of perfect
aclive and perfi-cl middle, in facl there is none in fignifi-
cation. Wlien, from whatever caufe, k in fome verbs be-
came the charaelerillic of the perfedV, it prevailed in other

verbs, which ftill retained the charadleriilic of tiie prefent

r /»•, rs-oi^a, TTE-Ei/.z. The diilinction, therefore, of per-
fedl adive and perfeft middle is a fiction of grammarians,
founded on the interchange of iimilar confonaiits, or the
blind impulfe of analogy.

Prc-p'ilhiotis form the inoft difficult part of the Greek
tongue, not only becaufe they, for the moll part, govern
diftereiit cafes, but becaufe each has a great variety of fi"-ni.
fications. Yet the author of the Greek gramm'ar, above
mentioned, has laid down two obfervatiiHis, which tend
greatly to fimplify this branch of the Greek laiigua.Tc.
The jirimary meaning of a prepolition, fays he, is^to%e
fought in the root from whence it is derived', and the mean- '
ing fo obtained, or one obviouily connected with it, and
flowing from it by analogy, it preferves in all cafes what-
ever. A prepolition combines with its ov.n lignilication
llic meaning of the cafe in which the depcndiin noun is
tifed ; and It governs the genitive, the dative, or the accii-
iativc, as the writer willies fo iix the attention of his
readers on the origin, the irJlnimertaHty, or the ol'tal of t!ie
governed noun.

We cannot forbear tranfcribing one inflancc (v. iiich is the
lirft that occurs) of hi? manner of explaining the prcpo-
iltions— :to (from the Hebrew n^\», ab, a Jlim or root ;■
and as the root is underneath, the plant or tree fprincirg '
from it, the primary fenl'c of tVo is') under, i~r, a^°.-^
imder :i JhiJd. Farther, the root of a tree is the cauff of
itj growth ; hence i'to denotes the caufe or r-\fii of the
avtion fpecilied in eonncction with it. " And"*they jverc
baptized by him, ^-' a-jm ; he being the cairfe gf their bap-
tilm." I'inally, rs a root flioots upwards, fo as to appear
above the ground, Cro is foinctimes to be rendered /Jo/n
under — i-o f'vy.u from under the yoL-e — xrro, (from the lame
Hebrew origin with tfr', ; and :« the root is the orio-in of a
thing, it denotes beginning, caufe, t;:otii:', and is roldercd)
frjrn. As by the ufe of a^c, the attention is dircfted back- '
ward to the beghining of motioii, its governed noun is
always in the genitive. -" He was not able to fee .Iffus,
c-T" oyj.vj, from the cro-aul," the croud bilr.g the cavfe of his
iihtbility. From iignifying begimii:-.^, kt: came to eNprcfs
the exact point of time at wi-ich motion begins. " Tiiey
weni fi-u?;i ftijfer, csot i=imi,', i. e. irr,m.\TuUcly after fuMer, ] t
expreli'es alio the dflance to which a thing" lias advanced in
eor.fequenco of moving, etca rr,- y-yfjr from the land. Tlie
cjnleqtience of diftance in moll ca'.es is I'epjratiin, or pri-
yiilion, x-o tiv i-Xai, from their cirris, i. e. •zvltkoui them.
Taken in this fenfe, ar:->, abbreviated into a, us in Latin ab
becomes a, and compounded with nouns, adie^tcs, and
verbs, imparts to them a contrary figniiication ; 4-'i:.'ixi!;, ^rar,
3.<tr'.>.;u.o.; up'u-arHh. On the contrary, tiic cfTcCl of dillancc
Ml fome cales is inerejfe, asti llrea»t ^lows larger the farther

G R E

it flows from its fourcc, or as a tree becomes greater with
its gradual cxpanfion from the root. For this reafon a-zo
abbreviated, fometimes incrcafes the fignification of its com-
pound.

The Greek furpaffcs ahnoft all otlicr languages m the
number and variety of its terms ; and the caufcs of its
fuperior copioufncfs arc, _/»•/?, tlic many dialeds which it
comprehends, and which ferved to divide by accidental
corruption the fame primitive into many words ; JunniUj,
the facility with which noims combined with the perfonal
pronouns in the formation of verbs, and the great variety
cl wavs the fame noiui may be converted into verbs, lo as
to form diilinft verbs, yet allied in fenfe and found to each
other ; thirdly, the various ways in which verbs, adjcetives,
and pai-tlciples have been changed into abllradl nouns ; and
i.ijily, the great midtltude of compound terms, formed by
the union of verbs or adjectives with nouns, and of prepo-
fitions witli verbs. Tiie combination indeed ot prepolitions
with fmiple verbs is the moll fertile caufe of the extent and
comprcheniion of the language. The fimple verb ,3>.X>.i>
thus combined, has given birtli to no lefs than ffly-t--vo
compound verbs. This llngle indance fufficiently liiews the
genius of the language, and proves tliat, howevt-r few its
fi-nple primitive words may have been, its derived and com-
pound words are in a high d.-gree voluminous and varied,
yet ccnnefied by an obvious and uniform analogy, both in
jegard to the formation and the meaning of each term.

But this language is not lefs remarkable for the harmony
of its llruc\ai-e, tl)an for the comprehenfion and variety
of its terms. The perfection of language, as well as of
mufic, depends on the melody of its founds ; their meafure
c>r rhythm, their variety, and their fiiitablenefs to the fub-
]• (ft, which they are meant to defcribe or exprefs. Tlic
«lrcumftances of the Greeks in the tarlicft periods of their
fociety, rendered them peculiarly attentive to ail thefe ob-
kifts. They lived continually in crowds ; all matters of
confequence were decided by the voice of the alfembly, and,
next to the force of his arms, every v.ari-ior felt himfelf
indebted to the perfuafive accents of his tongue. 'I'he per-
petual necefhty of employing the power of eloquence,
during tlie infancy of their political Hate, made them retain
the original tones and cadences, by which men, as yet un-
prac'tifed in the ufe of arbitrary iigns, had made known their
affections and their v.-ant.>. Thefe tones and cadences, imi-
tating the language of acllon, (the hrll and moll natural
)anguage of favages.) polfefied a degree of euergy and of
warmth which can never be attained by the mere artilice of
articulate founds. By uniting them to tiiele founds, the
Greeks gave all the force of u natural to- an arbitrary lign..
Mufic and aftion were incorporated in the fubilance ot their
fpcech ; and the defcriptive power of words was extended
to. all thofe objects wliich can be charad;eriz.ed bv found
and motion, or which t!ie various modiikations of tliofe
qualities can fuggelf to the mind oi man. Gillies' Hill, ot
Greece, vol. i. p. 238.

Ghkl:k, miJfrn or rul'inr, is the language now fpoken in
Grecc?, and call.d 'Pu-.;.'-/ -/Air.-*,. !rom Conilanlinople
licing called Roma Neva.

Tlierc have been few books written in this language, from
the taking of Conftantinoplc by tlie Turks ; fcavctly ai y
thing but fome cat'jcli'.fre.s, and the like pieces, compoled
or tra.illatcd into the vulgar Gretk, by the I.atin mif-
lionaries.

The native- Greeks are contented to fpcak the language
viihout cultiv.iing it ; the Turkifli politics not allowing
any ot the fubjefts of their eflates to apply thcmielves to
tiis Vts and fciences, G

G R E

It is not eafy to affign the precife difference between the
viilgiv and the ancient Greek : it confills of the terminations
of nouns, pronouns, verbs, and other parts of fpcech,
which make a difference between thofe two languages much
like that obferved between fome of the dialefts of the
Italian or Spanilh : we inllancc in thofe languages as being
the moil known ; but we might have faid the fame thing of
the Hebrew, Sclavonic, &c. dialeCls. The mrjJcrn Greek,
alfo curtails words, runs them into one another, and adds a
fort of enclitic particles to the end of them: it confounds
the vowels r, 1, i, and the diphthongs si and 01, which tliey
pronounce and often write only iota. They hkewiie often
confound cafes, moods, tenfes, and particles. See Brerc-
wood's Inquiry concerning the Divcrlity of Languages,
&:c. chap. 2.

Befides, the modern Greek lias divers new words not in
the ancient ; particidarly fevera! participles which appear as
expletives, and which arc introduced to characterize certain
t'.-ufes of verbs, and other expreflions, which would have
had the fame meaning without fucli particles, had cullom
difpenfed with tliem ; divers names of dignities and ofllces
unknown to the ancient Greeks ; and abundance of words
borrowed from the vulvar ton"-ues of the nein-hbourinrf

00 (DO

nations.

Accordingly one mav dillinguilh three ages of the Greek
tongue : the firll ends at the time when Conllantinople be-
came the capital of the Roman empire ; not but there were
fevcral books, cfpecially of the fathers of the church,
written with great purity after that time ; but as religion,
law, and policy both civil and military, began then to intro-
duce new words into the language, it feems neceffafv to
begin tlic fecond age of the Greek tongue from tliat epoelia,
which laded to the taking of Conllantmople by the Turks,
where the latl age commences..

GltKKK Lexicon. See LKxicc;>f.

Gkekk Maf'jiiry. See Masonry.

GiiKKK MaJ's. See M.vss.

Gkkkk ]\Ionh. See AnaciioreT.

Ghkkk Orders, m y!rchilcclure, are the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian ; in contradiflinclion to the two Latin orders,
the Tufcan and Compofite. See QitrjiU.

Gkekk Pilch. See Pitch.

Gheek Rite, or ritual, is diilinguillied from the Latin.
See- Rite.

Giii'EK Statue. See St.ati'e..

(■heek Tejlament. See Bible and Testament.

Greek Valerian. Sec Valeui.-vn..

(iiiEEK /F/W. See Wine.

GiiEEK I'ear. See Year.

GREEN, in Biography, an organ-builder, on the rHodel.
of Snelzler, whom he fucceeded, and has left behind him
monuments of his ikill and ingenuity in many of our churches
and manfions of the nobihtv and gentry.

To this modefl and ingenious man,, ever ready to adopt
any hint tending to tiie pert'ec'tion of his art,, we arc indebted
for the improvement of the mechanifm of the moll noble
and coiiij)r€henfive of all inllruments, having eafed th^
touch, voiced the pipes, and' contrived a fwell of tlie whole
inflrument, in a m.anncr fuperior to any of his predeceffors..
He died when fcarcely arrived at the midway of the period
of mortal life..

Green, Matthew, was born, probably in London, nbout
the year 1696. He was educated among the diiTcntt-rs, and
his learning extended to the knowledg'e of a little Latin.
At this period, thofe who dilfented from the ellablifhed
church were rigid in their principles and gloomy in tlieir
manners. He appears to have been, on this account, dif-

L'ull«l

G R £

guflcd w ith thofe who wer: the affociates of his youth, and
to hasc completely abandoned the party. He fpeculated
freely on religious fubjeCts, and at length adopted the lylleni
of outward compliance with cflablilhcd formj. At on?
time he appeared to be ready to join the quakers, but fomc-
thiiig occurred which prevented liim trom making an out-
ward profelTion of their principles. His eircumltances were
very narroAv, but he was fortunate euough to obtqiu a place
of fome truil in the Cullom houfe. He died at the age of
forty-one, in the year 1735. His difpoiition was remark-
ably mild, and his converlation abounded with wit. He
w.is fubjecl to low fpirits: as a cure tor this, he compofed
■the work by which, as an autlior, he is principallly known,
•" The Spleen.'' This poem prefents a picture of his mind
and manners, which iuiplies a practical philofophv of the
fober and rational Epicurean call. The other works of
Mr. Green confill of " The Grotto ;'' " Verfcs on Bar-
clay's Apology;" " The Seeker;" and fome fmaller pieces.
" In manner and fubjeft," fays the critic, " they are lomc
of the moil original pieces in the language : they rank
among the eafy and familiar, but are replete with uncommon
thoughts, new and (Iriking images of remote ideas by forae
unexpected fimilitude, in which wit principally conClls.
Few poems will bear more repeated peruials ; and with
thofe who can fully enter into them, they do not fail to be-
come favourites." Gen. Biog.

GliKi:N-, one of tlie original colours of the rays c)f light.
Grafs and herbs, and even nil vegetables in places expofed
to tlie open air, are green ; and thole in lubternuieous
places, or places inaccefilble to the air, white and yellow.
Thus when wheat or the like germinates under-ground it
is wiiite or yellow ; and whwi it is in the open air, green ;
tbungh this too is yellow before it be green.

Gkekn'.s, t'lrujidal, are very rarely finiple colours, but
.produi ed by mi.xture of yellow and blue.

Two powders, the one blue, and the other ye'luw, well
isi>;ed, appear perfectly green; thougli, when viewed
with a microfcope, we obterve a chequer of blue and
yellow.

Ti;e tinclnre of red rofes with oil of tartar per deliquium,
or witli fpirit of fal ammoniac, produces green. The tii;e-
ture of many red flowers is changed into green by an al-
kali. The tincture of red rofes, and the yellow tincture
of crocus, or the blue tinclure of cyanus, and tlie white
f])irit of ial ammoniac, produce green. The folution of
.%,1-di^ris becomes colourlefs by the affufion of the fpirit
of nitre, and by the affufion of the oil of tartar it becomes
j,reen again.

As no vegetable has yet been difcovered, which is capable
'f)f giving to cloth of any kind a pernument green colour,
the dye for this purpole is a compound colour, formed in
dye-vats either by putting a yellow on a blue grounJ, or a
"tilue on the yellow ground, or by mixing the blue and yel-
low materials, arid dyenig with them as with a funple colour.
The common and moll i)ermanent green is given to woolh n
rloth in the f illowing manner. Tiie cloth, being lirlL ilyeJ
I'lu.- ill tin- indigo vat (fee IndIco), is then well feomtd,
anil afterwards dyed in a bath of weld or auv other vellow
dye with alum and tartar, as in the mode of dveing of limjile
vellovv.-i, except that the yellow materials are ufed in greater
I'uautity than the yellow alone of equal body would require.
Vi ry deep greens are made to acquire a (light brown or kind
of burnilh bv adding to the bath (mall (juantitles of log-
wood :)nd iulphat of iron. /Vs tor fdks, they are iiril
ilrijngly alumed, then dyed yellow with weld, and after-
Vards linilhedin the indigo vat. Silk, cotton, and linen are
dyed jjreea in the fame general mode, but with .conliderabk

-G RE

rariations in the different proccffes. The moft beautiful
green hitherto known, and which perfeftly well refills the
artion of light and air, is given by tlic combination of
Pruliiaii blue and ye-llow, but this colour is dcl'roved by
ioap and alkalies. To cotton this colour is given, by firil
dyeing it oli\e with weld, or any other yellow dye, and a
compound mtirdant (^f alum and iron, and then railing the
green by prufliat of potalh. (Sec PnuiSlAN blue.) Bcr-
thollec obferves, that in the procefs for tliis purpofe there
teems to be a mutual dillilbulion of the mordants and co-
lours, the PriilTiaii cohiur taking llic iron and becoming
blue, whilll the ahim and weld leniaining in the olive forin
a fall yellow, and unite with the blue into a fine grecti.
Tiie only fmiple green in common ufe is that of the carbo-
nated oxyd ot cBppcr precipitated from verdigris by an al-
kali, /i folution of verdigris is made in vinegar, and a few
hours before dyeing a folution of as much pejrladi us verdi-
gris is added to it, the mixture is heated, and tiie cotton,
previoufiy alumed, is palled through this bath. Tlie colour
then given i,-; a foft ap)de-gieen. Aikin's Did.

The dyers make divers fliades, or calls of green, as light
green, yrllo-.u green, pnfs green, laurtl green, fea green.
I'.arh green, liurrot green, and ulaihn green.

Gkekn, Lninfiviil:, is a pigment ufed by fome of the
German artills, which they prepare by adding to the fatu-
rated folution of one part of muriatcd amn:onia in cold
water, ihree parts of cojqier clippings ; and by covering
tlie glafs veliel that contains it with gaiife fo as to keep out
the dull, and [ilacing it in a warm lltuation, fo that the
moilUire may evaporate, which ]Jurpofe will be cffedcd in a
few days. The muriat ot ammonia foon begins to be de-
compoled by the copper, which is corroded and converted
into a green oxyd. When the whole is c/aporated to dry-
nefs, let it be digelled in two or three fuccellive portions of
Ipirit of wine, as long as any green oxyd is taken up ; then
add the folutions together and expel t!ie liquor bv a gentle
heat, tiie rcUdue is a pure dark green fub-rr.ur^at of copper,
known in the Ihops by tlie name of re!jiied Brunfwick
green.

Gkekv, Mountfiin. or Hungary gt\rn, is a fort of grcenilh
powder found in little grains, like fand, among the moun-
tains of Kernaufent in Hungary, and thofe of Moldavia.
Though lome liold, that tlii.s mountain green is faftitiocs,
and the fame with tli.it tiie ancients called Jlos urij, p.'c-
pared by calling water, or rather wine, on copjier red-hot
from the fiiriKici', and catching the fumes thereof on copper
plates laid over tor that purpole: or by diiiolvitig copjitr-
jJates in wme, much as in making verdigris. The painters
make ute ot this colour for jr.;/} green. It is I'ometimes
counterfeiled by grinding verdigris witii cerufs.

GiiEE.N-, dAiniii, and i.'f.,?;//.^/ gv.'.'fl. S-.-e VEllDinni.-;.

GiiKK.s, Prti/fian. See the procei's for making Piir.^ii.AN
IJur.

GnEux, SjJ). See cohurs fron I'.Hi;iT.';, Bvckthokn,
and SAV-^rcii:.

(rtiJiEN, Suxon, an extremely beautiful ^rccn colour, fo
called bceaiife tlie blue part is given bv the Saxon blue or
fiilphat of indigo ; the proci'fs of dyeing which istliis ; thc-
cloth or lilk is lirll to be dyed a Saxon blue, in the follow-
ing nianni r. Having ground nine pans of iiidig») with
twenty of red arlenic into a line powder, add forty-ei'dir
jiarts of llrong fpirit o( vUriol; which mixture I'welU,
grows hot, and em.ils a I'ulphureous fmell. After ilnadirg
in a moderare warmth of twenty-four hours, poiir off the
liquid paTt, which will be of an extremely deep blue. A
fniall quantity of this liquor, dropt into hot water, ir.llantly
l"j>readii, t-iiigTi it of a tine light blue, and fits it for dyeing
4 Z « lh«

<;

li E

t»u' "rcp.uva w<,„!, olotii. or iIIk : ^.ci Ly Hl«iei.fing or ih-
mi,u'l!ung the pvopon.on ol tin- blue ^--P^''''"'"' ''''-' .'^";"";
nav U- ?cnd.-7ec! .UvptT ur lighter. 'I Ins, Dr. l.cwi. I.i)^,
■irtle metho.1 .Ud V.n- prcjanng t^- ''>-, -""P'^ ''7:,^,^,
the dyers of Noruich, who purci.aUd tlus fccrct tro.n

*'The doth or (ilk, thus dyed blue, i. iu'« .UmHd, ai.d then
dipped m the yellow dec.>itiou of ueld or tull.c, a..d the
doiiied colour will be obtaried.

FulUc is commonly preferred as the yellow material, bt-
eaafe It is lefs liable to be altered by the adhering acicl ot the
ti.lphat of indiRo than u eld or the other ycUo-.vs. 1 o co. -
reit thiseffeft of the acid, and enable quercitron to equal
ihefulUc in thisrefpeft, (v.-hilil its natural colour nnich
excels it,) Dr. Bancroft advifes, after the cloln has received
the blue, to mix chalk with the alum mortUnt, lu order to
ncutraUie the adhering acid, before the yeUow *s g'vcn.

Or the fubjeft may be dyed green at one operation, by
boiling it for a little time in a mixture of the blue and y-e.low
liduors. I'or this p'^rpofe the cloth is iir'.l alumed arid well
riiifed ; and the cloth is then dyed in a ftroug decoaion or
fuilic, to which, when cooled to a blood heat, is added lul-
phat of indigo. Dr. Bancroft recommends for dyeing a
beautiful Sa.Kon green, the following expeditious proce -•,
by ufuvrtlie compound alum and tin mordant ; put into tlie
boiler ifx or-eight pounds of quercitron bark to every one
hiy.drcd pounds of cloth ; boll witli a fufficient quantity ot
water ; then add fix pounds of the murio-fulphat of tin, (m
preference to the nitro-muriat,) and four pounds of alum :
when thefe have boiled five or (\:i minutes, lower the heat
with cold water to blood-warm, after which, add as much
fulphat of indigo as may be thought necedary tor the intend-
ed depth of colour, and then dye the cloth in thisbatii with
proper care. Aikin's Diift.

Bv combining any blue and yellow dyes, in different pro-
portions, all the fliades of green may be produced, Irom
the blueilh green of the cabbage -leaf to tlie greemlh-yel!ow
.of the olive. .

Grkkn-, in jl^riciiltun-, a term provinci.illy fignifying
grafb-land, or fuch as is in the ftate of turf.

Ghkkn-, in Gtogrnphy, a county of America, in New
York, taken from Uliler and Albany counties, bounded on
th? N. by Albany and Schoharie, E. by the river Hudlon,
S. by the county of Uliler, and W. by the county of De-
lavvare ; 30 miles in length from E. to V/., and from 12 to
20 in breadth. The number of its inhabitants is 15,870, and
its chief town is Kaatlliill. — Alfo, a county of Pcnnfylva-
nia, bounded N. by Wafhington, S. and W. by Virginia,
E by Monongahela river; 33 miles long, and iSbroad.
The number of its inhabitants is 8605. — Alfo, a coimty of
Kentucky, extending from Ohio river on the N-, to Teneffee
Itate on the S., and bordering W. on the MilTuTippi river,
and E. upon Hardin and .lefferfon counties. The number of
its inhabitants is 6025, of whom 816 are flaves. — Alfo, a
county of N. Carolina, in the dillrict of Nev.bern, contain-
ing 4218 inhabitants, of whom 1496 are flaves. — Alio, a
poll-town in Ivennebeck county, and llate of Maine,
fituated on the E. iide of Androfcoggin river, 164 miles
N E. from Bollon ; containing 933 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
poll-town in Franklin county, Pennfylvania, lituated near
the Conegocheaguc creek ; 156 miles W. by S. from Phila-
delphia ; containing about 80 houfes, 2 Ocrinan churches,
.ind a Preftyterian church, and 884 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfnip in Franklin county, and alfo a townfhip in Wafh-
:ngton county, in the fame llate. — Alfo, a navigable river of
Kentucky, wliich ri-fes in Mercer county, has a gentle cur-
rent, generally iip a W. diree'tion, and is navigable n«u-ly

Q

G R E

150 miles : at Its confluence with the Ohio it is upwards of
2CO yards vtide — Alfo, a fmall river which rifes in the
town of Marlborough, in Vermont, and falls into Ccnnetti-
cut river, above Deerfield, in Mafl'achufetts. — Alio, a
river of New Brunfwick, which runs into the St. John.
N. lat. 47- 20'. W. long. 67' 58 . — Alfo, a river of Ca-
nada, which runs into the river St. Lawrence, ic6 miles be-
low Quebec.

GnKKX Bank, one of the banks near the ifland of New-
loundland ; 129 miles long, and 48 wide. N. lat. 45 30'^
1046 50'. W. long. 53 30' to 53° 50.'

Gkki.n Bay, a bay on the W. fide of lake Micliiganr
about 90 ir.iles long, and 15, 20, or 30 broad in diflerent
parts, lying nearly from N.E. to S.W. At its entrance it,
a firing of iflands extending N. to S., called the " Grand
Traverfe ;" thefe are about 30 miks in length, and ferve to
facilitate the paflage of canoes, as they aftord them a (bel-
ter from the winds. Tlie communication between lake Mi-
chigan and the Green bay is futliciently deep for a veffel of
60 tons, with a proportionable breadth ; the land adjoining
to the bottom of the bay is very fertile, the country gene-
rally level, and the views of it agreeable and exteniive. The
inhabitants of its coafls call this bay the Menoniie bay..
N. lat. 45". W. long 87 58. — Alfo, a bay on the E. coail
of the illaiid of Antigua, S. fromCreen ifland.

Gkeen Br'uir, a large and fertde county of Virginia, fur-
rounded by Bath, Randolph, Harrilon, Kanhaway, Bote-
tourt, and Montgomery counties i about one hundred miles
long and 45 broad : containing 31594 free inhabitants, and
271 Haves. The chief town is I^'wifburg ; 103 miles W.
of Staunton. — Alfo, a river of Virginia, which purfuing
a S.W. courie, runs into t!\e eailern fide of the great Kan-
haway. N. lat. 37^ 57'. W. long. 80 58'.

Greem B;i^, m j^gruu'ture, tl.e name of a fniall infedl,
which is often found dellruclive to different plants in botlt
fields and gardens. It alfo frequently proves dellrudlive to
hop crops. It is very difficult to deilroy it in many cafes.

Gkeen CheeJ'c, in Rural Economy, the name of that fort of
cheeie which is prepared with fome kind of green vegetable:
juice, as that of fage and other fi-.nilar plants.

Gruek Co//f TO J-, See CorPEii.A.s, ssiASulphat of \kos.

Green" deck, in Geography, a river of Pennfylvania,
which runs into the Sufqueliaiina. N. lat. 40° 58'. \^ . long.
76 30'.

Greek Crop, in JlgrldilluTc, th.it fert wlilch is formed
of iome kind of green vegetable ; fuch as that of fome fort
of artificial grafs, the turnip, cabbage, tare, rape, &c. wluch;
are fo termed in contradillinftion to thofe of the grain de-
fcription. The introduction of crops of this nature between
thole of the grain kind, has conllitutcd one of the moil im-
portant improvements in mjjdern agriculture. By tin's
means, land has not only been prevented fi-om being exhaufled
and worn out, but brought into the moll proper condition
for the growth of grain, without undergoing the injurious
procefs of naked or fuinmer fdlowing. It has likewife had
the effect of greatly increafing the number, and improving
the quantity of all forts of live flock, in confequence of their
having more abundant fupplics of food, and thefe at the
fame time of better qualities. There can therefore be no
doubt of the great advantage of thefe crops, which ftould of
courfebe grown as extcnfively as poffible by the farmer, as
by them he may be enabled to fupport jnuch larger (locks of
cattle and fheep than could otherwife be the cafe, and at the
fame time raife much larger quantities of good maiiurr.
See Manure. Befides this, great advantage might, in dif-
ferent inllauccs of cattle -farms of the breeding kind, lede-

ri«^

\

ORE

I'ivcd from the more extenfive ciikivatioB of fuch greCn
crops as the winter fiipport of the (lock.

And crops of this natnre have likcwife been found of ex-
tenfive utility in the feeding of niileh-cows in winter dairying,
as is fully iliewn in the various trials made bv J. C. Curwen,
clq. in a northern drilricl; of the kinjrdom, in the view of
fupplying the poor of a large town with milk. The value
of which crops in this fort of application, on the fuppoli-
tion of their being fold to the cow-keeper, and the expences
of their cultivation, are ilated in the following manner.

Green Crops.

Twenty-two acres of green crop, at lol. 1
pt-r acre - - - J

Expences of ra'ifin^ and cleaning

Four acres of cabbages, 1 „

at 1 2/. per acre j "^

Tv.o acres of Suedilh tur-1

. , ^ !- 10 o o

nips, at ^l.pcr acre J

Six acres of common redl
turnips, at 4/. per acre j "''■

One acre of Kahlrabi - 500

Nino acres of rape or cole, "
at 3/. lot. per acre

£.
220

31 10

iiS 10

lain on crops £. 10 1 10

It is confidered that tlie improvement of the land, and the
value of the fucceeding crops, are fully adequate to the rent
and taxes.

This ftatement mews in the mod clear psint of view the
vail benefit of this kind of crops even in this fort of appli-
cation, and that they Ihould not be difren'arded by t'lole cn-
g iged in the builnefs of huihandry. But in fome other
niudes of application they will be found far more important
and bcnelicial.

Cy fome they have alfo been confidered as of great utility
wiei turned into the foil by way of a manure, though others
are wholly of a different opinion ; probably in conlequcnce
of the trials ha\i'ig been made in very oppofite defcriptions
of foils, and imder very different circunillances of them.
It is extremely probable, likewife, that the advantage of
this praclice will be much greater where the crops are turned
in during the fummer months than in othci' cafts, in confe-
q'.ience ot their running more quickly into the putrefaftive
tlatc. It has been advifed.that whatever mav be the nature
of tlie crops, they fiiould be ploughed uudcr by means
of a fkir.i-coulter plough, as conftituting tlic only means of
turning them in, in fo complete a manner l'.s wholly to con-
ceal them. And that, in cafe of fowing the land ^\•ith broad
raft turnips, the work (hould be performed at leaft three
weeks before the feed is put into the foil, and that it Ihould
be afterwards only very flightly harrowed in. See Turning
in Gre.n Crops.

Gnr.KX Earth, in Mineralogy, Bahhgee, SaufT. ; Chlcrilc
i ale/ogee, Uron^.; ylrgl//eiverc::c:i/is,\V'^cn.; Griiii:ri'e,Wern, ;
'j ii/c c/j/orile zogr,ip/}i'/ue, Vj.'d'.\y ; Verde di Verona, Verde di
Iirentomco,\t^\. ; Veronefe cntli, an earthy fub fiance belong-
:ng to the argillaceeus genus. Its colour is iudicr.ted by its
r.amc, but there are feverid fhades of it, the principal of
which are verdigris, and celadon green, paffi-ig fometimes
into leek and mountain green, frequently with an admixture
of grey ; it has alfo been obferved of a more or lefs pure
<'live green.

e R E

It occurs maflive and diifeminated, in rounded and angii-
lar fragments, and in globular concretions ; likewife in grains
mixed with fund, and as coating on agate lialis, in the liol-
lows of amygdaloid, (toad-ftone,) &c. Internallv it is duU,
but on the rifts a fat-like lullrc is fometimes obfervable.

Fracture finc-ranliy, or more or lefs fiat conchoidal, ap-
proaching to ilaty. I3i\ifible into indctcrmiwatcly angular,
blunt-edged, opaque fragn-icnls.

It feels ratln;r grcafy, is al.vays more or Itfs foft, mild,
and eafily frangible ; llreak ratlier fliining ; adhefion to the
tongue iiiconlideraLle. Specific gr;;vity about 2I,,
_ y Ije chemical charac'.ers of green-earth, derived from
Klaproth's anjlylis of three varieties, j;s. thofe from Monte
Baldo, in the Veronefe, from Cyprus, and from Eail Pruf-
fia, are the following :

The green-earth from Monte Baldo, when heated to red-
nefs, loles 'iv/. per cent, of its weight, while its hardnefs ii
conliderably increafed. The fragments thus fiibjcded to
the lire become externally of a yellowiP.i-brown colour, inter-
nally greyiih-black and glillening. That of Cypruf, after
ignition, lofes eight parts of its weight ; and its colour is
converted into dirty brownifli yeilov.-. Expofed to the fire
of the p< reelain furnace in the charcoal crucible, it fufcs
to a fomewhat porous greenilh glafs, externally of a dirty-
green colour, internally of that of emerald ; in the clay cru-
cible it is converted into a greenifii-grey fiag. The green-
earth of New Fall Pruffia, when freed from the admixed fand
by elutrition, and ignited, changes its green colour into light
leather-brown ; the conglomerated particles are converted
into a hard mafs, and thus lofe nine per cent, of their
weight. The acids do not ack upon green-earth, and they
leave its colour unaltered.

The reiults of the analyfes of the above three varieties
were :

Green-earth of Monte Baldo,
iu the Vert/ncfe,

Silica - - 53

Oxyd of iron - 2S

Magnefia - 2

Kali - - 30

Water - - 6

Lofs - - 1

Green-earth of Cyprus.

Klapr. Beitr. vol. 4. ico

ibid.

51.50
20 50
1.50
I?.

.50

ICO

Green-earth
Silica

of New

Eaft PrufTia.

5«-

Alumina

-

-

-

12.

Magneiia
Lime

Oxyd of iron
Natron, witti a

trace

of kali

-

3 50
2.50

17-
4.50

V.'ater

-

-

-

9-

Lofs

-

-

-

5'3

ibid.

ICO

The PrufTIan green-earth, by thus differing from the two
others, p?.rticularly v.ith regard to the alumina as a con-
ttituent part, appears to approach the nature of chlorite.

Green-earth occurs principally in amygdaloid, alfo as in-
crullation on the nodules of zeolite. Sec. Contained in the
vacuities ; fometimes as coating the fides cf thefe vacuities,
which are often partly filled with the earth. It is alio,
though lefs frequently, found in porphyry and balalt, as
nodules in the nev>er fandftone, and even in the rocks be-
longing to the new flctz-trap-fonnation, fuch as at Aichau

G R E

in Bohemia, where calcareous luff is feon ahcrnatinc^ with
uarrow layers of a conglomerate, made up of grains ot cal-
careous fpar, and bhmt-edged fragments ot tlic tufl to whic.i
the green earth fer'.es as the cementing fubllance liut
in the fame place green-e;u-th forms a fleti.-laycr of about a
,foot in thicknef^i, whofe bafe conlitls of rvacke-hke clay and
calcareous tuff; the roof of indurated marie. The green-
earth of New Eaft Prufiia, conlilling of earthy particlrs
mixed v.i-.h a coarfe fanj, forms a confid-rable "e^ '"
the neighbourhood of the river Mcniel, between Loffoffua

and Salloweye. „ , , • i

Among the loc^lkies, befides thofe of Monte Baldo in the
eronefe, Cvprus, Pruiri;!, and Bohemia, already pomtLd
the following may be mentioned : Altcnbnrg and

t/,, in Saxony ; Oberlloin, in the Palatinate; Kovaeli,

ill Hungary ; Pon'taudemer, in Normandy ; Scotland,^ Ice-
land, the 'perroe-illands, and when

V

out,

Plani

trtie amygdaloid

occurs. • 1 , r

'I'his earth is u/al as a pigment, particularly tor water-
colour painting ; and, being very durable, and not too ex-
.pculive, alio for lioul'e painting, &c.

The green-earth of Cyprus, according to Mariti, is fold
at 4\ piallers for a meafiire of lOO cakes. It is carriedfrom
the pit in large baflvcts made of the palm-tree ; three ot theie
.bal1<ets generally contain the above mentioned quantity. A
great deal was exported to Holland ; often by way of balhiL

Tliat of Bohemia, above mentioned, is fold, according as
its colour is deeper and its grain finer, from two to tour
florins the cwt. Part of it is alio burnt there in fniall
-kilns, and fold as a red pigment.

By the Italians green earth is called Verde di Biciilo::ico,
froiii the vicinity of Monte Bolca to a place of that name.

Grkkn Falloiv, in J^riciillun; a term often applied to
fuch arable land as is rendered clean and free from weeds,
by means of green crops, without having recourfe to the
procefs of naked or fummer fallowing. This eonlUtutes one
of the numerous improvements in modern liulbandry. See
i'ALLOWlNf; of Laml.

GliEKX Finch, in Ornithology. See LoxiA Chkris. See
alio T.^NAGRA Gyrolii, and Frimiilla hutyracca.

GuKEX ryh. See f o(/-Fisiii:iiy.

Gkf.f.n- Food, in j4j;ncul/iire, that fort of £ood wiiich is
emploved in its green or fucculent condition, in the feeding,
foddering, and fupporting of various kinds of live flock.
This is alort of food that h.is, witliin thefe late years, been
much more exienfively employed tliau was formerly the
cafe; yet its advantages are probably in general not fo fully
dindertlood as they ought to be. Its importance and utility
uill, -liowever, foon a^jpear by the making of a few expe-
rimeut.<. in a proper manner.

Ctiif.ks" Glii/s. Sec Glass.

Gkkks //i-U', or {•reen-hue, in our Old IVrlUrs, the fame
with 'v:rt in forclls, ic.

Grkkn Hides, are thofe not yet taaned, or drefleil, but
fach as are taken on from the care ites. See HiDii and

CURRVISG.

GliEK.s' Iron F.arlh. See Ikon.

"Ghekv JJland, in Geogruph^, a fmall illaiul among the
Philippines, near the S. coalk of the iilaiid of St. I^ucon.
N. lat. 13 yi'. E. long. 121^ 2'. — Alfo, a fiuall ifland in
the Ealt Indian fea. S. lat. 65. E. long. 123- 30'.
Alfo, one of the finaller Bahama iflands. N. lat. 21 38.
W. long. 57 . — Al/o, one of the lelTer Virgin iflands, called
likewife " Serpeijt i.l^and," fituated near the E. end of
Porto Rico. — AHo, a low woody idand near the N. E.
Loaft. of New HoUiuid; 12 miles E.N. E. of Cape Grafton.
i)'. lat. 16 48. W. long. 214' 5', — Alfo, an itkmd in Hud-

G R E

fon's bay. N. lat. 61'' 2'. W. long. 72' 40'. — Alfo, an
ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of Main. N. lat. 44 41'
W. long. 67' 23'. — Alfo, a fmall ifland near the E. coafl
of Antigaa. N. lat. 17- 13'. \V. long. 6i' 21'. — Alfo, a
fmall ifland in the Wefl Indies, about a mile N.E. from the
ifland uf St. Thomas.

CrKrKN' Ijlaiids, a duller of fmall iflands in the Pacific
ocean, difcovcrcd by Schouten and Lc Maire. N. lat.
4 5^- E. long. 154' ^o'. — Alfo, a range of fmall iflands
in that fiart of the Eafl Indian fea, called the " fea of
Mindcro,"' near the E. coall of Palawan. N. lat. 9' 33'.
E. long. 119" 6'. — Alio, a group of low iflands in Prince
\\'illiam's found, fituated within the S.W. channel, between
Montagu's ifland and Knight's ifland. Capt. Cook, in lii»
third voyage, 1778, obferved that they were entirely free
from f:iow, and covered with wood and verdure, and there-
fore called them by this name. Tl;e channel between Mon-
tagu ifland and the Green ifi;mds is bt>tween two and tlu-ee
leagues broad, and from 34 to 17 fatiioms deep.

GuEi'.N Ijhmd Harbo-jr, a bay on the W. coaft of the
illand of .Tamaica. N. lat. 18 24'. \V. long. 78' 17'.

GliKKV Key, or PcKUCO, a fmall ifland among the Ba-
hamas. N. lat. 23^ ^6'. W. long. 77 ■ 50'.

Gi!i;i:v Lend Ore. See Lead.

Gui:i-:n Moiir.liiuis, in GiO-^rapiy, a range of mountains in
AiULrica, extending N. N. E. to S. S. W. and dividing the
waters which run eailerly into ComieCiicut river from thofe
whie'i tall wellerly into lake Cliamplain, lake George, and
liuiUou's river. The afcent from the eail to the top of the
Cireen mountain in Vermont is much more eafy than that
trinn the well, till you get to Onion river, where the
mountain terminates. The vegetables that naturally grow
on this mountain are hemlock, pine, fprucc, and other
evergreens, which always exhibit a green appearance; and
hence its name. The chain of mountains extends through
Matfachufetts and Connecticut, and terminates in New
Haven. Kellington peak, the higheft of thefe mountains,
is about 3454 feet above the level of the ocean. Morfe.

GitEKX Feint, a cape on the W. coall of Africa. S. lat.
11° 53' — Alfo, a cape on the coafl of Weft Florida, in
Penlacola bay. N. lat. 30" 31'. W. long. 87' 4'.

Giimcx Sauce, in ylp-':cidliire, a term lometimes proviii-
cially applied to the common forrel.

Gki;i;v Scouring, a dileafe to which flieep, calves, and
cuttle are frequently expoled, aad which is with difficulty
removed. See ScoL'll.

CinvMS-Shiinh, in Ornilbulogy, the ScoLOP.\x glottis of
Eiiui'.eus; which fee.

GitKKV Sicine/s. See CilLORO.si.s.

GiiEE.v Side, in ylgriculliire, a term often provincially
applied to grafs-land, turf, or fward.

Gheks' Silver, the name ot an ancient cuftom within the
manor of ^Vriltle, in the county of Effex ; which is, that
every tenant, whofe fore-door opens to Greenbnrv, ihall
pay a half-penny yearly to the lord, by the name of green
/dver. Blount.

GuEE-\ Scd, in ^'Irriculiure, a term provincially applied
to grafs-ground, turf, or fward.

GuEEN-.S/o«c, in Mimralo^y, according to the more ge-
neral acceptation of the word, is a rock compofed of horn-
blende and feldfpar, and belonging to w hat is termed by Wer-
ner the trap formation. (See Trap.) Mica and quartz
are likewife fecn to conilitute ingredients of tiiis rock,
but they are not confidercd as cffentially belonging to it.
The Groenjien of Cronfted is, upon the wiiole, the fame i-.s
our green-llone ; but in fome cafes too great latitude J.-.s
been given to 'hat name.

Tlii'i

GREEN-STONE.

This rock, with a view to the periods of its formation,
i" divided into primitive, tranfition, and fletz grecn-ftone.

The /iiimilive greenllone is gcnei-ally diftinguifhahlc from
the others bv its highly cryilalline ftriicturc. The liorn-
blende, in which a tendency to cr\llalhzatJon is ahr.oil
always obfervable, generally conilitutes the predominant in-
gredient ; but fomctimes this is only apparently fo, the
feldfpar being not leldom ftained by it in fucli a manner,
that it bears the greatell refeniblance to fniall laniinx of
hornblende. In tliis cafe the blow-pipe difcovers the illu-
fion bv melting the hornblende ; when the feldfpar recovers
lis ulual whitilh colour, and i» converted into a white glafs.

AVerner fubdivides primitive green-flone into four varieties:
I. Common gri'en-Jlone, in which the two ingredients, mixed
in different proportions, form a granular mafs. 2. Por-
phyritic grecn-ftons, being tlic common variety, including large
ciyllals of feldfpar. 3. Great-Jloae porphyry, in which " the
granular batjs, whicli is with difficulty dillinguifliable, in-
cludes crvllals of feldfpar :'" and 4. Green porph\r-f, m which
" the granular nature of the bafis is no longer vilible to the
niked eye ; it appears uniform and il;ii]>le ; has a blaekiili
green or piftacliio green coloui', and includes cryllals of
r'jnipaft feldfpar." (Jamefon.) To tliefe are to be re-
ferred the porlido nero, and porfido verde antico of
Italian antiquaries, of which we (hall fav m.orc kerearei-.
The third and fourth of thefe varieties might, we tliink, be
fafely united ; at leail llie deiinition given of them does not
indicate any diflerence, except in the ihade of green.

This old green-ftcne appears fometimes ilratified. Gneifs
is the rock in which the diiterent varieties tirft appear ; the
next rock in which thev occur is mica-flate, but the beds of
sreen-llonc in either of them are icantv and inconfiderahle ;
t!iey arc obferved more numerous and of greater extent in
cky flate in Scotland. According to Mr. .lamelon, the clay-
(late and mica-flate, that form a great portion of the country
extending from Loch Lomond, by Callander, Comrie, and
Hunkeld, contain numerous beds of greeu-ilone ; and there,
v.e are informed by this geognofian, as in all other countries,
the clav Hate centains more numerous and larger beds than
the mica llate.

There is a vaft number of varieties of primitive grecn-ftone
in- Bohemia ; thus it is found in the Saatz diilrict of that
country, where it reits chiefly on gneifs. It occurs there
alio with quartz as a conftituent part. The varieties mencioncd
by Reufs, as being found there within a narrow comjiafs,
afie, I. A fniall grained mixture of velvet black hornblende,
which exhibits a tendency to a priimatic cryftalline torni,
with yellowifli while feldlpar, and greyilh-whit-e and Inioke
grey quartz. The hornblende is she predominant part ; the
quartz is here and there entirely wanting ; the mixture
pretty uniformly granular. 2. A variety in which the horn-
blende is feen in gi-oups, dilHncf from tliole of the feldfpar
aud q.iartz ; fo that the whole forms an afTembhijre of bhick
and yellowilh-uliite fpots. 3. A variety in which the horn-
blende is fo prevalent, that feldfpar and quartz can wiili
dvfHculty be diilingnilhed by the magnifying glais, which
difcovers ihefe ingredients collected into fmu 1 fpots and
flrip-s ; it contains alfo here and there fon-.e fcales of mica.
4. Var. in which the hornbk-nde is fecn partly maflivc, in
fpots, ilripes uniformly bleuiied with the leldipar ai:d
quartz ; partly in fn.all circular cryilals that are divergingly
a'igregated, or crofs each other in liil directions ; feklipar
tile and brownifii-red ; quartz only I'.ere and there in fmoke
grey grainSi. 5. Var. in which the hornblende Ihuws a ilrong
tendency to crylfallization, and is much accumulated in lome
places; though, generally fpeaking, its proportion to the mix-
ture of yellowilhrwhite and rcddi(h-grey feldfpar and greyilh-

white quartz, is but fmall : it contains larger and more nu-
merous fcales of fdvery and )ellowiih-whitc mi<ra. 6. Var.
in which the texture becomes more tiiick-flakv ; the fmokc-
grey quartz becomes predominant, the yellow'ilh-white feld-
(par difappears almoil entirely, and the hornblende is only
thickly diffeminated. 7. Var. in which the vellowifh-whife
and rcddifh-grey feldfpar i)redominates over the hornblend' ,
winch is feen partly maflivc and in hne granular concretion?,
partly in infidated and difperfed miimte fix-fided prifms,
imbedded in tlie feldfpar ; while the quartz is cntirelv want-
ing. It is remarkable that in this diflrict the p'rim.itivf
gr-en-rtone is feen, by flow gradation, to pafs over into'
jierfecl gneifs. The more it approaches the latter, the more
the granular texture becomes indidinct ; the rock adopts a
thick llaty texture, the hornblende is feen more and mon-
to dimmifh, while the mica increafes both in quantity and
li/e, until ported gneifs Hands confefled as the conftituent
rock.

This rock is common alfo in many other parts of Europe ;
but the accounts we pofli-fs of the green-ftone of feveral
countries is t o imperfect to enable us lo determine how much
of it may be conhdercd as primitire.

The traajhion grefn-Jlone is not eaiily difcrimiiiated in hand-
fpeciniens. It is cliaracierized by Mr. .lamefon as bein'r
" a fiiie granular mixture of hornblende and feldfj)ar ; and
fometimes the mixture is fo intimate, that the conftiti:ent
parts are not to be dillinguiflied. Quartz fometimes tra-
vcrfcs it in the form of veins, or is ditieminated throu'rh it ;
a character whicli diflinguiihes it from fl^tz green-ftonc,
which rarely contains quartz. Sometimes it occurs in glo-
bular diftinct concretions, and thefe again conlift of curved
lamellar concretions, forming the globular rock (ku"-elfe!s>
of Voigtland. Sometimes it is penetrated with reddifli'
brown oxyd of iron, which, combined with the d.irk-brown
hornblende, gives the rock a liver-brown colour ; hence it is
denominated in Voigtland, where it occurs, leber-fels, or
liver rock. Beds of it occur in the upper part of Dum-
friesfliire, in the Hartz, Bohemia, &c."

Flflz-green-Jlnnf. Prof. Jamefon, in his " Mincralogical"
Defcription of Dumfriesftiire," has given a fliort account of
the occurrence of green-ftone in the independent coal-forma-
tion ; and Mr. Fliirl has difcovered beds of amygdaloid in
the firft or oldeft fletz-linie-ftone ; whence the former autiior
confiders himfelf entitled to introduce what he terms the
f.-t'z.-trap, wiiich is diilinct f om tiie ftill newer formation
called the ne--Mji fitz-trap by \\'erner. In the independent
coal formation it occurs in beds from one foot to many
fathoms in liiickncfs ; it contains imhedded olivine anil
augite, and is traverfed bv numerous veins of cale-fpar ; it-
often alio con' ains drufy cavities, which arc lined with calc--
fpar, quartz, baryt:s, cubicite nuid prchnite ; and the ca-
vities arc iomctimis filled with water.

The green-ftone <:f Werner's luxvrO fietz-lr.ip formnliin
is, upon the w!iole, ('.illii;^-;!ifli:.ble froni the older formation,,
by its- ftriicture being of a leis cry(!ailir.e appearance, and
by i:s diftnict coticretions appro:iciiing more to the coarfe
granular. •' Its colour ufual y inclines more oriefs to green.
Certain varieties are redviifh, :nid thefe are denominated
fi.Miitic green-ftone. \\iien frifti and rather large ■■'ranulr.r, .
it ufiially exhibits a fmiple ftrutture ; whtii, on l!ie con-
tr; ry, it is dilintegrated, and fm.nller granular, it occurs in
globular, and thei'.- again in curved !a"icl!ar dilind concre-
tions. Certain, varieties approaeii to w acke, and thefe are
ufirally velicular,. and form a kind of amygdaloid. It is
fometim.s very diftindly ftratified, and frequently tcciirs in
veins." .lamefon.

The ufes lo which the common grccn-llone is applied are ■

noli

G R E

tiQl luanitold. A^ it i'rcqucRtly contaiiu a conriJoru'ole nor-
tion of iron, and is rutrRicntly faiiWr, it torvcs for a faix in
the iron work in SmolanJ. Of lU • loorphynlic varicU-s
of the primitive grccn-ftonL- ufcd for ornament, the folluv.'-
ing dofervc to be mentioned : ^

Jntiquc IhcL l''ji-pl:\nfs (porfidi nrro anlico). '1 here are
two or three vjrieticG difTcring, with regard to the interility
of the colonr, from grecnilh-black to velvct-bl.ick ; and
likewife uith regard to the fize cf the wliitilh fcUllpar-
crvllals: in one of them the cryflals are very fmall, and
this is moi-c freqnc;itly fceii among the remains of antiquity
than the other.

Mr. Graffenauer, in his mi.;cralogy of Alface, mentions
a black poryhyry as occurring at Framont ; and alio as
rounded blocks in the river 111.

In the black Corfican porphyry, the feldfpar-cryaals have
a fli'>-ht tint of green, like thofe of the antique green por-
phyry. Vcrber makes mention of a Sarilinuip. black por-
phyry, and SauflTure of one found in the neighbourhood of
Gctui-n, whieli, beiides fmall prifmatic crylhils of feldfpi;r,
includes rounded grain; of tranlpaivnt colouriels quart/..
'The latter addition is likewife obfi-rved in a variety of a
blackilh Sikrhin porph\ ry, which is fometimos v.rought for
ornamental purpoles.

yliiliijuc gneit porphyry (porfido vtrde aiitico). This is
l\ie ophites of the ancients ; a name derived from fome fup-
pol'ed refemblance of this rock, when jiolilTicd, to the Ikiii
of a ferpent ; whence, in modern limes, antiquaries have
referred the porphyry in qncllion to the magnefian ftone
called ferpentine, a ini.\tiirc or which, with primitive lime-
ilone, conliitutes the rock called i<crde nnlico. When
once conlidered as the fame with the real ferpentine,
the name iv/v/c ciitico, of courfe, alfo v.as eqi;ally applied
to the green porphyry ; a circumftance which has been
produclive of great confufion. There are now but few
monuments of ancient art executed in this porphyry to be
met with.

There are fome varieti's of green porjihyry, much re-
femb'ling the antique, ftill found in fcveral jiarts of Europe.
There is a quarry of it on Monte Vifo, in Piedmont ;
which, beiides the feldfpar, contains reddifli grains, fup-
pofcd to be garnets.

TI)e^;-ffH CcrffMn porphxrv, found in the diilrift of Niotto,
in Coriiea, has a deep boltle-grern bafc, and fine white feld-
fpar cryllals ; anotlier, which enntains fonr.e dark red garnets,
occurs in the diilricl of Go'ro in the fame illand.

Sau.Ture defcribcs the green p'jrjihyry of Geneva, refem-
bling the black porphyry above-mentioned, in the figure and
colour of the feldfpar and quartz, but differing in its bafe,
which is light green and, in fragments, tranihicid at the
edges. Botli this and the black take an L-xcellent polilh.

The green porphyry of the Vcfges has a dark green bale,
and contains numerous middle-lized fcldfpar-cryllals of a
pale green colour. It is found at La Chevetrev, on the
heights of Frefle en Comtc, and made ufe of for orna-
Kiental purpofes. In another variety, found not far
from this quarry, the feldfpar-crydals are fo preffcd
agaiiill each other, that they are ill-formed, and conceal
almofl the whole of the bafe. They are manufaClurcd into
ilabs for tables, chimney-pieces, &c. and fometimes pafs
by tlie improper name of green granite.

There is abundance of the green porphyry in the Py-
renees, where it is known by the old appellation of ophlle.
GwKRsflorieJlate, a compound rock, which may be con-
fidere<l as a vaii^ty of the preceding, from which it differs
in having a dillmft flaty ilriidur.- ; the feldfpar, moreover,
beinjj generally more abundant tlian the hornblende. It

G R E

raiiks with the primitive trap, but, not occurring in roc''-4
older than clay-llate, is coniidered as the newell of llsc i.v\k
clafs of the trap formation. It occurs in confiderable bed>,
and in Sweden whole mountains are faid to confill of it. t;e-
veral mining difti-ifts are fituated in this rock, fuch as thofe
of Gerfdorf, in Saxony, of lladoUtadt, in Silcfia, and of
A delfors, in Sweden.

Grken Sward, in ylgriailtiire, a name applied to the grafs,
turf, or fward, by which land is covered while in the fl.ae oi
palturc or under the fcythe. Such land as has been long in
this flale, is moilly covered with a clofe compafl fward ;
while in the contrary cafe, it is moilly light, open, and
thin. See Sv/Alin.

GiiKEN Turtle Biiy, in GeograJil.'\, a fmall idand among
the Bahamas. N. hit. 26 40. W. long. 77"" 59'.

Gkekn" JVax is ufed where eftreats are delivered to the
flierifTs out of the exchequer, under the feal of that court,
made in green wax, to be levied in the fcveral counties.

Gkken JFeed. See Biioo.M.

GiiEEN IVhiter. See Winter Green.

GREENAE, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in
North .lutland; 2S miles N. E. of Aarhuus.

GREENBURGH, a townfiiip of Weft Chcfter, ia
the ftate of New York, containing 1581 inhabitants.

GREENBUSH, a townfliip of RenfTalaer county. New
York, containing 3472 inhabitants.

GREENCLOtH, a board, or court of juftice, held
in the compting-houfe of the king's houfliold, for the taking
cogni/.anee of all matters of government and juftice Avithin
the king's court royal; and for corretting all the fervants
therein, that fliall any way offend.

To this ci.nirt alfo belonged the authority of maintaining,
the peace for twelve miles round the king's court, where-
cver it ftiall be, excepting at London.

The judge of this court was tlie lord fteward, adifted by
the treafurer, comptroller, cofferer, clerks of tlie green-
cloth, &c. It took its name, greeneloth, from a greencloth
fjjread over the board where they fat, whereon were the arms
of the compting-houie. The cleiks of this court wci'e
officers wlio attended there, and had bufinefs aftigned them
by the board. All bills of comptrolments, relating to the
office, were fummed up, and allowed by the clerks comp-
trollers, and audited by the clerks of the greencloth. They
alfo appointed the king's, queen's and liounu)ld'.s diet, and
kept ail records, ledgers, and papers, relating thereto ;
made up bills, parcels, and debentures for falaries, &c. and
provifions and neceffanes for the officers of the pantry, but-
tery, cellar, 5:c. They alfo waited upon foreign princes,
when entertained by his majefly. This court lias been
aboliHied.

GREENE, MAURirK,Dr.in.5/o^;-<7/i4)') was the fon of the
Rev. Thomas Greene, vicar of St. Olave Jewry, in I^ondon,
and nephew of ,Tohn Greene, ferjeant at law. He was
brought up in the choir of St. Paul, and when his voice
broke was bound apprentice to Brind, the orgatiiil of that
cathedral. He was early noticed as an elegant organ
player and compofer for the churcli, and otitained the
jdace of organill of St. Dunftan in the Well, before he
was twenty years of age. In 1717, on the death of
Daniel Purcell, he was likewife eleekd orgonift of St. An-
drew's, Holbcn-n; but the nc,\t year, his mafter Brind
dying, Greene was appointed his fuccefTor by the dean :uid
chapter of St. Paul's; upon which event, he quitted both
the places he had previouily obtained. In 1726, on the
death of Dr. Crofts, he was appointed organift and com-
pofcr to the Chapel Royal; and on the death of Eccles,
1735, mafter of his majcfty's band. In 1730, he obtained

ih.-

GREENE.

tlie degree of doftor in mufic at Cambridge, and was ap-
pointed public miific profefTor in the fame univerlity, in tiie
room of Dr. Tudway. Greene was an intelligent man, a
conftant attendant at the opera, and an acute ohferver of
the improvements in compofition and performance, which
Handel and the Italian lingers employed in his dramas,

as compofer to his majefty, and mailer of his band, in wfiicS
ftation he fet all the odes of the laureate, CoUey Cibbcr,
as long as he lived.

The compofitions of Dr. Greene were \-ery numerous
particularly for the church. Early in his career he fet a
Tc Deum, and part of the Song of Deborah, which were

had mtroduced mto thn country. His melody is therefore never printed; but the anthems and fcrvices which he pro-
more elegant, and harmony more pure, than tliofe of his Juced for St. Paul's and the Kings Chapel, he collected
predeceflors, tliough Icfs nervous and original. Greene Ind and publifhed in two vols, folio; and of thefe tlie meWt is
tile misfortune to live in the age and neighbourhood of a " ' " " '

mufical giant, with whom he was utterly unable to con-
tend, but by cabal and alliance with his eiiemie:;. Handel
was but too prone to treat inferior artifts with contempt;
what provocation he had received from Greene, after their
firll acquaintance, when our countryman had a due fenfe

fo various as to leave them open to much difcrimination and
fair criticifm. Among the faults to be afcribed to this com-
pofer, none are fo flagrant as the light diviiions in which
his folo anthems abound, and the repetition of palTages a
note higher or a note lower in what tlie Italians call rofalia,
which are always dull, tirefome, and indications of a iU»ile
or his great powers, we know not; but for many years of fa„cv. The opening of his fecond folo anthem, vol. i. p. 26,
his life, Jie never fpoke of hnn without fome injurious cpi- is very folemn and pathetic, and the organ- part judicious

thet. Greene's figure was below the common lize, and he
had the misfortune to be very much defoi-med ; yet his ad-
drefs and exterior manners were thofe of a man of the world,
mild, attentive, and well-bred. Hillory has little to do
with the infirmities of artills; who being men, in fpite of
uncommon gifts and infpirations, are fubject to human
frailties, which entkufiafm, praife, and the love of fame,
more frequently augment than diminiih.

Greene had the honour, early in life, to teach the duchefs
of NewcalHe, which, joined to his profcfiional merit, and the
propriety of his conduct, was the foundation of his favour
with the prime miniller, and the notice of the firll people
about the court. In 1730, when the duke of Newcallle

and pleafing; but, page 4 j, Santa Rofnlia tells her beads
fix times, while one very Ihort pafTage is tingiii"-. " Lord
how long wilt thou be angry," alia Pal^lrina, for five
voices, though none of the fubjefts are new, feems to us
the bell full anthem of his compofition. The llyle is clear,
the anfwers are regular, and the modulation fuch as dif-
covers a familiar acquaintance with the beil ancient writers.
for the church. Of the fidl anthem: " O fiiig unto the
Lord," for five voices, the fugue in the firft movement is
well worked, and has a good elfecl in performance; but
the red of the anthem is not equal in its fubjefts, or their'
treatment. " I.,ord how are they increafed that trouble
me," feems one of the moll pleating of Dr. Greene's folo
anthems. The laft anthem in the firil volume, for two
voices, has many pleating paflages, and rather more variety

was inftalled chancellor of tlie univerfity of Cambridge, he

was appointed to fet the ode, and then not only obtained . . „ _ _

his doctor's degree, but, on the death of Dr. Tudway, he "f fubjeft than moll of the others.

was honoured with the title of profelTor of mufic in' that The firll movement in the fecond volume feems calcu-

URiveriity. As an exercife for his degree, he fet Pope's lated to difplay, in the performers, the power of making a

ode for St. Ceciha's day; having firll had mtereil fufficient f|,;,ke upon fiiort notice. A (liake, judicioufly applied, is

to prevail on the author to make new arrangements in the a brilliant embeUiniment in a finger; but when lavilhed, ira-

poem to render it more fit for muhc, and even to add an properly, is pert and unmeaning; nor is it ever more fo

entire new flanza, between the fecond and third, which had
never appeared in any of the printed editions.

Greene had fenfe and knowledge fufficient, in his younger
days, to admire and refpccl the abilities of the two great
mufical champions, Handel and Bononcini, whofe difputcd
talents occafioned as much difcord in the capital as the
factions of Whig and Tory. At the fame time as he was
imprefied xvith the higheil reverence for Handel's great

than upon the firll note of a movement. There are no
fewer than feventeen or eighteen fiiakes diftributed among
the performers in the courfe of one page, which are more
than a modern opera finger of judgment, talle, and ex-
preifion, would ufe in a month, were his Ihake ever fo
good; the reil of the anthem is on common fubjects, which
are commonly treated.

The two-part anthem, " Thou, O God, art praifed,"'

ftyle of playing the organ, and the force of his genius for has repeatedly a pafl'age on the word praifed, which has ti

compofition, he could not help lillening with plealure to Bo- our ear the difagreeable effeft of two fifths; and there i$

noncini's performance on the violoncello, and to the grace a point at " unto thee (hall my vow be performed," for

and good talle of fome of his opera fongs; at wliich, per- whicli he was manifeilly obliged to the fecond movement o"f

haps, Handel took umbrage — for during thefe feuds, he Handel's fourth organ concerto. Tlie red of the anthem

broke off his acquaintance, and ever afterwards, regarding confids of agreeable paflages of the times, but nothing like

him as an enemy, never mentioned his name but with con- originality appears in any one idea.

tempt. This treatment naturally rendered Greene a par-
tizan on the fide of Bononcini, and in 1728 he defended
him, as long as he was able, from tlie charge of plagiarifm,
with refpeCt to a cantata which had been introduced at the
academy of ancient mutic as Bononcini's, and which was
afterwards difcovcred to be the compofition of Lotti, at
Venice. See Bononcini.

Greene's merit and connections were fuch, that he foon
arrived, at the moll honoilrable appointments in his profcf-
fion: for befides being organill of St. Paul's, in 1727, on

" The King fltall rejoice," for three voices, is agreeable
commoH-place. Perhaps that is hardly enough to lay of
the fecond movement : " O Lord grant me a long life."

" Let ray complaint," a full anthem, a 5, is very folemii
and folid compofition.

The anthem for Chrillmas day has an air of chearfulnels,
fuitable to the occafiou, which runs through the whole
compofition. " Hear my prayer, O God," has more merit
of gravity and cxprefilon than moil of the anthems in this
volume. " O fing unto God," is agreeable mufc, but too

the death of Dr. Croft, he was appointed organid and com- fecular in its melody, and return to the fubjetl. " Have
jjofer of the Chapel Royal; audini735 he fucceeded Lccles mercy upon me;" the t\v« fird movements of this anthem
Vol.. XVI. 5 -'^ ='•*:

G R E

are.foberand affcfting; but the fecond and third have too
muny vulgar and worn-out divifions ; the lafl choruf, how-
ever, is rnore ccclefmftical, and Icfs common in melody and
modidation. The folo anthem: " Hear, O Lord," for_a
hafe voice, is grave and pathetic, on the model of Handel's
bell oratorio fongs. The fame may be faid of the next,
for two voices:'" I will feek. unto' God." " O God of
my rightconfnefs," is fuperior in the d\iet movement, folo
ve'rfc, and chorus, to any thing in the preceding part of
this volume; this anthem riles fomewhat above mediocrity.
«' O give thanks,'" is wholly built ivith Corelli's and Han-
del's materials, though fomewliat differently difpofed ; par-
ticularly page 86, where the whole harmony moves toge-
ther, one note lower, three times, after a crotchet rell, to
this bafe: E, B *^d, E ; D, A ^.^d, D ; C, G, C. " The
Lord is my fiiepherd,'' has too many light fong-paffages
in it, notwithftanding the white and fquare notes which
fMve it a venerable look on paper. " O how. amiable are
Thy dwellings," is a very agreeable anthe.m, though the
paffao-es were not new at the time it was compofed. The
movement with an organ accompaniment, in the anthem-
" Mv foul truly waiteth," is well conduced, and not com-
mon; the reft of the anthem has merit, particularly the
chorus of the lall movement. " The Lord, even the moft
mighty God," for a bafe voice, is fet with great gravity
and propriety; few anthems, indeed, for that fpecies of
voice, are more agreeable; the points, however, in the
chorus, are very common. The anthem in eight parts, a
due cori: " How long wilt thou forget me,'' is very well
written, a capella, and good mufic. tndeed, the firll move-
ment of this anthem nianifells greater abilities than any of
his produtlions that we have feen, who is in general very
correft in his harmony; but as to invention and defign, he
feldom foars above mediocrity. " O Lord give thine ear
unto my prayer," for two voices, is very pleafmg mufic,
particularly the firll movement. The lall anthem of this
volume is made up of common play-houfe paflages ; the firft
movement is heavy and monotonous ; the andante tirefome,
bv the repetitions of an old harpfichord-lelTon paflage in the
b.ife ; the chorus juilifics Mr. Mafon's cenfure of the author,
(coUeft. of the words of anthems) for his too long and
frequent divifions; thefe are too vulgar and riotous for
tlie church, and, indeed, would have no merit of novelty
r.\iy where. The -v'lvace, page 151, upon which the lail
chorus is built, has more of the dancing minuet, or Vaux-
hall fong, in it, than belong to that fuecies of gravity and
dignity which befits devotion. We think we could neitlier
play nor hear this' movement in a church, without feeling
alhamed of its impropriety. * •

There is confiderable merit of various kinds in the Col-
lefiioh of Catches, Canons, and two-part Songs, publifiied
by Dr. Greene; the compolltion is clear, corretl, and
itiafterlv ; the melodies, for the times when they were pro.
duced, are elegant, and defigns intelligent and ingenious.
It was far^raftically faid, durincr the life of this compgfer,
that his fetular mufic fmelt of the church, and his anthems
of the theatre The truth is, he produced but little fecular
niulie. His fong of " Go rofe," was long in general
favour, and feme of his eafy ballads, as " Bufy, curious,
thirfty fly;'^ " Dear Chloe while thus beyond meafure,"
iVc. were the delight of ballad-mongei-s fifty years ago.
The coUeftion of harpdchorJ IcfTons, which he publifhed
late in his life, though they difcovered no great powers
of invention, or hand, had its day of favour, as aboarding-
fchool book; for being neither fo elaborate as thofe of
Handel, nor fo difficult as the leffons of Scarlatti, or the
-fonatas of Alberti, they gave. but little trouble, either to

4

G R E

the mailer or fcholar. Indeed, as all the pafTages are fo
familiar and temporary, they fecm to have been occafiou-
ally produced for idle pupils at different timesj with whom
facility was the firft recommendation.

Dr. Greene, during the laft years of his life, began to
colletl the fervices and antlisms of our old church compo-
fers, froin the fingle parts ufcd in the feveral catlicdrals of
the kingdom, in order to correcl and publiflithcm in Icore;
a plan whicl'i he did not live to accomplilh; but bequeath-
ing his papers to Dr. Boycc, it was afterwards executed in
a very fplendid and ample manner. Dr. Greene died in
1 75 J, and was fucceeded, as compofer to the Chapel Royal
and mafter of his majefty's band, by liis worthy pupil
Dr. Boyce.

GnEEN'E, in Geography, a county of Wafliington diftrict
in Teneftee, containing 7610 inhabitants, of whom 471 are
flaves. Greenville college has been eftabliflied by law in
this county. (See Greexville.) — Alfo. a county in the
upper diftrift of Georgia, bounded W. by the upper part
of Oconee river, E. by Wilkes county, and S. by that of
Waftiington, containing 1076 1 inhabitants, including 3657
flaves. The chief town is Greenfborough — Alfo, a county
in the ftate of Ohio, hounded N. on the Indian ocean, S.
on Rofs and 'Warren, E. on Rofs and Franklin, and W. on
Montgomery county. Its extent from N. to S. is 58, and
from E. to W. 21 miles. By the cenfus of 180^ it contains
446 white males of 21 y^ars and upwards. — Alfo, a town-
fii.ip in Chenango county, New York, on the E. fide of
Chenango rivei", containing 655 inhabitants.

GREENFIELD, a handfome flouridiing poft-town in
Hampfhire county, Mafl'achufetts, about 104 miles W. by N.
from Bofton. This towndup lies on the W. banks of the
Connecticut river ; it was incorporated in 1753, and contains
1 254 inhabitants. — Alfo, a poft-town in Saratoga count^■,
New York, containing 3073 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town in
HiUfliorough county. New Hampfliire, containing 534 in-
habitants.

GREENHILL, John, in B'iograph\<. a painter of
much promife, but whofe difiblnte morals cut fliort his
thread of life, at the earlv age of 20. He was bom at
Saliftiury in 1649, ^"'^ becaine a pupil of Lely, whofe
manner of courfe he imitated, and with much fuecefs.

GREENHOUSE, in Gardsmng, a houfe of ihelter in a
garden ; contrived for preferving the more tender and curious
exotic plants, which will not bear the winter's cold abroad in
our climate.

Greenhoufes, as they are novv built, ferve not only as confer,
vatories, but llkewife as ornaments of gardens ; being ufu-
ally large and beautiful ftrudtures, in form of galleries,
wherein the plants are handfoir.ely raiigtd in cafes for the
purpofe.

The greenhoufe is a fort of building, fronted and covered
with glazed frames, deftined for the purpofe of prefer\-ing
various forts of exotic ftirubs, &c. throiigli the winter feafon :
the aid of artificial heat is not here neceifary, ejjcept in very
intenfe cold weather. It is advifeable, in coiillruiSting fuch
houfes, to ereft flues to ufe occafionaliy, v.hi<-h may prove
ferviceable, not only in feverefrofts, but alfo in molft foggy
weather, where a moderate fire will now and then dry up
the damps, which would otherwife prove pernicious to many
of the tender kinds of plants.

It diff"ers from the confervatory chiefly in this circum-
ftance, that the plants, trees, or (hrubs, are in pots or tubs,
and placed upon ftands, frames, or ftages, during the
winter, to be removed to proper fituations in the open air,
in the hot fummer feafon ; while in that there are beds, bor-
ders.

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

ders, and clumps, laid out in the ground plan, and made
up with the bell earth)' materials, to the depth of three or
four feet, in which the fhrubs, trees, &c. arc regularly-
planted ; the whole of the roof being removed durinjr the
lummer to admit fredi air, and replaced on the approach of
the autumn, to remain until the following fammer renders
it unneceiTary.

The green-houfes are at prefent moiily contrived to (land
in the pleafure-greund, near to thehoufe, if pofiible. TUey
(hould be upon a fomewhat eL'vated fpot, full to the fouth,
aad where tlie fim has accefs from its riling to its fetting :
thefe buildings are commonly of brick or (lone, having the
fronts and tops almoil wholly of glafs-work ; and ranging
lengthways eall and weft. They are generally conflruCted
upon fome ornamental plan. As to the general dimenfions
ill refpecl to length, width, and height, they may be from
ten to tifty feet, or more in length, according to the number
of plants to be contained ; and in width, from ten or fifteen
to twenty feet ; but for middling-houfes, fifteen or eighteen
feet is a fu£Ec?ent width ; and in height in the clrar, nearly
in proportion to the width.

The walls on the backs and ends, particularly the former,
fliould be carried up two bricks thick ; and if more than fifteen
feet high, two bricks and a half thick ; at one end of the
back wall on the outfide, it is eligible to credl a furnace,
for burning fires occafionally, communicating with flues
within, ranging in two or three returns along the back wall,
having one flue running along t!ie front and end walls, raifed
wholly above the floor of the lioufe.

The fronts of the buildings fliould have as much glafs as
poflible, and wide glafs doors fliould be made in the middle,
both for ornament and entrance, and for moving in and out
the plants. It would alfo be convenient to have a fmaller
entrance door at one end : the width of the windows for
the glafs faflies may be five or fix feet ; and the piers between
the faflies may be either of timber, fix, eight, or ten inches
wide, according to their height, or if of brick or ftone-work,
two feet wide at leaft, floping both fides of each pier in-
ward, that bv taking off" the angles, a free admiflion may
be given to the rays of the fun. For the fame reafon, the
bottoms of the fafhes fliould reach witliin a foot of the floor
of the houfe, and their tops almoil as high as the roof ; and
if brick or ilone piers two feet wide, fliutters may be hung on
tlie infide to fall back againll each pier. The roof may be either
wholly or only half glafs-work, next the front ; the other
half flated, efpecially if the upright or front piers are of
timber ; and the ftiutters to cover the top glafies may be fo
contrived as to Aide imder the flated roof : where the piers
are of brick or ftone, it is common to have the roof entirely
flated or tiled ; but flating is the mofl; ornamental for a half
or whole roof; and the cicling within fliould be white ;
which, as well as the whole infide wall, niuft b: well plaf-
tered and white-waftied, fo as to render it clean and neat.

But in green-houfes of modern condruftion, in order to
have as much glafs as poflible in front, the piers between the
faflies are commonly of timber only, from fix to eight or ten
inches thick, according to the height, fo as to admit as
great a portion of light and heat of the iun as polhble, and
the roofs wholly of glazed frame-work.

The green-houfes for large coUeclions of plants have
fometimes two wings of fmaller dimenfions, added to the
main buildings, at each end, in a right line, fcparated
fometimes from it by a glafs partition, with fliding faflies for
communication, and the front almoil wholly of glafs-work, and
half or whole glafs roofs. Thus, by thcfc additional wings,
•.;;'.• houfes confill of three divifions, whereby the different

qualities and temperatures of the vartptis plants can be more
eligibly fuited. The middle, or main divition, may be for all
the principal and more hardy, woody, or ftirubbv kinds,
which require protcdlion cnly from froft ; one of tlsc wings
appropriated for the fucculent tribe, and the other to the
more tender kinds tliat require occafional heat in winter,
but which can live without the heat of a ftove or hct-
houfe.

On whatever plans green-houfes are conflruftcd, t!.-
whole of the infi Je walls fliould be neatly iniiflied off wi'.h
plafter and wliite-wafli, and the wood-work painted white ;
the bottom being painted with large fquare paving tiles, or
fome other fimilar material.

In the green-houfe there fliould be ilands, frames, of
treflela, which may be moved in and out, upon which
rows of planks may be fi\?d, fo as Lo place the pots or
tubs of plants, in regular rows, one above another ; bv
which their heads may be fo fituated as not to interfere with
each other : the lowcft rows of plants next the windows
being placed above four feet from them, that there may be
convenient, breadth left to walk in front ; and the rows of
plants fliould rife gradually from the finl, in futh a manner,
that the heads of the fv-cond rowbe entirely advanced abovethe
firfl, the llems only being hid ; and at the back of the lioufe
a fpace allowed of at leall five feet, for the conveniency of
watering the plants, and to admit a current of air round
them, that the damps occafioned by tiieir perfpiration, may
be the better diflipated ; which by being pent in too clofely
often occafion a mouldinefs upon the tender flicots and leaves,
and, when the lioufe is clofe fliut up, this ftngnating, rancid
vapour is often vei-y deftruClive ; for which reafon they
fliould never be crowded too clofe to each other, nor fhould
fucculent plants ever be placed among them.

In PlaU Garthr.hig, {G reen-houjt) there is a ground plan and
elevation of an improved grecu-houfe in which _^. i. ftiews
the front elevation, Jig. 2. the ground plan, andjff. 3. a fec-
tion of the fam.e.

And at_y^. 4. is another houfe of this kind upon another
plan.

GliEEN' -HOUSE Plants, in Gardening, are fuch as require
the protection of this fort of building during the winter or
other feafon ; the following are the principal of the different
forts tiiat demand this kind of treatment.

Succulent Kind.

Agave, agave or American aloe ; comprifing common
gix'at American agave, with entire green leaves, and a
branching flower-flalk; — commonagave withftripedleavcs; —
Virginian agave, with narrower pale-green leaves.

Aloe, AjVtcan aloe ; containing mitre-fhaped aloe-tree, or

fword aloe ; — aloe fcrox ; — fan aloe

foccotriue aloe;-
tongue aloe ; —

foap aloe ; — partridge-breafl; aloe

warted-tongue aloe ; — pearl-tongue aloe ; — cobweb-aloe;

— hedge-hog aloe ; — cufhion aloe ;. — fpiral aloe ; — prntan-

j;ular fpiral aloe ; — triangular fpiral aloe ;'— iris u\-aria

aloe.

Anthericum, fp'uler-iuort ; containing flirubby ftalked,
onion-leaved anthericum ; — aloe-leaved anthericuni ; — mock
afphodel anthericum.

Cacalia, foreign coh's-foot ,* comprifing cacalia ficoides ; —
Kleinia or Indian cacalia ; — anteuphorbiuni cacalia ; — papil-
lary cacalia.

Callus, mclon-tkifle ; containing caftus op-:ntia, or com-
mon Indian fig.

Cotyledon, ncv l-rx-'ort ; containing round-leaved, Jong-
leaved, hemifplierical-leaved navel-wort.

Crnjuhi, lejfer orpine ; containing fovera; fpecics.

5 A 2 Euphorbia,

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

Euhhibici, euphorlium ; containing moft of the foits.
Mlfcmbryanlkmum, fs '""risold ; containing many cunous
fpccics. . . , r

Sanh^-Th'um, Ik-cfvcr, or houfe-hA; contanung trce-houlc-
"leck -.—varii-gated lice-lioufe-k-ek ;— k-ITfr canary tree-

lionff-leek.

Herbaceous Kind.

icrent fcarlet

Jntholy.d, Ell'iupian corn-fiig ; containing rni^
anthulyza ;— Ktliiopian crimfon antholy/a ;- cunoma, or
largo fpatlied fcarli-'t-flowerciL

Mtlrrhinum, fnup-tlrei^o,i ; containing varipgatcd fnap-dra-
»on ;— Gibraltar fpotted flowered linaria ;— Dalmatian toad

-•Sax. . . -n 1 I •

Jriftolochta, b'lrth-nuort ; containing evergreen ariltoloehia ;

— piilolochia, or fmall birtli-wort.

Bryonia, bryony; containing African tuberous-rooted

bryony.

CalLi, calla; containing fweet calla, or Ethiopian

arum.

Cawpanula, bell-fotfer ; containing American bell-flower.

Cnnar'ma, canarina ; containing canary bell-flower.

Caniiii, Iiul'wn fower'ing reed ; containing common Indian
flowering reed, and varieties ; — glaucous Indian reed.

Crhiuni, afphockl lily ; containing African afphodcl lily ;
— broad-leaved afphodel lily.

Cyc/amen, cyclamen; containing Perfian cyclamen, and
feveral varieties.

Eroillum, erod'ium; containing pentaiidrons geranium or
crane's bill ; — thick-leaved erodium ;. — upright dwarf ero-
dium.

Erylhrina, coral-tree ; containing herbaceous crythriiia.

Ix'ia, ix'ia; containing African woolly-headed ixia; — bulbi-
ferous ixia ; — flexuous ixia ; — corymbous fpottcd-flowered
ixia.

Leonurus, rwn s-ta'il ; containing African fcarlct leonurus ;
. — ftripcd-leaved leonurus.

Qrmthogalum, Jhir of Bethlehem ; containing Cape ornitho-
galum.

Trokttolum, Indian crefs ; containing double Indian crefs,
or nalturtium.

Shrubby Kind.

/Andromeda, andromeda ; containing tree andromeda, or
Carolina forrel.

Anthofpennum, amber-tree; containing Ethiopian fmooth
amber-tree ; — ciliated amber-tree.

yftilhyllis, Jnpiters beard, or barba Joi'is ; — common barba
iovis, or lilver budi ; — Spanifli ternate-leaved barba jovis ; —
dwarf Portugal barba jovis ; — erinacea, or prickly an-
thyllis.

ArSotis, arRotts ; containing rough-leaved arftotis ; —
narrow-leaved avclotis ; — fea rag-wort leaved arAotis ; —
plantain-leaved arftotis.

Arlemifia, mug-'ZL'or/ ; containing tree wormwood.

Afchplas, fwallow-ivort ; containing flirub afclepias.

ylfparagus ; conapriring wh.ite priekly afparagus ; — decli-
wated briltly-leaved afparagus; — acute-leaved afparagus; —
rctrorfafted great prickly alparagus.

Ajler, Jlar-iuort ; containing llirubby African after.

AJIragahts, mdk-velch, &c. ; comprifmg the tragacanth, oi
ffoat's-thorn, and feveral varieties.

Asropa, deadly night-Jliade ; containing flirubby deadly
night-lhade of Spain.

Baccharh-, plonghman's fpihnard ; containing ivy-leaved
baccharis ; — oleander-leaved buccharis ; — halimus-leaved
i>accharis.

Bnjea, y. r-va-mora ; or flirubby golden-rod tree. -^

Brun'm, bnittia ; containing knob-flowered, or imbricated-
leavtd, woolly-heath leaved abrotenoides, or thyme-leavea
radiated b'runia.

Babon, Macedonian parjlcy ; containing flirubby galbani-
ferous bubon ; — (hrubby gummiferous bubon.

Biiddlea, biiddlea ; comprifmg American long-fpiked, oc-
cidental American, globular-headed buddlea.

Buphthahnum, ox-eye; containing flirubby Jamaica ox-eye ;
— maritime, or fea ox-eye.

Biipleurnm, hare's ear ; containing flirubby Ethiopian
hare's ear ; — flirubby diff^orme-leaved Cape h;ire's-ear,

Cahndtitii, marigold; containing flirubby Cape' inai igold;
— flirubby grafs-leaved jEthiopian marigold.

Capparis, caper-bujl.i ; containing fpinous capparis, or
true caper flirub.

CqlJine, cnjfine ; containing Cape phillyrea; — Mauweema,
or Hottentot cherry.

Ccanothus, ceanothus ; containing African ceanothus.

CelaJIrus, Jlajf-tree ; containing pyracantha-leavcd ceiaf-
trus ; — box-leaved ; — myrtle- leaved celaftrus.

CcratoMia, carob-trce ; comprifmg common carob-tree, or
St, .ImIiu's beard.

Chamxi-'ps, chamiercps ; containing dwarf palm.

Chrvfanlhemum, chryfanthtmtim ; containing flirubby canary
chryfanlhemum ; — flirubby flofcular chryianthemum.

Chryfocoma, goldy-lochs ; containing flirubby coma aurea,
or greater African goldy-loeks ; — flirubby nodding goldy-
locks.

Cijlus, cifliis ; containing bay-

i ciftii

leaved ciltus

-fea purflane-
and orange.

leaved cifl;us ; — and feveral otlier fpecies.

Citrus, citron-tree ; containing lemon-tree,
with all the varieties of each.

Clippirlia, clijfortia ; containing flea-leaved cliifortia.

Cluylia, alaternoide chiylia ; containing purflane-leaved
cluylia ; — elateria or liidian cluvlia.

Coliitea, coliitea ; containing flirubby ^Ethiopian fcarlet
colutea.

Convolvulus, convolvulus ; comprifmg evergreen canary
convolvulus ; — filvery convolvulus.

Coronilla, coronilla ; containing valentine coroniila ; —
glaucous coronilla ; — filvery coronilla.

Dais, dais ; containing catinus-leaved dais.

Digitalis, foxglove; containing flirubby canary fox-
glove.

Diofmti, African fp'ireca ; containing oppofite-lcaved, hairy-
leaved, red diofma, &c.

Elemis, ebony ; containing ebony of Crete.

GeniJIa, broom; containing Ihrubby canarv broom.

Geranium, geranium ; containing all the flirubby kinds.

Gordonia, gordonia ; containing loblolly bay.

Gcrteria, gorteria ; containing fhrubby prickly-leaved
gorteria.

Greivia, gretvia ; containing occidental grewia.

ElalLria, hnlleria ; containing African-fly honeyfucklc.

Ileliotropium, tnrnfok ; containing flirubby Peru\ian helio-
trojiium.

Ihrmnnia, hermania ; containing althxa-leaved, alder-
leaved, lavender-leaved, goofeberry-leaved hermania.

Hypericum, St. John's wort ; containing warted-leaved
Minorca St. John's wort ; — Carolina St. Jolin's wort ; —
China monogynous St. John's wort.

Jafminum, jafmine ; containing Catalonian jafniine ; —
Azorian jafmine ; —yellow Indian jafmine.

Iberis, candy-tuft; — evergreen tree candy-tuft; — ever-green
ftriped-lcaved candy-tuft ; — ever-flowering tree candy-tuft.

Jujiicia, Malabar nut-tree.

Santanay

I.anicvm, American lulurimm ; containing African lantana,
•r flaK-k'aved jafmine; — fage-lcaved lantiuia.

1, aunts, bay-tree ; containing Carolina LliK'-berriu-d bav; —
red-berried buy-trce ; — Indian bay-tree ; — cinnanion-trce ; —
camphirc-tree ; — deciduous bay-tree.

l.ohelia, lobelia ; containing (hrubby, pine-leaved, blue
lobelia.

I.ycuim, box-thorn ; containing x\frican box-thorn ; — Bar-
bary box-tliorn.

Malva, nmlloiu ; containing African fiirub-mallow medi-
cago ; containing tlirubby hoary medicago, or moon tre-
foil.

Mel'ia, niel'ia ; containing the bead-tree.
Mentha, mint ; containing tree -mint.

Moriti, moria ; containing canaliciilated-leaved nioria ; —
rufti-leavcd moria.

Myr'ica, gale, fix-'eet-ivUloiv, and candle-berry myrtle; con-
taining oak-leaved myrica ; — ^Ethiopian heart-leaved my-
rica.

Myrtus, myrtle-tree ; containing common myrtle, which
comprehends many varieties.

Neriiim, oleander, or rofe-bat ; comprifmg common olean-
der, with red flowers, fcarlet flowers, white flowers, double
flowers, fl;riped-leaved.

Olea, olive tree ; containing European olive tree ; — Cape
or African olive tree.

Onionis, rejl harrow ; (hrubby Spanifh onionis.
OJleofpermum, ojleoj'permum ; containing hard-feeded chry-
fanthemum.

Othonna, ragwort ; containing peciinated-leaved othonna ;
— iouthernwood-leaved othonna.

Pq/ferina,fparrow-wort; flirubby African paiTerina.
Pelargonium, /Ij'rican geranium ; containing many flirubby
fpecies.

Phlomis, Jerufahm fage ; containing yellow phlomis, and
varieties ; — purple phlomis.

Phyfalis, phyfalis ; containing alkekengi, or winter cherry ;
— iomniferous winter cherry ; — fiexuous winter cherry.

Pijlacia, Piflachia nut, and majTic tree ; two or three va-
rieties.

Polygala, milk-wort ; containing flirubby myrtle -leaved po-
lygala.

Partulaca, purjlane ; containing (hrubby Cape purllane
tree.

Poterium, buniet ; containing flirubby prickly burnet,
Prajium, Jhruhby hedge nettle.

Protea,Jllver-tree ; containing common filvery protea, or
changing tree ; — coniferous protea.

Puinia, pomegranate tree ; containing dwarf pomegranate.
Rhus, fumach ; containing African hoary fumach, and
varieties ; — African narrow-leaved fumach, and varieties; —
Ihining-loaved African fumacli.

Royena, royena ; containing African bladder-nut.
Rumex, dock ; containing iorrel tree.

Rufcus, knee-holly ; containing Alexandrian laurel ; —
tongue -iipon-tongue laurel.

Salvia, fage ; containing flirubby African golden-flowered
fage ; — flirubby African blue flowered fage ; — Canary fage ;
— Mexican fage, or flirubby Mexican clary.
Scahiofa,fcabious; containing flirubby icabious.
Senecio, groundfel ; containing flirubby African groundfel.
Sideritis, iron-wort ; containing Canary iron-wort ; — Cre-
tan iron- wort.

Solanum, night-fiade ; containing amomum Plinii ; — baf-
tard capficum, or winter cherry-; — African jagged-leaved
folanum, or pomum amoris ; — American twin-fruited fola-
mun ; — thorny, downy night-fhade.

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

Tanacetum, tanfey ; containing flirubby ^Ethiopian tanfey •
— under-flirubby famphire-leaved tanfey ; — tree tanfey. '

'1 archonanthus, tarchananthus ; containing flirubby African
fleabane.

'letragonia, letragonia ; containing fhrubby tetragonia.

'J'eiicrium, germander ; compriiing Spanifh tree -germander }
— liroad-leaved iree-gcrinander.

f^ite.v, chajle-lrce ; containing evergreen chafte-tree.

Ule.v, furze or whin ; containing African berry -bearing
furze. °

Xeranthemiim, xeranthemum ; containing broad-leaved xcran-
themum;^ — niUTow-leaved xeranthemum ; — trailing xeranthe-
mum.

Tucca, Adnm''s needle; containing common Adam's nee-
dle ; — tliready-leaved Adiiiii's needle ; — aloe-leaved yucca ;
— dragon tree-kavcd yucca.

Zygophyllntn, bean caper ; containing feflile -leaved bean
caper ; — purflane-leaved bean caper.

Under-Jljrubby Kind.

Dracvcephalnm, dracocephalum ; containing Canary draco-
cephalum, or balm of Gilcad.

Gnaphahuni, gnaphalhim ; containing oriental gnaphalium^
and varieties ; — fweet-fcented gnaphaUum.
Inula, inula.

Kiggelaria, ieggelaria ; containing African keggelaria.
I.avateria, la-vateria ; containing Cape lavateria.
Lavendula, lavender; containing cat-leaved Canary la-
vender.

Lotus, bird's-foct trefoil ; cont;uning Cretan filvery lotus ;

lotus .lacob^EUS ; — upright lotus.

Medtola, mediola; containing climbing African mediola.

Origanum, origany ; containing dittany of Crete ; dit-

tnny of mount Sipylus ; — Cretan marjoram ; — origany of
Smyrna.

Peripkca, Virginian Jilk ; containing African Hoary-climb-
ing periploca, and varieties.

Phylica, bafl-ard alaterniis ; containing box-leaved phylica t
— heatli-leaved phylica.

Phyllis, haflard hare' s ear ; or fimpla nobla.
Polium, ox mountain poly; containing marum, or Syrian
maftich.

Rhamims, luchhorn; containing broad-leaved Indian rham-
nus ; — zizyphus, or jujube.

Schigo, fclago ; containing corymb felago.
Smilax, rough hind-weed ; containing Chinefe rough bind,-
weed, or China-root ; — laurel-leaved rough bind-weed, and
fcveral varieties of each.

Steele, flabe; containiig baflard elichryfunu
It may be obfcrved, that tliele forts of plants nmfl. con-
llantly be kept in pots, and fome large kinds in tubs, for
moving into (helter in winter,, and into the open air in fum-
mer-; as, being all exotics from various warm parts of
the world, they are of tender growth in tliis climate, and
confequently not able to live in the open air in the winter
months.

And the pots and tubs for containing them muft be of
different fizes, according to the fize and nature of the plants,
which, as they advance in growth, fliould have large pots,
&c. provided for them accordingly ; and when they become
wholly too large for tlie pots, they mail be Ihifted into tubs
hooped with iron, with two iron handles to each at the
top-part.

It is nccen"ary in potting or planting the different forts,
care (hould be taken iliat the pots or tubs have holes at
bottom for the dlfchargc of redundant moillure, each hole-
being

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

1

being covered with a -piece of tile or oyilcr-fliL-ll before the
ir.ould is put in, to prevent their being Hopped up, and the
earth from being waihed out below.

'I'lie beft modes of propagating the difierent forts, the
nature of the earth in -ivhich they fuccecd beft, and the fcn-
fon moll proper for raifnig tlieni, are full)' explained under
the culture of the refpcdivc kinds, and may be feen under
their proper heads.

Cencnil Mdlml of Ajuiw^rmciil of Green-houfe Plnnts. —
As moll plants of this fort are capable of bearing the open
air from the latter end of May till October ; but the reft of
the year demand the proteftion of the grceu-houfe, they, of
courfe, require to be let out into it as foon as the weather
begins to be fuitable, in the fpring and fummer months ;
efpecially for fuch as all the fevcral varieties of myrtles, ge-
raniums, oleanders, ciftufts, pldomifoa, {hrubby after, tree-
wormwood, tree-candy-tuft, yellow Indian and Spanilh jaf-
mincs, Indian bay, &c &c. And this ihould be done in
the lall week in May, or firll in June, according as the feafon
proves more or Icfs favourable for all the other lorts : but it
ihould not be attempted tdl the feafon is become perfectly
fettled, and there is a fair profpctt of fummer being arrived,
as there are often very cold nights and frequently frofty
mornings in May, and even in the beginning of June, which,
if the plants were fully expofed, would pinch the ends of
their young (hoots and leaves, and greatly injure them. A
mild warm day (hould be chofen for this work ; and if a
warm rain, it will be of much advantage, as it wafhes the
leaves and branches from the duft they have contracted, and
greatly refreihes the plants that are thus expofed to it.

Method of Setting out the p/aw/j.^This is done in the more
hardy forts in thin pots about the middle of May.

When lirft brought out, it is proper to place tlicm in fome
iheltered funny place, for a fortnight, till they are inured to
the open air ; then to fet them in any open expofure, where
they are to remain for the fummer. And as foon as they
are brought out, they fhould be cleared from all dead leaves,
and all dead wood ; and the earth on the furface of the
pots be llirred, taking a little of the old out, and addinc;
fome frelh mould in its Head, which will prove very benefi-
cial ; then give moderate watering, not only to the mould,
but alfo over the heads of the plants, to clear them effectu-
ally from all dirt and tilth which they have contracted in the
green-houfe during the winter.

In putting them out, they may be placed according to
the fancy of the proprietor ; fonie of the handfomeft plants
being occafionally placed to adorn fpacicus fore-courts, or
arranged on each fide of large walks contiguous to the main
habitation ; and others near ornamental garden- buildings ;
they are alio fometimes difpofed in groups, or fmall clumps
in the moft conlpiciious places, in different parts of the
pleafure-ground ; exhibiting different forts in each group,
in order to caufe the greater variety and effect in fucli litu-
ations.

As foon as they have been thus placed out, their chief cul-
ture is, to fupply themplentifully with water during the lum-
mer feafon, m hot dry weather : all the woody or (hrubbv
kisds in particular ; likewife the herbaceous kinds that are
not very lucculcnt, require it three times a week at leaft :
and in a very hot dry time once every day. The fucculent
kinds mull alio have a moderate fupply of water two or three
times a week in dry weather ; the proper time for watering
all the forts at th s feafon is, either in a morning before nine
o'clock, or in the afternoon about four or five ; for, if per-
formed in the middle of the day in fummer weather, the fun
would exhale a great part of the moifture before it effected
its intended operation on the fibres of the plants : this bufi-

nefs (liould be duly attended to in dry weather. As tlie
mould roots, and fibres of the plants are circumfcribed
within the narrow limits of a pot or tub, the earth, as well
as the fibres, dries very faft in fummer, and neceftarily re-
quires frequent refrefhments of water, to preferve that due
and conftant degree of moifture which is requillte for the
fupport of healthy vegetation in the different plants.

Even moderate rains fhould not prevent watering occa-
fionally, efpecially fuch plants as have fpreading heads,
which prevent the rains, unlefs very heavy or conftant,
from falling in fufficient quantities on the earth of the pots,
to moift'-n it properly. And in hot weather, if fome mow-
ings of (liort grafs are fpread on the furface of the orange-
tree tubs and others, it will greatly preferve the moifture.
During this feafon, it will alio be a good practice to loofen
the furface of the earth now and then in fuch pots and tubs
as have a tendency to bind or become ftiff by time.

Manner of taking in the plants. — About the beginning of
the autum.n, as towards the latter end of September, the
more tender kinds of thefe exotic plants mult be removed
into the houfe ; the fucculent tribe, in particular, fliould be
removed to flielter at the firlt approach of exccfTive wet and
cold nights. The oranges, lemons, and all the other fpe-
cies Ihould be moved into fhelter in due time, either in the
end of September or early in Oftober ; for, if they are
permitted to remain in the open air till attacked by (harp
weather, it changes the beautiful verdure of their leaves to
a rufty yellow hue, which they do not recover during winter ;
therefore, about the latter end of September, or beginning
of Oftober at lateft, the principal plants (hould be brought
in ; the fucculent and otliers of a more tender temperature,
as early in the former month as the cold weather begins to
come on ; and continue moving in all the others as the cold
increafes ; and by the middle of October have the whole
colledtion in the houfe. As the time approaches for mov-
ing in the different forts, clear them perfectly well from
decayed leaves, &c. all the pots being well cleaned, loolen-
ing the furface of the earth in each pot, and adding a little
frefh mould. As the different forts are brought occafionally
into the green-houfe, they may be placed proniifcuoufly till
the whole are in, and then be arranged regularly, as thev
are to remain for the winter ; leaving all the windows quite
open till tliat time. When the whole is brought in, they
Ihould be difpofed in regular order, fo as to appear to the
beft advantage, both in refpeCt to their general arrangement
and variety, and fo as each may have an equal portion of
fun and air ; the talleft plants being arranged in the back,
the others in their fevcral ranks, according to their degrees
of height, gradually down to the lowell in front ; and as there
is a vaft variety both in fi/.e, fhape, and colour, of the
foliage, they (liould be difpofed fo as to fet off each other
and give a pleafing variety to the whole ; and if pofTible,
they ihould Itaiid clear of one another ; by which each
plant will be feparately confpicuous, and the whole exhibit
a greater air ot freedom and variety, as well as admit an
equal portion of fun, and a more free circidation of air
among them.

When the plants have been thus collefted in, their prin-
cipal culture is the fupplying them with freih air at all
opportunities in mild weather, and giving moderate water-
ings occafionally, picking off decayed leaves, cutting out
calual decayed (hoots, and making occafional moderate fires
in feverc weather, alfo, fometimes to difpcl great damps and
noxious fogs from them.

With refpeCt to giving air, it fliould be admitted every
mild, calm day, by opening the windows more or lefs, ac-
cording to the temperature of the weather. When the plants

are

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

an- firll houfed, they fliould hsve as miicli free air as the na-
ture of the feafoii will admit, by opening the windows every
mild day to their full extent ; and if the air is quite tem-
perate, they may renr.iin open in the nights for the firll
week ; but in cold nights they (hould be conftantly (liut ;
thii work of admitting air innfl: be conftantly attended to
all the winter ; for, without a due portion of this elfential
article in mild wt-alher, the plants loon lofe their fine ver-
dure and aifume a fickly ycllowifh colour, become difeafed,
and the young fhoots, in many forts, grow moxddy and rot
off, and the leaves of the plants drop ; therefore, never
otnit every mild day, when not very damp or foggy, to
open fome or all of the windows little or much, according
as the air is more or leis temperate ; the proper time during
v.-inter for this, is from about eight, nine, or ten in a morn-
ing, till three, four, or five in the evening, accordi}ig to the
mildnefs of the day ; but as the days lengthen and the warm
weather increafes, give more air in proportion, earlier and
later in the day as may be judged proper, being careful
always to (hut all clofe in due time every eTeiiing, as foon as
the (harp air approaches. In foggy weather, it is advifable
to keep the windows quite clofe ; for the great damps occa-
fioned by fogs are very pernicious to thefe plants whilll
they are confined in the houfe ; alfo, when boiilerous or
cold cutting winds blow towards the front of the green-houfe,
the whole (liould be kept fiiut ; or only, if thought ne-
ceifary, fome of the upper fafhes drawn down a little way
at top, above the reach of the wind rufliing immediately
i.pon the plants: likewife, in all frolty weather,] the houfe
ihould be kept clofe, except the froft is moderate, and the
middle of the day funny and warm, when fome of the win-
dows may be opened a little, but (hut clofe again if the
liin is clouded, and at any rate before the air changes cold :
in fevere weather, the (hatters, &c. (hould be (lint every
'.light, alfo, occafionally when the froft is exti-emely rigo-
rous and no fun ; and likewife, in fuch weather, the aflift-
;i;ice of fire-heat as liereatler directed may be neceflliry.
As the fpring approaches, and the weather grows warmer,
enlarge the portion of air accordingly, admitting it alfo
both earlier in a morning and later in the evening as the
• lays lengthen ; for then the plants will alTume a growing
-late, and a confiderable porcion of air is requifite every
mild day, both to ftrengthen the new fiioots and inure the
plants by degrees to the air againft the time for removing
then\ fully into it again for the funimer.feafon.

And watering will alfo be necelTary to moft of the forts,
but muft be aiiorded them as fparingly as poffible during
the winter months, and fcarcely any (liould be given when
I he houfe is obliged to be fliut clofe through the feverity of
the weather : there are no certain rules to be given, for the
i.pplication of tliis ; fome plants require only a little water
once a week, or ten or twelve days in mild weather, fuch
as the orange and lemon trees, myrtles, oleanders, (hrubby-
goraniums, and other woody kinds ; all that is nece'iary being
juft to preferve the earth very moderately moift ; the pots
and tubs muil therefore be examined witli proper attention,
r.nd vrater given to fuch only as are in want. The her-
b;'.ceous kinds ihould be rather more fparingly watered tlian
the (hrubby iorts ;. and all the fucculent tribe have water
but feldom, fome not ofiener than once a fortnight or three
weeks, and that always but very fjiaringly at each time ;
:iild fome that are very fucculent require but very little from
November till March ; indeed all the fucculents (liould only
have it novi' and then at this fealon, when the earth in the
pots becomes very dry and hard.

In executing the bufinefs of watering in general, care
fliould be particularly taken to do it with great moderation

at the time the plants are in tlie green-houfe, as when voir
once over-wet tiie earth at this leafon, it will continue in
that ftate for a long time, and by chilling the tender fibres
of the roots of the plants, often caufe the lofs of the leaves
of many of them, and even the death of fome kinds. In
a funny day, from about eleven o'clock to two, is the moft
proper lime for having this fort of work done.

Soft water, if poffible, (hould be iifed, or at leaft fucli .
as had been expofed to the air two cr three days, as frc-fli '
fpring water is much too cold : and during frolty weather
great attention is requifite to keep ail the windows clofe,
night and day, unlefs when very moderate, as jull obferved.
and the middle of the day is funny and warm. ; when fome
part of the houfe m?y be opened a little for two or three
hours, having particular regard to (hutting all clofe in due
time in the afternoon, before the air changes to become
fliarply cold : but in very fevere frofts it mufl be kept clofe
night and day, and the (butters or other covt-rs of canvafs
or mats be alfo ufed every night ; alfo, occafionally in the
day time, when the weather is intenfely fevere, and no fun
appears, and there are no flues for fires to keep out the-
froft. The (butters, or other (belters, befides the glades,,
(hould however be ufed as little as poffible in the day-time,,
except in cafes of particular neceflitv, as every opportunity-
ought to be taken for the admilfion of light and frefii air,
as much, as the temperature of the weatiier will pofTibly
admit, as m.oft of the plants only want protedion from fro It
and the common (lielter of the houfe, which, with fliutting
the faili?s clofe every night, \\'ill be fufHcient for tlie pur-
pofe.

In cafes where there are flues for fires, it will be advife-
able to make moderate ones at fuch times as the froft cannot
be otherwife kept out, efpecially on niglits ; but this muft bv
no means be continued longer than is neceflary to guard
againft very fevere frolls and the danger of the plants.

In very cold, foggy, damp weather, a moderate fire now
and then in the flues alio proves very beneficial in exfelling
the damp unwholefome vapours, fo pernicious to all plants
of this nature. Whillt the plants are in the houfe, all de-
cayed leaves, &c. ihould likewife be conftantly picked off,
being neceffary both to preferve the beauty and health of'
the plants. The decayed leaves of the fucculent kinds
(hould be cut off clofe with a Iharp knife ; the plants in
general ftiould likewife be occafionally cleaned from any
filth they may contraA in the houfe, fuch as duft, cob-
webs, &c.

General Melhsd of Culture of the plants. — Tliefe forts of
plants generally want Ihifting into larger pots and ■ fre(h
earth as they advance in growth ; fuch as are fail growers,
as fome of the (hrubby geraniums, &c. annually, or everv
other year ; and fome plants in large pots, S:c. once in two
or three years, and others not fo often, efpecially fome lar;-^
grown American aloes, orange and lemon-trees, and thole
in large tubs, having a confiderable fubftance of e.irth about
the roots. Sometimes thefe and other (imilai- kinds, whea.
not convenient to ftiift them, have the top earth, and a little
down round the (ides, loofened to fome moderate depth in:
the fpring, removing the loofened foil, and filling the fpnce
up with frelh compoft. But as the plants in genenil in-
creale eonfiderably in proportion to their nature of growth,
(lufting into larger pots or tubs, with fome frelh earth,
fliould not be omitted occafionally »s it may ftem necc(rir\-,
as it proves beneficial to moll of the forts. They may moll
of them be fliiftcd with the ball of earth about their roots-
entire ; but others, that are weak and fickly, require ihift-
ing into entire trclh earth prepared for the purpole.

The moft proper time for fltifting all the forts is in April,.

G R E

i»r before they are removed into tlie open air for the fummer ;
but it may be occationally done in autumn, as in Aviguft or
the beginning of September, in time to llrike fredi root
before winter. In the work of fhifting, each plant (hould
be drawn out of its pot or tub with the ball of earth about
its roots entire, then all the dry matted fibres round the out-
iide of the ball pared off and cleared away, alfo, feme of
the old earth at the fides, bottoms, and tops : then having
the new pots and frelh earth ready, the holes at the bottoms
of the pots fiiouIJ be covered with pieces of tiles or oyfler-
flicUs, and fome of the frelh earth put in ; placing the plant
in the pot, and filling up the vacancy all round with more
frelh comport, bringing it an inch over the top of the ball,
giving a good watering to fettle the earth cloie in every
part ; after this, it is necefiary to place the plants to have
ihade from the mid-day fun for a week or fortnight, and
fometimes longer.

All fucli plants as are become of a weak fickly nature
(hould, at Ihifting, have all the earth taken clean from about
their roots, having them waflied, and then planted into
entire frelh earth properly prepared for them.

And the larger forts of plants, fuch as the orange-trees,
lemons, citrons, American aloes, and others of fiinilar
growth, Jhould be fliifted, when large, from pots into tubs
hooped with iron, having two iron handles at top, as
tjjferved above, for the convenience of lifting them in and
out of the green-houfe, as they fometimes grow to fo large
a fi/.e as to require two and fometimes three or four men to
move them.

But all fuch plants as are not fhifted annually fliould, in
fpring, have the earth in the tops of the pots or tubs loofened
to a little depth, alfo, a little way down round the fides,
taking the loofened earth out ; and in its fiead adding a
quantity of frelh mould, giving it direttly a Httle water to
lettle it clofe. This fliould never be omitted when ne-
ceffary. At any time when the furface of the earth is
obferved to be ftiff, whether in the fliifted or unlhifted
plants, it is of much fervice to ftir it an inch in depth occa-
iionally, and add a little frefli compoft when neceffary to
the plants.

And the mould or comport into which the plants are to
be fliifted is of confiderable importance. The beft is ob-
tained from commons where flieep and cattle pallure, parti-
cularly in low places, where the fincft grafs grows and the
foil is deepeft. A foot of the top foil with the turf fliould
be taken off, and, if a fandy or hazel loam, it will do
alone ; but if a llrong loam, fome fand and black peaty,
boggy, or moorifli foil lliould be added. Such foils
Ihould be laid in a heap fix winter months or more, and
frequently turned over. Some plants, as aloes, mefembry-
anthemums, ixias, and exotic liliaceous plants in general,
require a foil which is a degree lighter, and which does not
retain the water, but lets it pals readily. A little coal-
aflies at tiie bottom of each pot is ufeful in this view as well
as others.

Moll of the ericas, or heaths, and other beautiful plants
from the Cape of Good Hope, from America, and Botany
Bay, delight and flourifli in this fort of earth, which comes
nearell to their native foil : thus, the lieaths like a black
peat or moorifli foil ; and the others, that which is made a
degree ftrosger, with loamy earth intermixed with it.

It is neceflary to keep the heads and every part clean
from dull and other filth, by occafionally wafliing with
water all the forts, which in moll is done by waterings
over tlieir heads ; but in others, wheh very foul, by wafli-
ing their leaves with a fponge and water, efpecially in winter.

G R E

This is often neceffary to t}ie oranges and lemons, and other
large-leafed kinds of plants that have been mentioned.

Where the heads of any of the flirubby kinds are become
very irregular or fhabby, the branches may be pruned
fliorter or longer, as neceffary, in the early fpring months.

And where any of the principal exotics aflume a declining
flate, fuch as oranges, lemons. Sec. or have thin, Itraggling,
weakly heads, or are apt to drop their leaves, it is proper
either to fliift them wholly, or apply fome frefli earth to
their roots, aiVd then prune the heads moderately clofe iii
the early fpring, plunging them in a bark-pit under glafTes.
The heat of the bark -bed fo greatly revives their growth,
that they break forth into many ftrong new flioots, and form
handfome renewed full heads iu the fummer feafon.

While in the green-houfe, fome plants drop all tlieir
leaves, either by the effetls of cold or over-watering, or
fometimes by being kept too long in too dry a Itate, as fre-
quently occurs iu myrtles and geraniums, and fometimes
oranges, lemons, ar.d otliers ; in which cale it is proper in
the fpring to prune the heads, fliortening the long Itroujr
flioots and branches, and to fliift them with balls into frefli
earth, or, if not fliifted, to loofen the earth in the tops
and fides of the pots, drawing out the loofened mould, and
fupplying the place with frefli. They afterwards foon pufli
forth into young flioots and leaves, and renew their heads
with verdure. Sometimes myrtles, geraniums, &c. in this
Hate, when headed, may, on being brought forth in the
fummer, be drawn out of the pots, and plunged in the
ground in a flieltered lituation, and watered in dry weather ;
when they will fend their roots into the full earth and break
forth ftrongly at top into young wood and foliage, and form
full heads, being then re -potted with balls of earth to the
roots.

But the heads of green-houfe plants fliould never be
chpped with garden-fliears, nor, by any mode of pruning,
trimmed into any formal figure, as fometimes pratlifed ; but
every fort be let aflume its own natural growth, only juH
ufing the knife to regulate any very irregular or rambling
flioot or branch, or to thin out fome where too much
crowded, and to cut out the dead i\'Ood they may contain
in any part of them.

GREENLAND, in Geogi-aphy, comprehends a penin-
fula generally allowed to be attached to North America,
and a number of detached iflands, fituated in high northern
latitudes ; the former is called IVt/l or 0/</ Greenland, and
the latter Eujl or Netu Greenland, and more commonly
Spitzbergeji.

ll^cft or Old Greenland, is now generally believed to be a
peninlula, connected in its north-wcftern parts, hitherto
unexplored, with America. The reafons alleged for fup-
pofing that the N. W. fide is contiguous to America, and
adually attached to it are the following : Davis's flrait,
or Baffin's bay, it is faid, becomes narrower and narrower
towards 78 N. lat. ; the coaft: alfo, which in other jilaces
is very high towards the fea, gradually lowers northward ;
and the tide, which at Statenhook, and even as far as
Cockin's found, in tlie 65tli degree, riles iS feet at tlic
new and full moon, decreafes fo much in the north above
Difko, that in the -otli degree it does not rife much above
eight feet, and probably lofts itfelf entirely at lall. Hence
captain Baffin gave up all hopes of findiiig a pafliige into
the South feas through Davis's ftraits, and confequently
concluded, that Greenland joined with America. The
Greenlanders report, though much dependance cannot be
laid upon their information, that the llrait at lafl becomes
fo narrow, tliat they can approach the other fide fo nearly,
as to be able to call to the inhabitants, and ihike a lilh

from

\

GREENLAND.

from both hues at once : but tliey afErm, that a (Irong
current runs from the north into the ftrait, which prevents
their coming to one another.

The name G>reenland was given to the caft fide of this ter-
ritory many himdred years ago by the Norwegians and Ice-
landers, who are faid to iiave fir(l difcovered it, becaufe its
appearance was greener than that of Iceland. But this eall iide,
fonietimes called O/d or Lo/l Greenland, is now almoil totally
unknown, becaufe ihips cannot navigate this coaft, on account
of the great quantities of fioating ice. 'VcR Greenland lies
between tlie ttraits of Davis and Fvobiilicr, and Iceland, and
is bounded on the W. by Baffin's bay, on the S. by Davis's
ftrait, and on the E. by the northern part of the Atlantic
ocean ; but its northern boundaries are unknou-n. It reaches
from the fouthernmoft point of Cape Farewell, and Staten-
hook, in the 59th degree, on the right fide north-ealhvard,
towai"ds Spitzbergen, to the Soth degree ; and on the left
fide ojjpoiite to North America, N. W. and N. till about
the yyth degree; the coails having been fo far difcovered.
!Mo!l of the Greenlanders live from Statenhook to the 62d
degree, or, as the inhabitants fay, in the foutli ; but as no
Europeans live there, thefe parts are impcrfecT:tly known.
The interior of this dreary country is extremely mountain-
ous, and fome of the mountains are fo liigh that thev may
be difcerncd at the diil:ance of 40 or 60 leagues. This is
particularly the cafe with that wliich is the higheil mountain
in the country, called " Hiorte-tak," or ftag's-horn. It
has three branches or points, the moft lofty of which ferves
as a fea-mark to navigators, and alfo as a weather-gage, for
when a ftorm is approaching from the fouth, the funimit of
this mountain is enveloped in a fmall mifty cloud. The
hills and rocks of tliiscoun try arecoveredivith perpetual fnow;
though the low lands on the fea-coall are clothed with verdiu'e
in the fummer feafon. The ice and fnow, like the glaciers of
Switzerland, fill the elevated plains, and even many vallies.
The coall is indented with many bays and creeks that enter
far into the land: and it is encompafTed with innumerable
large and fmall illands, and both vifible and imperceptible
rocks. The fliore, however, is in many places inacceffible
on account of the floating mountains of ice. This country
is faid to have been difcovered by fome emigrants from Ice-
land : the dillance, according to the bell maps, being about
S' of longitude, in lat. 66 , or nearly 200 geographical
miles, though fome maps reduce it to 5", or not more than
1 30 geographical miles. The dilcovery was accidentally
made by Eric Raude, or the red-headed, who being exiled
from Iceland on account of tlie murdpr of one of its cliicfs,
found this country; and, coafting along the S. W. border,
wintered at an agreeable iiland near a found, which he called
Eric's found. Having in the following year examined the
main land, he returned in the third year to Iceland: and in
order to induce the inhabitants of Iceland to accompany him
he called it Greenland, exprcffing its verdant appearance,
a id reprefented it as abounding with pafture, wood, and
filli. The eiTecl of his reprcfentation was fuch, that in the
fucceeding year he was followed by twcnty-iive fliips full of
colonills, who had furnidied thcmfelves richly witli houle-
hold goods and cattle of all iorts : however, only fourteen
of tl'.efe fliips arrived fafe : but in procefs of time more co-
lonics flocked to Greenland, both on the eaft and weft fide,
from Norway as well as Iceland. Torfa-us, a native of
Iceland, ill his " Groenlandia Antiqua,' dates the difcoverv
of Greenland in the ■jear 9S2. But it has been inferred
feom a bull iffued by pope Gregory IV. in 835, and which
commits the converfion of the northern nations, and in cx-
prefs words, of the Icelanders and Greenlanders, to the firft
northern apollle Anfgarius, (if this bull be indeed authentic,)

Vol. XVI.

that Greenland muft have been difcovered and planted about
the year 830, by the Icelanders and Norwegians. Leif,
the fon ot Eric Raude, is faid to have made a voyage to
Norway, A. D. 999, to give the king, Olaus Tryggefon,
an account of the new colony in Greenland ; and tJiis king,
having jull renounced heatlienifm, converted Leif, and per-
fuaded iiim to be baptized, and to take witli him to Green-
land a prieft, for the converfion of the inhabitants. Upon
his retum his father was induced to embrace Chriflianitv,
and the reft of the colony followed his example. In the
year 1122 they chofe Arnold, a Norwegian, for their
bifhop; and he fixed Iiis epifcopal refidence at Gardar. Iii
the year 1261, tliey, and the Icelanders, fubjecled them-
felves voluntarily under the Norwegian fceptre ; and from
that time they were governed by a king's deputy from Nor-
way, according to the laws of Iceland ; and when an arch-
biihopric was erected at Drontheim in Norway, the Green-
land bifliops became fulTragans to this metropolitan. The
intercourfe between this colony in Greenland and Norway
continued, with little interruption, till the beginning of the
I5lh century ; the laft of 17 bifliops being appointed in the
year 1406. During this period the Greenland trade is fajd
to liave been very confiderable ; and it is very probable that
they exported a large quantity of flefli, butter, cheefc, fifa,
train, and pelts, cliiefly by means of foreign fliips ; for
though the Norwegian fettlcrs in Greenland, upon their firft
eflablifliment, failed in their own veftels from Iceland and
Norway to this country, they afterwards very much neglect-
ed navigation. After the period above-mentioned Green-
land feems to have been little regarded, and its intercourfe
with other countries almoil wholly coalVd. In order to ac-
count for this fudden change of condition, it ftiould be
confidcred, that the firft fettlcrs were very much haraft'ed bv
the natives, who were a barbarous and lavage people, and
who reienibled, in their culloms, garb, and appearance, the
Efquimaux found about Hudfon's bay. Thefe people were
denominated " Skr.ellings," or " Korralit,'' an appellation
affumcd by the Efquimaux. The Danilh Chronicle, a
work written in verfe, and, indeed, of doubtful authority,
though cited by Torfjeus, informs us, that certain Armenians
were firft driven hither by a ftorm, and that from hence
they peopled Norway and America, and that many tribes
were found in Greenland, who were governed by difterent
chiets. The Skrxllings, it is fuppofed, and not without
fome degree of probability, firll came to Greenland in the
14th century, not from the eall out of Europe, but fr-cSK
the weft out of North Am.orica. But their origin is traced
to the N. E regions of Great Tartary, between the Ice-
fea (mare glaciale) and Mungolia. They firft came into
Tartary, after the great diiperfion of the natioiis, and .were
driven on further and further by imperious or more potent
nations that followed them, till at laft they were compelled
to withdraw into the remoteft corner of Tartary near Kam-
flvatka, and from hence they migrated to America ; extend-
ing themfelves round the S.E. part of Hudfon's bay, or
through Canada as far as the North fea : and here, it is fup-
pofed, they were firil found by the Norwegians in the i ith
century. Dreading and wifliing to avoid the moleftation
which tlicy fuftered from the other Indians, thefe fugitives
retreated northwards, till, probably, in the 14th century,
they eillier crofted Davis's ftraits in their boats, from Cape
Wallingham, in the 66th degree, to tlie South-bay in Green-
land, which can be icarcely 60 leagues wide; or elle they
went higher up by Baffin's bay, and fo came down on the
parts where the Norwegians formerly had their habitations,
firft on the weft fide, and then bv degrees round to the eall.
Thefe Skrxllings are fuppofed to have exterminated the Icc-
5 13 laud

GREENLAND.

land and Norwegian fcttlors who inhabited the wctlirn dif-
tria, in the 14th century; after they had been prevwudy
dimiuilhed in number, or very much enfeebled by a pcfti-
lence, which raged about the year 1350. On tins occaiion
tlie Norwegians were driven from the weft to the eaft (ide,
fo that the weilern parts of Greenland were wholly occupied
bv thcfc Skra'llings. Some of tlicin blended themfelves with
their conquerors, and otlicrs of them receded farther north-
wards into the inlets between the n.ountains. The ancient
lettlement contained feveral churches and monalleries, from
which it wvuld feem that the colony extended over about
200 miles in tiie fouth-eallern extremity. On the weft fome
ruins of churches have been alfo difcovered. In the eallern
diftria, as we have reafon to imagine, there are fome re-
mains of the ancient colony, tliough no intercourfe can be
maintained betvveen the inhabitants of both iides of the
country, on account of liigh mountains, perpetually covered
witi> fnow, which fcparate the two parts of Greenland;
and the navigation from one to thi; other is impeded by the
mountains of ice, that are driven fouthward from Spitzber-
gen, or Eaft Greenland. From authentic records we can
derive little information that is fatisfatlory, or upon which
we can rely. From fome of the moft credible we learn, that
Greenland was divided into two diftritls, called " Weft
Bygd," and " Eail Bygd;" the former contained four
parilhes, and lOO villages; but the latter was more flourifh-
ing, as it is nearer to Iceland, and was fooner fettled, and
alio more frequented by Norwegian navigators. The co-
lony that firll fettled in the eaft, of which we have already
given ail account, is laid to have comprehended, in ancient
times, 12 extenfive parilhes, 120 villages, a bifhop's fee, and
two monafteries. The prefent inhabitants of the weftern dif-
trift are feparated from thofc of the eaft by impaffable defer^s
and mountains, fo that they know little of one another ;
excepting that the eaftern Greenlanders are thought by
thofe of the weft to be a cruel and barbarous nation, that
deftroy and eat all ftrangers that fall into their hands. For
about a century after the ceflation of intercourfe between
the Greenlanders and other nations, they were very much
neglefted ; all the attempts made by the kings of Denmark
to explore the eaftern diftridl having mifcarried. At length,
in the year 1578, Frederic II. lent the famous navigator,
Magnus Henningfen, who, having encountered much danger
from ftornis and ice, and gained fight of land, was obliged to
return, probably on account of fome unfounded apprehenhons
which deterred him from proceeding farther. About two
years before this event, viz. iu 1576, queen Elizabeth lent out
Martin Frcbiflier to find a N. W. pafTage to China ; he dif-
covered land, which he Tumcd " meta incognita," and par-
ticularly the ftraits which bear his name ; and traded with the
Indians. On his return he brought with him a black ftone,
from which gold was extrafted. In the year 1578 he was
fent out again with a view of cftabhihing a colony in Green-
land, but he returned, after a ftormy paffage and feveral
difafters, with as much of the mineral earth or ore as he
could procure, and the defign was never profecuted. Fro-
bilher was followed, in the year 1585, by John Davis, who
failed as high as N. kt. 64 15', i. e. to Ball's river, where
he landed and tradtd with the natives. Then, and in the two
following years, he difcovered the coafts of America as high
X the 70th degree, and gave the ftraits his own name. In the
year '.605, Chriftian IV , king of Denmark, fent the Dan-
ifh admiral Godflie Lindenow, accompanied by John Knight,
an Englifii mariner, to reconnoitre the coafts of Greenland :
the inhaUTtarits on the weft fide were found to be much
wilder than thofe on the eaft fide, nor did they at all refemble
one another in their language, drefs, and manners. Voyages

3

of a fimilar nature were repeated, but no permanent advan-
tage refulted from them.

At length, in the year i7-?i,a pious clergyman of Norway,
Hans Egcdc, having long iamonted the wretched condition
of the Greenlanders, through the want of religious inftruc-
tion, as well as a variety of worldly comforts, and having
projefled, from the year 1708, fchemes for their relief, with-
out efteft, determined to relinquifti his church prelernicnt,
and to make a voyage to Greenland, with a view of accom-
plilhing his benevolent intentions. After having collefled a
capital of about 2000/., by various fubfcriptions, and ob-
tained from the king an appointment of miflionary, with the
yearly falary of 60/., befides a prclcnt of 40/. towards his
equipment, Mr. Egede placed himfclf at the head of a
colony of 40 perfons, and failed for Greenland. Thele ad-
venturers, having paffi^'d Statenhook, encountered many dan-
gers from ftorms and ice, happily landed at Ball's river,
N. lat. 64 , on an ifland near Kangek, wiiich they called
after the name of the Ihip in which they had failed, " Haa-
bats-Oe," i. e. Hope ifland. They were iiofpitably re-
ceived by the natives, and Mr. Egede took great pains, by
his condefcending Httention, and by the afliduity with which
he coraniuiiicatcd to them religious inftruction, to concihate
their friendly attachment. He alfo took great pains to ac-
quaint himfelf with the language of the country, and to dif-
cover the beft places for hunting and fiftiing, fo as moft
efTeftually to ferve the convenience of the colony. He made
repeated attempts for exploring the eaftern fide of the coun-
try, and for difcovering Frobillier's ftraits, but the wind and
ice rendered his efforts unfuccefsful. As a miflionary, he
difcharged the trull which he had undertaken with fingular
fidelity, diligence, and zeal, and having continued in this in-
hofpitablc region till the year i 736, he returned to Denmark
with a debilitated conllitutiun. He was loon after appoint-
ed fupcrintendent of the miffion in Greenland, with a falary
of 100/. per annum, and was ordered to found a fcminary of
Undents and orphans, w honi he was to inftrucf in the Green-
land language, and who were to fupply a fucceflion of miftion-
aries and catechills. He fpent his latter years in a recefs
with his daughter, en the ifland of Falllcr, and there clofed
his life of fervice and honour, November 5th, I 758, in the
73d year of his age. To him and to his fon, Paul Egede, we
are indebted for the moft ample and authentic account of
modern Greenland. Tlie example of Mr. Egede has been
fince foliowed by Several miflionaries, particularly from among
the Moravians, whofe principal fettlements were at Kangek,
New Hernihutli, and Lichtenfcls. From Mr. Egede we
learn that the moft practicable n^ethod of reaching the eaftern
part of Greenland \vd) be to coaft north about in fmall veflels,
between the great llakcs of ice and the Ihore ; the Green-
landers having always declared, that the currents, which
rjfli from the bays and inlets, and run fouth-weftward along
the fliore, hinder the ice from adhering to the land, fo that
there is always a channel open, through which veflels of
fmall burden may pafs, efpecially if lodges were built at
convenient diftances on the fhore, for the accommodation and
dire<ftion of the adventurers. The part of the country that
is now vifited by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between the
64th and 68th degrees of N. latitude, and fo far the climate
is found to be temperate. We are told, however, that the
country is inhabited as far as 76 ; but the Danifti and
Moravian fettlements are chiefly in the fouth-weft, though
at one time there appears to have been a faftory as far north
as 73".

In the fummer, from the end of May to the middle of
September, the weather is warm and comfortable, when the
wind blows from the eaft : though violent ftorms then occur,

and

GREENLAND.

and the fogs on the fea-coaft are infalubrious. The land near
the (liorc exhibits a pleafing verdure, but the inland moun-
tains are perpetually covered with ice and fnovv. Beyond the
68th degree of latitude the cold is %cry iiitenie, fo that the
rocks ottcB burlt by the froft ; and towards the end of
Auguft, the whole coafl; is covered with ice, which nevjr
thaws till April or Mav, and fomrtiuies not till the latter
end of June. The prodigious mafies of ice that furround
the whole coaft exhibit an appearance, in calm weather, no
lets dazzling than dreadful, by the refleftion of the fun-
\ beams in its variety of colours ; but when the wind blows
and the waves are lifted up in mountain billows, tliefe maffes
of ice dalhing againft one another otc ifion (liocks that
make the obferver tremble. Thunder and lightning fcldor.i
occur in Greenland, but the Aurora Borealis has frequent
and brilliant appearances. At the time of new and full
moon, the tide rifes and falls upon this cn.ift about three
fathoms, and the fprings and fountains on lliore rife and fall
with the flux and reflux of the ocean.

The foil of Greenland refembles that of other mountain-
ous countries, the hills being barren, and the vallies and low
grounds, efpecially near the fea, rich and fruitful. It is, for
the m-ift part, unfertile clay or fand. But whatever is faidof
the fertility of Greenland is applicable only to that part which
lies between the 6oth and 65th degrees of latitude. The mofl
northern parts are totally dellitute of herbs and plants. This
country is faid to have formerly produced a great number of
cattle, aud to have exported confiderable quantities of butter
and cheefe to Norway. Some parts of the country yielded
excellent wheat, and the oaks that grew in it were fo large as
to furnifli acorns as big as apples. In its prcfent ftate,however,
though fome oaks remain, and the traces of ploughed land
are perceivable, Greenland is dellitute both of corn and
cattle ; but its pafture is good, and if the foil were properly
cultivated, it would probably yield grain. It produces ex-
cellent turnips and coleworts. The fides of the mountains
near the bays are clothed with wild thyme, of powerful fra-
grance. The country abounds alfo with many other plants,
and among its fruits we may reckon juniper-berries, blue-
berries, bilberries, and bramble-berries.

The animals which are mofl: abundant, are rein-deer, dogs
refembling wolves, (fee Dog,) aritic foxes, and white or
polar bears. Hares of different colours are common, but they
are imaller than thofe of Denmark and Norway. The walrus,
and five kinds of feals, frequent the fliores. Here arc found
alio ravens in great numbers, eagles of a very large fize,
falcons, and other birds of prey, and likewife a linnet, which
warbles very melodioufly. Whales, fword-filh, porpoifes,
&c., abound on the coafts ; and alfo halybut, turbot, cod,
haddock. Sec. The fpecies of infefts exceed 90. The more
dubious animals, which are faid to inhabit thefe feas, are the
mermaids, fea-ferpents, and krakens. The polar bears, feals,
and manati, fays Pennant, (Arftic Zoology,) were origin-
ally natives of thefe countries. The other quadrupeds found
their way here from either Hudfon's bay or Labrador, on
the iflands of ice. The arctic fox found the lame kind of
..'onveyauce from Greenland to Iceland as it did with the
rein-deer to Spitzbergen. To the lall was wafted, probably
from Labrador, the common weafel, the red or common fox,
and the nioufe, which mifled Greenland, but Hocked Iceland ;
and the common bat, which was originally renipelt driven to
the latter from Norway ; the wolverene and varying hare
never reached fartlier than Greenland. Tliis, fays Pennant,
feems the progrefs of quadrupeds in the frigid /one, as high
if, land is found.

Greenland is thought to contain many mines of metal.
Tj the ioathward of the Daniih colonv arc foiiic appear-

ances of a mine of copper ; Mr. Egcde once received a lump
of ore from one of the natives, and here he found calamine
of a yellow colour. Crantz obferves, that the Iiighefl:
mountains of this country are on the weft fide, and the rocks
are full of clefts, commonly perpendicular, and feldom
wider than half a yard, filled with fpar, quartz, talc, and
garnets. The rocks are generally rather vertical or fomc-
what inclined, confii'ting of granite, with fome fand-ftone and
lapis olaris. Cra.'itz alfo mentions micaceous fchiilus, coarfe
marble, and fcrpentine ; with afbeftos and amianthus, cryf-
tals, and black fthorl. It is faid that fluate of argill, a new
fubfl:ancr, has been recently found in Greenland ; and this is
perhaps the foft tranfparent ftone of Crantz. The lapis
olarir, is of Angular utility in Greenland, and 'the north of
Am>-rica, as it is ufed for lamps and culinary utenfils.

The prefent inhabitants of the wefteru coaft of Green-
lind, and who are the defcer.dants of the ancient .Ski-a;llings,
whom we have already mentioned, and who exterminated the
Iceland colony, very much refemble the American Samoieds
and Laplanders in th::ir perfons, complexions, and way of
life. They are without doubt a branch of the Efquimaux of
Labrador, who fled that country, and peopled Greenland.
They are ftiort, brawny, and incUned to corpulency ; with
broad faces, flat nofes, thick lips, black hair and eyes, and
a yellowifli tawny complexion. They are for the moft part
vigorous and healtliy, but very fliort-lived, few reaching the
grand climatleric, and many dying in their infancy, and in
the prime of their youth. The fliarpr.efs of the wind, and
the glare of the fnow, render them fubjeci to a diforder of
the eyes. They are alfo afflitted with the leprofy ; and
thofe wlio inhabit tlie northern parts are miferably tor-
mented with dyienteries, rheums and pulmonary diforders,
boils, and epilcpfy. The fmall-pox in 1 734 made dreadful
havock among thefe people, who have no aid from medicine»
and who depend merely on their " Angekoks," or con-
jurers. Tlie Greenlanders, with regard to their conftitu-
tional temperament and difpofition, are cold, phlegmatic,
indolent, and dull of apprehenfion ; but quiet, orderly, and
good-humoured. They live peaceably together ; and have
every thing in common, without ftrife and animofity ; and te
ftrangers tliey are civil and hofpitable. They never wa(h
thcmfelves with water, but lick their paws like the cat, and
then rub their faces with th^'in. They eat after their dogs
without wafhing their difliis ; devour the hce which devour
them ; and even lick the fweat, which they fcrape off from
their faces with their knives. The women wafli theinfelves
with their own urine, under a notion that it makes their liair
to grow ; and in the winter-time immediately expofe them-
iclves to the air, that the liquor may freeze upon their fliin.
Ill their general habit and manner they are intolerablv
filthy. In times of fcarcity they fubfiil on pieces of old
fkin, reeds, fea-weed, and a root called " tugloronet,'"
drefled with train oil and fat. The dung of rein-deer taken
from the inteftines, the entrails of partridges, aitd all forts of
o.fals, are counted dainties among thefe lavages ; and of the
Icrapings of fea!-(kins they make delicate pancakes. The
D.'.nilh jjrovifions were at firll tafted by them with difgull
and abhorrence ; but they are now become fond of bread
and butter, though lliey ilill retain an averfion to tobacco
and fpirituous liquors. The Greenlanders in common con-
tciit themfelves with one wife, who is condemned to drud-
gery, and liable to be divorced at the pleafure of the hufljand.
Perlons of fuperior rank and qualities are, liowevi-r, indulged
with a plurality of wires. Their young women are generally
chafte aad baihful ; ncverthelefs, at fome of their feafts the
men retire with the wives of their neighbours for licentiout
amours. Tlieirfuperllitiouscuftomsarcinnumcrable;^ _f.T\'l«'i
<; B 2 a woman

GREENLAND.

a woman is in laliour, tlic polTips hold a cliambei-pot over
her head, as a charm to halleii the dohvery ; ami wlicii a
child is a year old, the mother licks and (labhers it all over,
to render it, as !he imagines, more flrong and hardy. Their
cU)aths are made of the (kins of rein-deer, feals, and birds.
The, men wear tlieir hair fhort, commonly hanpjing down
from tlie crown of th.'irhcad on every fide, and fquared oif
at their foreheads. Some cnt it off as liigh as their poll. But
it would be a reproach to a woman to cut oft" hev hair,
which is never done except in cafes' of the deepeit mourning,
or if they rcfolve never to marry. All the Greenlanders
fpeak the fame language, though different dialefts prevail
in -different parts of the country. Some few words are pro-
bably the relics of the old Norwegian ; but thefe excepted,
their language fccms to have no alTiiiity in etymology, de-
clenfion, or hgnification, with any of the Northern, Tarta-
rian, or Indian languages, as far as they are known to us ;
but we mufl except the language of the Efcpiimaux in La-
brador, who fee m, as we have already laid, to be one people
with the Greenlanders. Their great number of polyf\-llables,
and of repeatedly combined wm-ds, make their language very
intricate. Nevtrthtlefs, it abounds fo much witli words,
that the Greenlander.<;, like the Chinefe Tartars, have a
proper word for every objeCl or art that reqi'.ires the leaft
dil'cinclion. Befides, their words are varied and declined
vith fucli diffei-ent modifici.tious, yet accorduig to a fixed
rule with few exceptions, : nd are attended with prefixes and
fuflixes, far more than the Hebrew, that tlie language is not
onlv graceful, but plain and unequivocal. Moreover, they
join many words together, as we have already laid, like the
North Americans, fo that they can exprefs themfelves very
concilely and yet lignificantly. Some of our letters are
wanting in tlieir language, and they never begin a word with
B, D, F, G, L, 11, or Z. They feldom join many con-
fonants together, and never at the beginning of a fyllable.
The accent, upon which much depends, muil be laid upon
the proper fylhible, commonly tlie lall ; and the Green-
landers, efpccially the women, accompany manv words, not
only with a particidar accent, but with a certain iVgnihcaiit
nfpecl, which is iiccefuiry to be regarded in order to afcertain
their meaning. They have but fev.- adjedtives, and thefe are
motlly participles ; they are placed after the fubllantive,
which always begins the fenteiiee. Subllantives, as well as
verbs, Iiave fmgular, dual, and plural numbers, but no gen-
ders, and I hey want no article. The dual and plural are
formed according to the different termination of the word,
with few exceptions. Tlie declcnfions are eafy ; the geni
live has at the Cf;d a b, or if a vowel follows, an ih, either
by addition or cliange ; and the rell of the cafes have a pre-
poiltion affixed to them. Tiie jironouns are not placed be-
fore the word, but one or two of its letters are attached to
it at the end, and in diilVrent ways according to tlie different
numbers. They have only five prepolitlons, which are not
fet before tlie nouns, as in other languages, but at the end,
and again are varied in declining, 'i'iie verbs have been
divided into five conjugations, according to their termina-
tions. They have three tenfes, theprefent, preterpcrfect, and
future; and they have fix moods, tlie indicative, imperative,
permiffive, coniuactive, and infinitive. The Greenlanders
liave no verbs deponent nor palfive, but the latter are formed
from the active by fome adjunction. They have feveral
claffes of adverbs, like other nations ; but their numerals a'-e
few, fo that they can fcarcely count five ; but in order to
arrive at 20, they count the lingers of both hands and the
toes of both feet. If they want to proceed farther, they
begin iigain with their fingers and toes. Tliey tack their
conjunctions to the end of a word, as the Latins do their

que ; and they do not want interjections. Their fyntax is
fimple and natural ; the capital word Hands in the front,
and the rell follow in order according to their importance.
Tlieir ftvleor modeof fpeakingisnotat all hyperbolical, pom-
pous, or bombafl, like that of the orientals, but limple and
natural ; yet they are fond of fimilitudes and metaphors.
Tlieir poetry has neither rhyme nor nieafure ; but it confills
of (liort periods ; which, however, are lung to a certain time
and cadence.

The Greenlanders h.avc no traditions of the moll memo-
rable events of their anccftors in heroic fongs, as other nations
have, \vlio poffefs no written records. All they can fay of
their progenitors is, that they were brave leal-catchers,
and that they killed the old Norwegians. Yet in their fatiri-
cal fongs, to which they arc much addicted, they are more
acute. They are well verl'ed in genealogy, and can often
trace their pedigree as far back as ten of their progenitors,
together with all the collateral branches. Then- iraperfeCt
aiithmctic we have already noticed. Of writing tliey have
no conception. On their firll acquaintance with Euro-
peans, tliey were frightened by ipeaking paper. In cliro-
nologv, they reckon their years by winters, and tlieir days
bv nights. Thev are not learned enough to fix tlie equi-
noxes, but they can guefs at the winter folilice, within a
few days by the fun-beams upon the rocks ; and then they
celebrate their new year by a fun-feafl. From hence they
reckon three full moons to the fpring, and then they move
from their winter houfes into tents. In the fourth moon,
;. e. in April, they know that the fmall birds make tiieir ap-
pearance, and the ravens lay eggs. In the fifth their
angmarfet, and the feals with their young ones give joy to their
coalls bv their revolutionary vifit. In the fixth the eider-fowls
breed. When they lofe the moon in the bright funimer nights,
they carry on their calendar partly by the growth of eider-
fowls, and lize and Ihape of the feals, and partly by the
flilning of the fun on the dial of the rocks and mountains;
fo that thev exactly tell when the feals, fiflies, and birds will
arrive in flocks and flioals here and there, and w hen it is time
to repair to the winter-houfes, in which they generally lliel-
ter themfelves foon after Michaelmas. They divide the day
according to the ebb and flood, and the night by the rifiiig
and fetting of certain flars. They think the globe of the
earth Hands upon polls, which are fo rotten with age, that
they often crack ; and that they would have funk long ago,
if they had not been kept in conllant repair by the Angc-
koks, who foinetimes bring back a piece of rotten wood as
an evidence of their important ferviee. Their allronomy
makes the firmament to rell on a lofty pointed hill in the
north, and on that centre it performs its revolulions. But
this fpccimen is fufficient. \Vheii it thunders, two women
are flretching and flapping a dried feal-lkin, and the thunder
is oceafioned by that rattle. The ir.yltery of the Aurora
Borealls is unravelled by the fouls of the dead frllking at a
dance or a foot-ball. The rains arc the overflowings of the
celellial refervoirs ; and if the banks flitiuld brealv, the Ikv
would fall down. Such is their meteorology ! In m.edicine
and forgery they are no lels ignorant than in the other
fciences.

When a Greeiilander is in the conflicts of death, they ar-
ray him in his bell cloaths and boots, and bend his legs up
to his hips, i^robably that his grave may be the fhorter.
After death, they filently bewail him for a fliort hour, and
next jM-epare for his burial. Tlie corpf'e, being wrapped and
fewed up lu the man's bell feal or deer-lkin, is laid in the
burying place, covered with a flvin, and alfo with fome green
fods, and finally with heaps of great broad flones to keep off
the birds and foxes. Near the burying fpot they depofit

I lie

GREENLAND.

tlie kajak and d;ii-ls of the departed, and tlie tools In- daily
iifc-d; or if the deceafed was a woman, lier knife and fewing
implements, that thev might not be defiled by them, or for-
row too much on their account, or becaufe they ilioidd want
them in another world. After the interment, thofe who at-
tended the proeelTion, betake themfelves to the hoiife of
mourning : then the men lit fdeiit for fome time with tlicir
ilbows leaning upon their knees, and their heads between
their hands ; while the women lie prollrate upon their faces
on the ground, and foftly weep and fob. Then the iiearefl
relation pronounces an eulogy, recitiiig the good qualities of
the decealed, and at every period d^'plering his lofs with
loud crying and weeping. After tliis mournfid dittv, the
women continue their lamentations in a tremendous houd.
This kind of mourning is continued for a week or a fort-
night. The howling is after intervals renewed, and pro-
longed for fome weeks, and in fome cafes for a whole
year.

■ As for tlie religion, or rather the fuperftition of the an-
cient Greenlandtrs, they are reported to be fuch grofs ido-
laters as to winihip the fun, and facrlfiee to the devil, that
lie might forward, or at leaft not hinder, their hunting and
fifhing. The firft milfionaries, however, conceived that the
Oreenlanders had no kind of religion or idolatrous worfliip ;
and that there was Ovot any obfcrvable trace of their enter-
taining any conception of a Divine Being. Others, however,
have thought, with greater reafon, tliat a faint idea of the
Divine Being lay concealed in the minds of thefe people,
becaufe they direclly aflented without anv objection to the
doclrine of God and his attributes. Among the Grecnland-
crs, different opinions are entertained concerning the foul of
man ; lome fuppohng that it is material or corporeal, and
others that it is a fpiritual eflence, different from the body,
and all material iubilances, and capable of furviving after
death. They feem to liave fome confufcd and indiilinft no-
tions of a future Hate ; of the place v.'hich is to be the final
abode of good men ; and of the nature of their reward.
Tlie moil ilupid Greenlanders, it is faid, conceive a horror
at the thouglits of the entire annihilation of the foul. They
place their hell in the fubterraneous regions, which are de-
void of light and heat, and filled with perpetual terror and
anxiety. The Greenlanders fpeak of other fuperior and in-
ferior fpirits, befides the foul of man, wh.ich bear fome re-
femblance to the major and minor gods of the ancient hea-
thens. Of the firll rank there are only two ; a good fpirit
and a bad one. Befides the great fpirits to an audience
with whom an Angekok only can be admitted, ih.ere are
other leffer Ipirits in all the elements.

The Greenlanders believe in ajjparitions, of the ghofls of
the deceafed. The " .Angekoks'' are their forcerers or di-
viner.^, to whom peculiar privileges and honours belong.
Although the Greenlanders have neither religion nor govern-
ment, thev are free from many of the grouer vices, which
may be found among perfons much more enlightened than
themfelves.

The traffic of t!ie Greenlanders is very fir.iple and coneife,
and is carried on altogether by barter. They very rarely
cheat, or take the advantage of one another, much lefs fteal,
which they reckon infamous; but thev glory in over-reach-
ing, or robbing an European, bccaule they think it is a
proof of their fuperior wit and ingenuity. Their trafHc is
carried on partly among themfeives, and partly with faiftors
and feamen. AVlierever there is a great afleubly, or rendez-
vous of Greenlanders, as at a dancing maleli, or the tun-
feaft in winter, there are alw ays fome that expofe their wares
to view, and announce publicly what goods they want in
e.'icliange. As thofe in the foulh have no w hales, and thofe

in the iiortli no wood, many boats of the Greenlanders coaft
every fummer out of the fonth, and even from the call fide
of the land, and j)roceed from two to four hundred leagues,
as far as Difko, with their kajaks and women's boats, and
the tackle and implements belonging to them, and barter
wood for the horns of the unicorn lilh, teeth, bones, wlialc-
bones, and whale's finews, and part of thefe they truck on
their return iiome. In thefe voyages they take with them
their whole family and lubilance ; and fometimes form a
new fettlement in the co'.:ifeof their vovage. Tlie Green-
landers vend their fox and feal-ll<ins, and cfpeciallv their
blubber, to agents or factors, and receive in return iron points
for tlieir darts, knives, lock-faws, gimblets, cliiffels, and few-
ing needles ; alfo, ilriped linen and cotton, kerfcys, woollen
ilockings and caps, handkerchiefs, cheds or boxes, wooden
dilhes, pewter plates^ copper kettles, looking-glalTes, combs,
ribbons, and all forts of toys for children. Thev arc fondelt
of buying fnuff, alfo guns, powder, and (hot ; tobacco,
wliich they ufe only as fnuff, ferves inilead of fmall monev
with them. Indeed, they expeft a little tobacco for every
fervice they jierform.

The aflembly for dancing, and the fun-feaft above-men-
tioned, are not religious acts or ceremonies, but mere fports
and amufements. The fnn-feafl is kept at the winter folf-
tice, to rejoice at the return of the fun, and the renev.al of
good hunting and fifiiing weather. For this purpofe tliey
affemble all over the country in large parties, and treat one
another in the bed manner they are able. When they have
gorged themfelves with food, they rife up to play and to
dance. The means of intoxication they do not poffefs, and
drink only water. Their only mufical iiiflrumcnt is the
drum, which is beaten to common mufical time. The mufic
and dancing are accompanied with a fong in honour of feal-
catching, and fuch kinds of exploits ; tlie performer extols
the noble deeds of his ancellurs, and expreffes his joy at the
return of the fun in the hemifphere. Every flanza of his
ode is accompanied by the auditory. The following is a
fpecimen of a coinplete cantata ; the fecond and fourth lines
exprefling the ciiorus :

" The welcome fun returns again,
Amna ajah, ajah, ali-hu !
And brings us weather line and fair,
Amna ajah, ajah, ah-hu !'

Such dancing meetings are appointed at other feafons of
the year, when they have leifure to attend them. It is
fomewhat fmgnlar, and deferves mention, that thev decide
their quarrels by linging and dancing, and they call this a
" Singing Combat.' A Greenlander, who conceives him-
felf iniuied, compofes a fatirical poem, and repeats it fo
often with finging and dancing, till his domellics, and par-
ticularly the women, are able to remember it. He then
publiftes a challenge that he will fight a duel with his iinta-
gonift, not with a fword but with a fong.

The relpondent ajipears in the appointed place; when the
accufer begins to pronounce his fatire to the beat of the
drum, and his party join with repeating ■' Amna ajah,"
which occaiions laughter among the attendants.

The defendant then retorts in the fame manner, and the
laugh changes fides ; the plaintiff again renews the fame
kind of allault. The whole body of attendants conilitute
th.e jury, and confer the laurel on the viclor, and afterwards
the two contending p;;rties are the bell friends.

The Greenlanders are employed through the whole year

in fifliing or hunting. At fea they purfue whales, morfer,

feals, lilk for food, and fea-fowl. On lliore they hunt the

reiii-decr in different parts of the country. And they have

5 methods

GREENLAND.

methods peculiar to themfelves, and correfponding inipkv
mcnts, for accomplifhing their objeds both by fea and land ;
whicli we Ihall not here defcribe. The Greenland canoe, or
«' kaiak,'' like tliat in Nova Zenibla and Hudfon's bay, is
about three fathoms in length, pointed at both ends, and
i of a yard in breadth. It is conftriifted of thin rafts
faftened together with the finews of animals, and covered
with dreffcd'fcal-flcin, both above and below, fo that only a
circular hole is left in the middle, large enough to admit the
body of one man. Into thi.i the Greenlander thrufts himfelf
up to the waill, and fallens the fldn fo tight about him that
no water can enter. Thus fecured, and armed \yitli a paddle
broad at both ends, he ventures out to fca in the inoic
ftorniy weather to catch feah and fea-fowl ; and if he is
overfet, he can eafily raife himftlf by means of his paddle.
The "kone-boat'' is made of the fame materials, but more
durable ; and fo large, that it will contain 50 perfons with
all their tackle, baggage, and provifions. It is fitted with
a mall, which carries a trianguLir fail made of the mem-
branes and entrails of feals, and is managed without the help
of braces and bowlines. Thefe kones are flat-bottomed,
and fomctinics 6c< feet in length. They are left to the con.
dutl of the women, who are obliged to do all the drudgery,
including even the building and repairing of their houfes,
while the men ai-e wholly employed in preparing their hunt-
ing implements and iilhing-tackle.

Greenland is a country very thinly inhabited. In winter
they live in houfes and in fummer in ten's. The houfes are
conllrudled of Hones, on a lleep rock, with layers of earth
and fods between them. On thefe walls they rell the beam,
or connetted beams, for the length of the houfe, being from
4 to 12 fathom ; and over thefe they lay the rafters, with
fmall wood between them ; the whole is covered with bil-
berry-bulhes, and then with turf, with line earth on the top.
Their houfes have neither door nor chimney ; the ufe of both
being fnpplied by a vaulted paffage made of Hone and earth,
entering through the middle of the houfe. The walls are
hung on the infide with old worn tent and boat fkins,
faftened with nails made of the ribs of feals ; and the roof
is covered with them on the outfide. In tlieie huts, fo coii-
ftrufted, they are guarded from wind, dair.p, and cold.
The floor is divided into feveral apartments, fepaiated by
fkins, according to the number of families for which it is
deligned. On thefe floors they lleep on pelts ; and they
commonly flt in them all day long, the women cooking and
fewing, and the men carving their tackle and tools On
the front wall of th<; houfe are feveral fquare windows, about
two feet in fi/.c, made of fealV guts and halibut's maws, and
fewed fo neat and tight, that the wind and Inow are kept
out, and the light let In. Thefe huts are v.ell warmed with
fires, and lighted by means of lamps filled with train oil,
and furnilhtJ with mofs iiiilead of a wick, which burns fo
brifht that the houfe is both lighted and warmed by it.
Over the lamp is fufpended a bailard-marble kettle, in which
they boil all their meat ; and over this again is a wooden
rack, on which they lay their wet cloaths and boots to dry.
On the outfide of liieir dwelllng-houfe they have their little
ilore-houfes, in whicli they lay up their little flock of fltfli,
fifh, train oil, and dried herrings ; and dole by their flore-
houfes they lay their boais, with their bottoms upwards,
under which they hang their hunting and lilhing tackle and
their fl<ins Their fummer tents are made with poles, put
together in a conical form, covered on the inlide with rein-
deer fliins, and on the outtides with fcal-fl<ins, doubled, or
fo dreffed that the rain cannot penetrate them. Cranlz's
liiftory of Greenland, vol. i.

GreBNLAND, £■«/?» or Spitjbergen, was formerly con-

fidered as part of the continent of Well Greenland, but ft
is now known to be a colle6tion or group of iflands, varying
in their extent, and lying between 76 46 N. lat. the lati-
tude of the South Cape, and 80'^ 30', the northerninoil
point of the Seven iflands, and bctvi'cen 9 ' and 23 E. long.
Sir Hugh Willougliby, who lirfl; difcovered land in this
hitrh northern latitude, A. D. I553> called it Crocniand ;
conceiving it to be part of the weltern continent. It was
afterwards vifited, A. D. IJ95, by William Barcntz and
John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who claimed the honour
of the firft difcovery, and called the country '• Spitfbergen,''
or fharp mountains from the numerous Iharp pointed aiid
rocky mountains which they obferved in it ; and in order
to afcertain their own claims, they pretended that this «-ar,
not the country difcovered by fir Hugh Willougliby, which
ill the maps and charts delineated by the Hollanders was
denominated " Willougliby land,'' though no fuch land
ever exifted. It is moreover faid, that before the voyage
of thefe Dutchm.en, an Enghlh navigator, wliofe name was
Stephen Burrows, had coailed along a defolate country
frora 78° to 8c" 11' N. lat. which mull have been Spitlber-
geii. This country was alfo vifited at different times by
navigators, who were employed in exploring a paffage to
the Eafl: Indies by the north-pole ; a project which was
fuggefted and ftrongly recommended by Robert Thorne,
a merchant of Briflol, as early as the year 1527. Bourne,
in his " Regiment of the Sea," written about the year 1577,
mentions this as one of the live ways to Cathay, and leenis
to admit the prafticabiiity of it from a miflaken notion of the
mildnefs of the climate near the pole, ow ing to the conflant
prefence of the fun during the fummer. In 1607, a voyage
was propofed by fome London merchants, for the difcovery
of a paffage by the north pole to Japan and China, and it
w-as undertaken by Henry Hudfon, who i'ell in with land to
the wcllward in 73 N. lat.; and foon after he fell in with
Spitfbergen, where he met with much ice ; and this navi-
gator advanced to the latitude of 80 23'; but he was pre-
vented from proceeding farther by the ice. In 1609, Jonas
Poole was appointed by the Mufcovy company on the fame
fervice ; and he with mucii difficulty made the fouth part of
Spitfbergen, afterwar-ds failing along and founding the coaft,
giving names to feveral places, and making many very ac-
curate obfervations. Having twice attempted in vain to
get beyond 79 50', he was obliged to i-elinquifli his objeft
and to return home. A fccoiul attempt in the following
year was equally unfuccefsful. In the year 1614, another
voyage was undertaken, in which Baffin and Fotherby were
employed ; and Fotherby made a fecond attempt in tVe
following year ; but their progrefs was obllrudled by the
ice. This country and the adjoining feas have fince been
frequently reforted to by fliips employed in the whale
fifhery ; but its fituation was never accurately afcertaincd
till captain Phipps (now lord Malgrave) undertook a voyage
by order of his majcfly George III. in the year 1773. -He
found that the land, which was formerly fuppofed to extend
as far as 83° N. lat., terminated with the " Seven iflands,"
the mofl northerly point of which does not exceed 80 30'
N. lat. He obferved other lands lying eaftward at a con-
fiderable diflance ; but Spitfbergen was found to be cncom-
paffed by water and in no part of it to be contiguous to the
continent ofAfia. He explored, with a degree of refolu-
tion and perfeverance that did honour to himfelf and his
afTociates in this expedition, the northern and weflern coafls,
though he was prevented by the ice from advancing fo far
northwards as he wiflicd ; and he af(?ertained by accurate
obfervation the longitudes and latitudes of feveral points,
capes, and bays, which he vifited. On liis approach to the

land

G R E

land he jiickcd up a piece of drift wood, wliich was found
to be fir, and not worm-eaten ; and upon Handing clofe in
with the land, the coall appeared to be neither habitable
nor acccfTible ; it was formed by high, barren, black rocks,
without the lead marks of veg^nation ; in many places bare
and pointed, in otiier parts covered with fnow, appearing
even above the clouds ; the vallies betwei.n tiie high hills
were filled v>ilh fnow or ice. " Thii profpeft," he fay6, in
his " Journal/' printed in 1774, " would have fuggelled
the idea of perpetual winter^ had not the mildnefs of the
weather, the fmooth water, bright fun-fltine, and conllant
day-light, given a chearfulnefs and novelty to the whole of
this (Inking and romantic fcene." The current on this
coaft was found, both bv the common and Bouguer's log,
to run north half a knot an hour. The height of one moun-
tain, above the level of the fea, was found by meafurement
with the megameter, to be 15,035 feet, but by M. de Luc's
calculation from obfcrvations with the barometer it was
found to be 158S.;.

Among the harbours in which captain Phipps anchored,
we may mention a fmall bay to the fonthivard of Magdalena
Hook and liamburgher s bay ; the former in N. lat. jg'
34', the fame as Fotherby obferved it to be in 1614: the
high-water in this bay full and change at half an hour pad
one, or with a S.S.W. moon, which agrees exaelly with
Baffin's obfervation in 1 61 3, the flood coming from the
fouthward. Another anchoring place was Vogel Sang, N.
lat. 79 50'. E. long. 19 2 30''; the north eailernmoft
point being the Clokfcn cliff, 79 53'. E. long. 9 59 30",
a bare rock fo called from tne refembLnce of its top to a
cloven hoof, which appearance it has always exhibited,
having been fo named by fome of the firil Dutch iiavigators
who frequented th-fe feas. It is alio nearly perpendicular,
fo that 11 is never difguiled by l.iow, and on thole accounts
it is one of the moll remarkable points on the coaft. The
fouthernmoll land is an !,igh bluff point, called by the Dutch
Vogel Sang. This found, though open to the northward,
is not liable to any inconvenience from that circumftance,
the main body of ice lying fo near as to prevent ai.y great
fea ; nor are (hips in any d.uiger from the loofe ice fetting
in, as this road communicates with fcveral others formed by
different iflar.ds, between all which there are lafe pafTagcS.
To all the fv^unds and harbours formed by this knot of illands
the old Englifn navigators had given the general name of
Fair Haven, of which Fotherby took a plat m 1614. In this
filuation Hackluyt's Head-la>id was found to be in N. lat.
79'^ 47'. E. loUjT. 9 11' 50''. The tide rofe about four
feet, and flowed at h;df a:i hour after one, full and change.
The harbour of Smeerenberg, diltant about 1 1 miles, N.
lat. 79" 44'. E. long g'^ 50' 45", has good anchorage in 13
fathom, laiidy bottom, not far from the iiiore ; and it is
\yell fhell-.ed from all winds. The i'land clofe to the place
where our navigators lay is called Aniflerdam ifland, the
wellerumolt point of which isKacklnyt's Head-land; here t!ie
Dutch formerly ufed to boil their whale-oil, and the remains
of forae conveniences erecled by them for that purpole are
Itili vihble. They once attempted to make an eftabliihment,
and left lonie people to winter here, who all pori;hed.
Nevcrtiielefs, as they fcem to have died not through the
jntenfity of the cold, but in confequence of bei-.ig attacked by
the fcurvy, and as others, both Engl.fli and Ruffian failors,
have wintered here, a colony might be fettled in this conn-
try, if fuch an eilabli.hment were likely to anfwtr any good
purpofe. The Dutch (hips (lill refort to this place for the
latter feafon of the whale fiihery. The (lone fonud in this
country was chiefly a kind of marble, which diffolved eaiily
in the marine acid. But our navigators perceived no marks

G R E

of minerals •f any kind, nor the lead appearance of prefent,
or remains of former volcanos. Neither did they meet with
infeds or any fpecies of reptiles ; not even the common earth-
worm. They faw no fprings, or rivers; the water, wliichwas
found in great plenty, being altogether produced by the
melting of tiic fnow from the mountains. During their (lay
in ihefe latitudes, they had no thunder or hghtning. The
(ley was in genf-ral loaded with hard white clouds ; fo tliat
neither the lun nor the horiion was wholly free from them
even in the cleared weather. They could always perceive
when they approached the ice, long before they faw it, by
a light appearance near the horizon, which the pilots called
the '• blink of the ice." (See Bx.i.nk.) One of the mod
remarkable phenomena which this country exliibiled was the
" iccb;"rg." (S:e Iceberg ) Of the animals and plants
of Spitzbergen, captain Phipps has given an account in the
appendix to his Journal. The animab are the ardtic walrus,
the common ftal, the aiftic fox, the polar bear, the rein-
deer, the common whale, the fin tilh ; and the birds the
eider-duck, the pufhn, the alca alle, the fulmar, the co-
lynibus grylle and troile, th.e northern diver, the larus riffa,.
arClic gull, and larus eburneus, the greater tern, the greater
brambling, the fca-fnail, the coal-fifli, the prawn, the
cancer-boreas, or lingular fpecies of crab, and cancer nujax,
not before defcribcd, and alfo cancer ampulla, and cancer
puiex ; feveral fpecies of vermes, and diell-fiih. Among the
plants are a fmall fpecies of agroflis, feveral fpecies of faxi-
fraga, of bryum, of cochlearia, and of fichen.

Greenland, a town of America, in Rockingham county.
New Hampfhire, near the fea, five miles foutherly from
Portfmouth, incorporated in 17 1 3, and containing 548 in-
habitants.

Green'LA\d Fi/lerv. See IViah Fisherv.

Gkeexland Company. A joint dock of 40,00c/. was
by ftatiite to be raifed by fubfcribers, who were incorpo-
rated for fourteen years from the fird of Cftober 1693,
and the company to ufe the trade of catching whales, &c.
into and from Greenland, and the Greenland feas ; thev
may make bye-Iav.s for government, and of the perfon's
em.ployed in their (hips, &c. (Stat. 4 and 5 W. III. cap.
17.) This company was farther cncoiu-agtd by parliament
in 1696; but partly by unfkilful management, and partly
by real lofRs, it was under a necefiity of entirely breaking
up, before the expiration of the term afiigned to it, ending
in 1707. But any perlon who will adventure to Greenland
for whalc-fiftiing, (hall have all privileges granted to the
Greenland company, by I Anne, cap. 16. and thus the
trade was again laid open. Any fubJfCls may import whale-
fins, oil, &c. of fifh caught in the Greenland feas, without
paying any culloms, S:c. llat. 10 Geo. I. cap. 16. And
(hips employed in the Greenland lilhery are to he of fuch
burden, provided with boats, fo many men, filhing-lincs,
harping-irons, &c. and be licenfed to proceed; and on
their return fliall be paid 20s. per ton bounty, for whale-
tina. Sec. imported. 6 Geo. II. cap. 33. See Wbale-

FlSHERV.

GREENLAW, in G.ography, a town of Scotland,
which, though the county-town of Berwickfhirc, is an incou-
fiderable place, pleafantly (ituatcd in a plain, bathed by the
Blackader or Blackaddi-r. The acclivities of the ucigh.
bouring eminences are tolerably ciJtivatcd. In its vicinity,
about midway between Greenlaw and Keifo, en a rifing
ground, is Henie cadle, which commands a view of the
greated part of the Merfe and Roxburghlhire, and was cele-
brated during the contentions on the border. It was a noted
place of defence, often befieged by the Enghlh, and denio-

lilhed

GREENOCK.

eivliLT
can be had
iiler exten-

liflicd by Cromvvell. It is diftant .^7 miles S.E. from Edin-
burgh, and contains 1270 inlmbitaius.

GREENOCK, the principal lea-port town on tl)C iu-tli
of Clvde, llti.ated on the fonth bank of the river, abont
21 m'iles below the city of Glafgow. The town of
Greenock, is pretty well fituatod for commercial purpoles,
but in other refpeAs it is neither pleafant nor io circum-
. anced as to afford the profpcft of any great mcreale eitlier
of extent or population. Indeed th.e great numDer of young
men, who, from habits of imitation as in other fea port
towns, early attach theml'elves to a feafaring life, mull pre-
fent of itfelf a great obllacle to the latter. The town ot
Greenock is held under and is entirely furrounded by the
lands of fir .John Stewart of Blackball, bart., who is feudal
fupcrior, and no purchafe or accpiifitioii of ground,
fcr the purpofes of extcnfion or improvement, c
from any other pcrfon. This mull of itfelf reiu!
fion a matter of more dilBcult)- than where there are many
landed proprietors, the lands of fome of whom, from the
common cafualties and viciffitudes of human affairs, mull
be occafionally in the market.

The harbour of Greenock is divided into two compart-
ments, and is entirely furrounded by well-built and commo-
dious quays of freeftone. The entrance is narrow, and in
the centre oppofite to the end of the mid quay, which ferves
as the divifion of the harbours. The eallern harbour is
Ihallow, and is therefore mollly freciuented by coafting
vefl'els, herring bulfes, filhing boats, and other fmall craft.
The well harbour, being conliderably deeper, is the general
refort of Weft Indiamen, American traders, and other
veifels of greater burthen. In the well harbour is a very
capital dry or graving dock, with Hood gates to exclude the
water, and capable of containing two large fliips at the lame
time. It has been long in contemplation to improve the
harbolir of Greenock by the ereftion of wet docks, fimilar
to thofe of London, Liverpool, Hull, and Leith, but pro

and with Ireland, and thccxtcnfive herring fidierj-, lias raifed
Greenock to a high rank among the commercial ports of
Fn-itaiii, and has been producf ive of the acquiiition of fplen-
did fortunes to many of the principal inh;ibitants. As
Greenock is not the feat of any llaplc manufadory, this
carrying trade is her chief, and indeed may be fairly called
her only fupport. During the American war, when the
carrying trade was entirely fufpended in fome channels, and
greatly impeded in all the otliers, a number of (hip-owners
iittcd out their veifels as privateers, but in general tliefe fpe-
culations were not productive of gain to the adsenturers,
and in fome inftances with ferious lofs. In the recent wars
no attempts at privateering have been made.

The town of Greenock is governed by two magill rates,
elefted annually, and a council ; befides whom, the baron
baillie, nominated by the fuperior, alfo pofreffes a jurifdic-
tion. The flierifl court of the county of Renfrew is held
at Paidey, to which the inhabitants of Greenock are ame-
nable, the fame as the rell of the county.

In the external appearance of Greenock there is little
elegance or fplendour to be feen. In the centre of the town
there is a fmall fquare, immediately fronting the mid-quay,
which divides the harbour. In this fquare is a very hand-
fome church of modern arcliitefture. The other buildings
are the inns, of which the chief, recently built upon a ton-
tine fcheme, like that of Glalgow, is a very fpacious, and
even fpleudid houfe. There is alio a fmall neat theatre, the
private property nf Mr. Steplicn Kemble, the manager, and
fome dancing-halls for the occalional recreation of the in-
habitants and ftrangers, of whom, from the maritime fitua-
tion, there is, at certain feafons, particularly at the arrivals
of the Weil India fleets, a confidcrablc influx.

The fcenery ofthe Clyde around Greenock is pifturefque
and fublime. The river is about feven miles broad to the
oppofite fliorc, where the village of Eleleiifburg is crefted upon
the property of fir James Colquhoun ot Lufs, bart. This

bably from the difficulty of engaging the joint content village is built in a very pleafant fituation, upon a fine bay,
of the numerous interefts concerned, and other caufes, formed by two projefting promontories, viz. by tiic hill of
no fteps have been hitherto taken for carrying this Ardmore, on the call, and by Rofeneath, the property, and
fcheme into effedl. The principal deficiency of the harbour one of the fpleudid refidences of the duke of Argyle, on
of Greenock, exclufive of the fliips bottoms taking the the weft. Beyond this, to the weflward, appear the lower-
ground every ebb tide, arifes from want of water, there ing mountains of Argylelliire, between which is the vaft arm
beino- never more than feventeen or eighteen feet in the bar- ••■'<■ t 'i ,-,■ . . r ■, • 1 .1
bour, even at fpring tides. Hence large veffels are obliged
to difcharge part of their cargoes into lighters in the roads

before they can come into the harbour at all. This is of
lefs confequence where the cargo is to be brought to Glaf-
gow, if the weather be mild, but it is very inconvenient and
expenfive when the cargo is to be landed, and when the
weather is boifterous. The whole rife of the tide at
Greenock is only about twelve feet, whereas at Liverpool
it is thirty-fix and at Brillol forty-two. This alfo forms an
additional difadvantage to the harbour of Greenock, and
prefents a very great obllacle to every plan of artificial im-
provement. ^Vith all thefe difadvantages, however, it has
many advantages over the neighbouring harbour of port
Claf<i"ow, fituated about three miles farther up the river.
The chief obftacle to veffels of great burtiien making any
of thefe ports, is an immenfe bank of land, accumulated
for many ages in tliis embouchure of the Clyde by the current
of the river, and which is fenfibly thougli flowly increalmg.
indeed nearly oppofite to port Glafgow, this bank is en-
tirely uncovered for miles at low water. Notwithflanding
thefe natural difadvantages, the favourable fituation of tli

of the fea, Lochlong, which is twenty-four miles in length,
and in fome places faid to be unfathomably deep. About
two miles to the weft is a fmall village, called Gourock,
fituated on a very fine deep bay, well fhcltered by projeft-
ing head-lands, w'itli a very good bottom for anchorage. It
is the opinion of moll profefTional men, whether engineers
or feameu, that this fituation affords by far the greatefl
number of natural advantages for a large and commodious
fea-port upon the Clyde ; and it is almofl fingular that
Greenock fliould liave rifen to its prefeut commercial im-
portance, whilfl Gourock, fituated within lefs than two
miles, and pofleffing every fuperiority of phyfical ad>'antage,
fhould have remained an iiifi.gnificant village. However
this may iiave originated, too much capital has now been
expended upon Greenock and Port Glnfgow, to leave the
fmallell room to fuppofe that they will be in any refpedl
rivalled by a village which poffeffcs nothing but natural
fituation to recommend it. On the road from Greenock
to Gourock are many vtry fine villas, belonging to the
opulent merchants of Greenock. At both Greenock and
Gourock are extenfivc rope-works, belonging to the fame
company of proprietors. A little below Gourock is the

Clyde for maritime intercourfe with every part of the Clough'light-iioufe, a very high and well-built tower, lighted
wellern hemifphere and the fouth of Europe, the great by refledtors, fen- the fafety of vefiels coming up, or going
coafting trade with the weftern parts of England and Wales, down the channel during the night. Some lujles below

this

G R E

this is the iiland of Bute, belonging cliicflv to iKc noWcninn
to wh-jm it gives tlie title ot marquis. I5ute is about feveti
miles long, nnd generally level and fertile. Moiiiit-llewart-
caltle, tlie refulence of the noble proprietor, is lituattd near
the middle of the iflaikl, ok the foiith Tide, and is a fuperb
!ind d.li'^htful place. Of the other proprietors, lord 15an-
natine, one of the Seottilh judges, is the mofl confpicuous.
Tlie chief, and, indeed, ahnult only town on tite i(land, is
Rothfay, from which his royal highnels the prince of Wales
derives one of his Scottiili titles, is a handfomc, clean, fmall
town, and has a conildrrable cotton mill and uiaiuifac\orv by
it, belonging to a company ot manufacturers in Olafgow.
There are alfo the ruins of an old caftle, which appears to
have been of great extent, and once belonged to the royal
funily of Scotland. The inhabitants of Rothfay are chiefly
■fea-faring people, and employ themlelves much in the her-
ring tithcry during the ieafon. Large quantities of fine cod-
fiih are alfo caught off the coalls of Bute, Arran, and
Argylclliire, with which the markets of tlie well of Scotland
are fupplied, generally at a rate not exceeding two-pence^.;-
pound of 22^ ounces. Contiguous to Bute is a fmall ifland,
called Inch Marnock, which is level and caltivatcd. It is the
refideiice only of thofe employed in its cultivation. The
ifland of Arran is nearly thirty miles in length, and is very
mountainous. The highelt hill, called Goatlield, is feen
■from a great diftance. The ifland of Arran is the property
of the duke of Hamilton, who is earl of Arr.an, who has a
fine hovife, called Brodick caftle, on the ifland, where his
fainfiy fometrmes refide, cfpecially during the feafon for
fliootlng groufe or black game. Arran ufed to be much
noted foT a fmuggling trade, both in contraband articles
bror.ght by the fcamen employed in the veflels trading to the
•Clvde, and alfo m the dift illation of whiiky. The vigilance
of the rcveiiue cruifers in the Clyde has, in a great meafure,
checked the former, and that of theexcife officers the latter.
On Arran are found a number of fine ftones, and it is fomc-
times vifited by lapidaries, during the fummer, for the pur-
pofe of fearehing for them, or of purchafing thofe occa-
lionally picked up by the natives. On the ifland are only
two fmall towns or villages, vl'z.. Brodick and Lamlalh, the
latter of which, being defended from the fouth winds by an
ifland in the mouth of the bay, is relorted to as a flielter in
ftormy weather by the (liips and veflels navigating the frith
ofClyde.

Befides thofe already mentioned, there are a few fmaller
iflands in the frith, r;s. the Cumbraes, which are two fmall
iflands lying pretty clofe to the fouthern fhore, near the
Rcnfrewlhire coail, oppofitc to the village of Largs, about
1 6 miles below Greenock. The larger illand is about two
miles long, and on it is a very neat village, called Milport,
chiefly inhabited by fifliermen and ieamcn's t.-imilies. The
lelTer ifland is a mere rock, \vhere a few perfoiis refide, who
take charge of the light-houfe, and fometiines perfons in
a flate of infanity are boarded here by their relatives, on
account of the purity of the air, and the retirement of the
f'ltuatron. Farther down, and near the Ayrihire coal^, h the
ilapendo-us rock, or crag cf AiIfa,i:o;n •.•hicli the proprietor,
th.e earl of Caffius, derives his Britiih tit!;-, Ailfii is a high
abrupt and barren rock, totally uninhabited, and c-ovoredby
•myriads of fea-fovvl, in fcarch of which it is fonietimcs vinted.
Of the general trade of the Clyde iiotici' has already been
taken under the article Gl.A.'-GOW.

GREENORE Point, a cape of Ireland, i.-i the county
of V/o-ford, in the Ivilli fea. N.4at. 52° 16', \V. long. 6"
j8' from Greenv. ich.

CREENSBORO, a pol>-to\vn of Ainerica, In Weil
Ch-ikr county, Neiv Y^v.i : 264 miles from V\"a!'hington.

Vflt. XVI.

G R E

GREENSBOROUGH, a poft-townandcTiief town of
Greene county in CJeorgia, .jO miles from Lexington : con-
taining 25 houfes, a court-houfe, gaol, and Prefhyteriaii
meeting-huufe. Lands are appropriated for the cilablifh-
ment of an academy in this town." — Alfo, a neat town-
ihip in Orleans county, in \'eriTiont, containing 2H0 inha-
bitants.

GREENSBURG, a poll-town. and capital of Wett-
morcland county, in Pennfylvania, tituated on a branch of
Sewickly creek, which empties into Youghiogany river.
It contains 100 dwelling houfes, a German Cidvinift church,
a brick court houfe, a flone gaol, 270 miles W. by N. fiom
Philadelphia — Alfo, a poll-town in Green county, Ken-
tucky ; 875 miles W. by S. from Wafliington.

GREENSVII>LE, a county of Virginia, encompaflcd
by Rrunfwick, Southampton, and Snffex counties, on the
N. W. and E. and by N. Carolina on the S. It is about 2+
miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 26 11 free inhabitants,
and 4116 flaves.

GREENVILLE, Sir Rich.aud, in Bw^mphy, a gallant
naval officer, foil of lir Roger, of an ancient family, ir. the
well of England, was born about 1540 At the age of
llxteen he obtained leave from queen Elizabeth, with '■■.hers
of his young countrvraen, to ferve in the imperial army in
Hungary, againllthe Turks. Upon his return, he engaged
with tlie troops emjiloyed for the reduction of Ireland, where
he difplayed fo much courage and prudence, as to obtain
the appointment of fheriff of the city of Cork. He fat ia
parliament in 157 I, as knight of the fliij-e for the county of
Cornwall. He was afterwards liigli Iherifl of the county,
and received the honour of kniglithood. Notwithllanding liis
civil employments, his attention was chiefly fixed upon plans
of foreign difcovery and fettlement, propofed by lii.i relation fir
Walter Raleigh. When the patents were made out for the
purpofe, flr Richard obtained the command of a iquadron
fitted out for the purpofe, confiding of leven fn all veflels.
With thefe he failed in the fpring of 1585, and reaching
the coatl of Florida in .lune, he left there a colony of one
hundred men, and then failed homewards. He made otiier
voyages, but when the nation was threateiud witli the dangers
of a Spaiiilh invalion, he was appointed one of a council of
war, to concert means of defence, and received the queen's
coiniviaiids not to quit the county of Cornwall, wljich pre-
vented him from executing iiis intentions of making another
voyage to the American coall. In 1591 he was appointed
vice-admiral of a fquadron, fitted out for the purpofe of in-
tercepting a rich Spanifli fleet from the Weil Indies. Th'?
fleet, when it appeared, was convoyed by a very fuperior force.
and Greenville was urged to lark about, but he preferred, and
no doubt his faiUn-s agreed v illi him, taking chance of
breaking through tlie enemy s heet, which almofl immedi-
ately fiirrounded him. The Spaniih admiral, with four
other fliips, began a etofe attack at three in the afternoon ;
the engagement iarted till break of day next mprning, during
which the Spaniards, notwithilanding their vail fn]«;riority,
were driven off iiftren timec. At length the greater part ol
the Eno-liih crew being either killed or wounded, and the
{hip reduced to a wreck, no liop? of e iV.-.pe remained. The
brave commander had been wounded at the beginning of the
adion, but he caufed his weird* to be dti. tied on deck, and
refufed to f o dowa irio the hold, rnd in t'lat fiate he was (hot
through the body. He wns no-.v tak n to the cabin, and
v.hilein the niH of b»:-.g drefled, the furgeon was killed by
his fide. The ad-'ral Hill determined to hold out, wifhing
rather to fmk the fhip than furrender, but the offers cf
quarter froTn the Spaniards induced the men to yield. Sir
Ric'mrd was tnkcn en board tie SparU>. fhip, avu lionour-
e C ably

G R E

aWy treatci?, but he died of his wounds in lefs than three
davs. Hif Irtlt words (lic-w the temper of the hero, better
than any eulogium that could be formed for him ; they were
fpoken in the Spanifli language, " Here die I, Richard
Greenville, with a joyful and quiet mind ; for that 1 have
ended my hfe as a true loldicr ought to do, figliting for his
country, queen, religion, and honour ; my ioul departing
from this body, leaving beliind tlie lulling fame, of having
behaved as every valiant foldier is in duty bound to do."
This noble minded man has been blamed for rafiineis ; but
excefs of bravery, if fuch it may be denominated, in a
liritifll feaman meets with a ready pardon, and fuch exam,
pies as Greenville and a Nelfon, though not aKvays to be
juHified on the fcore of prudence, have effeeted more ad-
vantages for this fea-girt iiland, than can be well defcribed.
Biog. Brit.

GuKENVlLi.K, <$■(> Bkvil, grandfon of the preceding, was
born in the year 1 596. He was educated at Exeter college,
Oxford, under the celebrated D. Prideaux, where he ac-
quired a large ftock of knowledge, and an ardent attachment
to the eilablilhed religion of his country. When became to
his ellate he dillinguifhed himfelf as a mod refpeClable coun-
try gentleman, and fat, very often, in parliament, as knight of
the fliire for the county of Corjiwall, and burgels of Laun-
cefton. In 1638, he attended tie king with a troop of
horfe, raifed at his own expence, in an expedition to Scot-
land. For this fervice he received at the hands of h.is love-
reign the honour of knighthood. He dillingui filed himfelf
during the civil wars, and had a command in the batlie of
Stratton, gained by Hopton againll the earl of Stamford,
in May 1643. He was prefent, and made a confiderable
ftand in other engagements, particularly in that which was
fought at Lanfdown, near Bath, in which the parliament
forces were commanded by fir William Waller. In this ac-
tion fir Bevil, at the head of his Cornifhmen, received a fatal
blow with a pole-ax. His body was afterwards found, fur-
vounded by thofe of his officers ; and it was obferved, to the
honour of the gentlemen of England, that there were more
officers and gentry, than common men, {lain on the king's fide.
Sir Bevil was extremely lamented : his character was drawn
by lord Clarendon :' '• That which would have clouded any
victory, was the death of fir Bevil Greenville. He was, in-
deed, an excellent perfon, whofe attivity, intercil, and re-
putation was the foundation of what had been done in Corn-
wall, and his temper and alTeftion fo public, t!;at no accident
which happened could make any impreffion on him ; and his
example kept others from taking any thing ill, or at leail
feeming to do fo : in a word, a brighter courage and gentler
difpofition were never married together, to make the moll
cheerful and innocent convcrfation." A monument v,as
crefted to his memory on the foot on which he fell. Bio"-.
Brit.

Greenville, in Gcofra/i/i)), a county in Wafliington dif-
tridl, South Carolina; fituated in theN.W.corner of the Hate;
containing 1 1,504 inhabitants, of whom 1439 are (laves. This
county is mountainous and hilly ; but it is well watered, and

the climate is pleafant and healthy Alfo, a poll -town of

South Carolina, and chief town of Cheraws diftrift ; fituated
on the W. fide of Great Pedee river, in Darhngton county.
It contains about 30 houfes, a court-houfc, gaol, and aca-
demy ; 55 miles E.N. E. from Camden. — Alfo, a poll-town
and capital of Pitt county. North Carolina, on the S. bank
of Tar river, diftant 23 miles from Wafhington, and contain-
ing about 50 houfes, a court-houfe, a gaol, and a feminary,
called the Pitt academy. — Alfo, a poft-town of Meck-
lenburg county, Kentucky; 766 miles W. by S from
Wafhington.— Alfo, a poll-town in Jefferfon county, Miffi-

G R E

fippi territory ; 1217 miles from Wafliington. — Alfo, a fmall
poll-town in Green county, in the (late of TenefTce, fituated
on the W.fide of the north-eallernmoftbranchof Nolachucky
river, about fix miles N. by E. of Greenville college ; 653
miles S.W. of Pliiladelphia — Alfo, a fort and feltlemejit in
the Hate of Ohio, on the S. fide of a north-wellern branch of
the Great Miami, fix miles N.W. of fort Jefferfon, on the
fame bi-anch, about 23 miles S E. of fort Recovery. It
has baflions at each angle, and is capable of accommodating
2000 men.

GuEENViLLE Bny, or La Buy, a town and port of entry
on the E or windward fide of the ifiand of Grenada. It
has about 60 dwelling-houfes, a church, and fcveral rich Itores
of Indian and European goods, and plantation utcnfils. Its
fituation is low and rather unhealthy.

GliEK.sviLLi: College, a college m Green county, in Ti;-
neflee, founded in 1794, by the firll ad of the firil afTen.bly
of the fouth-weftern territory. 1 1 is fituated between two
fmall northern branches of Nolachucky river, not far from
Gretnviile, (which fee) the county town. Its local iituation
conduces very much to its utility, as it is retired, healthy^
cheap, and near public roads in every direction. It is under
the management of I4trultees, and pofielfes a library of be-
tween one and two thoufand volumes, and philoio^hxal ap-
jiaratns, and a convenient building.

GREENWICH, a market-town and parifli in the hun-
dred of Blackheath, and county of Kent, Englai.d, is
iltuated on the banks of the Thames, adjoining to Dept-
ford, and ^\ miles diftant from London. There are traces
of a royal refidence at Greenwich lo early as the reign of
Edward I., A.D. 1300. Henry IV'. dated his will in
1408 from this manor, which was granted by Henry V. to
Tiiomas duke of Exeter, after whole death it was conferred
on Humphrey duke of Gloucefter, uncle to Henry VI.,
who, in 1433, gave the duke licence to fortify and embattle
lijs manor-hoafe, and to make a park of 200 acres ; under
this grant the duke rebuilt the palace, and inclofed the park,
in which he eretled a moated tower. ,0n the duke's death
in l.<47, the manor reverted to the crown ; and was a fa-
vourite refidence of Edward IV^., who enlarged and fjnilhed
the palace. Henry VII. fpent much of his time at Green-
wich, where his two fons, Henry and Edmund, were born.
Henry VIII. made confiderable additions to the buildings,
and during his reign Greenwich became one of the principal
fcenes of that feflivity for which his court was celebrated.
Tournaments and revels were frequently held ; and in 15 13
the firft mafqucrade ever feen in England was here introduced.
Edward VI. kept his Chrillmas here in 1552, and died
in this palace in July following. The queens, Mary and
Elizabeth, were both born here, and the latter chrillcned
with peculiar (late. Slie was particularly partial to this
manfion, and made it her fummer refidcr.ce, pafling the feilive
hours of that romantic period in various diverfions and fjden-
did exhibitions. This palace was frequently vifitcd by James I.
and Charles I.; was afterwards alDgned by parliament to
the Protetlor ; and, after the reiloration, again devolved,
with tlie park and appendages, to the crown : when the
king, finding the whole building in a ruinous Hate, ordered
It to be pulled down, and comm.enced a magnificent palace of
free-done on its fcite, under the direction of Webb, the fon-in-
law of Inigo Jones, from whofe papers thedefignsare faid
to have been made. One wing, however, was ail that was
completed, at the expence of 36,000/., in which the king
occafionally refidcd ; but no further progrcfs was made in
the building either in that or the fucceeding reign. Soon
after the acceflion of Wilhani and Mary, a project w<is
formed for providing an afylura for aged and difabled fea-

mcn ;

GREENWICH.

■men ; and their majedies haviiig refolvcd to carry it into exe-
cution, fir Clii'iftoplier Wren recommended that the unfinifli-
td palace at Greenwich fliould be completed and enlarged
ior this pnrpofe. His advice being adopted, he contributed
his time and abilities in the fuperintendance of the works for
feveral years without any emohiment. Such was the origin
of Greenwich hofpital, of which the foundation was laid
June 3, 1696, and which has been gradually enlarged and
improved, till it arrived at its prefent height of magnificence.
The holpital is a fplendid and cxtenfive llnifture, principally
built with Portland Hone, and confills of four diltinoi
quadrangular piles of buildings, dittingniflied bv the names
of the refpeftive fovereigns, in whofe reigns they were founded
or built. The grand front opens on a terrace, (Icirting the
foutliern bank of the Thames, and extends 865 feet in
length, in the centre of which is a defcent to the river, by a
double flight of fteps. The ground plan of the whole edi-
fice forms nearly a fquai-e ; of which king Charles's build-
ing occupies the north-well angle ; queen Anne's, thcnorth-
eait ; king William's, the foulii-weft ; and queen Mary's,
the fouth-eaft. The interval between the two former build-
ings forms a fquare 270 feet wide, in the middle of which
is a llatuc of George II., fculptured by Ryfbrach, out of
a fingle block of wliite marble, which weighed eleven tons,
and was taken from the Frenchbyadmiral lir George Rooke :
this ftatue was given to the hofpital by fir John Jennings,
who was governor from 1720 to 1744. The fpace between
the two latter buildings which include the hall and chapel,
with their elegant domes, and the two colonnades, forms a
leffer fquare, apparently terminated by the ranger's lodge
in the park. Tir^ two fquarcs are interfered by a fpacio'is
avenue, leading from the town through the hofpital. The
buildings which immediately front the Thames liave a ge-
neral correfpondence in llyle and arrangement. The north
and fouth fronts of each exhibit the appearance of a double
pavilion, conjoined above by the continuation of an Attic or-
<ler, with a balnftrade, which furmounts the whole, but is
feparated below by an open portal : the centre of each pa-
vilion difplays an elegant pediment, fupportcd by four Corin-
thian columns, and the iides a double pilaller of the fame
order. King Charles's buildmg contains the apartments of
the governor and lieutenant-governor, the council-room, and
anti-chamber ; with fourteen wards, wherein 300 penfioners
may be accommodated. In the council-room are feveral por-
traits : in the anti-chamber two large fea-pieces, given to the
hofpital by Philip Harman, efq , reprelenting the exploits
of his anceftor captaiji Thomas Harman of the Tyger fri-
gate, in the reign of Charles II.; and a feries of fix fmall
pieces, 'defcriptive of the lofs of the Luxembnrgh galley,
in the year 1727. Queen Anne's building contains feveral
apartments for inferior officers, with twenty-four wards, for
four hundred and tliirty-feven penfioners. King William's
building Hands to tlie fouth-weil of tlie great fquare, and
compriles the great hall, vclli!)ule, and dome, deligned and
erected by fir Chrillopher Wren, betvi'een the years 1698
£.nd 1703. To the eaft of thcfc adjoins a colonnade, three
hundred and forty-feven feet in length, fupportcd by
Doric columns, and pilallers tv>-enty feet in height. The
great hall is one hundred and fix feet in length, tifty-fix in
width, and fifty high : the cieling and fides are covered with
portraits and emblematical figures, executed by fir James
Thornhill, for which he was paid at the rate of 3/. per fquare
yard for the cieling, and l/. for the fides, amounting in the
whole to 6685/. The well front of King William's build-
ing, which is of brick, Avas finilhed about 1725 by fir
Joim Vanbrugh : the building contains eleven wards, where-
in arc five huttdred and fiftv-one beds. The foundation of

the cafterrt colonnade, wliieli is fimilar to thai on the weft
fide, was laid in 1699 ; but the chapel, ai'd the other parts of
queen Mary's building which adjoin to it, were not finiili>>d
till 1752. It conefponds with king William's, and i> furnilh-
ed with one thoufand and ninety-two beds, in tliirlcen ward.i.
The prefent chapel, one of the moil elegant fpecimens of
Grecian architcclnre in this kingdom, was erected from the
claffical defigns of the late James Stuail, efq., better known,
perliaps, by the appellation of " Athenian Stuart," uhich he
acquired from the Attic elegance of his buildings, and hisinte-
relling publication on the antitpiities of Atlicn-. The chapel
is one hundred and elcvenfeet in length, and fifty-two in width,
and is capable of accommodating one thoufand penfioner.*,
nurfes, and boys, cxclufiveof the leats for the direclors and
other officers. The portal confills of an architrave, frieze,
and cornice, of llatnary marble : the folding-doors arc of
mahogany, higldy enriched by carving. The interior is
finilhed in an elegant ilyle ; and is adorned with many ap-
propriate paintings ; the moil diilinguiflied of wliicli is the
altar-jMece, executed by Well, and reprefenting the prefer-
vation of St. Paul, on the illand of Melila ; a fubieft pecu-
liarly adapted to this eftablifliment. Without tiie walls of
the hofpital llands the Infirmary, erected in 1763, after
a defign by Stuart : it forms an oblong quadrangle,
one lumdred and ninety-eight feet long, and one hun-
dred and feventy-five broad ; and confills of two flories
for the reception refpeftively of thofc whofe cafes require
furgical aid, and of thofe who are in need only of
medical affiftance. It contains fixty-four rooms, each
is fitted up for tlie accommodation of four patients. It alfu
includes a chapel, hall, kitchen, and apartments for the
phyfician, furgeon, and apothecai y ; with hot and cold baths,
and other necedary offices. The penfioners, who are the
objedls of this noble charity, mull be feamen difablcd by
age, or maimed, either in the king's fervice, or in the mer-
cliant fervice, if the wounds were received in defending or
taking any fiiip, or in fight againll a pirate ; foreigners who
have I'erved two years in the Britilh naA7, become entitled
to the benefits of this inllitntion in the fame manner as
natives. The widows of feamen are provided for, having
tiie exclufive privilege of being nurfes in the hofpital.. The
number of penfioners is upwards of 2400, who are furnidicd
with clothes, diet, and lodging, with a fmall allowance of
pocket-money. The nurfes are 144, each of whom receives
eight pounds per annum as wages, with every neceflary of
life. The governors of the hofpital are about ico, and
confift of all the great officers of ftate, the arclibifiiops, the
lord chancellor, the judges, the mafler and five fcnior bre-
thren of Trinity-houfe, the lord mayor, and tl-ree feiiior.
aldermen of London, with fonie of the principal officers of the
liofpital. The annual average expence of each penlioner, ac-
cording to the report of the commilfioners of naval enquiry,
was ellimated at 27/. los. gt/. per man; and of the nurfes,
29/. }^s. Oil. eacli ; the total annual expence being 69,206/.
5/. The funds of the eilablilhment are principally derived
from a duty of fixpence ptr month, paid by every mariner,
either in the king's or merchant's fervice ; the forfeited
cllatcs of the earl of Derw cutwater; and various benefactions
from different fovereigns, from parliament, and from private
perfons.

The old tower at Greenwich, built by duke Humphrey,
temp. Henry VI. was pulled down in 1675, by order of
Charles II., who founded on its fcite the prefent Royal Ob-
fervatory, for the purpofe of afcertaining the motions of
the moon, and the places of the fixed liars, in order .to
facilitate the attempts to difcovcr the longitude at fca.
LIr. Flamilecd, the firll allronomer royal, began his ob-
j C z fervationg

G R E

forvations in September 1676, ar.J did ampk jufiiff lo liis
appointment, tlioiigli walking in an alnioll uiitrodikn path,
^nd not having, till 1689, l!ie advantage of a mural quad-
rant, and even then not I'licli as is now in ufe, but one con-
trived by himfelf. He died in December 1719, and was
fucceeded by Dr. Halley, wlio tixed a tranlit inftniment,
and had a new mural quadrant of eight feet radius, con-
llrucled by Graham. On the death of Dr. Halley, in
1^42, Dr. Bradley was appointed: in his time very valu-
able additions were made to the inllruments at the obferva-
tory. Dr. Bradley, dying in 1762, was fucceeded by Mr.
Blifa, wlic.fe deceafe, in 1 764, made room for the advance-
ment of Dr. Mafl?elvne, the prefent aftronomer royal, •who
has difplayed eminent ability in his htuation. Since his ap-
pointmen", the obfervatory has been furniihed with an ex-
cellent achromatic telelcope, of forty-fix inches, focal length,
with a treble objett glafs, &c. by Dollond; and the whole
atlrononiical apparatus has been greatly improved by Dol-
lond, Nairne, and i\rnold. The obfervations made by the
aihonomer royal have been, fnice 1767, publifhed annually
under the infpeftion of the Royal Society, who have the
power of vifiting the obfervatory every year, to fee that the
inllruments are kept in proper order.

The church at Greenwich is dedicated to St. Alphage,
archbiihop of Canterbury, who is faid to have been killed
by the Danes on its fcite : it is one of the fifty new churches
erected in the reign of queen Anne ; the old church having
become fo ruinous by lapfe of time, that the roof fell in
about midnight, November 28, 17 10. At the end of the
town is the duke of Norfolk's college, for the maintenance
of 20 decayed houfekeepers. Here is alfo an hofpital for
20 poor perfons, founded by Mr. Lambarde, author of tlie
" Perambulation of Kent," and called queen Elizabeth's
college. There was a convent of friars at Greenwich, found-
ed about the time of Eduard IV. For many years here
■\\as a confiderable powder magazine, which, after repeated
application to parliament by the inhabitants, was removed
to Purfleet in EfTex-, ,n 1760.

The population ol Greenwich, a? returned under the late
ait, was 14,339: the number of houfes 2,121 ; many of thefc
are handtome buildings ; the llreets are irregular, and tlie
whole town is interfered by the iiofpital and its precincts.
Fairs for three days are held at F'aller and \Vhitfuntide ; and
veil fupplied markets every ^Vcdnefday and Saturday.
J.yfcms's Environs of London, vol. iv. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. vii.

Ghlknwk'ii, a towiifhip of America, in Hampdiire
county, Maflachufetts, incorporated in 1754, and contain-
ing 1,460 inhabitants ; 20 miles E from Northampton. —
Alfo, a townfhip in Gloiicellcr county, New .lerfey, on the
E. bank of Delaware river, oppofite to Fort Mifflin ; 6
miles S. E. of Philadelpliia, — Alfo, a townlbip in Sufi'ex
county. New Jerfey, on the E. fide of Delaware river, in a
mountainous country, 31 miles S. W. of Newton ; it con-
tained, in 1790, 2,035 inhabitants.— Alfo, a town in Cum-
berland county. New Jtrfoy, on the N.W. bank of Co-
hanzy creek, about 3 miles from its mouth, in Delaware
bay, containing about 80 houfes and a Friends' meeting-
houfe ; 66 miles S. by W. from Pliiladelphia. — Alfo, a
maritime and poft-town in Fairfield county, Connecticut,
40 miles E. of New York, and containing 3,147 inhabitants.
— Alfo, a town in Wafhmgton county, New York, on the
E. bank of Hudfon's river. At the faw -mills of this town
much bitfinels is done.

OftKENWicil, Eaf}, z poft-town, and the chief townfliip
in Kent county, Rhode ifland, diftnnt 16 miles S. fro-.-i
Providence, and containing 1,775 iuhaljjtwiits. It i#gUidcs

G R E

a nietting-lioufe and a handfome court-ltoufe ; and tliougli
its commerce is much reduced, it derives advantage from its
filheries, and fends fome veffels to the Well Indies. It is
fituated on the N. W. part of Narraganfet bay. It is
noted for it good cyder, and formerly raifed tobacco for
exportation.

GREENWOOD, a townfhip in Cumberland county,
Pennfylvania, having 724 inhabitants. — Alfo, a towndiip
in MitBiii county, in the fame ftate, containing 969 inha-
bitants.

GnKICN' woon.s, a large foreft of (lately pines in Litchfield
county, Connecticut, covering part of that county, and
clothed in a green bearded mofs, which gives to the whole
a gloomy, wild, and whimiical appearance.

GREES, a river of Ireland, in the county of Kildare,
which flows by the pretty town of Ballitore, and joins the
Barrow ; 6 miles S. from Athy.

GREESA, a town in Algiers; 30 miles E. S. E. of
Tiffelh.

GREGARIOUS BiRDS.are fuchas do not live folitarlly,
but affociate in flights or coveys, a great many together in
company.

GuEGARIocs, in GeoUgy, is applied to fuch reliquia or
extraneous foffils, found imbedded in the llrata, as are con-
grcgated a great number of the fame fpecics together, which
very commonly is the cafe, particularly in calcareous
rocks.

GREGGIA, in Botany^ fo named by the late Dr. So-
lander, in comphment to Mr. John Greg, a gentleman long
refident in Dom.inica, the correi'pondent of Ellis, Garden,
and other naturaliils of his day. He lent many plants to
Kew and other collcftions, and returned to England about
the year 1784, dying fome years afterwards, at his feat
near Hampton Court — Gxrtn. t. 33. (Myrtus Gregii ;
Swartz. Ind. Occ. 896. Ait. Hort. Kew. vol. li. 159.
Mart. Mill. Dift. v. iii.) See Myrtl'S.

GREGOIE, or Gkf.bou, in Geography, a fmall ifland
of Africa, in the river Jacquin, about a league from the fea,
on the Gold Coall, where the European nations have fac-
tories.

GREGORIAN Calexdar. See Calendar.

GliEtiORlAN Chant. See Chant.

Gkkgorian Code. See Code.

Gregori.w Epocha, is the epocha, or time, whence the
Gregorian calendar or computation took place. The year
l8lois the 228th year of the Gregorian epocha.

Grkgoriax Notes, in Ecckftajlual Mufic. In the Romiili
milTals, breviaries, antiphonaries, and graduals, only four lines
are ufed in the notation of the chants ; with two clefs, the
bafe and tenor, or thofe of F and C, which are removable ;
and two kinds of notes, the fquare and the lozenge ; the
firll for long fyllables, and the fecond for fliort. In fome
modern French miffals a third fpecies of note is ufed, gene-
rally at a clofe ; this is fquare with a tail added to it, and is
of longer duration than either of the other two. However,
the Italians feldom ufe any other than fquare notes in their
canto fermo, nor did the French, in their more ancient
books.

Thefe characters are not fuppofed to have been invented
by St. Gregory, nor were they in life till many ages after
his lime ; but iince their invention, having been appropriat-
ed chiefly to the purpole of writing ecclefiallical chants in
the antiplionary of that pontiff, they obtained the appellation
of Gregorian notes.

(^tKEgorian Tear. See Year.

GREGOKIO dc Pua-tQ Fiejo, in Ceop-«J'hj, a diHriA

and

G R E

ORE

jurifdictioii of Guayaquil

Gi(Er.o;iio, St. a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
8 milLS N. W. of Cangiano.

St. Gkec.ouio tie jibo, a town of New Mi'xico ; no
miles S. of Santa Fc.

GREGOIllUS, m Iclilhyolo^'. See S.\LMO /avaretus.

and town of South America, in the audience of Quito, and the eyes of the emperor and the public, and he not only
"^ '^ ' confirmed the wifhes of the peopk, but congratulated the

Romans on the clioice which they had made. When the
mandate was proclaimed, Gregory fohcited the aid of fome
friendly merchants to convey liim in a bafiict beyond the
gates of Rome, and he conceaLd h.imfelf a few days in the
_ mountains, and among the woods, where he believed, or

GREGORY I. in Biography, pope, funiamed the Great, affected to believe, that he fhould be fafe from difcovery.
and alfo dignified with the title of Saint, was a native of Notwithftanding this precaution, he was in a few days found
Rome, and born about 544 or 5. He was defcended from in a cave, and brought back in triumph Ly the people, who
one of the moll illutlrious families in that city, and was edu- would not abandon their charge, till they had taken him to
Gated in a manner fuitable to his rank. His proficiency in the church of St. Peter, where l-.e was inflar.tlv ordained.
literary purl'uits anfwcred the moft fanguine expectations of The pontificate of Gregory the Great, which laRed rather
his friends , it was faid that none in Rome excelled him in more than iix years and a half, is reckoned one of the moft
grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Having left the ufual rou- flourilhing periods of the church ; his virtues, and even h-j
tine of fchool learning, in the courfe of which he had im- failings, were happily fuited to his llalion.and to the temper
bibed fentiments of deep piety, as well as the elementary of the times. His Jirft ftep was to fatisfv the bifhops of the
principles of knowledge, he paid particuhu- attention to the cliief fees, as to the orthodoxy of his faith. For this pur-'
iludy of jurifprudence, which was necefi'ary to pcrfons who -pofe, he wrote to the patriarchs of Conllantinople, Alex-
filled thofe ftations, to which he was entitled by hi', birth, andria, Antioch, and Jerufalcm, declarinr that he receiv-
When he came under public notice, he difcovered fuch abili- ed the ilrit four councils as the four books of the holy-
ties, integrity, and prudence, in the exercife of the different gofpel ; that he reverenced the fiftii, and that he condemn-
feiiatorial employments, that the younger Juftin, who was ed the three chapters. In his rival, the patriarch of Con-
emperor, appointed him to the honourable poll of governor ilantinople, he condemned the Anti-chriilian title of univer-
of Rome. In this office he acquitted himfelf to the fatif- fal bifliup, which the fucceflor of St. Peter was too haughty
faftion of the emperor, of the fenatc, and of the jieople. At to concede, and too feeble to afTume ; and the ecclefiallicai
the death of his father, he became pofFeired of immenfe jurifdiction of Gregory was coEitined to the triple character
■wealth, and being, probably from fome difappointments, of bilhop of Rome, primate of Italy, and apoftle of the
difgufted with the world, he determined to embrace the re- Well. He frequently afcended the pulpit, and kindled
ligious life. He devoted the greater part of his property by his eloquence the congenial paffions of his audience ;
to the foundation of religious houfcs, and to charitable pur- the language of the prophecies of the Old Tellament
pofes. He founded fix monaftcries in Sicily, and one at he interpreted and applied, and he took the opportunity of
Rome in his father's lioufe, dedicated to St. Andrew, over improving the prefent calamities of the people, by directing
v^hich he ciinllituted Valentius abbot, whom he had felefted their ho])eS and anxieties to the invilible world. His pre-
for that poil from a country monaflcry, and to whofe difci- ccpts and example defined the model of the Roman hturgv;
pline he fubmitted himfelf. From the time of his taking the diilribution of the parifties, the calendar of fellivals, the
the vows, he abandoned himfelf to meditation, devotion, and order of procefTion, the lervice of the priells and deacons, the
the moil rigorous abftinence. He was, however, in the variety and change of facerdotal garments. Till almoll thr
year 579 taken from his retreat, ordained deacon, and fent lall period of hi.< life, he ofiiciated in the canon of the mafs,
nuncio froni the pope to the imperial court : the objedl of this which continued above ttireo hoars at a time. Gregory was
miffion was to apply for relief in behalf of the inhabit- no friend to heretics : he fpared no pains to arm the civil
ants of Italy, againtt the ravages of the I.,ombards. So ^nd ecclefiallicai power agaiiill the Donutiils in Africa, an J
ably did he conduct the bullnels, that the emperor was en- all who favoured them. At firit, he was defeated in his
tirely fatished, and Gregory became one of his principal willies to deflroy the harmony that fubfiilcd between the
favourites : he was equally beloved by the principal cour- Catholic and Donatill parties in that country : he contrived
tiers, and even by the bilhops, notwithllanding the jealoufy to introduce invidious diflint'lions, whidi by degrees renewed
which they ufually entertained ot a pope's nuncio. While the animolities by which they had been formerly dillraftrd,
he was at Conllantinople, he had a dilpute with the patri- and terminated in the ultimate triumph of the Catholic, which
arch Eutychius, on the quellion, Whether, after the refur- was the llrongell party. Notwithflandiug the 2eal of pope
reftion, the bodies of the righteous would or would not be Gregory againil the heretics, he was favourable to the Jews,
palpable. The argument was carried on in the prefeiice of and protected them againil fome violent Chrillians. In ccr-
the emperor Tiberius; Gregory mantained the affirmative tain letters, which ho wrote to the bi/hops who were for
fide of the quellion, to which the emperor gave his decided forcing them to embrace Chriilianity, he condemned perfe-
fanclion, at the fame time, he ordered the patriarch to ac- cutioii of all kinds in the llrongell terms, though he enforc-
quiefce in the judgment, and condemned to the flames a trea- ed it in the inllancc of Chrillians, who ventured to differ
tife of that prelate in fupport of the negative fide of the from the Catholic creed. On his acceffion to the papal
quellion. In 5S 3 Gregory was recalled to Rome, and ap- throne, a general relaxation of difciplinr, as well as of piety
pointed fecretarv to pope Pelagius, until he obtained per- and morals, prevailed in the clerical orders ; he immediately
miffion to retire to his monallery. He was chofen abbot ; fet about the correction of thefc evils with the utmoft dili-
and in that ofEce exacted of his monks as Uriel an obfer- gence and perfeverancc. While Gregory was enforcing re-
vance of rigorous abllinence and difcipline, as he praftifcd formation on the clergy, he fet before them an example of
himfelf. After a iliort exerciie of the nionallic virtues, he the conduct which he prtfcribcd. He was ftriclly attentive
was dragged from the cloiller to the papal throne, by the to the duties of piety : he was humble, mild, compaffior.ate,
unanimous voice of the clergy, the fenate, and the people, hofpitable, and difinterellcd, an enemy to all pomp, grandeur.
He alone refilled his own elevation: and his humble pcti- and fliow, frequently abridging himfelf of the necelTarirs of
tion, that the emperor would be pleafcd to reject the choice life to relieve the indigent, and was moll indefatigable in in-
•f the Ro.Tiansj cjulj only fcrve to exalt his charaitcr in ilrucling his flock, both by ptesching aaU writing. With

all

GREGORY.

a\l his liiimllit 7, howevpi-, Gregory was a mod zealous_af-
I'ertor of thu- power and prerogatives which his predecelTors
had cxt-rcifed, or at any time claimed. He would declare,
and no one feemed to doubt the fincerity of his afTortlon,
tiiJt lie would rather lofe his life, than 'fuiTcr the fee of St.
Peter to forfeit any of the priiileEjcs which it had ever en-
ioved, or the prime apoftle to be any ways injured, or rob-
bJd of his rights. In the year 593, the emperor iffued an
cdicl, forbidding any foldiers to quit the army, under the pre-
tence of emiiracing a monaftic life, tiil the time of their fer-
vice was expired The pope determined to reraonftrate
a'raiiill the decree, being pcrfuadcdthal the eeclefiallical road
was more fafc than any other to the attainment of a heavenly
crown. For t!\is and fome other acls of interference, the
emperor exprefTed his diffatisfadion with the fteps taken by
the pope, in ftrong and c\en abufive terms, and they proved
the means of frullrating his application for a redrefs of
grievances occafioned by the cruelty and avarice of the
imperial officers. The king of the Lombards threatened to
lav fiege to Rome, in order that he might avenge himfelf
of fome cirenmihuice that had liappened contrary to his
dignity, but (}regorv made friends with his favourites, who
had themfelves embraced tlie Catholic faith, and by their
interceffions the prince was induced to draw off his troops.
About this time the patriarch of Conftantinople affumed the
title of 1" Univerfal Patriarch,' a meafure which alarmed
Gregory, who made every exertion to prevent him from
making good his claims. All his entreaties were vain, the
patriarch eflablilhed his title, and entailed it on his fuc-
cefTors. When Gregory was informed of this he renounced
the patriarch's communion, and condemned his conduft on
the occafion as vain, ambitious, profane, impious, execra-
ble, anti-chriftian, blafphemous, infernal, and diabolical.
In the year 596, Agilulph, king of the Lombards, broke
into tlie imperial territories, laying wafte the Roman duke-
dom of Campania, aud carrying away the inhabitants into
captivity. On this occafion Gregory exercifed the moit
unbounded cliarity, in relieving the poor, and redeeming
great numbers of prifoners, not only applving the revenues
of his fee to thofe benevolent pnrpofes, but large funis which
he obtained by his application to the biOiops, and the great
iren who were his friends, both in the Eait and Vs'eft. LTn-
der his reign the Arians of Italy and Spain were reconciled
to the Catholic church, and the conquell of Britain reflects
lefs glory on the name of Cxfar than on that of Gre-
gory I. Inllead of fix legions, forty monks were em-
barked for that diftant'ifiand, and the pontiff lamented the
aullere duties which forbade him to partake the perils of
their fpiritual warfare. In lefs than two years he could
announce to the archbifliop of Alexandria, that tliey had
baptized the king of Kent with ten tlioi^fSiid of his Anglo-
Saxons, and the Roman miffionaries, like lliofe of the pri-
mitive church, were armed only with fpiritual and fuper-
natural powers. The credulity or the prudence of Grcfrory
was always difpofed to confirm the truths of religion by
villous and pretended miracles, and he accordingly acquired
a high reputation with his own and fuccecding ages. The
patriarch of Conftantinople dying, lie was fucceeded by
Cyriacus, vvhofe faith was deemed orthodox by the pope,
but who perfifted in claiming the title " Univerfal Patri-
arch." Gregory flill rcfifted, and in the courfe of the cor-
rcfpondence which he maintained with the patriarchs of
Antioch and Alexandria to intprefl them on his fide of the
difpute ; the lall mentioned prelate gave liim the title of
" Univerfal Pope," in hopes thereby of terminating the
difference between the contending parties. Gregory, how-
ever, rejcfted the title with great indignation, and by way

t'3

of contraft to the patriarch's conduft, he adopted the ap-
pellation of " Servant of Servants," which his fuccefTors
have retained to this day, and afleited to ufe it even vhea
diib'nguilhcd by the moil fcandaloiis cxercife of pride and
defpotifm. In the year i6oi, at the requeil of Auguftin,-
the pope fent a frefli colony of monks into Britain, and with
fuch directions to that apoftle of the Anglo-Saxons, as he
has been denominated, as have proved the means of hitro-
dncing the groffeft corruptions and foperflitions into the
fyftem of Chriilianity cllablilhed through his miffion.
During this fame yc.ir Serenus, bifhop of Marfeilles, or-
dered all the images throughout his diocefe to be call out
of the churches and deftroyed : his condudl was not quite
approved by Gregory, though he pretended to applaud
Serenus's zeal, in not fuffering any thing to be worfnipped
tliat is made with hands. Nevertlielcfs, he condemned his
cafting them out of the churches and dafliing them to
pieces, as the cffeft of an inconfiderate and indifcreet zeal,
obferving, that " though images were not fet up in the
churches to be vvorfhipped, yet they ferve to inilruft the
ignorant : and it is one thing to adore an image, and an-
other to learn from an image what is to be adored." During
the year 602 a revolution took place at Conltantinople, in
confequence of the revolt of the army, at the inlligation
of Pliocas, a centurion, who was proclaimed emperor, and
obtained podcnion of the imperial city and throne. The
firll obje£t of the j;ew fovereign was to dellroy the abdi-
cated prince, with his fix fons and a number of his relations
and friends, and then he got himfelf acknowledged lawful
emperor in all parts of the empire. On this occafion,
Gregory expreffed his utmoil fatisfaftion and joy at the
change that had taken place, without hinting that he
felt any forrow at the means by which it had been ac-
complidied. He immediately wrote letters to the new
emperor, congratulating him on his acceffion to the imperial
crown, which he faid was cfleited by a particular pro-
vidence, to deliver the people from the oppreffions under
wliich they had fo long groaned, and lie even commended,
flattered, and extolled the tyrant, for his juiHce, clemency,
and pietv, in the moll fuliome terms. His objccl in this
abjedl behaviour was that he Dijght, by means of the in-
fluence of the emperor, defeat the attempt of tlie patriarch
to afTume the title of " Univerfal Bidiop." This he plainly
told to Leontia, the nev.r cmprefs, reprcfenting to her what
bleflings they might expeft from St. Pettr in heaven, pro-
vided tiiey obliged the patriarch to relinquiih the title, which
the pope confidered derogatory to the honour, dignity, and
interells of his fee. In this objcA he fucceeded, for Pliocas
cnafted a law, by which he proliibited the bifhop of Conftan-
tinople from ftyling himfelf oecumenical or general patriarch,
declaring that this title belonged to none but the bifliop of
ancient Rome. This was not the only inftance in which
Gregory condefcended to flatter bafe and infamous cha-
raftcrs : he fhewed equal or even greater complaifance to
Brunchaut, queen of France, who is defcribed by Bayle as
the moll wicked woman upon earth, but as capaljle of
winning over the clergy to her interell, becaufe at the fame
time that flie committed the moft enormous crimes, fhe was
exceflively liberal to ccclefiaftics, and founded temples and
convents, not forgetting to fue very devoutly for relics to
the holy father. In all the letters which the pope wrote to
her, he treated her with the moft abjedl flattery, declaring
that no nation in the world was fo happy as the French,
fincc it merited fuch a queen, endowed with virtues and fine
qualities of every kind. In the year 604, Gregory was
attacked with a fevere fit of the gout, a diforder to which
he had teen accuftomcd, and which rendered him incapable

of

GREGORY.

of performing the duties of liis liigh ofFice. AnibafTadors
were fent to him from the queen of the Lombards, an-
nouncing the birth and baptifm of her foil : lie was unable
to write an anfwer to her majefty, with regard to fome
difficiiltie,! whieh (he wiihed to have folved, but he returned
by her ambalfador, a comphmentary note, containing com-
iifendations of her zeal for the Catholic faitii, and with
prelents to the new-born prince, ot a crofs to wear at his
neck, in wliich was cncloied a piece of the true crofs, as
ne was pleafed to affirm, together with the gofpel, in a
Perilan box. This was one of the lad acts of the pope.
He died in the month of March 6;4. Sucli were the tranf-
adlions ot Gregory 1. who has, tor his talents and merits,
been furnamed the Great. There was, however, a ftrange
mixture of inconfiftencies i[i his charafler. In fome re-
fjjetts he difcovered a found and penetrating judgment, but
in others the moll flumeful and fuperftitious weaknefs. He
was no friend to fecular and polite learning : he has even
been accufed of having deilroyed the noble monuments of
the ancient magnificence of the Roman.'^, Icll travellers and
foreigners, who came to viiit Rome on religious motives, by
paying undue atteiuion to them, ihould neglett the holy
places. Tins accufation does not ftand on undeniable evi-
dence. It is doubted by Gibbon and other well-informed
hiftorians. " The writings of Gregory," fays IVIr. Gibbon,
" reveal the implacable averfion to the monuments of clalfic
genius ; and he points his fevered cenfure againll the profane
learnmg of a biiliop, who taught the art of grammar, ftudied
the Latin poets, and pronounced with the fame voice the
praiies of Jupiter and thofe of ChrilL But the evidence of
his deltructive rage is dolibtful and recent ; the temple of
peace, and the theatre of Marcellus, have been demolifhed
by the How operation of ages, and a formal profcription
would have multiplied the copies of Virgil and Livy in the
countries which were fubject to the ecclcfiaftioal dictator."
Gregory invented new offices for the fervices of the church,
and the facraments, in which he prefcribed a vaft number of
rites and ceremonies that were unknown before his time.
He took great pains in reforming the pfalniody of the church,
inftituting an academy of choirillers, whom he taugh.t to
chant, and for whofe ufe he compofed that mufic which goes
by his name. He left more writings behind him than any
other pope from the foundation of the fJe of Rome to the
prefent period. Thefe confiil of twelve books of " Letters,''
amounting to upwards of eight hundred in number. " A
comment on the book of Job," generally known by the
name of " Gregory's Morals on Job.'' " A Paftoral,'' or
a treatife on the duties of a pallor. This work was held in
fuch veneration by tiie Galhcan church, that all the billiops
were obliged, by the canons of that church, to be thoroughly
acquainted with it, and punftually to obferve the rules con-
tained in it. He was author alfo of " Homilies " on the
prophet Ezekiel ; and on the gofpels, and of four books of
" Dialogues." His works have been printed over and over
again, in dlmod all forms, and at a number of different places
on the continent, as Lyons, Paris, Rouen, Bafd, Antwerp,
Venice, and Rome. Tlie beil edition is that of Paris, in 1 705,
in four vols folio. The charity and wealth of thib pontiff have
already been referred to : in the ufe of his abundant riches,
te acted like a faiihful ileward of the church and poor.
The voluminous accounts of his receipts and difburfements
were kept above three hundred years in the Lateran as the
model of Chrillian economy. On the four great fellivals, he
divided their quarterly a!low.mce to the clergy, to his domef-
tic., to the monafteries, to the churches, the places of burial,
the alms'-houfes, and the hofpitals of Rome, and the reil of
the dioccfe. On the fir It day <if every month he dillributed

to the poor, according to the feafon, their ftatcd portion of
ccrn, &c. ; and his treafurcrs were continually iummon' d to
fatisty in his name the extraordinary demands of indigence
and merit. The dillrefs of the Tick and h.lpl.fs, of
ftrangcrB and pilgrims, was relieved by the bounty of each
day and of every hour, nor wotjld the pontiff indu'ge himfelf
in a frugal repall till he liad fent the difhes from hi^ own
table to fome objedls deferving of his compaflion. The
inifery of the times had reduced the nobles and matrons of
Rome to accept, without a blufh, the benevolence of the
church. Three thoufand virgins received their food and
raiment from the hand of th'.ir benefadtor, and many bilhops
of Italy efcaped from the barbarians to the hofpi a' Ij abode
of the Vatican. Gregory might julUy be ilyled the father of
his country, and fuch was the extreme fenfibility c»f his con-
fcience, that, for the deatli of a beggar, who had perifhed in the
Itreets, he interdicted himfelf during feveral days from the
exercife of facerdotal funftions. Moreri. Gibbon, Lardncr.
Eccleliallical writers feem unanimous in allowing that it
was the learned and aftive pope Gregory the Great, who
colledted the mullcal ffagments of fuch ancient hymns and
pfalms as the firft fathers of the church had approved, and re-
commended to the primitive ChrilHans ; and that he feleftcd,
methodized, and arranged them in the order which was long
continued at Rome, and foon adopted by the chief part of
the wellern church.

The anonymous author of his life, publifhed by Caniilus,
fpeaks of this tranfadion in the following words : " This
pontiff compofed, arranged, and conilituted the jlnlifkona'
riiim and chants ufed in the morning and evening fervice.''
Fleury, in his Hill. Eccl. torn. vii. p. 150, gives a circum-
flantial account of the Scola Cantorum, inflituted by St.
Gregory. It fubi'ifted 300 years after the death of that
pontiff, which happened in 604, as we are inform.cd by John
Diaconus, author of his life. The original Antiphonarium
of this pope was then fubliiling ; and the whip with which
he ufed to threaten to fcourge the boys ; as well as the he'd
on which he reclined in the latter part of his life, when he
vifited the fchool in order to liear them praClife. Two col-
leges were appropriated to thefe lludies ; one near the church
of St. Peter, and one near that of St. John Lateran ; both
of which were endowed with lands.

It has been imagined that St. Gregory was rather a com-
piler than a compufer of ecclefiallical chants, as mufic had
been etlabliflied in the church long before his pontificate ;
and John Diaconus, in his life, (lib. i. cap. 6.) calls his col-
lection " Antiphonarium Ccntonciu," the ground-work of
which was the ancient Greek chant, upon the principles of
which it was formed. This is the opinion of the Abbe
Lebceuf, (Traitc Hillorique et Pratique fur le Chant Etcle-
ilaflique, chap, iii.) and of many others. The derivation is
rcfpeCtable ; but if the Romans in the time of St. Ambrofe
had any mufic, it mull have been compofed upon the Gi-cek .
fyftem : all the arts at Rome, during the time of the empe-
rors, were Greek, and chiefly cultivated by Greek artifts ;
and we hear of no niufical fvitem in ufe among the Romans,
or at leall none is mentioned by their writers on the art, but
that of the Greeks.

Gregory II., pope, was a native of Rome, and educated
froin childhood, in the Lateran palace, under pope Sergius,
who appointed him his fub-deacon, almoner, and libraiiarj.
He was afterwards railed to higher polls in the church, and
was feleded by pope Conllantine, as the mod learned man of
his time, t^. accompany him « hen he went to Conilar^iiioplc,
in the year 710. In that city Gregory didinguifhed himfelf by
anfweiing certain dilfieulties propofcdto him by the emperor
Judinian, and lolving his doubts r.ith regard to fome quellions

ia

GREG

in which, it Hiould kv-m, he was much Intei-eftcd, though
what thofc diilicultii-s were we arc not informed. Upon the
death of Coiillaiitine, in 715, he was raifed to the uapnl
c^iijnitv, ami ahuull immediately upon this event, tlie Lom-
bards made an irruption into tlie imperial territories, and
took by fm-prife the city of Cumx. Gregory, in liis (luahty
•of Holv Father, endeavoured to prevail on tlieni to reftore
it, hrft iiy thrcatenings of the vengeance of heaven if they
Ihould prove fo wicked as to retain it, and afterwards by
the offer of a large fum of money, and the particidar pro-
-tection of St. Pe'ter, provided they withdrew their troops,
■ Ihd abllained from all farther hollilities. Finding that they
were equally deaf to the threatening? and promiies of the
pope, he applied for the affillance of the king of Naples,
who, for a itipulated fum, undertook to recover the place,
and fueceeded in the enterprife. In the year 717, the em-
peror Theodofius, having refiRned the imperial dignity, and
retired to a monaftery, Leo, the Ifaurian, was, by the lenate
and army, railed to the throne, on which occafion he wrote
a letter to the pope, accompanied with a confeilion of faith,
and alfo with promifes to maintain the Catholic doctrine, as
delined by the fix general councils and the fathers. Gregory,
in return,' congratulated the emperor, in warm exprellions of
refpcct and loyalty, upon his acceflion, and allured him, that
lie would not only receive him for his fovereign, but would
ufe his influence to preferve peace and amity between him
and all the Chriltian princes of the Well. In 721, Gregory
' lield a council at Rome, in which feveral important canons
were enacted on the fubjecl of unlawful marriages and
other points relating to ecclefiailical difcipline. While this
council was fitting, Winifrid, afterwards archbifliop of Mcntz,
and known by the name of Boniface, arrived on a pilgrimage
at Rome, where be was received with extraordinary marks of
refpect. A few years after this, Ina, king of the Well
Saxons, arrived at Rome, on a pilgrimage to the tomb of the
ApolUes, having refolved to renounce the world, and embrace
the moiialtic lite. During his Hay in the city, he built a
. college for the education of youth, and the reception of fuch
of his fubjefts as (hould undertake pilgrimages ; for the
fupport of which he impofed a tax on every houfe or family,
. known by the name of Rome-fcot or Peter-pence. This
tax, which, about the middle of the ninth century, was laid
on the whole kingdom of England, was originally dellined
folely to the charitable ufes above-mentinoed, but it was
afterwards converted, by the popes, to their own ufe, and
levied under the denomination of a tribute to St. Peter, till
Henry delivered the country of the burden. About the
year 726, Leo, determined to reftore the Chriftian worfhip to
its primitive ilate, forbad all kinds of image -worfhip, and
caufed the edict to be promulgated through the empire.
He gave notice of the fame to the pope, requefting his
affillance in carrying the refolution into eftetl, but Gregory
made no fcruple of a\ owing his decided oppolition to
the meafure, and threatened the emperor with the in-
dignation 01 St. Peter, fhould he pertill in his projected
reform. The emperor was not to be intimidated : he pub-
]ilhed his edift in Italy, but the populace was lerioufly
againft the innovation, and infurrei'itions were immediately
excited, whicii the foldierv could not lipprefs without much
mifchief and blood filed. Luitrand, king of the Lombards,
joined the popular cry, and taking advantage of the dillur-
tance.s, made a rapid progrefs in Italy. Every where he
declared his readincfs to proteft image -vtorfliip, and every
where he wa» received by the people as one fent from heaven
to defend the Catholic faith. Thefe events went beyond
the wilhes of the pope, he was filled with the utmoft con-
fteruation, well knowing that if the Lombard! were fuffered

O R Y.

to make head Ln the Italian territoi-ies, he (liould feel tlie
weight of their yoke. He applied for aflillance to Urfus,
the doge of Venice, which was readily granted, and which
was ctteclual in refcuing the emperor's dominions from the
power of the Lombards. Gregoj-y ptirfued his deiign, and
urged Leo, by all the eloquence in his power, to abandon his
plan with regard to image worfliip ; but the determination
of the emperor was unalterable, and he took meafures to
get poflefiion of the perfon of Gregory, to prevent hiiu
from fomenting divifions, and even rebellion among the peo-
ple. Gregory obtained timely notii^e of his intention, and
fruftrated the defign : lie immediately thundered out a fen-
tence of excommunication againif the emperor's exarch, for
endeavouring to obey hi^ mailer ; and the people inllantly
took up arms, overpowered the garrifon, pulled down tlie
ftatues of the emperor, broke them in pieces, and openlr
declared that thev renounced their allegiance to him as fove-
reign : not fatisfied with this, they fome time afterwards
murdered all thofe who wei'e adherents to the emperor's
caufe. and among others the exarch himfelf. Notwithitand-
ing this oppofition, the emperor in 730 held a council of the
fenate, the great officers of the ilate, and the bifliops who
were at Conllantinople, in which it was determined, that at
it was found by experience that images could not be fuffered
to remain in churches, and idolatry prevented, they fhould
all be pulled down and dellroyed. I'liis being effected, he
made a new effort with regard to the churches in the Well :
he again folicited the pope, but Gregory's anfwer breathed
a determined fpirit of hollility, and was written in a ftyle of
arrogance and abufe whicli was unexampled. He went ilill
farther, he affembled a conned at Rome, confifting of all the
neighbouring bifhops, which iffued a decree, not only decla-
rative of the lawfulnefs of worfnipping images, but com-
manding them to be worlhippcd, and condemning, as here-
tics, all who did not worfliip them, or who fiiould prefume
to teach that they were not to 'ue worfiiipped. The empe-
ror, indignant at this alTumption of power, feized on the
rich patrimonies of the Roman church in Sicily and Cala-
bria, tore from the Roman fee the provinces of Eall Illyrium,
and fubjecled the whole to the patiiai-ch of Conllantinople.
By this conduit he inHiCted the moll fevere wound in the
heart of the pope, but before he had time to ripen any
fchemes of revenge, he died in 731, after he had fat in the
papal chair near feventeen years. From the details of his ac-
tions already given, it appears that Gregory had a zeal for
exalting the power and dignity of his iee ; he was befides
arrogant and fuperllitious. As an author there are fifteen
of his "Letters," and a "Memoir," tranfmitted to his le-
gates in Bavaria, containing inllructions for their guidance
in managing the ecclefiailical affairs of that country. Thefe
are inferted in the fixth volume of the •' ColIeCtio Concilio-
rum :" he was author alfo of a liturgy, which was printed,
with a Greek verfion, at Paris in 1595. Moreri.

Gi!F.<50liY III , pope, was a Syrian by birth, became a
prelbyter of the Roman church, and was much celebrated
for his learning and talents as an eloquent and impreffive
preacher. Upon the death of Gregory II. he was unani-
moufly cholen his fucceffor b)- the Roman people and clergy.
He ieemcd determined to follow the ftepsofhis predecefior,
and declared himfelf a determined fupporter of the worfhip
of images, and he had no fooner taken pofTeffion of his fee,
than he wrote a letter to the emperor Leo and his fon Con-
ftantine, whom he had taken as a partner in the empire, ex-
horting them to renounce their error, and to return, like
dutital children, into the bofom of the church. This letter
he fent by Gregory, a prelbyter of the Roman church, on
whofe zeal and firmnef'! he thought he could depend, but

wbeft

GREGORY.

t^lienllif prefbyterarrired, he underftood that the emperors
Hot only maiHt;iine<l their ground, but were determined to
extirpate image worfhip, and thofe who prefumed to julHfy
it : he therefore thought it moll prudent to return to Rome
vvitliout acquainting them with the objecl of }iis mifhon.
On his arrival, tlie pope was fo exalpcrated at the pufillani-
mity which he had (hewn, that be called a council to de-
termine upon fome exemplary punidiment, but, upon his
promile of going back and executing his mifTion, he was
pardoned. He immediately let out, but as foon as lie had
landed in Sicily, in his way to the imperial court, he was
arrellcd, his letter taken from him, and lie himfelf fent
into exile. In the year 732, Gregory held a council at
Rome to revenge himielf upon tlie emperor for fending his le-
gate into banilhment, and lie procured a decree to be parted,
ellablilhing the worlliip of images, and denounced excommu-
nication againll all Who (liould prelume to pull down, de-
ilroy, protanc, or blafpheme them : lie even expended ini-
nienle funis on the purchafe of ])iftures and llatnes with
which he filled tlie churches at Rome, and encouraged the
people in tlie daily worlhip of them : he likewife caufed re-
lics to be brought from all parts to^Rome, where he erected a
iTiagnilicent building for their reception and worlhip, appoint-
ing them an appropriate lervice, and monks to perforin it.
He made another uufuccetsful effort to\vards the converfion
of the emperor, who, weary of his applications, prepared to
reduce the pontiff, and the Romans v/ho fupported him, to
obedience by force. Upon this event, the people of Rome,
at the inlUgation of the pope, withdrew from all fubjeCtion
to the emperor, and formed themfelves into a kind of repub-
lic, in which they were governed by magiftrates appointed
by their own authority, under the pope, not as prince, but
only as their head. After this they were involved in holli-
lities with Luitrand, king of the Lombards, who ravaged
their wlwle country, and even laid iiege to the city. In
this extremity, Gregory applied for aliitlance to Charles Mar-
tel, who refufed to interfere till propofals were made that
the pope and Roman people fhould folemnly renounce their
cjlegiance to the emperor, as an avowed heretic, and perie-
cntor of the church, and that they ihould acknowledge
Charles for their protector, and confer on him the confular
dignity ; and. on the other hand, Charles was to engage
to protect aiid defend the pope, 'he Roman church, and the
people of Rome, agamil the Lombards, and likewife againll
the emperor, (hould they eitlier be attacked or moleiled.
To thefe terms Charles readily acceded, and as foon as
Luitrand heard of the treaty he abandoned the fiege of Rome,
and retired to his own dominions. Gregory did not live long
to enjoy the fruits of this policy, which contributed materially
to the ieparatioa of the Itahan provinces from the Grecian
empire. He died in 741, after a pontificate of between ten
and eleven years. The only literary remains of tliis pope are
" Seven Letters,'' which are to be found in tlie fourth vol. of
the " ColieCl. Concil." Moreri.

GuEGcJitv IV., pope, a native of Rome, tucceeded to
the high office on the death of Valentine, in the year 827.
He is commended for his extraordinary piety, of which
i^ome of the ilrongefl teilimonies are repairing and adorning
churclies and iiionalleries, and inllituting the tellival ot
"All Souls" day. When the quarrel took place between the
emperor Lewis le Debonnaire, and iiis fons, Lotliarius per-
iuaded the pope to accompany him into France, to mediate
a reconciliation between hira and his father. \Vhen the
pope had ferved this piirpofe, he was permitted to return to
Rome, where the bell action performed by him that we read
of, was his rebuilding and fortifying the city of Ollia, as
a protedion againll the defccnts of the Saracens. This

Voj-.XVL

pope died in 844, having prefidcd over the Roman church
about 16 years. Three of his " Letters" are extant in the
fcventh vol. of the Colleift. Concil. Moreri.

GnEcoitv V. pope, whofe original name was Bruno, was
a German by birth, and a relation of the emperor OtI'.o.
He was chofen bifhop of Rome when he was but twenty-
four year* of age ; at his ordination he afliimed the
name of Gregory, and in a very fliort time after he folemnly
crowned Otho emperor, who had before been onlv ft vied
king. He held a council in the firil year of his pontilica'e,
at which the emperor was prefcnt, and, it has been faid, the
German electoral college was inllituted, but it is more pro-
bable, from the evidence of hiftory, that tlie origin of this
college is to be referred to a later date. Upon the breaking
up of the council, he returned to Germany, having firft
made the Romans fwear allegiance to him, and obedience to
the pope, but fcarcely iiad the Germans repailcd the Alps,
when Crefcentius, a man of confiderable wealth and power,
perfuaded tiiem to revolt, renounce their allegiance to the
emperor, and choofe himfelf for their head. Thefe events
obliged Gregory to fly from Rome, on which occalion Cref-
centius declared the fee vacant, and caufed a perfon named
Philagathus to be raifed to it, vvh<* took the name i>f
.Tohii X\ II. Gregory excommunicated t!ic ufurper, and
alio his patron, a lenience which was confirmed by all the
bifliops of Italy, France, and Germany. Soon after thin
Otho, urged by the intreaties of Gregory, returned to
Italy, with a large army, and advanced witli tl;c pope to-
wards Rome. At their api>roach, the anti-pope John
took to flight, but, falling into t!ie hands of fome of the
pope's friends, was deprived of his hglit, and othenrife-
cruelly mutilated. Crefcentius was alfo taken, and, with
his accomplices, ignomiiiioudy executed. Gregorj- was now
reflored to his fee, and one of his firll atts was to convene
a council to meet at Rome, in wliich the marriage of Robert,
king of France, with Bertha, widow of Odo, count of
Champagne, was declared incelluous and null. He died in
the beginning of 999, having left behind liim many honour-
able teilimonies of the vigilance and fidelity which he had
exhibited in his office. His reign was very (hort ; there
are four of his " Letters" extant, in the 9th vol. of the
Collcc. Concil. A fifth, conc-erning the privileges of the
abbots of Monf. Major, may be found in the 4th vol. of
" Baluze's Mifcellanea." Moreri.

GiiKGOiiY VI. pope, whofe original name was John
Gratian, was delcended from one of the moil opulent fami-
lies of Rome, and elected pope in 1044, as iuccell'or to
Benedict. Upon his acceiTion, there were no fewer tha.T
tiiree perfons w ho «-cre pretenders to the honour of being
fucceilbrs of St. Peter. In tin's Ibate, Hcnrv III. king ot
Germany, refolved to go to Italy liimfelf, and to inquire on
the fput into the conducit of the popes, and the Hate of the
church. He afTembh'd a cuuiicil at Sutri, in IC4'), and fent
an invitation to Gregory to prciide at this council ; witU
which he readily complied, flattering himfelf that the king
would acknowledge him for lawful pope. But \Vhen lie
made his appe;iraiice there, a charge was preferred againlh
liim of having purehafed the pontifical dignity with a lum
of money. He confeii'ed himielf guilty of the charge, and)
quitting his chair, divelled liimfelf of his pontifical orna-
ments before the council, and, bt^gging forgiveneis, renounced
all claim to the throne of St. Peter. After lliis abdication,
Henry carried liim pritoner into Germany, where he ended
his days. Daring the fliort time that he was at the head of
the church, he performed fome very beneficial acls. Finding
the lands and revenues of the fee greatly diniinifhed by ufurp-
ations, the roads infelled by robbers, ai;d other dilorders pre-

5 D vailling

G R E G O R y.

railing in the government, Gregory adted yiiih fuch vigour,
that a powerful party was railed up againft him by thofc
vho had been accuftonicd to live by plunder. Morcri.

GuuGOFtY VII. pope, who, by his talents, raifed the
Roman fee to the higheft pitch of power, is laid to have
been the ion of a carpenter, and to have been born at the fmall
town of Soano, in Tuicany. His original name was Hilde-
brand, by which he is frecniently known in hillory. He was
educated at Rome, where he was highly eftcemcd by Bene-
dict IX. and Gregory VI., on the latter of whom he at-
tended, when he was fent prifoner to Germany. Upon the
death of Gregory, Hildebrand embraced tlie monalUc life
in the monaftery of Cluny, where he was railed to the poll
of prior. By Leo IX. he was created fub-deacon, and by
Nicholas II., archdeacon of the Roman church ; by thcfe
pontiffs, and by fome others, he was fuccefsfuUy employed
in feveral negotiations. Under the poutiiicato of Alexander II.
he was made chancellor of the holy fee, and had the abfolute
adniiniftration of all affairs, both ecclefialHcal and civil, as
well as the entire difpofal of the revenues of the church of
Rome. Upon the death of pope Ale.Kander, Hildebrand
appointed a fall to be kept, and prayers to be offered up
for three days together, before they fliould proceed to the
eleftion of a new pope. While they were performing the
cbfequies of Alexander in the Lateran church, on the day
after his death, the afiembled people tumultuoufly cried
«ut with one voice, " Hildebrand is pope, St. Peter has
chofcn him:" upon which he was immediately laid hold of
and placed by force upon the pontilical throne. This elec-
tion was confirmed oa the fame day by tlie whole body of
•the clergy and people. His next objedl was to obtain
the conlinnation of the king of Germany, which was a
ir.atter of no great diiliculty, and immediately he took the
name of Gregory, out of refpetl to his friend, Gregory VI.
He was the lail pope, the decree of whofe elcdlion was
tranfmitted to the emperor, or king, before his confecration,
or who was confecrated in the prefenec of the imperial
envoy. Gregory began his reign by engaging in the moll
bold and daring fchemcs for extending the jurifdiction of the
Roman fee, and enriching the patrimony of St. Peter. He
conceived the defign, not only of emancipating the church
from all fubjedion to princes, but of fubjecling all princes
to the church, and the whole church to his fee : of conlli-
tutiiig hinifelf fupreme judge aiid determiner of all affairs,
both ecclefiaitical and civil ; the difpofer not only of bifhop-
ru's and lurchbilhoprics, and other ecclefiaftical beneflceB,
but of kingdoms and ilates, and the revenues of individuals ;
and, in fact, fole and defpotic monarch of the earth in
temporals as well as fpirituals. Gregory was foon embroiled
iu a difpute with Henry IV., and he omitted no meafures
which he thought likely to llrengthen his party, and, aided as
he v«is by the fuperllition of the times, as well as by the
rel'.-ntment of feveral princes, whom Henry had difobhged,
or who wlflied to (hake off liis authority, he foon created
a formidable body of confederates in his lupport. This
confederacy encouraged the pope to think of railing fome
other perfon to the throne inflead of Henry, and, without
helitation, he wrote a letter to the princes, bilhops, and
people of Germany, empowering them to cluife another
i.ing, if Henry did not, by a iincere repentance, render
himlelf worthy of being replaced on the throne, which ho
had forfeited by his difobedience to the apoftolic fee. Upon
the receipt of this letter, the confederate princes and bilhops
held a diet at Tribur, near Mentz, and they declared tlie
king fufpended from his royal dignity, and added, that if he
di4 not obtain abfolntion before the annivt rfiuy of his ex-
comn\unicution, he liiould be excluded for ever from the

throne. Henrv fubmitted to the degradation of preparing
to throw himfelf at the feet of the pontiif, to ioliciC
abfolntion. He fet out for Italy with his wife and
infant fon, and, after fuftainhig uncommon hardfliips iri
the paffage of the Alps, amidit the rigours of an ex-
tremely fevcre winter, he arrived in that country. He
was there fpccdily attended by the counts and bifliops of
Lombardv, who encouraged him to revenge the treatment
which he had rect-ived from the pope, and offered to affiil
him with men and money. Gregory had, in the mean time,
proceeded as far as Lombardy accompanied by the countefs
Mathilda, whofe clofe intimacy with Gregory afforded too
much reafon for propagating many fcandalous reports.
Upon hiaring of the king's arrival, and of the reception he
had met wit'i from his Ilahan fubjetls, the pope retired to the
ilrong hold of Canofa, in the ciocefe ef Reggio. While
remaining in tliis fortrefs, many German bifhops, and others
who had been excommunicated for taking part with the king,
repaired to him barefooted, clothed in hair cloth, to pray
for abfolntion and forgivenefs, which they did not obtain
without fnbmitting to feverc penance and mortification.
The pontiff enjoyed the malignant plcafiire of feeing the
king added to the number of his humiliated fuppliants. It
was fome time before the pontiff would admit the monarch
into his prefence, and when the order was iffued for the ptir-
pofe, it was on the condition that he fhould enter at the outer
gate of the fortrefs without attendants ; and at the next
gate he was required to divell himfelf of the enligns of
royalty, and put on a coarfe woollen tunic, in which drefs,
and barefooted, he was fuffered to itand for three whole
days at the third gate, expofed to the feverity of the wea-
ther, falling and imploring the mercy of God and the pope.
At length the perfons of dillintlion who were with Gre-
gory, affefted at the fnfferings of the king, began to com-
plain of the feverity of his holincfs, which tiiey faid was more
becoming a tyrant than an apoflolical father or judge.
Thefe reports were carried to the pope, wlio on the fourth
day admitted the king, and after much difliculty granted
hiin abfolution. When the Lombard lords heard of the
treatment which the king had met with, and his opprobrious
convention, they were highly incenfed not only againft the
pope, but againll Henry, whom they accnfed of cowardice
and treachery, in fubmittiug to beg abfolution of a man
whom they were determined no longer to acknowledge as
their fpiritual head. They feemed, at firll, determined to
depole him, and place his infant fon on the thone in his
ftead, but to appeafe their refentment he broke the conven-
tion with the pope, refumed his title and other marks of
royalty whicli he had laid down, and putting himfelf at the
head of his forces, he prepared to check the pope's immo-
derate ambition. After various fuccelfes, in vvhicli the con-
tending armies were alternately vittorious, Henry fummoned
a council of German bifhops to meet at Mentz, who ad-
journed tlieir feflioris to Brixen, where they were joined bv
many of the Italian bilhops and German and Italian princes.
In this council, Gregory was accufed of overfetfiiig the
hierarchy, and making himfelf fole monarch of the church ;
encouraging fedition and rebellion ; pcrfeeuting, excommu-
nicating, and depofmg a peaceable king, and placing a rebel
on the throne. For thefe crimes they refolved tliat he fhould
be depofed, and another chofen in his room. Notwirh-
llanding thefe meafures, Gregory was able to recover him-
felf, but he was again embroiled in new ditTicid'.ies, and tlie
Romans became fo incenfed againft the pope whom they con-
fidered as the author of the many calamities whicli tliey had
endured, that apprelienfions were entertained of his fafcty at
Rome, and he thought proper to place himfelf under tlie

proteftion

GREGORY.

prctcclion of duke Robert at Salerno. In that place he
died in 1085, having held the fee of Rome little more than
12 years, and leaving Europe involved in complicated cala-
mities to which his ambition gave rife. "He was," as
Mofheim has well del'crihed him, "a man of uncommon
genius, whofe ambition, in forming the moil arduous pro-
jects, was equalled by his dexterity in bringing them into
execution ; fugacious, crafty, and intrepid, notiiing could
efcape iiis penetration, defeat his ftratagems, or daunt his
courage ; haughty and arrogant beyond all raeafure, obftinale,
impetuous, and intratlable, he looked up to the fummit of
luiivcrfal empire with a willful eye, and labonred up the
ftcep afcent with uninterrupted ardour and invincible perfe-
verance, void of all principle, and deftitute of every pious
and virtuous feeling, l;e fuffered little reflraint in his auda-
cious purfuits from the didlates of religion, or the renion-
flranccsof confcidice." He was the firll pope who claimed
the power of depofing princes and abfolving fubjefts from
their oaths of allegiance. He alfo laid claim to moll of the
kingdoms and ftates of Europe, and by the boldncfs of his
pretenfions, and his menaces of exercifing the ecclefiaftical
authority, terrified many of their fovereigns and rulers into
acknowledgments of their being feudatories and vaffals ot the
apoftolic fee. Three hundred and fifty-nine letters of this
pope have reached our time, which are divided into nine
books, and are inferted in the loth volume of the Colleft.
Concil. He is generally fuppofed to have been the author
of " A Commentary upon the feven penitential Pfalms,"
which fome writers have improperly afcribed to Gregory I. :
and of a " Commentary upon the Gofpel of St. Matthew,"
wliich is faid to be preierved in MS. in the library at Lam-
beth. Bower. Morcri. Moflieim.

Gregory VIII. pope, originally known by the name of
Albert de Mora, was a native of Bencvcnto, and created
cardinal by pope Adrian IV. in tlie year 1135- He was
employed in vei'y important miflions, I'lz. as legate to Spain,
and in the yeir 1172 into Normandy, where he abfolvtd
Henry II. king of England, from the cenfures which he
had incurred by being fuppofed in fome degree acceffary to
the death of Thomas a Becket, but not before that monarch
had fubmitted to a difgraceful penajice. Upon the death of
Urban III. in the year 11 87, cardinal Albert was unani-
moully chofen his fucccfTor, when he took the name of Gre-
gory Vlll. A fiiort time before his cleftion, intelligence
had arrived at Rome of the advantages gained by Saladin
over the Chriftians in the Eafl, and his capture of the city
of Jerufalem. Gregory, as.foon as he was coufccrated,
wrote a letter addrefled to the Chriftians in the Weft, ex-
horting theni to contribute all in their power to the relief of
their diilreffed brethren, and for the recovery of the holy
city. He enjinned a five years' fall, to appeafe the anger of
heaven, by abllaining from meat on Wednefdays and Sa-
turdays as well as Fridays throughout the year. The labours
of this pontiff were of very fliort duration. He died within
two months of his elevation. He has been applauded for
his learning, eloquence, humane difpolition, and exemplary
manners. Tliere are three of his letters extant in the tenth
vol. of the Colleft. Concil. Moreri. Bower.

GnEGOUY IX, pope, whofe former name was Ugolin,
was created cardinal billiop of O Ilia, by pope Innocent III.,
and was afterwards employed on different legations to Ger-
many and elfewhere, chiefly to preach up tlie ueceffity of
engaging in the crufades. He was elefted pope upon the
death of Honorius III. in the year 1227, when he took the
name of Gregory IX. Immediately after his confecration
he commanded the weftern bifliops to exert their authority,
and oblige fuch pcrfons as had taken the crofs, to fel out

without delay for the Ilcdy Land. He wrote alfo to the

emperor Frederic II. cxiiorting him to fulfil the folemn pro-
mifes wliich he l>ad made to embark a fufficient army for the
relief of the Chriftians in the Eaft, adding the fevertft
menaces if he lliould decline the undertaking, declaring
that he would exert tlie power wliich heaven had put
into his hands, and proceed againfl him as guilty of a breach
of his vows. Frederic was obedient to the order, but
having embarked with a large army, he returned in lliree
days, alleging that the ill ftate of his health re idered him inca-
pable of fo great an exertion. His excufes were not deemed
valid, tlie pope would hear of no apt logies, and paffed oa
him fentence of eKcomniunication, till at length the empc.
ror embarked for Pale ft ine, but not having fued for abfolu-
tion before his departure, he was Itill the object of Gre-
gory's rclentment, who took every method to render his expe-
dition fruitlefs, and to excite civil wars in his Italian domi-
nions. Even after the emperor had, by treaty, f< cured
poflTeflion of the city and kingdom of Jerufalem, and was
preparirg for his coronation lla-re, by the patriarch he found
that the iTclatc liad been terrified by the papal cmifTarics
from taknig a part in'the ceremony, and had alfo laid the city,
and the church of the fepulchre, under an interdift, that no
divine fervice might be performed in them during Frederic's
flay. The German bifhops, hkewife, who attended the em-
peror, partook fo much of the patriarch's alarms, that they
refufed to perform any religious funftion, or even to be
prefent at the coronation ; fo that Frederic was under the
necelTity of taking the crown from the altar, and placing it
upon his head with his own hands. On the emperor's return
in 1229, Gregory excommunicated him again; and new
caufes of complaint were continually occumng between Fre-
deric and the pope, the former being defirous of a£ling
for himfelf, and the latter being fu'Iy bent upon reducing
him to the moft abjeft flavery. In the year 1 24 1, Grigorv
called a general council to m.eet at Rome, and had fcnt legates
with letters to all the Chriftian princes, entreating them to
oblige the prelates in their refpeClive kingdoms to repair to it.
At firll Frederic confented to thy holding of the council, and
promifed not to moleJl the biftiops who liiould attend it. But
afterwards, finding that the pope was refolutely bent on
hi.s ruin, and that he intended to make ufe of the propofeJ
council for this purpofe, and even to arm the whole Ciniftian
world againll him, he revoked his promifes, and publillied a
manitello, which was fent through the whole of Europe, decla-
ratory of his determined oppofition to the pope's projeS.
Neverthelefs, great numbers of the bifhops did affemble at
Genoa, in their road to Rome, who, with two caidinals
and all their treafure, fell into the emperor's hands, and the
holy men were fent prifoners to Naples. This difappoint-
ment, together with the approacli of tlie emperor, and hii
vitlorious army, gave fuch a fliock to the pope, that he
was feized with an illnefs which put an end to his life in a
few days. He had been at the head of the church nearly
fifteen years, which were diftinguiflitd by the calan^ities in
which If.dy was involved, chiefly owing to his imn..)deiratc
ambition, injuflice, arrogance, and obftinacy. Many of
his letters are to found in the eleventh vol. of the Colkct.
Concil : there are alfo extant fome fr.igmciits of his " De-
cretal Letters.'' Moreri. Bower.

Grkgoky X. pope, whole original name was Theobald,
was firft a canon in the church of Lvons ; then archdeacon
of Leige, and, taking the crofs, he accompanied Edv. arJ
prince of Wales in his expedition into Syria. After the
death of Clement IV. in 127S, the Roman fee was ^acan■
for nearly three years, owing to the intrigues of th? cardi-
nals, aflembled at Viterbo, who all afpircd to the dignity
5 D J toemlcKrs,

G R E G O R Y.

themfclvcs, and oppofcd the clcf^Icm of any oilier. At
!cn<;t!i t!ic mat^iilrutcs, tired out with t!ie delay, ordered them
to be clolelv ^confined in the billiop's palace, where they
were fuhjcfted to many inconvenienecs, and they began
daily to leffen their allowance of provilions. At length
they chofe Ti)eobalil, wh.o was at that time with the crii-
fade-.s in the Eail. Friars were difpatclied to announce to
him the important news ; they found him at Ptolem;!is, now
tailed Acre, wailing for a favourable opportnnity of pafimg
to Jeriifalem, but upon receiving the decree of his election,
herefolvcdto en>bark for Italy. Before his departure he
preached a fermon to the Cliriftians at Ptolemais from
thefe words, " If I forget thee, O Jerufalem, let my right
hand forget her cunning, &c." And in his fermon he gave
them very folema afliirances that he would render them
every afTitlance in his power. He never forgot his promiles,
Vnit both before and after his confecratlon, the fuccels of the
ciufades wai an objecl the nearelt his heart. With this view
he figniUed his intention of convening a general council at
I^yons in [1274, and invited Michael Palxologus to meet
it, in order to con\plete a work fo neceffary for the harmony
and fecurity of Chritlendom. In 1273, while Gregory
(a name which he alTnmed at his confecratlon ) was at Orvie-
to, Edward, who was now king of England, arrived at the
city on his return from ihe Holy Land, and was received
by the pope with every mark of elleem and affeftion. On
live king's complaining of the cruel murder of his coulin
Henry, Ion of the duke of Cornwall by Guido, the pope
iuilaiitly fumnioned Guido to appear before him within a
limited time. Upon his paying no regard to this iummons,
he was not only excommunicated, but declared infamous, \\ ith
ail his defeenJants to the fourth generation, and all were
anathematlfed, as eipially guilty, who (lioidd receive, favour,
or admit him into their hunfes. Finding himfelf driven from
fociety like a wild bealt, he embraced the opportunity of
the pope's travelling from Orvieto to Florence, unexpetled-
ly to make his appearance before him, ilrlpped of his gar-
ments to bis (hlrt, with a rope about his neck, begging for
mercy, and fnbmitting entlrelv to the clemency of his holi-
nefs. Gregory gave him his life, but delivered him up to the
Icing of Sicily to he kept in clofe confinement till his death.
Omitting the mere political events, which happened during
the pontificate, we obferve that in 1274 ^''^ general council
. vliicli Gregory had fummoned met alLyons, and was by far
the moft numerous of any that had ever been held. The
principal points which occupied its attention, were the pro-
curing relief for the Clu-iitians in the Eall, the union of the
Greek and Latin churches, and the reftoration of ecclefiafti-
cal difcipline. To the firil^objecl, Gregory perfuaded tl>e
dignified ecclefiaftics to devote a tenth of their income for
the fpace of fix years. While the council was deliberating,
Gregorv depofcd the bifiiop of Liege, en account of his
irregularities and profligacy. This council introduced the
famous conilitut'.on which provides that the cardinals fhallbc
Ihut up in the conclave during tiie vscancy of the pontilicate.
Gregory died foon after the termination of the council,
having held tlie Roman fee four years and four months.
Several of his " Letters" are extant 'in the clevenlli volume of
the *' Coll -ft Coucil.'" He is mentioned by hiftorinns on
account of his extraordinary fanftity, and ihere ferms
fuffieient reafon to believe that he was influenced by a milder
fpirit than many of his predeceffors. In none of them,
however, is it poffible to obferve any conduft at all corre-
fpon Amg to the benevolent fpirit of ChrKlianity : in none af
them do \ye behoM any attempt, however diftant, to imitate
the example of Chrilt, wiiofe difciples, in a fuperior degree,
they profeficd thenvftlves. Moreri. Bower,

GuKGORY XL pope, fon of the cotmt de Beau*
fort, and nephew of pope Clement VI. was created cardi-
nal before he had completed his feventeenth year,
and even then had accumulated upon him a number
of rich benefices for the fupport of his new dignity.
He was honoured alfo with other high offices in the church,
while he was thus voung. At this time he coidd have made
no great progrefs in literary- acquirements, but it is much
to his credit that he afterwards applied himfelf fo clofely to
ftudv, under the inilrutlions of the learned Baldi and otlier
eminent tutors, as to become one of the ablell civilians,
canonirts, and divines of his time. Upon the death of pope
Urban V. he was chofen his fucceflbr, and was confecrated
at Avignon, which was then the feat of the papal rcfidence,
in the beginning of the year 1 37 1, when he was about forty
vears old. Almoft as foon as he was confecrated, lie fent
legates to mediate a peace between the kings of France ard
F^ugland, and wrote to thofe princes, pathetically exhorting
them to fpare the blood of their fubjeC^s, and to compofe
their differences in a Chrillian and amicable manner ; but un-
fortunately without fuccefs. In the fame year he created
twelve cardinals at once, and upon the cefTion of Siellv to
Frederic of AiTagon, Gregory erected that illand into a
kingdom, on condition that the kings fliould do him and his
fuccedors homage. In 1374, the Florentines, having en-
tered into an alliance with the Vilconti of Milan, invaded the
territories of the church, making themfelves mailers of
feveral cities, and encouraging the people to throw off the
papal yoke, and refume their liberty. Gregory's remon-
llrances on this occafion being frultlefs, he iffued out a bull of
excommunication againll the Florentines, which prohibited
all people and nations from any communication or commerce
with them ; declared their eihites forfeited, and the lawful
property of thofe who Ihould ieize them. To his bull
Gregory added other and ftill more foixible arguments to
convince the Florentines of their error. He raifed an army
of ten thouf^ind men which he fent under the command of the
cardinal of the twelve apoftles ; and which was fuccefsful in
Hopping the ravages of the enemy. The Florentines, whofe
exiitence almoll depended on their commerce, finding their
traffic entirely flopped by the pope's bull, thought it prn-
dent to make an attempt at reconciliation with the apoftolic
fee, but the term.s to effeft this could not be agreed on by
both fides, and hollilltles were carried on with ardour, and
chiefly in favour of the invaders. Gregory had hitherto
rcfided at Avignon, though he had frequently been invited
to Rome. In 1377, he arrived in that city, where he was
received with great marks of joy by perfons of all ranks,
but the magiftrates, though anxious for his prefence among
them, refufed to give up any part of their power. Gregory
having no means of eilablifhing his authority, thought it
prudent, and becoming his dignity, to withdraw to An;igni ;
but before he left Rome, he \\ rote feveral letters to England,
againfl Wickliff and his doftrlnes, commanding the impri-
fonmcnt of that wortiiy reformer and the fupprelHon of his
opinions. AVickliff, h.owever, was fo much refpefted and
beloved by the Engliih nobility, and people at large, that
the blfhops, to whom the pope's letters were addrelfed, did
not dare to attempt his arreft. Towards the clofe of the
year, Gregory, having come to fome terms with the citi-
zens of Rome, returned to that city, where he continued to
receive many mortifications, which led him to the refolution
of removing the papal feat to Avignon. Eut before he
could execute his rviolution he was taken off by death in
1378, after a pontificate of little more than feven years.
Fie left bctiind him n any letters, of which the gi'eater part
have been publifhed by Waddingus, He ie praifed by his

biographer*

GREGORY.

biographers for j)icty, benfvolence, and liumanity ; he wa5
a patron of men of letters, and was himfelf refpeclable for
learning, particidarly in civil and canon law. He was apt
to be partial to his own relations, and paid more regard to
their recommendation in the difpofal of preferments than to
the merit of the perfons whom lliey recommended. Bower.
Moreri.

GREr.onv XII. pope,»whofe original name was Angelo
Corario, was a native of Venice, and wa-- piererrf;d to the
bifliopric of that city by pope Urban VI. l^': Boniface

IV. he was made titular patriarch of Conftantiiiople, and
by Innocent VII- he was raifed to the dignity of Cardinal
in 1405. He was now eighty years of age, and upon the
death of Innocent in the following year, Angelo Corario
was raifcd to the cliair of St. Peter, and at his confecration
took the name of Gregory XII. Pi-tcr de Luna was a
riv.1l candidate for tlie fupreme honour, and aflwmed the
name of Benedict XI-II. Upon the confecration cf Gre-
gory he wrote to Benedict, and tlie rival competitors agreed
to hold a congrels at Savona in the year J 407, accomoanied
by their refpeiitive cardinals, with a view of relloring order
in the church. It is piobable that neither of them was
delirous of this interview, but that both were fecretly de-
termined to life every means in their power to retain their
dignities. Gregory refiifed to repair to the congrefs, though
tiie meeting had been propofed by himfelf, wiiich gave his
enemies great advantage over him ; liis cardinals, dilgufted
at his conduct, deferted him, and withdrew to Pifa, where
they publilhed a manifeilo in juftiiication of their procedure,
and an appeal to a general council, of which they fent
copies to all Chrillian princes and itates. A council was
held at Pifa in March 1409, >vhich was attended by a nu-
merous body of ecelefiallics, and ambaffadors from the kings
ot France, England, Sicily, Sec. and after fifteen felilons
it paiFed fentence of depofition againft Benedict and Gre-
gory, who were declared guilty of herefy, perjury, and
contumacy, and unworthy of the fiualleit tokens of honour
tir refpecf, and cut o3 from the communion of the church.
Alexander V. was elected in their (lead. Gregory, after
fome fruitlefs refinance, forma'ly fent in his relignation to
the council of Conilance, laying afide all marks of the pon-
tifical dignity. The council were fo well pleafed with his
fubmiRiou that they decreed ho (hoiild retain the dignity of
cardin.il fo long as he lived ; and that he fliould have the pre-
cedency among the cardinals, and the title of perpetual
legate of the marche of Ancona. He died at Recanati in
1417, when he was ninety-two years of age. Some of his
letters are extant in the eleventh and twelfth volumes of (he
•' Colleft. Concil.'' He never was a man of ihining parts ;
but at the time of his advancement to the head of the church,
}ie was highly elleemed on account of his probity, but
before his death he had fo completely loll his charafler,
that no credit whatever was paid to his declarations, though
made in the mod folen.n manner. Bower. Moreri.

GuttiOKv XIII. pope, was born of a very refpeflable
family at Bologna, in the year 1502. He was brought up
to the lludy of the civil and canon law, made uncommon
proficiency in the purfuit, and taught the fcience in his
native city with uncommon reputation for more than eight
years. When he was about twenty-eight years of age, he
took his degree of doitor, and was afterwards appointed
Judge of the court of commerce at Bologna, ereAed for the
trial of mercantile caufes. He removed to Rome, was em-
ployed in fome important milfions, admitted irito the church,
obtained confideralle preferment, and on the death of Pius

V. in 1572, he was unanimoully elected his fucceffor, and
at his cunlecrutima he took the name of Gregory XIII.

The mod important event in the pontificate of Gregorrf
was the reformation of the calendar, according to a method
fuggefted by I^ewLs Liho, a Calabrian aftronomer, which
after his death was prefented to the ^ope by his
brother. This method, which is fully explained under
the word C.vlend.vh, and referred to in divers other
articles in our work, was immediately adopted in all
Catholic countries, but was rcj-ctcd by the Proteftants,
and by the Greeks, who chofe rather to remain in
error, than be indebted to the pope for the knowledge
of the truth. In 1584, Gregory incu-rc>d the fufpicion
of having encouraged the aflaffination of Eli/abelh queen of
England, by Parr, an Englifli Catholic, who was detefted ia
a confpiracy againll the queen's life. There was, however,
ro direct proof of Gregory being at all privy to the fchcmc.
This pope contributed greatly to correiit and amend Gra-
tiao's decretals, which he enriched with learned notes. A
fliort time before his death, he received ambafT^idors from thi;
illands of Japan, where the labours of Xavier and other'
Jefuits were faid to have been cowiied with abundant fuc-
cef?. The ambaffadors had a mod flattering reception giveij
thein, and great rejoicings w^re ordered to be made in ths
city, on account of the profpect which their appoiutmeut
fetmed to open, of triumphs to the Cathohc faith in 3 rich
and populous empire. In the midlL of thefe rejoicings
Gregory was leized with a quinfey, which carried him off ia
the 84th year of his age, and the 14th of his pontificate.
Several of his " Lettars,'' " Harangues," &c. are faid to
be in cxillence, and prelerved in the cabinets of the curious.
He was much beloved by the Romans on account of the
mildnefs of his government, which, by degenerating into
weaknefs, gave occafion to numerous irregularitie-, and an
almoll general corruption of manners in the eccL/inftical
ftate. He was a zealous friend to the Jefuits, to x. hom he
granted many privileges, and built for their ule, and richly
endowed, the Roman college, and nearly thirty other iemina-
ries in different parts of the world. Moreri. Bower,
Univer. Hifl.

GuEGOny XIV. pope, fon of a fcnator, who, after the
death of liis wife, embraced the ecclefuillical life, was made
biihop of Cremona, and appointed cardinal with the fame
title. Upon the death of Urban VII., in I590, the
conclave was divided by the pretenfions of 16 candidates
for the papal chair, who were all rejefted, and Nicholas
Sfondrati, the fubjecl of this article, was elected and ac-
knowledged pope, and upon his confecration took the name
of Gregory XIV. He performed many humane acts as
foon as he was fettled in his fee, and then endeavoured to
fignalize himfelf as the zealous defender of the Catholic
faith. Among other public meafures, he fent bulls into
France, in which he declared Henry IV. excommniiicaled,
and threatened the nobles with eceleiiatticai cciifures it they
did not dtTert his c-uife. In France thefe bulls were treated
with the contempt wlich they merited; they were befides
declared f.andiilous .u.il ftditious, and ordered to 1>' burnt
by the common hangman. The pope would probably have
taken meafures to avenge the iiifult thrown upeii his decrees, .
but he died of the Uone in the year I552» when only in his
fifty-fevenih year, and in the eleventh of his por.tificate.
As a man, he is faid to have lived a dpvoiU and abileipious
life, and to have prattifed aullerities which would rather
have fuited a cloiller than the feat of fovereign power. He
created one of his nephews cardinals, and raifcd fix other
perfons to the fame dignity ; and he :Jlo grafted the duchy
of Ferrara to duke Alphonfus, who, as he hr.d no fon, en-
deavoured to fcttl« llic dignity ob fwmc of his rcLitioiis.
Bower. Moreri.

Gri:U)RT

GREGORY.

GiTEOonY XV., popi<, dofceiidcd from a noble family at
Bologna, and named bcfoi-e his clertion, Aloxandcr Lndo-
vifi, was born in the year i^SA- ^^^ "'■''^ educated among
the Jefnitsut Rome, and then roturned to Bologna, where lie
lludlcd the civil law, and took his degree of dodtor in that
faculty. Having attained this literary honour, he went
back to Rome, where he acquired the friendlliip of three
popes, WK. Gregory XIV , Clement VIII., and Patd V., of
whom the lull appointed him archbilhop of Bologna, and fent
him out as nuncio to adjull fome differences which had taken
place between the Spaniards and the duke of Savoy. For
his able conduct in this difficult buiinefs he was promoted to
the rank of cardinal. On his return he refided on liis diocefe
till the death of his patron Paul, in 162 1, when he went
into conclave with the otlier cardinals, and was almoll uiia-
nimoully chofeu pope, and afl'umed the name of Gregory XV.
Where his own particular fcntiments were not immediately
concerned, he was a man of mild manners and very humane
difpofition, but the whole of his papacy was marked with a
violent excefs of zeal and bigotry againft the Proteftants.
As the Hugonots of France had, by the violation of the
cdi6l of Nantz, been driven to take up arms in their own
defence, he wrote to Lewis XIII., exhorting him, by every
argument in his power, to dellroy or extirpate them; and to
prove the extent of his zeal, he accompanied the letter with
a bull, intended to animate the Papills in their fanguinary
and favagc undertaking. He next publiflied a bull, prefcrib-
ing a new form in the election of a pope, by which the
cardinals were allowed to give their fuftragcs fecretly, by
vay of I'crutiny, by which lie intended to prevent the chiefs
of parties from iiaving fo great an influence in future elettions.
As a politician, he lupported, to the utnioll of his power,
the emperor Ferdinand II. and Maximilian, duke of Bavaria,
againil the elector palatine of the Rhine, fon-in-iaw of
James I. of Great-Britain : by his aid they were enabled
to conquer the palatinate, an event that gratified liim as well
by the injury which it did to the interefts of the reformed
religion in Germany, as by the lliare which it gave him in
the Ipoil of the valuable library of Heidelberg, a part of
which was transferred to tiie Vatican. He alio attempted
the deilruCtion of Calvinifm, by endeavouring to perfuade
Lewis XIII. to allow the duke of Savoy to feize upon
Geneva, the nurfery of that fylU-m ; but in this objeft he
xvas difappointed. He was likewife unfuccefsfiil in an at-
tempt which he made to reinllatc the Jefuits at Venice, from
whence they had been banifhed during the pontilicate of
Paul V. In 1622 the Turks invaded ioland with a formi-
dable army ; to reiift their power, Gregory fent immenfe
fupjilies of money to Sigifmund, by which he was enabled
to with Hand the barbarian power, and finally to gain a fi"-nal
vidfory over them. About the fame time the pope infli-
tuted the famous college, " De propaganda tide," and en-
dowed it with ample revenues for the maintenance of perfons
to be educated for foreign niilfions. Gregory endeavoured
to turn to his own purpofe the intended marriage between
the prince of Wales, fon of James I. and the infanta of
Spain : he refufed to grant a difpeufation for the marriage,
but upon very fevere conditions, to all wliich James feenicd
willing to fubmit, when the affair was fuddenly fufpended
by the pope's death, wliich happened in 1623, after he had
filled the papal lee about two years and a half. He was
the author of lome literary produdtions, which have been
loft, likewife of " Epillola ad Regem Perfarum Schah
Abbas, cum notis Hegalfoni ;" and " The Decilion of the
Rota.'" He is highly commended for his piety and great
learning, particularly in canon law, and for his charity to
the fick and poor. He was, in a certain degree, the encou-

rager and patron of learning, and when his nepliew, cardinal
Ludovifi, had formed a kind of literary academy in his pa-
lace, he was frequently prcfent at their meetings, and did all
in his power to promote the extenfion of fcience and ufeful
learning. He was a great friend to the Jefuits, and canon-
ized their founder, Francis Xavier, and by him the fee of
Paris was withdrawn from fubjeclion to that of Sens, and
eredlcd into an archbifliopric. Moreri. Univer. Hill. Bower.
GitKGOiiY of Neo-Ca;fare3, furnamed Thaumaturgiis, or
Wonder-worker, from the miracles which he pretended to
perform, was born at Neo-Cjefarea, in Pontus, ;:nd flourilhed
in the third century ; he is tifually ftyled a faint, and was
known, before his converfion to Chnftianity from Paganifm,
by the name of Theodorus. His father was a zealot for
the principles in wliich he educated his fon, but he caufed
him to be inftrudtcd in the elements of ufeful and ornamental
learning. He provided for him the moft able tutors, one of
whom earneftly recommended to his pupil the ftudy of the
Roman law, as what might be highly advantageous to him in
future hfc. With this advice he complied, and made himfelf
mafter of the principles of the fcience. Having laid the found-
ation of learning at home, he fet out upon his travels. In
Phcenicia he endeavoured to improve his knowledge of law
under the celebrated profeffors of that fcience who refided
there. He had a filler married to a lawyer in high elleem with
the governor of Paleltine, and chofcn by him to be one
of his counfellors. This lady was fent for by her hufband to
Csfarea, and as the ofRcer who came to efcort her brought
with him a greater number of carriages than were fufficient
for her and thofe who would attend her, Gregory was in-
duced to make one of the party. At Berytus he attended
a fchool of philofophy lately opened by the celebrated
Origen. For five years Gregory and his brother were
difciples of this great mafter, who inftrudted them in logic,
phyfics, geometry, aftronomy, and ethics. He encouraged
them in reading all forts of ancient authors, poets, and philo-
lophers, whofe tenets were not fceptical. He reftrained
them only from fuch as denied a deity, or a fuperintending
providence. It was during their attendance upon Origen
that they became enlightened and zealous Chriftians; he in-
troduced them to a knowledge of the facred fcripturcs, and
explained to them the paffages which to their minds might
appear obfcure and difficult. About the year 239. Gre-
gory returned home : he took leave of Origen witli great
regret, but not before he had pronounced before a numerous
auditory a panegyrical oration in praife of his tutor, which
is ellcemed by Dupin one of the fincft pieces of rhetoric in
all antiquity, and which affords at once a proof of the
writer's eminent abilities, and of Origen's excellent method
of educating thofe who were placed under his tuition. The
tutor was attached to his pupil, and after his return to Neo-
Cnefarea, lie wrote him a letter, intending, no doubt, that
he fliould make what ufe he pkafed of it, commending his
excellent parts, which, he faid, qualified him cither to
become a Roman lawyer of the ilrft rank, or a philofophcr
of eminence among the Greeks, but he could rather wifli
that he would employ his great talents in the fervicc of the
Chriftiau religion, which might be cffentially benefited by
his exertions. His celebrity led many to folicit him to open
a ichool of philofophy in his native city, but a diffidence in
himlelf led him rather to withdraw from public notice. He
was next urged to undertake the office of Chrillian bifliop,
an application wliich he refifted a long time, though, at
length, he was induced to accept the charge, and was or-
dained, accordiog to Dr. Lardner, by Phiedinus, bifliop of
Amafea, about the year 245. He was recommended to
give all his exertions to his native city, which was large and

populous,

GREGORY.

populous, but immcifcd in fuprrdition and idolatry, and
contained but very few Chrillians. By his great zeal,
united to niucli pn'denco, he made numerous converts to
Chrillianity, and cllablilhed a church which is faid to have
been truly apoftolic, both with refpeft to doftrinc and difci-
pliiic, and to have retained its purity, long after furround-
ing churches had admitted novelties and irmovations which
were a difgrace to their religion, and inlenfibly led the way
to the groHeft corruptions and abufes. Tliia church went
on flourifhing and increaling under his Care till the Decian
perfecution, in the year 250, when he thought it prudent to
withdraw into retirement till the ilorm was blown over.
He afterwards returned to his flock, among whom, during
the remainder of his life, he difcharged the duties of a faitii-
ful and vigilant pallor, and was inllruraentai in bringing
not only the whole city, but the dependent diftrift into the
profeflion of Cluillianity. He was prcfent at the iirll
council at Antioch, in 264, when the cafe of Paul of Samo-
fata was the fubjcCl of enquiry, and Gregory, with others,
exerted themfelves in preventing any harlh meaiurcj from
being adopted againll him. He is thought not to have long
furvived the meeting of this council, and to have died fome
time in the year 265. Upon the whole he was a great
and good man, eminent for purity and fimplicity of
manners, zealous for the intereits of the Clu-iiUan faith
and profelhon, and anxious to preferve them unadulterated
with fuperftitious praClices. The only works of his that
are extant, which are unqueitionably genuine, are his
" Oration in Praife of Origeu," and " A Paraphrafe on the
Book of Ecclefialles." " A Canonical Epitlle," conUfting
of eleven canons, is afcribed to him by fonie authors, but
it is rejefted by other very able and learned critics, and is
c(>)ilidered to have been added by fome modern Greek.
His pieces have been frequently printed ; they were col-
ledled into one volume at Paris, in 1626 ; and Gerard Vof-
lius publilhed an edition of them at Mentz, in 1604, in 4to.
Dr. Lardner fays there are two things to be lamented, ill.
That no more of this excellent man's writings have come
down to us. It is plain that fome of liis writings are
loll ; for .lerom fpeaks of his epillles, whereas there is only
one remaining. And liafil' mentions an " Expofition of
Faith," or a " Dialogue with a Gentile," which is not now
in exiilence. zdly. That we have no hillory of his life,
written by fome contemporary. It may be well fupjiofed
that this apollolical man was chiefly employed in increaling
his church, or in building it up in knowledge and vn-tue, by
oral inllruftions and works of goodnefs. His church con-
tinued lledfall in the faith after his death, and near the end
of the fourth century the Neo-Cxfarians were all ChrilHans,
having been all along to that period bleffed witli pallors
who were men of true worth. As Gregory, therefore, was
an honour and ornament to the churches in his time, fo his
church contin.'.ed to be an ornament to him. Lardner's
Credibility, vol. iv. Moreri. Dupin.

Gkegouy Naziax/en', was boi-n near Nazianzimi, in
Cappadocia, about the year 324. His father was not
brought up a Chrillian, but, by marriage, became a convert
to the true faith. His learning, piety, and many virtues,
pointed him out as a proper perfon for fullainiug the epif-
copal charafter, and he was according-ly ordained, and ap'
pointed to the fee of Nazianzum, wliere he officiated as pallor
for the fpace of forty-live years. Gregory afforded early
proofs of excellent natural abilities, and a ferious turn of
mind, and having made great profuiency at home, he was
fi-nt, for farther improvement, to different public leminaries
-of learning. He was Iirll placed at Casfarea, in Cappa-
docia, whence he removed to Ccefarca, in Palelliiic ; thcnte

to Alexandria, and proceeded from tliat city to Athcn'sv
where he intended to tinifli his academical ftudies. At the
lad named city he became acquainted with Bafi), celebrated
in the church, and likev.ife with Julian, who was afterwards
emperor. With the former he entered into the ftricleft
habits of friendlhip. They lived together in tlie fame houfe,
united in the fame ftudies, and embraced the fame tenets in
religion. Having been a confiderable time at Athens, he
felt a llrong delire to vifit his friends at home, and fet cut
for Conllantinople, on his journey homewards. At that
city, he met his brother, Ca-larius, whohadjuft arrived from
Alexandria, and here he v.as llrongly urged to fettle, but
by the influence of Ciregory lie declined all the flattering
oflers made him, and returned with him to Nazianzum,
Gregory, on his return, was baptized, being about thirty
years of age, and from this period he feems to have chiefly
devoted hinifelf to a iludious and afcetic life, practifing the
aufterities of monkery, and n;ixing no farther in the bufinefs
of the world than was neccffaiy for the m.anagement of liis
lather's concerns. In the year 359, he vilited Bafil, in liis
retirement among the mountains of Pontus, and fubjected
himlelf to the fame fevere difcipline which he profcfl'ed.
He iiad not long enjoyed the company of Baiil, when he
was fent for in haile to allay a ferment that had occurred in
the church of Nazianzum. He fucceeded in reconciling
the differences that had occaiioned the difcontents ; entered
into orders ; and was ordained preil^yter. Jidian, the
avowed and malignant enemy of the Chriffians, had now
alcended the throne : lie publilhed a law intended to prevent
tlie adherents to the gofpel fyllem from being inftru&ed in
the arts and fciences, hoping to render the followers of
Chrift barbarians ; but this effort was partly defeated by
tlie two ApoUorarii ; and Gregory,- who wrote a number
of poems in all kinds of verfe, on divers ferious fubjeils,
by which the lofs of the Greek and Roman claflics was in
fome degree compenfated to Chriftian lludents, on account
of their excellencies and beauties as compolitions. Gre-
gory officiated for fome years as alTiftant to his father in
the paftoral office. In this lituation he was inllrumental in
promoting the election of his friend B.-ifil to the fee of Cx-
farea, in the year 370, a circumllance, though well meant
by Gregory, whicli had nearly occafioned a rupture betux-cn
the two friends ; and which determined Gregory, to with-
draw into retirement, where he hoped he might be allowed
to fpend his life in lludy and rehgious contemplation ; but
by his father's earnelt entreaties he was induced to become
his coadjutor in the epilcopal office at Nazianz.um, on the
exprefs coijdition, that after his father's death he (hould be
perfc&ly free from all obligation to that charge. Accord-
ingly when this event took place, in the year 374, he quit-
ted Nazianzum, and retired to Seleucia, where he continued
for a long time in a monallerv before he returned to liis na-
tive country. About the year 378 Gregory, among others,
was deputed, on account of his great learning, to go to Conllar.-
tinople to affiil in defending the Cathohc caufeagainil the Ari-
ans, who were making head againll them. When he arrived
at the city he found tlie Catholic caufe reduced to the lowcft
ebb, fo that the Catholics themfelves durll fcarcely venture
to avow their opinions. At firft he only preached in a pri-
vate manner at liis lodgings, but in a ihort time the fame of
his eloquence brought multitude* to hear him, and he con-
verted the houfe in wiiich he was into a church ; to this he
gave the name of Ana'.laiia, or the Refurreftion, becaufe
the Catholic faith feemed to have its refurre^tiou in this par-
ticular fpot. His fuccefs excited the jcaloufv of the Ariaii
party, who inlligated the populace to attack him and his
hearers with clubs and iioues, both iu.ihc llxecii.aid alfcia

hik-

GREGORY.

his church. Gregory they drdsgf d hke a malefaaor before
the mau-illrates, acciirmu^ him ot boiiiff the caiifc of tumult
and fediti.)!), but he was acqiiilU-d of all malice, and the
ncrlVculioM which he experienced tcrvcd only to increaie the
number of his followers. His great celebrity attrafted dii-
ciples from dillant parts, among whom was St. Jerom, who
frequently boafted of liaving had the honour and happniels
of lludyiiig under fuch a mailer. The Catholics were now
fufficien'lly"Hrong in number to defire tiie re-cihibliflimenl of
the cpifcopal office among them, and expreffcd their unani-
mous wil5i that Gregory would undertake it. He met with
a rival in Maximiis, an Egyptian Cyme philofopher, whoin
lie had himfelf baptized, and admitted to tlie lower orders of
the chnrcli. Tiiis perfon ciiutrived a iciieme tor lupplanting
him in the cpifcopal throne by intrigue and boldneis, and
en'raged Ibme of the Egyptian bilhops to favour his views.
Gregory, on account ot ill health, was obhgcd to quit the
city for the fake of the comitry air, and the confederates,
unwilling to h>fe any time, during the iirll night of his ab-
fence broke into his church, and placed Maximus upon the
throne. The groat body of the people of all claffes and
parties in religion were indignant at this conduft : they af-
fembled and with the utmolt fury drove the intruders out of
the church, who were now obliged to coufult their fafety
by flight. This attempt to lupplant him produced much

fixty-five years. He was, in many refpeds, a great and a
good man, and an ornament to the age in which he lived.
His piety was ardent and fincere, though not untinftured
with fuperllition, and his morals ftrict and regular, but
partaking too much of the feverity eisjoined by monailic in-
ilitiitions. His benevolence and charity were boundlefs,
and they led him to devote the whole of his income to the
relief of the poor and affiifted. The works of this father
coiiiill of " iSermons," "Letters," and " Poems." Tliey
were Iirll publitlied at Bafil in 1550 in Greek ; but the bell
edition of them was publiflied by Morel, in two volumes
fulio at Paris 1609. By Dupin he is clafledwith the moil
. perfect orators of Greece, yet he admits that his llyle had
too many antithefes, limilitudes, and other rhetoi-ical etnbel-
liflunents, which fometimes render his oratory effeminate.
Erafmus lays that he was dilcouraged from attempting the
traiillation of Na/ianzen's works, on account of the acumen
and fmartnefs of his ilvle, the grandeur and lubhmity of
the matter, and the obfcure allulions which are frequently
interlperfed among his writings. Moreri. Dupin.

GuKGouy, furnamed Nvlpn, a iaiut and lather of the
churcli in the fourth century, was a younger brother of St.
Bafil, and born at Cappadocia about the year 332. He
was originally intended for the eccleliallical lite, though for
fome time he practifed as a profellor and pleader \\ itii great

unealinefs in the bivall of Gregory, and made him very de- fuccefs and appLuife. At the perfuatlon ot Gregory Nazi-

fn-ous of retirement, and after a time he determined to re
fio-n a charge which involved him in increaling troubles.
He accordingly announced his intention to his people in a
farcwel dilcourfe, in the courfe of whicli he patheticully
exhorted them to perfevere in the orthodo.x iaith which he
had taught tliem, and to be mindful of the labours and fuf-
ferintrs which he had undergone for that caufe. No fooner
had he linifhed his exhortations, than he was fnrrounded by
perfons of all ages, fexes, and qualities, who were lo carnell
in their entreaties that he would remain, that, at length, he
promifed not to defert tiiem till the eallern bilhops, who
were expecled foon to atfemble at Conftantinople, iliould
releafe him by chooling a more worthy peri'on to occupy
liis place. About this period Theodolius the Great was
created a partner in the imperial tlirone, and avowed him-
felf the fupportor of the orthodox faith : he i lined an edict,
commanding all his fubjeCts to receive the Catliolic dottrine
of the Trinit) under the heavy penalty of being treated as
heretics and infamous perfons. In the year 380 he came to

anzen, he was induced to relinquilh liis lecular purfuitS; and
to apply with great diligence to the lludy of theology, and
whatever was connected with it. As foon as he had takca
orders he became as eminent in the pulpit as h.e had formerly
been at the bar. About the year 372 he was ordained
biihop of Nyfla, in Cappadocia, by his brother Bafil. He
became diltiuguidied for his oj>politiun to the Arian party»
and on tliat account was banillied by the emperor V'alens
two years after his ordination. On the death of that cm-
pei"or, he was recalled by Gratiau and reftored to the pol-
felfion of his epiicopal lee. In the year 3-8 he was prefeut
at the fynod held at Antioch, and on his return he paid a
vilit to Jerulalem, in tlie hopes of gratifying his wiihes in
viewing the fccncs of Chriil's minillry, deatii and refurrcc-
tiim, and to endeavour to allay the tactions and quarrels
which exilled among Chriftians in that city. Inllead, hosv-
ever, of finding the virtues wliich might have been expefted
from the inhabitants of tlie Holy Land, he foimd " the place
to be a link of iniquity and debauchery, the feat of envy,

Conflantinople, where he treated Gregory with tlie greateft malice, adultery, robbery, murder, idolatry, poifoning, and

kindnels and refj)ecl, and told him that God had lent him to bloodflied, where men affafrmated each other for a trifling

give him pollellion of the church, which he was ready to re\\-ard, lo that in no place were mm-ders fo frequently and

deliver up into his hands as a reward of his labours. A fo eafily committed." In 381 he was fummoned to the

day was appointed for his inflallation, but, at Gregory's council that met at Conftantinople, and to him was confided

requell, the ceremony was deferred for the prelent, and the tallc of drawing up a creed, whichwas adopted, and is

foon after having obtained the emperor's content, he abdica- the lame as that which has been received into the Englifli

ted his epifcopal throne, and retired to his paternal ellate, liturgy, under the name of the Nhtne Greet!, excepting

near Na/.ianzum, with the relolution of fpeiuling the re- the. words " and the fon," in the part relating to the

inainder of liis days in Ihidious retirement, and the e.xerciles Holy Ghoft, which were added at a later period. He

of devotion. In 382, however, Gregory was fummoned was engaged in other councils, and his name appears

to meet the eallern biflwps at Conllantinople, but he refufed in the litis of the prelates who were pi-efent at the

to attend, and told the fatliers very plainly that experience fynod held at Conllantinople in the ye;u- 394. It is

had taught liim how little good was to be expected from not certain how long he lived after this period. He had

any fuch alfemblies, in which pride and ambition chiefly pre- entered into the marriage flate early in life, and continued

dominated, and wJiich were rather calculated to widen than to live with his wife after he had been advanced to the epil-

to conciliate differences among Chrilliaiis. Upon his return copal rank. His works, which conlill of commentaries on

to his native country he was llrongly importuned to nnder- difl'erent parts of the fcriptures ; controverfial treatifes ;

take the charge of tlte fee of Nazianzum, which had con- fermons and funeral orations ; biographies of diliinguilhed

tinued vacant from the time of his father's death, but he
couiJ I'.ot be prevailed upon to quit his retirement, where
fee. died in the year 389, fuppofed to be about the age of

perfons, letters, &c. are maay of fhem more like the trea-
tifes of Plato and Arillotle, than thofe of oilier C'brittians.
Moreri.

GRECOttY,

GREGORY.

GuEGORY, Grorge Florente, commonly known by
tlie name of Gregory of Tours, was born about the year
544. He was educated for the eccleliallical profcffion, was
a proficient in the learning of the times, and acquired confi-
derable reputation by his talents as a preacher. Being at-
tacked by a dangerous lllnefs, he paid a religious vifit to the
tomb of St Mafrtm at Tours, which proved thcoccafion of
his introduftion to the nobility, clergy, and other inhabit-
ants of that city, whofe good opinion he corsciliated by his
behaviour among them. So ilrong was the impreffion made
in his favour, that on the death of Euphrcmius, hiiliop of
Toiu-s, in 573, he was unanimouily elctled liis fucccffor.
In the year 594 he took a journey to Rome, to vifit the
tombs of the Apoftles, and to pay his refpecls to pope Gre-
gory the Great, who received him with extraordinary marks
of efleem. He died foon after his return to his diocefe, in
595, when he was in the fifty-fecond year of his age. He
was author of " The Hillory of France ;" " The Lives
of the Saints ;" " Fragments of a Commentary on the
Pfalms," and other pieces. The ftyle and language of the
liiftory are harfli and inelegant, but it fupplies the hiilorian
with facls which ferve to fill up the chafms in the annals of
the dark ages, and which carry with them ftrong internal
marks of authenticity. The bell edition of Gregory's
works is that publidied at Paris in 1699. Moreri. Du-
pin.

Gregory of Rimini, oHe of the moft fubtile fchoolmen
•in the 14th century, was born in tho city whence he took
his furname. He became a monk of the order of the Her-
mits of St. Auguftine, and taught with great applaufe in
the univerfity of Paris. He was made general ot his order
at Montpellier in 1357, and died in the following year at
Vienna. As an author, he is known by " Commentai"ies
on the Four Books of Sentences ;" " Commentaries on
the Epiftles of St Paul ;" and '< On the Epiltle of St.
James ;" by " A Treatife on Ufury ;" " Sermons," &c.
Moreri. Bayle.

Gregory St. Vixcekt, a Flemlfli geometrician, was
born at Bruges in the year 1584. He iludied mathematics
under Clavius, and became, a member of the fociety of Je-
fuits at Rome. He acquired a very high reputation in the
fciences, was chofen to fome high offices, and was feleclcd
by Philip II., king of Spain, to be mathematical tutor to
his fon, prince John of Aullria. He died at Ghent in 1667,
at the age of eighty-three. He is known as author of three
learned mathematical works, of which the principal is enti-
tled" Opus Gcometricum Quadraturx Circuli, ct Secjio-
luim Coni, decern Libris comprchenfiun,'' 1647, '" t^*'°
vols, folio. In this work he (hews, that if one afymptote of
an hyperbola be divided into parts, in geometrical pro-
grefllon, and from the points of divifion ordinates be drawn
parallel to the other afymptote, they will divide the fpace
between the afymptote and curve into equal portions. Mo-
reri.

Gregory, Joux, a learned Engliih divine, was born at
Agmondefliam, Bucks, in the year 1607. He received a
good education, and was placed in the quality of fervitor to
Chriil -church college, Oxford, in 1624, where he was under
the tuition of Dr. George Morley, afterwards biiliop of
Wincheiler. In this college he took his degrees, and was
appointed one of the chaplains. In the year 1634 he pub-
lilhed a fecond edition in quarto, of fir Thomas Ridley's
" View of the Civil and Ecclefiaftical Law,"' with notes :
by this work he acquired a high degree of reputation, on
account of his deep and extenfive learning, and the ikiil
which he (hewed in ancient and modern languages. Oriental
as well as European. He obtained fome coiiliderable pre-

VoL. XVL

ferment m the church, particularly a prebcndar)- in the fee
of Sah(bury. Tliis he did not long enjoy, owing to the civil
wars, in which our author was an adive partifan of the
royahfts. Being now much reduced in his means, he took
up his abode at an obfcure ale-houfe near Oxford, where he
remained in great privacy, devoting all his time to literarr
purl.uts. He died before he had arrived at his fortieth rear •
he had, however, attained to the favour and correfpondencc
of many of thegreated men of his age. In 1646 he pub-
lilhcd" Notes ar.d Obfervationson fome Paflagcs of Scrip-
ture;" which were afterwards ir.ferted in the " Crilici Sa-
«i.'' In the year 1650 a colledion of his learned trafts
was publi(hed in quarto, under the title of " Grcgorii Poft.
huma :•' he left behind him three tranfiaMons from the
Greek into Latin, which were pubh(l;ed in i66j, bv Ed-

^'"'t^'^i,^/""^' '■'^^' '" '"^ °"'" "^'"^- They are entitled
" 1 aKadicus de Gentibus Imlix et Brachmannibus :" " S.
Ambrofiiis de moribus Brach.mannorum :" and " Anony-
nius de Brachmannibus." Biog. Brit,

Gregory, J.i.me.s, one of the moil eminent m.atheraa-
ticians of Jiis age, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1648
He was educated at the grammar fchool of his native town',
and went through the ufual courfe of academical Itudies in
the Manfchal college, with credit and reputation. He
loon diicovered a great turn for mathematical purfuits, and
began, at an eariy age, to make improvements in the fcience
of optics. He publi(hed, in 1663, a work entitled " Optica
Promota, feuabdita Radiorum Reflexorum et Refracterura
Mylleria, Geometrice enucleata," &c. quarto. This work,
which gave an account of the invention of the reflectine
telefcope, which wiU be defcribed in the article Tei^-
scoPE, immediately attraCfed the notice of mathematiciani
in all parts. About the yeai- 1664 or i66j, Mr. Grctrory
came to London in order to get his indrument executed by
fome able hand ; but being difappointed in his objeft, he laid
afide his teleicope, and went to Italy, where he rellded fome
years. In 1667 he publilhed at Padua « Vera Circuli ct
Hyperbolas Quadratura," &c. quarto, in wliich he an-
nounced another of his difcoveries, that of an infinitely con-
verging ferics for the areas of the circle and.hvperbola, by
which they may be computed to anv degree of exaclnefs.
He fent home a copy of this work to Kir. John Collins, whi
communicated it to the Royal Society, where it met witfc
much commendation. Another work, which he pnbli(hed
in the following year, was entitled " Geometrix Pars Uni-
Terfalis, inferviens Quantitatum Curvarum Tranfmutationi
ct Menfurx," in which he (hewed a method of the traiif-
mutation of curves. Thefe works procured the author th<-
correfpondencc of Newton, Huygens, Hallev, Wallis
and other molt eminent mathematicians. Mr. Gregory was
now chofen a member of the Royal Society, and upon his
return from his travels he communicated to that learned body
an account of the controverfy carri4.-d on in Italy concerning
the motion of the earth. About the year 1 668 he was ap-
pointed profelTor of mathematics in the univerfity of St.
Andrew 's, an office which he held for fix years ; and in 1674
he was called to Edinburgh, to (ill the mathem.atical chair in
that univerfity ; tliis fituation he held but little more than a
year, when, in the month of ©(Sober 1675, being employed
in (liewing tlie fatellites of Jupiter through a telefcope,' he
was (truck with a fudden and total blindnefs, and died in the
conrfe of a few days at the early age of thirtv-feven. Mr.
Gregory poffeffed an acute and penetrating genius ; he was
unambitious, and contented with the advantagesof his fitua-
tion as profeffor, which conftituted the only pecuniary re-
ward of his eminent talents. Befides the difcoveries already
noticed, he invented and dcmonilrated geometrically, bv thij ■
5 E ' 'help

GREGORY.

help of an hyperbola, a converging ferii-s for making loga-
rithms, whicli is recommended by Dr. Halley for praftical
piirpofes : he fent to Mr. Collins the folution of the
famous Keplcrian problem by an infinite fcries : he dif-
covercd a method of drawing tangents to curves geo-
metrically, without any previous calculation, and many
other things whicli fliew that the niofl brilliant part of his
charafter was that of his mathematical genius as an inventor.
Eiog. Brit.

Gregory, David, nephew of the preceding, an able
mathematician, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1661.
He was t!ie elded fan of Mr. David Gregory who had the
fingular fortune to fee three^flf his fons all profeffors of ma-
thematics, at tlie fame time, in three of the univerfities, i-iz.
David at Oxford, his fecond fon James at Edinburgh, and
his third foil Charles at St. Andrew's. David, the fubject of
this article, received the early part of liis education at his
native place, but completed his ftudies at Edinburgh, where
he took his degree of AM. and fo greatly did he diftin-
guifh liimfclf in fcientific piirfuits that he was eletled pro-
feflbr of mathematics in that univerfitv, when he was cmly in
his twenty-third year. About this period lie publidied from
his uncle's papers, witli confiderable additions of his own,
" Exercitatio Geometriea de Dimenlloue Frgurarum, five
Specimen Methodi generalis dimetiendi qiialvis Figuras."
He foon perceived the excellence of the Newtonian philo-
fophy, and was the lirll who iiad the merit of introducing
it into the Ichoolsby his Ictf ures at Edinburgh. In this city
he remained as mathematical profeffor with dillinguiilied ho-
nour and applaufe till the year 1691, when hearing of Dr.
Bernard's intention to refign the Savilian profelForfhip of
allronomy at Oxford, he went to London, and was intro-
duced to fir Ifaac Newton, who, conceiving highly of his
talents, recommended him to be chofen a fellow of the Royal
Society. Nev/ton introduced him to the notice of Mr.
Flamllead the ailronomer royal', and with their recommenda-
tions he was elected Savilian profeffor, though Mr. Halley
was a competitor. Their rivalfliip laid the foundation of a

Ecrmanent friendlliip between thefe eminent men, and Hal-
;y afterwards was the colleague of Gregory, by obtaining
the profefforlliip of geometry in the fame univerihy. In
1695- he publilhed thi fubilance of his optical lectures
which had been read at Edinburgh. This work was entitled
" Catoptrica; et Djcptrics Spherica; Elementa," 8vo. Dr.
Gregory, in 1697, gave a demonflration of the Catenarian
curve, or that curve which is formed by a chain failened at each
end. The paper on thw curve was inferted in the " Philo-
fophical Tranlaftions," and alfo in a work of much repu-
tation, entitled " Mifcellanea Curiofa," as one of the nobleft
difcoveries that had at that time been prefented to the Royal
Society. Tlie moll celebrated work of this learned pro-
feffor appeared in the year 1 701, entitled " AftronomiK
Phyfics ct Geometricas Elemeiita." This was written chiefly
witli t!ie defigii of explaining fir Ifaac Newton's geometry
of the centripetal forces, as far as his difcoveries in aflro-
nomy are built upon it, and to throw the agronomical part
ef his Priixipia into a new and more intcllicrible form. It
was afterwards, tranflated into Englifh, of which tht- fecond
fdition was publiihed in 1726, in two volumes oftavo, en
titled "The Elements of Phylical and Geometrical Allro-
nomy, &c." This imprefilon v/as revifed and correfttd by
Mr. Stone. In 170^, our author pubhilied a fplendid folio
edition of the works of Euclid in Greek and Latin. He now
began to prepare, in conjunction with Dr. Halley, a new
edition of " Apollonius's Conies," but he h.id not proceeded
very far in the undertaking before he was cut off by death in
1710, when only ia the forty-ninth year of his age. Bclides

the works of Dr. Gregory printed in his lifetime, two others
were publitlied after his deceafe ; one " A Ihort Treatife ok
the Nature, &c. of Logarithms/' printed at the end of Dr.
Kcill's tranflation of Commandine's Euclid ; and the other
«'A Treatife of Praftical Geometry," publiflied by Mr.
Maelaurin in 1745.

GuEGORY, Ja.me'?, brother of the preceding, rofe to high
eminence as a mathematician. He fucceeded his brother in
the profefforlhip of mathematics at Edinburgh, which oflicf^
he held thirty-three years with great reputation, and retiriaj
in 1725, was fucceeded by the celebrated Maelaurin.
Charles, the other brother, was created profeffor of mathe-
matics at St. Andrew's, by queen Anne in 1 707. This
oflice he held with great credit thirty-two years, when he
reiigr.ed in favour of his fon David, who fucceeded him ia
1739. He died in 1763. He pubhraed a compendium o£
arithmetic and algebra in I^atiu, entitled "Arithmcticx ct;
Algebrx Compendium, in Ufum Juventutis Academicae,"
Edin. 1736. Biog. Brit.

Gregory, Dr. George, was a native of Ireland, but
at the death of his father, who was a clergyman, and a very
elegant fcholar, the fubjecl of this article was brought to
l^iverpool, by his mother, who was a native of Lancadiire,
where he received the elements of a learned education, which
he completed at Edinburgh. He took orders in the chnrcK--
in 1778, and was curate at Liverpool till the year 1782^
when he removed to London, and obtained the curacy of
Cripplegate. In 1785 he became known as the author of
a volume of " Effays," which had an extenfrvc fale, and went:
through feveral editions ; and in 1789 he publifhed a tranila-
tion of Lowlh's leclures " On the Sacred Poetry of the
Hebrews," which was well received by the public. In I he
year 1804 he was prefentetf, through the intereil of lord
Sidmouth, by his maieilv, to the hving of Weftham, in
Effex ; he- had prcvioudy to this obtained marks of diftinc-
tion from the bifliop of London, which,, however, were
attended with very fraall portions of emolument. Dr. Gre-
gory did not live long to enjoy the cale and independency
which his noble friend intended, by the prefentation of the
living of Weftham; he died March 12, 1808. Befides, the
works already mentioned, he was author of a volume
of '« Semions," of the "Economy of Nature," in three
vols. ; of " Letters on Literature," in two vols ; and was-
likewife the editor and fuperintendant of an " Encyclopedia;
of Arts and Sciences," in two volumes 410. He was au-
thor of a Church Hiitory in two vols. 8vo. ; and of the life
of Chatterton, for whofe fate he felt the moll nncere com-
miferation, and divers other works with and without his
name. Monthly Magazine.

Gregory, Joiix, an eminent phyfician, and profeffor of
the pradice of phyfic in the univcrljty of Edinburpli, was
born in May, 1725. His father was profeffor of medicine,
in King's college, Aberdeen ; and his grandfatlier was pro-
feffor of mathematics, iirll at St. Ajidrew's,.and niterv.-ards
at Edinburgh. Thus Dr. Gregory was the third profeffor
of his family in a lineal defcent : and it dei'erves to be re-
marked, that, from his great-grandfather, David Gregory,
efq. of Kinairdy, he was the fifteenth defcendant who had
held a profefiorlhip in a Britifh univerfity : his fon now iills.
the fame chair at Edinburgh.

John Gregory began the iUidy of medicine at Aberdeen,,
and afterwards profeci.ced it at Edinburgh, Leyden, and
Paris. In the 20th year of his age, he was elected pro-
feffor of philofophy in King's college, Aberdeen, and had
at the fame time the degree of doftor of medicine conferred
upon him. In the year 1756, upon the death of his bro-
ther, Dr James Gregory, who had fucceeded his father as
2 proR'ffor

G R E

jjroFcfTor of medicine, he was eleftcd to that chair. But
about the year 1765, he 'eft Aberdeen, and went to Edin-
burgli. Soon after this he was appointed profefTor of the
practice of medicine in the univerfity there, in the room of
Dr. Rutherford, who refigncd in liis favour. The year
followinjj, upon the death of Dr. White, he was nominated
firft phytician to his majefty for Scotland. Thus at the time of
'lis death, whicli took place on the loth of February, 1773,
bcfides very extenfive pradlice, he enjoyed the higheft and
moll important profefllonal offices, which his native country
could afford him.

His firil publication, entitled " A comparative view of
the ftate and faculties of man with thofe of the animal
world," made its appearance in 1765. This produiftion
combines many jufl and original reflections, with a liberality
■of fentiment i'cldom equalled. It went through four edi-
tions in two years. In the year 1 770, a fecond work of
Dr. Gregory made its appearance ; but without his confent,
and even contrary to his inclination. This publication was
made from a fliort-hand manufcript taken at his introduclory
lectures on the practice of phyfic, and was entitled, " Ob-
fervations on the duties and offices of a phylician, and on
the method ofprofecuting inquiries in philofophy." Although
this publication contained fo much valuable matter, that,
had it appeared in a much worfe drefs, it could have done
him no difcredit, yet he was diffatisfied with its form ; and,
therefore, he foon after publidied an edition of it himfelf,
in which his former fentiments were pro[)Ounded with all the
advantages of a correft and elegant llyle. His lall pabli-
•cation, " Elements of the Practice of Phytic," was in-
tended as a fyllabus to his leftures ; but he only hved to
complete his account of the difeafes ufually termed febrile.

He was fucceeded in his profefforfliip by the celebrated
Dr. Cullen. See Duncan's Med. Commentaries, vol. i.
p. 210.

Gregory Bay, in Geography, a bay in the ftraits of Ma-
gellan, on the S. coall of Patagonia.

Gregory's IJliinds, four fmall illands in the Mergui Ar-
chipelago. N.lat. 10' 36'.

GregoRY'.s Sound, a paffage between two of the fouth
ifles of Arran, on the wellern coall of Ireland, being one
of the paffages into Galway bay.

GREGOUE', a town of Africa, in tlie country of
Whidah ; four miles S. of Sabi.

GREHWEILER, a town of Frai ce, in the depart-
ment of Mont Tonnerre ; feven miles N. of Creutznach.

GREIFENBERG, a town of Lower Carinthia, on the
Drave ; 25 miles W. of ViUaco.

GREIFFEN, a lake of Switzerland, in the canton of Zu-
rich, five miles E. of Zurich. It is about fix miles long
and a mili.- broad ; on one fide the (hores are flat or gently
rifiug, on the other fide are hills richly wooded. The vil-
lage of Greiffen is agreeably fituated on a fmall promontory,
cmbofomed in a wood.

GREIFFENBERG, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Jauer ; 32 miles W. of .Taucr. N. lat. 50' 59'.
E. long. 15 30'. — Alfo, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 28
miles N. of Stargard. N. lat. J2 53'. E. long. 15° 12'.

GREIFFENBURG, a town ot Germany, in the Ucker
Mark of Brandenburg, on the Sernitz ; 45 miles N.N.E.of
Berlin. N. lat. 53 8'. E. long. 14° 3'. -

GREIFFENHAGEN, a town of Hinder Pomerania ;
37 miles N. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 53° 20'. E. long. 14* 36'.

GREIFFENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the pro-
vince of Solms Braunfels ; feven miles N.N. W. of Braun-
feli. N.lat. 50' 37'. E. long. 8' 23'.

GRELFSWALD, or Gkh'swald, a feaport t^wn «f

G R E

Anterior Pomerania, on the river Rik, which is navigable
to the Baltic. This town has an univ:-rfity founded ia
1456. It was formerly one of the Hanfeatic towns ;
15 miles S.E. of Stralfund. N. lat. 54^ 41'. E. fong.
13- 22'.

GREIFSWALDE Oie, a fmall ifiand in the B^hic, off
the mouth of the Oder, near the S.E. coaft of the ifiand
of Ufcdom. N. lat. 54' 13'. E long. 14- 3'.

GREIN, a town of Auftri;;, on the N. fide of tlie Da-
nube ; C2 miles W. of Vienna. N. lat. 48 16. E. lontr. 14'
45 . — Alfo, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Euphrates ;
36 miles N. of Sura.

GREITZ, or Grev/itz, a town of Saxony, in the
Vogtland, fituated en a riNer which runs into the Elfl;cr. In
this town there arc fome ii»{f manufaftures. It contain*
about 450 houfes ; 12 miles S.W. of Zwiakau. N. lat. jo'
3j'. E. long. 12-' 10'.

GREKSAKER, a town of Sv.-eden, in the province of
Weftmanland ; 48 miles W. of Stroem.fholm.
GREMSA. See Graemsay.

GRENADA, Lewls de, in Biography, a Spani!h Do-
minican monk, in the flxtecnth century, was born in the year
1504. He was probably intended for a civil hfe, and edu-
cated with that view, but embracing the ecclefiaftica! pro-
feffion, he acquired a high character for fani^ity and virtue,
and was chofen to till the nioft honourable polls of his order.
He was held in much ellimation by the kings of Portugal
and Caftile, and was made confeflbr to queen Catherine of
Portugal, filler to the emperor Charles V. who was dt'irous
of appointing him to the archbiftopric of Braga, an honour
which he refijlutely declined : he uniform.ly refufcd all tlie
offers of ecclefiailical preferment, and devoted his davs to
the aullerities of monatlic difcipline, and the compofition of
pious and desotional treatifes. He died in the year 1588.
His works are theological, confifling of " A Catechifm,"
in four volumes ; " A Treatife on Prayer,"' in two volumes ;
" Sermons," in the Latin language, in fix volumes ; and
other pious and praftical pieces. The greater part of them
has been tranllated from the Spanish and Latin into French
by father Girard, and pubhlhed in two volumes folio, and
eight volumes 8vo.

Grenada, in Geography, an idand in the Weft Indies*
about 20 miles in extent from north to fouth, and about
10 miles in medial breadth ; the extremities gradually
contrafting northward and fouthwnrd, and particularly
towards the S.W. corner. It was difcovered and named
by Cliriilopher Columbus in the year 1498 ; who found
it inhabited by a numerous and warlike people, called
Charaibes or Caribbees, among whom the Spaniards do
not feem to have ever attempted to force a fettlcment.
Thefe original inhabitants remained happy and peaceful
until the year 1 650, when the avarice and ambition of a
relllefs individual devoted them to deilruiflion. This per-
fon was Du Parquet, the French governor of Martinico,
who putting himfelf at the head of upwards of 2C0 hardy ruf-
fians, wantonly attacked and determined to difpoffefs the un-
offending natives. This atrocious a<?l was perpetrated under
the uiafk of religion, and with a mixtiu-e of fanaticifm and
knavery which no honell mind can contemplate without
indignation and horror. Notwithtlanding the injullice of
this invafion, the commanders adminiilercd the holy facra-
ment, in the mod folenin manner, to all the fi'ldiers on their
embarkation ; and again on their landing, Du Parquet, cauf-
ing a crofs to be ereCleJ, compelled tliem to kneel down
before it, and joiu in devout prayer to Almighty God for
fuccefs to their wicked enterprife. Checked, however, in
the progrefs of this nefarioi;s bufir.cf« by Ibuie fcruples of
5 E 2- coafcieRce,

GRENADA.

eeiifcicncc, after he Irad licen liofpitably entertained by the
.natives, he pretended to open a treaty with the chief of
the Charaibes for the purchafe of the country. Accoid-
'inx-lT he gavt; tlie natives " feme itnives andhatcliets, and a
iarn-i" quantity of glafs beads, befidcs two bottles of bran-
dy'for the chief hinifelf,'' and tiuis, fays Du Tcrtre, was the
;inand fairly ceded to the French nation by the natives them-
felves in lawful purchafe ! And their future refiftance was
confidered as contumacy and rebellion. Du Parquet, having
f ilablinicd a colony in Grenada, and built a fort for its
protetlion, committed the government of the ifland to
a kinfnian, named Le Compte, who engaged in a cruel
and .bloody war with the Charaibes, and being reinforced
with 300 men from Martinico, he pi-oceeded to eilablirti
and maintain his authority by maflacres and murders, the
relation of which makes even the reader to tremble. By
ji feries of fnch enormities, the whole race of Charaibes
that poirefFcd Grenada in 1650 was fpeedily exterminated ;
and the French, having deftroyed all the natives, proceeded in
the next place to maffacre each other. Du Parquet, in the
conduct and execution of thole meafures by which he had
gained poffeffion of Grenada, had fo far impaired liis for-
tune, that in 1656 he was under the neceffity of transferring
it to Count de Cerillac for the fum of 30,000 crowns. This
new proprietor appointed a governor, whofc tyrannical and ra-
pacious difpofition compelled the moil refpetlable of the fet-
tleis to quit the country ; and thofe who remained, aduming
the adminillration of jullice, brought the governor to a public
ti-ial, and ordered him for execution. Cerillac, deriving
little advantage from his purchafe, conveyed all his rights
and interefts in Grenada, &c. to the French Weft Indian com-
pany ; whofe charter being aboliflied iu 1674, the ifland
from that lime became veiled in the crown of France. The
ifland, as we may naturally fuppofe, was very imperfectly
cultivated during the progrefs of tliefe revohitions and cala-
mities ; and even fo late as the year 1700, if Raynal lias been
rightly informed, it contained no more than 251 whites and 525
blacks, who were employed in three plantations of fugar,
and 52 of indigo. By fublequent intercourle of a fniug-
gling nature with the Dutch, the circumilances of the plant-
ers were fomewliat improved, infomuch that when, in the
year 1762, the fortune of war made the Englifh mailers of
this and ihe other Ch;u-aibjan iP.ands, Grenada and the Gre-
nadines are faid to have ydclded annually, in clayed and muf-
covado fugar, a quantity equal to about 11,000 hogfheads
of miifcovado of 15 cwt. each, and about 27,&oolbs. of in-
digo. Grenada, having furrendered on capitulation in
February 1762, was finaUy ceded, together with its depen-
dencies, to Great Britain by the definitive treaty of
peace at Paris on the loth of February 1763. The chief
IHpulations of this treaty were as follow ; i II. That as they
would become by their furrender fubjefts of Great Britain,
they (hould enjoy their property and privileges, and pay
taxes, in like manner as thofe of hismajefty's fubjects of the
oth.-r Britiih Leeward iflands. 2dly. With refpett to reh-
gion, they were put on the fame- footing as the inhabit-
ants of Canada, ;. e. hberty was given them to exercife it
accordir,g to the rites of the Romifh church, as far as the
lav.'S of Great Britain permitted. 3dly. Such of the inha-
bitants of Grenada as chofe to quit the ifland, fliould have
liberty fo to do, and 18 months fhould be showed them to
difpofe of their effetts. The ifland and its dependencies be-
ing thus become a Britifh colony, two proclamations were
iilucd, and general Melvilie was appointed governor. The
crown, conceiving itfcif entitled by the terms of the ca-
pitulation to the duty of 4i .per cent, upon all produce ex-
ported from the newly ceded uiands, ordered fuch duty to

be levied in Grenada, in lieu of all cuftoms and dutias
formerly paid to the Ftench king. Tliis order occafioned a
great conllitutional queflion, which after much agitation was
referred to a folemn adjudication before the judges of the
court of king's bench in England. The cafe was elaborate-
ly argued in Wellrainfter hall, and lord chief jullice Mans-
field, in 1774, pronounced judgment againll-the crown : and
therefore the duty in queftion was abolilhed, not only in
Grenada, but alfo in the ceded iflands of Dominica, St.
Vincent, and Tobago.

The firll alTembly of Grenada met in 1765 ; and in 176?
the governor received inftruftions from the crown to admit
two of the Roman Catholic inhabitants into the council, and
to declare others to be ehgible into the affembly on taking
the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy. Thefe inllruClions,
and the meafures which followed them, were productive of
great commotions and party divifions in the colony. The
king, however, refufed to revoke his inftrufiions ; upon
whicli the moft zealous of the Protellant members of the
affembly declined attendance, fo that it was but feidom that
a houfe could be formed. In this Hate of fadlion and
perplexity tlie ifland continued until its recapture by the
Frencli under the count D'EHaing, in 1779. By the
general pacification which took place in January 1783,
Grenada and the Grenadines were reftored to Great
Britain.

Grenada contains about 80,000 acres of land ; of which
the quantity adlually cultivated has never exceeded 50,000
acres. The face of the country is moutr.inous, but not
inacoeflible in any part, and it abounds witli fprings and
rivulets. To the north and the ea't the foil is a brick mould ;
on the weft fide it is a rich black mould on a fub-llratum of
yellow clay. To the louth the land is in general poor, and
of a reddilh hue, which extends over a confidcrable part of
the interior country. On the whole, however, Grenada
appears to be in a high degree fertile, and by the variety, as
well as excellence of its returns, feems adapted to every tro-
pical production. The exports of the year 1776, from
Grenada and its dependencies, were 14,012,157 pound's
of mufcovado, and 9,273,607 pounds of clayed fugar;
818,700 gallons of rum; 1,827,166 pounds of coftee ;
457,719 pounds of cacao ; 91.943 pounds of cotton j 27,638
poimds of indigo, and fome fmaller articles : the whole of
which, on a moderate computation, could not be worth lef?,
at th.e ports of fnipping, than 600,000/ tterling, excluding
fcight, duties, infuranee, and other charges. The fugar
ivas the produce of 106 plantations, wrou.ght by 18,293
negroes, which is rather more than one hogfhead of mufco-
vado fugar, of 16 cwt from the labour of each negro ; a
return, fays Mr B.Edwards, equalled by no other Britifli
ifland in the Weft Indies, St. Chriftopher's excepted.
The exports of 1787 were 175,548 cwt. gibs, of fugar ;
670,390 gallons of rum ; 4,300 gallons of n-.clalTes ; 8,812
cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. of coffte ; 2,716 cwt. 3 qrs. iSlbs. of
cacao ; 2,062,427 lbs. of cotton ; 2,810 lbs. of indigo, and
mifcellaneous articles; fuch as hides, dyeing wood, 5<c. to
the amount in value of 64,545/. ^^- ^'^- > '"''^ ^^^ total
value of all, according to the current prices in London,
614,908/. 9/. 3^/.

This ifland is divided into fix parifhes, vi-z. St, George,
St. David, St. Andrew, St. Patrick, St. Mark, and St.
John ; and its chief dependence, Cariacou, forms a fevcnth
parifli. Since the retloration of Grenada to Great Britain
in 17S3, an ifland law has been obtained for the eUablilh-
ment of a Proteftant clergy. This aft, which paffed in 1 784,
provided llipends of 330/. currency, and 60/. for houlc-
rcnt J>er annum: for five clergymen, viz. one for the town

and

G R E

and parifh of St. George, three for the other five out pa-
rinios of Grenada, and one for Cariacou. Befides thefe
flipi-nds, there are vahiable glebe lands formerly appropriated
to the Roman Catholic clergy, when that was the ellablifhed
religion of Grenada, which became veiled in his majelly as
public lands on the relloration of the ifland to the Britirti
government, and which, it is faid, have been applied by the
colonial legillature, with the confeiit of the crown, to the
further fupport of the Proteftant church, with fome referve
for the tolerated Romifii clergy. The capital of Grenada,
foon after the cefTion of the country to Great Britain by the
peace of Paris, is called Si. Georg.', whicli fee. The other
towns in Grenada are, properly fpeaking, inconfiderable vil-
lages or hamlets, which are generally iituated at the bays or
fhipping places in the feveral out-parilhes. The parifli town
of Cariacou is called Hilliborough. Grenada has two ports
of entry, with feparate ellablifhnients, and diftinCt revenue
officers, independent of each other; one at St. George, and
one at Grenville bay, a town and harbour on the eaft, or
windward iide of the ifland. The whole population of
Grenada and the Grenadines has decreafed conilderably fmce
thefe iflands firll came into poffenion of the Englifh. In
the year 1 77 1, the number of white inhabitants was fome-
what more than 1600 ; in 1777, they had decreafed to 1300,
and at a later period they were fuppofed not to exceed looo,
of which about two-thirds are men able to bear arms, and
incorporated into five regiments of militia, including a com-
pany of free blacks or mulattocs attached to each. There
are likcwife about 500 regular troops from Great Britain,
wliich are fupported on the Britifli elhiblifliraent. Behdes
the regular troops feut from Great Britain for the pro-
teAion of Grenada, there are in its garrifon three companies
of king's negroes, which came from America, where thev
ferved in three- capacities, as pionters, artificers, and light
dragoons. In Grenada they form a company of each, and
are commanded by a lieutenant of the regulars, having the
rank of captain. The negro flaves have alfo decreafed.
In 1779 they were dated at 35,000, of which 5000 were in
Cariacou and the fiiialler iflands. In 1785 they amounted
to no more than 23,926 in the whole. The free people of
colour amounted in 1787 to 1,1 1 J. To prevent the too
great increale of perfons of this clafs, every manumiflion is,
by an adt of the ifland, charged with a fine of looA cur-
r.ncy, payable into the public treafury. The evidence
of thefe people, whether born free or manumitted, is re-
ceived in the courts of this ifland, on producing proof of
their freedom ; and they are tried on criminal charges in the
fame manner as whites. They are alio allowed to poffefs
and enjoy lands to any amount, provided thev are native-
born fubjefts or capitulants, and not aliens. The governor
is, bv virtue of his office, chancellor, ordinary, and vice-
admiral ; and prefides lolely in the courts of chancery and
ordinary, as in Jamriica. His falary is 3,200/. currency
per annum, which is railed by a poll-tax on all flaves ; but
in all cafes of abfence beyond twelve months, the falary
ccafes and determines. N. B. The currency of Grenada,
or rate of exchange, is commonly 65/. per cent, worfe than
iltrling. The council of Grenada confuls of 12 members,
and tiic aflembly of 26. A free-hold, or life-ellate of 50
acres, is a qu.ilification to fit as reprefentative for the parilhes,
and a free-hold, or life-ellate, in 50/. houfe-rent in St.
George, qualifies a reprefentative for the town. An eftate
of ten acres ia fee, or for life, or a rent of 10/. in any of
ttie cul-towns, gives a vote for the reprefentatives of each
parifti rcfpeftively ; and a rent of 20/. per annum, iifuing
tMt of any freehold or life-ellate in the town of St. George,
givtB a vote for a reprefentative of the town. The la%v-

G R E

courts in Grenada, befides thofe of chancery and ordinary
are the cmirt of grand-felTiona of the peace licld t%vicc a
year, -viz. in March and September ; the court of common-
pleas, confining of one chief and four aflilbnt jufticcj,
whofe commiliions are during plcafure, the chief ju^icc
being ufually appointed in England, with a falary of 600/.
per annum, and the others being commonly appointed by the
governor without any falary ; the court of cxchtqucr, lately
grown into difufe ; the court of admiralty for the trial of
all prize-caufes of capture from enemies in war, and of
revenue-feizures in peace or war, having one judge of ad-
miralty and one furrogate ; and a court of error, compoftd
of the governor and council, for trying all appeals of error
from the court of common-pleas. The common and ilatute-
laws of England are confidercd as extending Xu Grenada ia
all applicable cafes, not provided for by the laws of the
ifland. N. lat. 12 10'. W. long. 61 30'. Edwards's Hill,
of the Weft Indies, vol. i.

Gkenwda, or Granada. See Gii.\.v.\da.
GiirNADA. See Gr-vnado.

GRENADE, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes, and cliief place of a canton, in the dlflricl of
Mont-de-Marfan ; feven miles E. of St Sever. The place
contains 1330, and the canton 7563 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory o{ 195 kiliometres, in eleven cammunes. — Alfo, a town
of France, in tlie department of the Upper Garonne, and
chief place of a canton, in the dillrict of Touloufe ; 1 2 miles'
N. N. W.of Teuloufe. The place contains 3500, and the
canton 9142 inhabitants, on a territory of 232^ kiliometres»
in 13 communes.

GRENADIER. See Grax.^diek-
GitKNADlEii, in Ornithology. See Lo.xi.v Oriv.
GRENADIN. See Frixgill.\ Granal'ma.
GRENADINES, orGRE.NADlLl.AS, in Geography,-^, cluf-
ter of iflands in the Weft Indies,araounting in number to more
than 20, fituated between Grenada and St. Vincent, and pro-
ducing cotton, cofi"ee, indigo, and fugar. Cariacou is the prin-
cipal. Thefe iflands formerly appertained to tiie government
of Grenada ; but by an arrangement of the Britilh admini-
ftration, a fine of divifion pafles in an eaft and weft direction,
between Cariacou and ETnion ifland. The former of thefe
and fome fmaller iflands fouth of it, are ail that are now
comprized in tlie Grenada government : Union ifland, with.
all the little iflands adjoining, to the north, beinf annexed
to the government of St. Vincent. See Caulvcoi; and

ROSDF.

GRENAILLE, a name given by the French writers
to a preparation of copper, which the Chinefe ufe as a r*d
colour in fome of their fineft china, particularly for Uiat
colour which is called oil-red, or red in oil. The china-
ware coloured with thir. is very dear. The manner in which
they procure the preparation is thus : thev have in China
no fuch thing as filver-coined money, but thev ufe in com-
merce bars or mafles of filver ; thefe they pay and re«;eive
in large bargains ; and among a nation fo fidj of fraud as-
the Ch.inefe, it is no wonder that thefe are often adulterated
with too great an alloy of copper. They pafs, however,
in this llatc in the common payments. There ar? fome.
occafions, however, fuch as the paying of the taxes and con-
tributions, on which they muft liavc their filver pure and
fine ; on tl'Js occafion they have rtcourfe to certiuii people
whole fole bufinefs it is to refine the fdver, and feparate.
it from the copper and the lead it contains. This thev do
in furnaces made for the purpofe, and with very convenient,
veflels. While the copper is in fufion, tlicy take a fmall
brafn, and dip the end of it into water ; then flrikiug the
handle of the brufli, they fprinkle the water bv degrees

upoa

444057

G R E

G R

IL

.HBon the- melted copper ; a fort of pellicle forms h'felf by raifed to theliig^li office of lora mayor of the city of Lon-
.this means on the furfacc of the matter, which they take don, was born ui 15 19. He received an academical educa-
lile hot with pincers of iron, and immediately throw- tion at Cambri^dge, but being defigned to follow the com

-off

inir it into a large' veffel of cold water, it forms that red mercial biifmefs of the family, he was bound apprentice to

powder, wliich is called the grenaille ; they repeat the his uncle fir John Grefliam, and thus became a member of

operation every time they in this manner feparate the cop- the Mercers' company. His father was agent of the king's

per ; and this fiirnilhcs them with a-, much of the grenaille money concerns at Antwerp, and Thomas expeifted to be

as they have occafion for in their china works. Obferva- his fucceffor in this biifinefs, but the preference was given to

tions fur les Coiitume.s de I'Afie, p. 309,

GRENAHEN, in Gmgniphy, a town of Switzerland,
in the Valais ; 25 miles E. of Sion.

GRENAT, in Ormlhology. See Trochilus Aura-

.iuj.

GRENIER, in Gmgr/T/i/jj, mountains of Hindooflan, in

the country of Guzerat, near Junagur.

GRENNA, a town of Sweden, in tlie province of Sma-
land ; 10 miles NN.E. of Jonkiopin

another perfon, by whofe mifmanagement they wei'e brought
intoa deplorable condition. Recourie was now Ind to the
fubjeft of this article, who was fent over in 1532 by the re-
gency in the minority of Edward VI., iu order to retrieve
them. In this affair lit exerted fo much talent, that in two
years he was able to pay off the whole of a loan bearing
enormous intcrelt, and raifed the king's credit to the moll re-
fpeftable rank. At the acceflion ot Elizabeth, he was for
a time deprived of his office, but it was rcltored to him again.

GRENOBLE, an ancient, large7 and well-built city of and he continued in it as lung as he lived. He alfo received
France, and capital of the department of Ifere, fituated in at the hands of his fovereign the honour of knighthood,
a marlhy but fruitful plain, at the foot of a hill, near the Hetranfafted many important pecuniary negociations of that,
conflux of the river Ifere. Before the revolution it was the long and glorious reign, and was a mofl fpiritcd promoter
capital of Dauphiny, the fee of a bifliop, and the fent of a of the infant manufattures of the kingdom, thofe of fmall
.parliament. It was the fcene of many cruelties in the reli- wares in particular being eftabliffied chiefly through his
gious wars, A.D. 1562. It is divided by the river Ifere means. His own property, derived by inheritance, with
into two unequal parts, the largell of which is regularly that acquired by his induffry and talents, made him the
built. Its manufaftures are cloth, hats, gloves, &c. The richeft fubjecl iu the metropolis, and he made ufe of his
number of its inh.abitants is 23,500 in 3 cantons, on a terri- wealth to noble and exteniively beneficial purpofes. In 1564
.tory of 265 kiliometres, in 26 communes. To the north he had the misfortune to lofe his only fon, and lie fell upon
are the ruins of a citadel, on an eminence, which commands the means of diverting liis grief on this melancholy occafion
an agreeable profpeft of the town, the banks of the Ifere, by public undertakings. The lirft defign of building an ex-
and leveral fertile valhes. In a rugged valley, watered by change for merchants, in imitation of that of Antwerp, was
the rapid Drac, about 5 leagues S. of Grenoble, are the entertained by his father. Sir Thomas carried the plan into
mineral fprings of La Motte, highly efteemcd as a remedy effett, and completed the noble building in three years,
for fluxes and all diforders of the ftomach, but little ufed on {See Royal Hxchangc.) When the troubles in the Low-
account of the difficult accefs to them. Four leagues N. of Countries interrupted the accuftomed loans to the crown from
Grenoble is Le Grand Chartreufe, a famous Carthufian mo- Antwerp, fir Thomas advifed the miniiler to apply to the

nafl;er)', founded A.D. 1086, confifl;ing of an excellent li-
brary, and many apartments, on an eminence environed by
rugged precipices of difiicult acceis. N. lat. 45"' 1 1' 59''.
E. long. 5^ 43' 10"

merchants of his own country, and this may be confidered as
the commencement of the iinmenfe advances iince made to
the crown from the fame body. Sir Thomas Grefliam next
determined to bellow a part of his wealth in founding a col-

GRENOUILLES, Le.s, a duller of rocks in the Weft lege for the fciences in his native city. The principal peo-
Indian ocean, about 36 miles S.E. from point Morand, p!e in the univerfity of Cambridge endeavoured to diffuade

in the ifland of Jamaica
32

E. long. 76

N. lat. 17- 32'.
GRENVILLE, a town of Nova Scotia. See Gran-

him from thus eftablifliing a rival inftitution ; but liis deter-
mination was fixed. He deviled by will his houfe in Bilhopf-
gate-ftreet for the purpofe of being converted into habita-

VILLE. tions and leClurc -rooms for feven profeffors, or leiilurers on

Gren"VILI,k, a county in Upper Canada, bounded on the the feven liberal fciences, who were each of them to receive

F. by the county of Dundas, on the S. by the river St. a falary out of the revenues of the Royal Exchange. Thefe

Lawrence, and on the W. by the townfliip of Elizabeth
town, rnnning N. 24 W. till it interfetls the Ottawa or
Grawl river, aud thence defcending that river until it meets
the north and wefterumoft boundary of the county of Dun-
das. This county comprehends all the lands near to it in the
j-iver St. Lawrence.

Gken'Ville'j Canal, a channel of the N. Pacific ocean,
which feparates Pitt's Archipelago from the coaft of New
Cornwall.

leftures arc Hill given in apartments in the RoyalExchange,
whenever there are a fufficient number of auditors affembled
to call for the exertions of the letturer. The fubjefts of the
leftures are Jivini/y, law, phxjtc, ajlronomy, geometry, mvfic,
and rhetoric. Sir Thomas endowed many public charities.
He died iuddenly in his own houfe in the year 1579, and
was buried in a fumptuous manner in the church of St,
Helens, Blfliopfgate-ftrcet. He had expended large fums of
money in ereftingcorn, oil, and paper-mills upon the llream

GRENZHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of the Brent, near his favourite villa at Oilerly-park. Bio°-.

of Wied ; 5 miles N.E. of Coblentz.

GREPPEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Lucerne ; 5 miles E. of Lucerne.

GRES, Cai'E AU, a promontory on the E. fide of the
Miffifippi, in the N. W. territory, 3 leagues above the Illi-
nois river, and the tract of country fo called extends 5
leagues up that river.

GRESHAM, cj;V Tiioma.s, in Biography, an eminent

iiOndoD merchant^ fon of fir Richard Grefliam, who was act of 15 Geo, III.

Brit.

Gr-E-SHAm College. See College.

GRESHOLM, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark,
in the Categat ; 4 miles N.E. of Leffoe.

GRESI, a town of Turkifli Armenia ; 28 miles S.E. of
Rizeh.

GRESLEY's Canal, is an inland navigation in Stafford-
fliire, near Newcaftle-under-line, made in purfuance of an

To the account given in our article

Cax.'\i.

G R E

G R e:

Caval we have here only to add, that in 1805 the Nant-
wich and Nevvcaftlc rail-way was propofcd, to connect with
this canal, at Dak's pool.

GRESLING, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Ger-
mans to the got'ius Jliivialilis, or common gudgeon, whicli is
very frequent in their fjiialler rivers.

GR:'SNIC?I, in Biography, a modern German compo-
fcr of the Italian fchool, who lias compofed feveral fuccefs-
f«l operas in Italv, and whole capital Intvura air.s were fre-
quently fung in England by madame Mara, for whofe abili-
ties of execution we believe they were origiijally com-
pofed.

GRESSEN, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ; 20
miles N.N.E. of Miedniki.

GRESSET, Joii.v Baptist Lewis, in 5iof r/j/>^j;, born
at Amiens in the year 17C9, was ed\icated among the Jc-
fuits, and from this retreat he fent iortli lome poems, which
poflefled all the eafe and delicate pleafantry that could have
been looked for from the pen of a man of the world. Tliefe
were entitled " Ver Vert,'' a very plcafing tale ; his epiftles
of " La Chartreufe ;'' " Lcs Ombres," and many others.
His reputation as a poet was the caufe of his quitting the
fociety, and fixing his refidence in the metropolis. He now
tried his powers in dramatic compofition ; in tragedy he had
very Httle fuccefs, but his comedies were better received ;
and that entitled " Mediant," reprefented in 1 747, raifed him
to the firil rank of writers in this clafs. It was regarded as a
malterpiece in that fpecies of comedy which paints manners
with truth and force, v.'ithout being highly comic. GrefTet
was admitted a member of the French academy in the year
1 748. He grew weary of a literary life, fcemcd to doubt
of the propriety of theatrical exhibitioiiSj an.d foon after re-

nounced the ftage, by a letter, in which he difplayed the
dangers attending public fpeftacles. He returned to
Amiens, where he obtained a poll under government, mar-
ried a lady with a good fortune, and paded the remainder of
his lite in a manner which acquired liim the eileem and rc-
fpeft of lii.s fellow citizens. In 1775 he rcviCted the metro-
polis, and had the honour, as director of the French acade-
my, to compliment Lewis XVI. and his queen on their ac-
ceflion to the throne. His difcourfe on this occafion, which
was printed, was a fcvere fatire on tlie vices and folhes of the
metropolis. He died in June 1 777, having received, fome
time previoufly to this, letters of nobility, and having been
likewife appointed hilloriographer of the order of St. La-
zore. Grefiet is placed between Chaulieu and Voltaire for
the graces of light poetry- ;. he is perhaps the lirft at the
theatre for elegance of verfification in com.edy, and his mo-
rals were as pure as his llyle. Gen. Biog. .

GRESSIN, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pomcrania; .
14 miles S.E of Belgard.

GRESTEN, atown of Auftria ; 9 miles N.E. of Bava--
ria Waidhoven,

GRETA, a river of Englaud, which rifes in the N.W-
part of Yorkftiire, and runs into the Tees, about 4 mik-s be-
low Bernard's Caitle,"in Durham.

GRETNA Greek, a mean village of Scotland, in the
(hire of Dumfries, 8 miles from Carlifle, and 82 from Edin-
burgh, at the S.E. extremity of the county, near the W.
bank, of the Sark; and bottom of Solwav firth ; famous for
the clandeftine marriage of parties from England, cekbrat- -
ed by perfons who have no right to marry, or to exercife
any part of the clerical function ; becaufe it is oat of the
jurifdictioa af the marriage act.

END OF VOL, XVi,

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